Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
-1-
Section ONE
Indicators were identified with the observation that the colour of some
flowers depends on soil composition
-2-
Acidic Substances
Vinegar
Citric juices
Lemon juices
Carbonated soft drinks
Lactic acid
Basic Substances
Ammonia cleanser
Caustic soda solution
Washing Soda
Oven cleaner
Drain Cleaner
Neutral Substances
Water
NaCl solution
Glucose solution
Lactose solution
An indicator is a chemical dye that changes colour depending on the concentration of hydrogen
of the solution.
Indicator
Colour in
Colour in
Colour in
acidic solution
pure water
basic
pH range
Suitable
titration
solution
Methyl orange
Red
Orange
Yellow
3.1 4.4
strong acid
yellow
Bromothymol
Yellow
Green
weak base
Blue
6.2 7.6
strong acid
strong base
---------
blue
Litmus
Red
--------
Blue
6.0 8.0
Phenolphthalein
Colourless
Colourless
Crimson
8.3 10.0
Weak acid
strong base
These indicators specialise in the classification of certain acids and bases. E.g. Methyl orange
would be able to distinguish between a strong acid and a weak acid, whereas phenolphthalein
would be able to distinguish between a weak base and a strong base.
However these indicators also have limitations e.g. methyl orange cannot distinguish between
a neutral and a base.
-3-
Indicators provide a cheap and convenient way to determine the acidity or alkalinity of
substances
Some plants grow best in slightly acidic (azaleas and camellias) soil while others prefer
slightly alkaline soils(most annual flowers and vegetables)
A sample of soil to be tested is mixed with water and then white barium sulfate powder
added to the soil sample. This allows the colour changes of the indicators to be seen.
Monitoring wastes
o
Discharges to the sewerage system must be nearly neutral as wastes can cause sinks
and pipes to corrode e.g. photographic solutions are highly alkaline
Chemical analysis
o
Red cabbage was chopped up and then grinded with a pestle in a mortar. As this was done,
methanol was added to the mixture. The resulting clear purple solution was extracted and used
as an indicator. This indicator turned green in a base e.g. oven cleaner and pink in an acid e.g.
lemon juice
-4-
Section TWO
While we usually think of the air around us as neutral, the atmosphere
naturally contains acidic oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulfur. The
concentrations of these acidic oxides have been increasing since the
industrial revolution
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Carbon dioxide
CO2 (g)
water
Carbon dioxide
H2O
CO2 (g)
carbonic acid
H2CO3 (aq)
(l)
sodium hydroxide
NaOH
sodium carbonate +
Na2CO3 (aq)
(aq)
+ H 2O
water
(l)
Sodium oxide
Na2O(s)
water
Sodium oxide
H2O(l)
Na2O(s)
Sodium hydroxide
2NaOH(aq)
hydrochloric acid
HCl
(aq)
2NaCl(aq)
+ H2 O
(l)
Zinc oxide
ZnO(s)
Zinc oxide
ZnO(s)
hydrochloric acid
HCl
(aq)
sodium hydroxide
2NaOH
(aq)
+
+
water
H 2O
(l)
H2 O
(l)
sodium zincate
Na2[Zn(OH)4] (aq)
These are elements towards the right and top of the periodic table
These are elements towards the left and bottom of the periodic table
In going down a group of the periodic table, the oxides of the elements become more basic
due to the increasing metallic character of the elements
In going across a group from left to right of the periodic table, the oxides of the elements
become more acidic to the decreasing metallic characteristic of the elements.
It is in a closed system
Temperature
Pressure
Concentration
Concentration
Increasing the concentration of one sides shifts it to the other by Le Chateliers principle
-7-
Decreasing the concentration of one side shifts it to the same side in order to produce more
of it
2NO2
o
N2O4 (g)
(g)
Increasing the concentration of NO2 would shift the equilibrium to the right while
increasing the concentration of N2O4 would shift it left*
Decreasing the concentration of NO2 would shift the equilibrium to the left and
similarly decreasing N2O4 would shift it right
*Note: Even though increasing the concentration of either gases increases the pressure, the
concentration shift is more significant!!!
*Gases have concentration!!!
The addition or removal of solid and/or liquid has no effect on an equilibrium as the
concentration has not changed
Pressure
Increasing the pressure would shift the equilibrium to the side with less gas molecules by
LCP in order to counteract the change by producing less gaseous molecules.
Decreasing the pressure of the system would shift it to the side with more gas molecules
2NO2
(g)
N2O4 (g)
Temperature
Increasing the temperature would cause the system to favour the endothermic reaction and
shift to that side accordingly. This is to decrease the heat energy by using it up in the
reaction
Decreasing the temperature would cause the system to favour the exothermic reaction and
shift it to that side. This would increase the temperature from the heat given off by the
exothermic reaction
N2 (g)
+ 3H2(g)
2NH3 (aq)
+ 92 KJ/mol
OR
N2 (g)
+ 3H2(g)
2NH3 (aq)
H = - 92 KJ/mol
-8-
This signifies the forward reaction is exothermic while the backward reaction is endothermic.
Therefore if the temperature is increased, then the system shifts left, if the temperature is
decreased, the system shifts right.
H <0
H2CO3 (aq)
If the temperature increases, the reaction shifts to the left in order to use up the extra heat
energy and hence the solubility of carbon dioxide decreases. This accounts for the extra
fizzling when the temperature has increased
If the temperature decreases, the reaction shifts right and hence the solubility increases
When a bottle of soft drink is opened, the system goes from high pressure to lower RTP,
thus the system shifts left and causes fizzing
If the pressure is increased, the solubility increases and shifts left due to there being less
gaseous molecules
Sulfur dioxide
Naturally
o
Volcanoes and geothermal hot springs are a major source of natural SO2, Since
volcanic activity varies, the concentration of SO2 also varies
+ 3CO(g)
Industrially
o
Sulfur dioxide is produced from the combustio of fossil fuels in power plants due to
sulfur impurities present in coal
S(s) + O2(g) SO (aq)
ZnO(s)
+ SO2 (g)
-9-
Nitrogen Dioxide
Naturally
o
Industrially
o
Both in power stations and vehicles releases both NO and NO2 provide the high
temperatures
Since the industrial revolution, levels of acidic oxides in the atmosphere have greatly
increased. This is evident from
o
The increase burning of coal and fossil fuels in order to meet societies demands
from a larger population
The quantitative analysis of trapped air bubbles in Antarctic ice and measurement of
carbon isotopes in old trees, grass seeds in museum collections and calcium
carbonate in coral.
However
o
It is extremely difficult to have global areas and thus tests are done in a localised
basis
Technology to measure low concentrations were only available in the past 30 years
When measured at the same temperature ad pressure, equal volumes of gases contain the
same number of molecules. At STP, the volar volume of gases is 22.74L while at RTP, it is
24.79L
Moles
Volume
Molar Volume
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The bottle of soft drink was weighed, then shook and opened. This was done repeatedly over
intervals of 10 minutes with the decrease in mass recorded. The mass change was due to the
CO2 being released in the air as a result of the equilibrium decreasing in pressure as the bottle
opened.
The validity of the experiment could have been repeated by using the salt method that uses
the stronger attraction soluble salt ions have for water than dissolved gas molecules have for
water. However the results were not totally accurate as a new equilibrium was established,
thus not all the gas removed from the bottle
There was a great increase in emissions of sulfur dioxide in growing industrial cities as a result
of the development of motor cars and an increasing population leading to greater demand
The release of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen can cause considerable harm to both
humans and the environment
The pollutants of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen form sulfuric and nitric acids
when dissolved in the rain
N2(g) +
SO3(g) + H2O
2NO2(g)
(l)
H2SO4(aq)
O2(g) 2NO(g)
+ H2O(l)
HNO2(aq) +
HNO3(aq)
Effects of Acid Rain
Increasing acidity of lakes and rivers which has a detrimental effect on fish population and
hence affects other parts of the ecosystem e.g. the humans that feed on them
Damage to forests
Decrease in soil that ruins crops and plants as some can only grow in certain conditions
Erosion of the marble and limestone of building surfaces because they contain primarily
CaCO3
-11-
Corrosion when it comes into contact with metals, paints and similar substances
Health Issues
Unpleasant odour
Section Three
Acids occur in many foods, drinks and even within our stomaches.
-12-
Acids in aqueous solutions are proton donors. The arrhenius definition describes acids as
producing hydrogen ions when dissolved in water, however H+ does not exist in aqueous
solution. When acids dissolve in water, they react and ionise to form H3O+ ions.
e.g.
HCl(aq)
H2O(l)
H3O+(aq)
+ Cl-(aq)
Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric
acid
Identify data, gather and process information from secondary
sources to identify examples of naturally occurring acids and
bases and their chemical composition
pH = -log10[H+]
In measuring the concentration of acids and bases, a pH scale is used because it is a lot more
convenient
If the pH is <7 then the substance is an acid
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A strong acid is one which is fully ionised in solution. There are no neutral acid molecules
present
HCl(aq) H+(aq)
A weak acid is one which is partially ionised in solution. These acids are involved in an
equilibrium process
CH3COOH(aq)
CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
A concentrated solution is one which there is a large number of particles of the solute
compared to water molecules e.g. 1M HCl
A diluted solution is one where there is a small amount of particles compared to the water
molecules. E.g. 0.00001M HCl
The following table contains the pH of acids for equal 0.1M concentrations of their solutions
Acid
Hydrochloric acid
Acetic acid
Citric acid
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pH
1
2.9
2.1
This is because hydrochloric acid is a strong acid meaning it will completely ionise, hence the
pH of 1. Since Acetic and Citric acids are both weak acids, they will both partially ionise,
accounting for their lower pH of equal concentrations. Citric acid is stronger than acetic acid
and thus ionises more, producing more hydrogen ions and having a lower pH.
HA
H3O+
A-
The stronger an acid is, then the stronger the dissociation and thus the equilibrium will lie
to the right. Strong acids such as HNO3 and HCl will completely ionise, thus HCl(aq) H+(aq)
+ Cl-(aq)
The weaker an acid is, then the lower the dissociation percentage and thus the equilibrium
will lie to the left. Weak acids such as CH3COOH will partially ionise and thus have more
intact molecules than HCl. As a result an equilibrium is formed
CH3COO
(aq)
+H
CH3COOH(aq)
(aq)
The outer of 2 electrodues is in contact with a 0.1M HCl solution saturated with silver
chloride and makes electrical contact with a thin glass membrane
The difference in hydrogen concentration causes changes in voltages between the two
electrodes and the mV scale converts the pH into a scale on the motor
The pH electrode must be calibrated with a known solution, thus a buffer (usually 7)
Aim: to use indicators and a pH meter to distinguish between acidic, basic and neutral
chemicals and measure the pH of substances with equal concentration
Method:
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A couple of drops of universal indicator were added to the substances and the colour changes
were observed. These colour changes were compared against a chart and thus the pH was
estimated
Also, by using a pH meter, the pH measured was much more accurate. However between each
substance being tested, the pH probe needed to be washed to remove remnants from the
previous substance tested. This is also a non-destructive means of measuring pH
250ml of 0.1M solutions were gathered and poured into individual beakers.
Results:
Substance
Hydrochloric acid
Ethanoic acid
Citric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sodium hydroxide
Water
Strength
Strong
Weak
Weak
Strong
Strong
Neutral
pH meter
1.5
3.5
2.81
1.88
12
6.67
Universal indicator
Red
Red/orange
Red/orange
Red
Blue/purple
Green
Discussion:
Strong acids have low pH because they completely ionise, thus having a large amount of
hydrogen ions in the solution. Weak acids partially ionise, thus have higher pH
Improve the taste by giving a sharper taste e.g. in drinks, sweets, tarts, jams
Preserve the food by increasing its acidity because many bacteria cannot survive in acidic
conditions e.g. canned fruits, vegetables
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Section Four
Because of the prevalence and importance of acids, they have been
used and studied for hundreds of years. Over time the definitions of
acid and base have been refined
-17-
Lavoisier
o
Proposed that acids were substances that contained oxygen. He proposed this after
observing acids such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid, but his theory was soon disproved by
basic substances containing oxygen and others such as HCl
SO3
+ H2O H2SO4
Davy
o
Suggested that acids contained replaceable hydrogen. This was proposed from
observations where hydrogen gas was released from the reaction between a metal and
an acid
However it did not explain the properties of the acids and it did not explain why
methane was not acidic
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2
+ H2
Arrhenius
o
Proposed that an acid was a substance which ionised in solution to produce hydrogen
ions.
It was important in explaining the differences between strong and weak acids and the
development of the pH scale
However there existed oxides that were acidic and did not fit the definition or
substances such as NH3
Bronsted and Lowry proposed that an acid is a substance that donates a proton and a base
is one that accepts a proton. Thus in a neutralisation reaction, the acid donates a proton to
the base. In this way, the Bronsted Lowry concept relates acidity and basicity to the
structure of both the substances and the solvent.
An acid gives up a proton to form its conjugate base. Similarly a base accepts a proton to
form its conjugate acid. They differ by that proton
e.g.
H3O+ / H2O
The hydronium ion is the acid and the water is the conjugate base
-18-
HCl
acid1
H2O
base2
Cl+
H 3O +
conjugate base1 conjugate acid2
Salts can be acidic, basic or neutral depending upon the nature of the anions or cations
formed
Acidic salts
These salts are formed from a reaction between a strong acid and a weak base
e.g.
NH4Cl
NH4+
+
+
NH4+ + Cl-
H2 O
NH3
H3 O +
The salt formed contains a cation being a weak acid, this causes it to react with water to
form the hydronium ions accounting for its pH being less than 7
Basic salts
These salts are formed from a reaction between a weak acid and a strong base
The salt formed contains an anion which is a weak base and thus tends to react with water
CH3COONa CH3COOCH3COO
+ H2 O
Na+
CH3COOH + OH-
Neutral salts
These are formed by reacting a strong acid and a strong base or a weak acid with a weak
base
+ H 2O
H2CO3
HCO3-
+ H 2O
CO32-
+
+
OHH3 O
-19-
A primary standard solution is one with an accurately known concentration. It is the one
that goes in the conical flask and is titrated with a solution of unknown concentration.
Firstly weigh the required mass of dried primary standard solid (after baking in a
desiccator)
Add to a clean volumetric flask rinsed before hand with distilled water
Fill the flask with more water and shake/invert until the solid has completely dissolved
Base standards
Sodium carbonate
Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Borax
-20-
Pipette
This is an accurate piece of equipment used to transfer small amounts of solutions of the
secondary standard solution to the conical flask. It must be rinsed out by distilled water
and then the secondary standard to avoid dilution
Indicators
The indicator used depends on the titration reactants. This is due to the different
equivalence point of the titration. The equivalence point is the point where the acid and
base neutralise. However due to the varying pH of salt solutions, it is not necessarily 7 and
thus an indicator with an end point within the range of the equivalence point is needed.
Type
Strong acid strong base
Strong acid weak base
Weak acid strong base
Indicator
Bromothymol blue 6.2-7.6
Methyl orange
3.1 4.4
Phenolpthalein
8.3 10
Colour change
Yellow -> Blue
Red -> Yellow
Colourless -> crimson
Note: Weak acid weak base titrations are not done because there is no rapid change in pH,
thus we cannot detect the equivalence point using indicators because there will be a gradual
colour change
Techniques
The first titre is a rough measurement and thus discarded when using calculations
A white sheet of water was placed under the conical flask to see the colour change more
evidently
A buffer solution is one which contains a comparable amount of a weak acid and its conjugate
base which is therefore able to prevent a rapid change in pH.
Blood is an example of a buffer solution that maintains a pH of approximately 7.4 to allow the
proper functioning of enzymes. It consists of the buffer H2CO3 / HCO3- along with haemoglobin
to prevent rapid pH changes during cellular respiration
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H2CO3
H2 O
HCO3-
H3 O +
If a strong acid is added the increase in H+ ions will cause the equilibrium to shift to the left
and maintain the pH
If a strong base is added to decrease the H+ ions, it will cause the equilibrium to shift to the
right
Lavoiser stated that acids contained oxygen. This was wrong, but stimulated research into the
composition and properties of acids
Davy defined an acid as containing replaceable hydrogen. His definition helped to classify
substances in terms of its properties and reactions
The Arrhenius definition increased our understand by interpreting acid properties in terms the
hydrogen ions they produced and explained weak and strong acids in terms of the extent to
which the ionisation reaction proceeded.
The Bronsted Lowry definition increased our understanding further by showing that acidity
depends on both the structure of the substance itself and also those of the other reactant in
the solution. It showed neutralisation proceeded directly by a proton transfer and showed that
the hydrolysis of salt produced pHs different from 7 was nothing more than a simple acid or
base reaction
Each theory successively refined the previous
CO32-
+ H3 O +
H2 O
CH3COOH
+ OH-22-
Titration 1
Firstly solid sodium hydrogen carbonate was baked in a desiccator to dry and
then weighed on a mass balance. It was then transferred into a volumetric flask
where water was added to dissolve the solid by shaking and inverting. Once all
the solid had dissolved, more water was added to the graduated mark
Titration
o
Nitric acid was titrated against a 0.05 mol/L primary standard of sodium
hydrogen carbonate
The indicator used was methyl orange since the equivalence point was
approximately 3 5 due to the titration being a weak base + strong acid
Titration 2
NaOH was titrated against a primary standard solution of vinegar with a pH meter used
instead of an indicator
-23-
Neutralisations reactions are widely used for safety in laboratories and factories where acids or
bases are used since they are very corrosive.
Sodium carbonate is widely used to neutralise acid/base spills or effluents because
If too much of it is used there is less danger than if a stronger acid/base was used to
neutralise it
-24-
Section Five
Esterification is a naturally occurring process which can be performed
in the laboratory
-25-
Alkanols are alcohols derived from alkanes that contain the hydroxyl group
e.g.
methanol CH3OH
ethanol C2H5OH
(General formula of
The boiling and melting point of molecular substances depend upon the strength of the
intermolecular forces. The stronger the forces, the higher the boiling point.
dispersion forces
hydrogen bonds due to the presence of the oxygen and the hydrogen.
There are similar forces displayed in the alkanoic acid, however there exists a greater degree
of hydrogen bonding due to the presence of two oxygen atoms. Thus this accounts for a
greater boiling and melting point of the equivalent massed alkanol and alkanoic acid
Alkanol
alkanoic acid
-26-
Note: for the equivalent number of carbons in the alkanol and alkanoic acid, the alkanoic acid
will have a greater molecular mass, thus stronger dispersion forces and hence a greater MP
and BP
Esterification:
An ester is a substance that contains the R-OO-R chain
Alkanoic acid
alkanol
water
Note: The alkanol forms the alkyl part and the alkanoic acid forms the alkanoate
e.g.
Ethanoic acid
+ methanol
Ethanoic acid
+ ethanol
Butanoic acid
+ propan-1-ol
methyl ethanoate
ethyl ethanoate
propyl butanoate
+
+
water
water
water
It acts as a catalyst by reducing the activation energy and thus increasing the
rate of reaction
It acts as a dehydrating agent and absorbs the water, thus shifting the
equilibrium to the right and increasing yield of the ester
-27-
10 ml of pure pentan-1-ol and 12ml of 1M ethanoic acid were added to a round flask with 3
drops of 6M sulfuric acid.
C5H11OH(aq)
+ CH3COOH(aq)
water
->
water
C4H11C-OO-C-CH3
+ pentyl ethanoate
This mixture was heated under reflux for about 10 mins and then allowed to cool. The mixture
was then transferred to a separate funnel with 100ml of water added and shaken. The lower
layer was then discarded. Then 50ml of 1M Na2CO3 was added to remove the excess acid
Na2CO3
+ CH3COOH
Na2CO3
+ H2SO4
2NaCHCOO +
Na2SO4 +
CO2
CO2
+ H2 O
+ H2 O
The lower layer was then discarded once again. The remaining mixture was transferred into a
beaker with a few pellets of CaCl2 to absorb the water. The remaining liquid was then distilled
with temperatures maintained at 130. Pentyl ethanoate is a banana flavoured ester
-28-
Esters have pleasant and fruity odours and occur widely in nature as perfumes and flavouring
agents.
Ester present
Methyl butanoate
Pentyl ethanoate
Ethyl heptanoate
Butyl ethanoate
Flavour
Apple
Banana
Grape
Raspberry
Esters are developed artificially for use in flavouring and perfumes and are often cheaper than
natural extract. The natural odour and combination of crude taste contributes to the flavour of
the ester. Ethyl ethanoate is also used as a solvent in industry and is the common solvent in
nail polish remover.
-29-