Soils and

Agriculture

Soils
An Interface where
rock,
water,
air
and life
converge and interact

Figure: Brady and Weil, Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils, 2004 Prentice Education Inc.

Soils- Why do we care?

Main functions of soils
1. Support Growth of Plants
2. Recycle organic matter (nutrients and carbon are
recycled)
3. A habitat for diverse organisms
4. Major area of human interaction with earths surface
(e.g. agriculture)
5. Involved in the Hydrologic Cycle-helps purify water
3

What is a soil?
Soil is a complex and dynamic mixture of eroded
rock, mineral nutrients, decaying organic
matter, water, air, and billions of living
organisms (mostly microscopic)
Soil is a continuum of materials at earths surface
Soil is separated from Non-soil at the

Top - vegetation, leaf litter, organic debris

-and
Bottom - bedrock parent material that
supplies grains and minerals contained in
soil
We divide soils into zones (called horizons)

Figure: Brady and Weil, Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils, 2004 Prentice Education Inc.

Soil Profile and Formation

Soil horizons

Time

Mature
soil

Young
soil

Immature
soil

O horizon

Leaf litter
A horizon

Topsoil
B horizon

Subsoil

Regolith

Bedrock

C horizon

Parent
material

See Fig. 9.6

5

Soil Horizons

O horizon- mostly
organic material/
decomposing vegetation
A horizon- topsoil,
leaching occurs dissolving/
draining earth materials to
lower levels (e.g. Fe)
B horizon- zone of
accumulation, clays and
other material drained from
surface accumulate
C horizon- weathering
parent material (rock/gravel
etc).

O horizon

Leaf litter
A horizon

Topsoil
B horizon

Subsoil

Regolith

Bedrock

C horizon

Parent
material

See Fig. 9.6

6

Soils develop over time

Soil horizons - layers of soil (change with depth),
they become apparent as soil develops, as materials
are moved to deeper depths
Organic matter addition happens at surface layers.
The characteristics of each Horizon are defined
By zones of accumulation and loss.

Eluviation is the process of removal or distribution

i.e., leaching (zone of leaching: horizons O-E)

Illuviation is the process of deposition or

accumulation (zone of accumulation: horizon B)

Figure: Brady and Weil, Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils, 2004 Prentice Education Inc.

Soil: Formation Rate

Soil can be a renewable source, but formed
slowly, on timescales of 1000 years
1 inch (2.5 cm) typically takes 200-1000 years
to form
Erosion rate is approx 15 to 16 times faster
than formation in the US
So every year a fraction of an inch is eroded

Grain Size and Surface Area:Vol

Diameter (size) large to small: Gravel > Sand > Silt > Clay
How does the surface area to
volume ratio change as the
diameter of particles get
larger?
SA:V listed for ratio large to
small:
Clay > Silt > Sand
What grain type would adsorb
more contaminants on its
surface?
Clay
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What types of sediment are there?

Sediments are defined in part by the
percentages of clay, silt and sand

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Soil Fertility
Ways that soil gains nutrients:
Soil Fertility is
a measure of nutrients Nitrogen fixation
found in soil for plant
Most N in form of stable N2
growth
Bacteria fix N and make it
Review: plants need 16
essential nutrient
elements!
Macronutrients (large
amounts needed)
C, H, O, N, P, K, S,
Ca, Mg
Micronutrients
Mn, Cu, Cl, Mb, Zn,
Fe, B

available as H-bound or Cbound forms

Organic matter decomposition
Animal wastes
Weathering of parent material
Fertilizers

11

The Nature of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion process by which soil particles are detached, transported
and redeposited elsewhere
It is natural, but we are witnessing accelerated rates of erosion.
Factors:
Precipitation
Soil Conditions
Surface Cover (vegetation) Winds
Topography
CAUSES:
WIND
WATER

12

Accelerated Erosion
Affects agricultural
lands
Caused by human
disturbance and
climate
can accelerate
10-100 times faster
than natural erosion
Results in loss of
nutrients and
necessary materials
for plant growth
e.g. dust bowl
13

Soil Conservation Methods

Fig. 7-14, p. 153

14

Desertification
Lands in danger are arid and semiarid
Due to prolonged drought, human activities,
altered vegetation
Often results in dust storms. Dust might carry
pesticides, contaminants.

15

Soil Degradation Caused by Irrigation

Practices Transpiration
Salinization
Occurring in Australia
1. Irrigation water contains
small amounts of
dissolved salts.

Evaporation

2. Evaporation and
transpiration leave
salts behind.
3. Salt builds up in soil.

Waterlogging
1. Precipitation and
irrigation water
percolate downward.
2. Water table rises.
Waterlogging = Low to zero OXYGEN
anaerobic bacteria live and respire CH4 (methane)
Methane adds to GHG accumulation in atmosphere.

Waterlogging
Fig. 7-7, p. 144

Less permeable clay layer

16

17
Fig. 7-15, p. 154

Why should we be concerned about

soil degradation?
Population Growth Need more food to feed the world!!

18

Agriculture and Food Supply

19

Global Trends in Food Availability

In many parts of the world, food produc5on has
been transformed from small-scale diversied
opera5ons to vast farms growing one or two crops
global food supply problems have more to do with
distribu(on than with supply (but both are s(ll
important..).
We con5nue to produce surpluses, but hunger
remains an urgent problem.

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Food is Unevenly Distributed

FiBy years ago, hunger was one of the worlds most
persistent problems. Today, it is a problem regionally.
The worlds popula5on has more than doubled, from
3 to >7 billion, but food produc9on has risen even
faster.
While the average popula5on growth in the past
50 years has been approx. 1.5 % per year, food
produc5on has increased by approx. 2+% per year.
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Hunger Around the World Has

Not Been Eliminated

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Chronic Obesity is a Growing

Problem Worldwide

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Nutri9onal content and calories

A good diet is essen5al to keep you healthy.
You need the correct nutrients, as well as enough
calories for a produc5ve and energe5c lifestyle.
The United Na5ons Food and Agriculture
Organiza5on (FAO) es5mates that nearly 3 billion
people (almost half the worlds popula5on) suer
from vitamin, mineral, or protein deciencies.

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How Is Food Produced?

Sources :
Croplands (approx. 75% of worlds food)
Rangelands (approx. 15% of worlds food)
Ocean fisheries (approx. 10% of worlds food)
A small # of edible plant species (<15) supply the world w/
(most (approx. 90%) of worlds food calories; mostly wheat,
rice, and corn

Corn production in the

US has tripled since
1960

25

 Most agriculture
production in US
occurs in the mid-west
In the US less land is
cultivated now then
100 yrs ago, but food
production has more
than doubled

26

Agricultural Inputs
Soil is the founda5on of food produc5on, but there are
many other cri5cal factors.
Agriculture is also dependent upon:
Reliable water resources (2/3rd of water use in US).
Nutrients.
Favorable temperatures and rainfall.
Produc5ve crop varie5es.
The mechanical energy to tend and harvest the
crops.
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How Productivity of Farmland increased

without additional deforestation
Shift to High-Input agriculture where you increase
irrigation efficiency
synthetic fertilizer use
pesticides use

Selective breeding
high-yield grains
Controversial: environmental and socioeconomic
concerns!
Decrease in genetic diversity

Genetically Modified (GM) foods

Isolating genetic material of cells (DNA) and
reproducing them in crop species to increase yield

28

Producing Food by Green-Revolution

Techniques
1. High-yield monoculture Rice, Wheat, Corn
2. High inputs of fertilizer, pesticides,
water
3. Increased intensity and frequency of
cropping: multicropping

29

Producing Food by Green-Revolution

Techniques
Rice, Wheat, Corn
Key scientist cited as father of the Green Revolution:
Norman Borlaug:
- cited as the father of the green revolution
- agricultural engineer; began work in 1940s
- won Nobel Peace Prize (1970) for increasing food supply;
- his work began in Mexico (new high yield crops and
modern agricultural approaches)
Privately funded efforts to increase food supply: Rockefeller and
Ford Foundations initiated 1943
Initially, focus on feeding Mexico
Post 1960s, methods implemented in other nations, India etc.

30

Green Revolution 1:
First Green Revolution: developed countries
Since 1950, mechanism behind majority of food
production, major increase in food productivity
HYV = Higher Yield Varieties of corn, wheat, and rice
used
however these grains generally require higher amounts of
nitrogen (N)therefore more fertilizer use

System did not work well in developing nation.

Selectively bred crops didnt transfer well. A new
breed of cereals (corn, wheat, and rice) needed

31

Green Revolution 2:
Second Green Revolution: developing countries
Genetic research
Produced rice & wheat specially bred for tropical &
sub tropical climates
Fast growing, allowing multiple cropping in a year
High-yield varieties used fit to local conditions,
technologies and agricultural practices

32

Green Revolution: Years 1960-2005

Get MORE Grains

To a point
Developed nations and international oversight
groups (World Bank, etc) put less effort into
ensuring ongoing development of Green
Revolution in Africa- Food production not able to
keep up with population growth.

Use MORE Fertilizers

Use MORE Land

Source:
UNEP/GRIDArendal
http://maps.grida.no/
go/graphic/
agricultural-trendsproduction-fertilisersirrigation-andpesticides

Use MORE Pesticides

Years 1960-2005

33

Disadvantages of the
Green Revolution
Increase use of fossil fuels for farm equipment and fertilizers (leads to air
pollution)
Increase dependency on irrigation (not necessarily efficient forms of irrigation)
Increase dependency on pesticides
Contamination of groundwater, waterways with fertilizers, pesticides, and farm
animal wastes
Concerns of contamination of food with pesticides
Increase use = soil degradation
Having a worlds agriculture based on a limited number of species
(monoculture approaches) of organisms makes the worlds food supply more
susceptible to failure due to pests, drought, climate change, and
environmental degradation
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You Can be a Locavore

A locavore is a person who consumes locally
produced food.
Supporting local farmers can have a variety of
benefits, from keeping money in the local
economy to ensuring a fresh and healthy diet.
Maintaining a viable farm economy can also help
slow the conversion of farmland into expanding
suburban subdivisions.
Farmers markets are usually the easiest way to
eat locally
09/22/10

7-35

You Can Eat Low On The

Food Chain
Because there is less energy involved in
producing food from plants than producing it
from animals, one way you can reduce your
impact on the worlds soil and water is to eat a
little more grains, vegetables, and dairy and a
little less meat.

09

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You can become an informed

consumer.. And use your purchasing
power to support or oppose issues
Interesting new sources of
information are becoming
available to assist you in
making informed consumer
decisions. For example,
apps like buycott that you
can use to scan food
labels

37

Fer9lizer Boosts Produc9on

Plants require small amounts of inorganic nutrients
from soil.
Fer5lizers are used to ensure a sucient supply of
these nutrients.
The major elements required by most plants are
nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium, and sulfur.
Much of the doubling in worldwide crop produc5on
since 1950 has come from increased inorganic
fer5lizer use.
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Over-fertilizing is Also a
Common Problem
Growing plants can use only limited amounts of
nutrients, and the nutrients not captured by
crops run off of fields or seep into groundwater.
Excess fertilizers contaminate drinking water and
destabilize aquatic ecosystems.
Nitrate levels in groundwater have risen to
dangerous levels in many areas where intensive
farming is practiced.

09/22/10

7-39

Modern Agriculture Runs on Oil

The food system in the United States consumes
about 15-20% of the total energy we use.

Approximate energy use:

Energy is used in producing nitrogen fer5lizers from
natural gas.
Energy is used for machinery and fuel.
Energy is used for irriga5on, synthe5c herbicides, and
other fer5lizers.

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Pes9cide Use Con9nues to Rise

Biological pests reduce crop yields and spoil as much
as of the crops harvested every year in some areas.
Modern agriculture largely depends on toxic
chemicals to kill or drive away these pests.
Indiscriminate pes5cide use, however, also has
caused many problems

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Conclusion
Food produc5on has grown faster than the human
popula5on in recent decades, and the percentage of
people facing chronic hunger has declined.
Increases in food produc5on result from many
innova5ons in agricultural produc5on like the green
revolu5on and the development of GMOs.
These changes bring about environmental problems
such as soil erosion and water contamina5on from
pes5cide and fer5lizer applica5ons.
Consumers can inuence farm produc5on by
choosing what food they buy and where they buy it.
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