Physics Forces Laws Units Dimensionsn.Gravitational constantcomMagnetization––ΩmML3T–3I–2www.sakshieducation.comwww.sakshieducation.com

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Physical World
1.
Physics deals with the study of the basic laws of nature and their manifestation in
different phenomena.
2.
Gravitational Force
It is the force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virtue of their masses. It is
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a universal force. It plays a key role in the large-scale phenomena occurring in the
universe, such as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters.
3.
Electromagnetic Force
n.
Electromagnetic force is the force between protons is 1036 times the gravitational force
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between them, for any fixed distance.
It is mainly the electromagnetic force that governs the structure of atoms and molecules
Strong Nuclear Force
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4.
The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus. The strong nuclear
force is the strongest of all fundamental forces, it is charge independent and acts equally
between a proton and a proton, a neutron and a neutron, and a proton and a neutron. Its
stability of nuclei.
Weak Nuclear Force
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5.
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range is, extremely small, of about nuclear dimensions (1015m). It is responsible for the
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The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processes such as the decay,
the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle called neutrino. The weak
nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force, but much weaker than the strong
nuclear and electromagnetic forces. The range of weak nuclear force is exceedingly
small, of the order of 1016 m.
6.
Nature of Physics Laws

The physical quantities that remain unchanged in a process are called conserved
quantities. Some of the general conservation laws in nature
include the laws of
conservation of mass, energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, charge etc. some
conservation laws are true for one fundamental force but not for the other. Conservation
laws have a deep connection with symmetries of nature. Symmetries of space and time,
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and other types of symmetries play a central role in modern theories of fundamental
forces in nature.
7.
Sir C.V. Raman (1888-1970)

The Raman Effect deals with scattering of light by molecules of a medium when they are
excited to vibration energy levels.
8.
Satyendra Nath Bose (1894 - 1974)

Bose gave a new derivation of Plancks law, treating radiation as a gas of photons and
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employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states. An important

consequence of Bose-Einstein statistics is that a gas of molecules below a certain
temperature will undergo a phase transition to a state where a large fraction of atoms
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populate the same lowest energy state.
Units and Measurements

1. The numerical value (n) of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to the unit (u) in
which it is expressed.
1
u
(Or)
n1u1 = n2u2.
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2. The quantities that are independent of other quantities are called fundamental quantities. The
units of these fundamental quantities are called fundamental units.
units of these derived quantities are called derived units.
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4. The basic systems of units :
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3. The quantities that are derived from fundamental quantities are called derived quantities. The
System of units
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Fundamental Quantity
M.K.S.
F.P.S.
Length
Centimeter
Metre
Foot
Mass
Gram
Kilogram
Pound
Second
Second
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C.G.S.
Time
Second
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5. Fundamental quantities in SI system :
Unit
Symbol
Length
Metre
Mass
Kilogram
kg
Time
Second
Electric current
Ampere
Thermodynamic temperature
Kelvin
Intensity of light
Candela
cd
Quantity of substance
Mole
mol
Physical quantity
Supplementary quantities
Plane angle
Radian
rad
Solid angle
Steradian
sr
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13. Metre: A metre is equal to 1650763.73 times the wavelength of the light emitted in vacuum
due to electronic transition from 2p10 state to 5d5 state in Krypton86. But in 1983, 17th
General Assembly of weights and measures, adopted a new definition for the metre in terms
n.
of velocity of light. According to this definition, metre is defined as the distance travelled by
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light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299, 792, 458 of a second.
14. Kilogram: The mass of a cylinder of platinumiridium alloy kept in the International Bureau
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of weights and measures preserved at Serves near Paris is called one kilogram.
15. Second: The duration of 9192631770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition
between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of caesium133 atom is called one
second.
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16. Ampere : The current which when flowing in each of two parallel conductors of infinite
length and negligible crosssection and placed one metre apart in vacuum, causes each
ampere.
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conductor to experience a force of 2x107 Newton per metre of length is known as one
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17. Kelvin: The fraction of 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of
water is called Kelvin.
18. Candela: The luminous intensity in the perpendicular direction of a surface of a black body
of area 1/600000 m2 at the temperature of solidifying platinum under a pressure of

101325 Nm2 is known as one candela.
19. Mole: The amount of a substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as
there are atoms in 12x103 kg of carbon12 is known as one mole.
20. Radian: The angle made by an arc of the circle equivalent to its radius at the centre is known
as radian. 1 radian = 57o17l45ll.
21. Steradian: The angle subtended at the centre by one square metre area of the surface of a
sphere of radius one metre is known as steradian.
22. Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers to which the fundamental units are raised
to obtain one unit of that quantity.
23. The expression showing the powers to which the fundamental units are to be raised to obtain
one unit of a derived quantity is called the dimensional formula of that quantity.
24. Dimensional Constants: The physical constants which have dimensions are called
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dimensional constants. Eg: Gravitational constant (G), Plancks constant (h), Universal gas
constant (R) etc.
25. Dimensionless quantities: The physical quantities which do not have dimensions are called
a) Dimensionless quantities without units. Eg: numbers,
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dimensionless quantities
, sin , tan .etc.,
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b) Dimensionless quantities with units. Eg : Angular displacement radian, Joules constant

joule/calorie, etc.,
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26. Dimensional variables: The physical quantities which have dimensions and do not have
fixed value are called dimensional variables.
Eg: Velocities, acceleration, force, work, etc.
27. Dimensionless variables: The physical quantities which do not have dimensions and do not
have fixed value dimensions are called dimensionless variables. Eg: Specific gravity,
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refractive index, coefficient of friction, etc.
28. Uses of dimensional formulae: These are used to a) verify the correctness of a physical
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equation, b) derive relationship between physical quantities and c) to convert the units of a
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physical quantity from one system to another system.

29. Principle of homogeneity: In any correct equation representing the relation between
physical quantities, the dimensions of all the terms must be the same on both sides.
Quantities having same dimensions can only be added or subtracted or equated.
30. Limitations of dimensional analysis

1.
Dimensionless quantities and proportionality Constants cannot be determined by this

method.
2.
This method is not applicable to trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.
3.
In the case of physical quantities which depend upon more than three physical quantities,
this method will be difficult.
4.
If the constant of proportionality also possesses dimensions, this system cannot be used.
If one side of equation contains addition or subtraction of physical quantities, this method
cannot be used
Dimensional formulae for some physical quantities
Dimensional
Unit
Boltzmanns constant
JK1
Bulk modulus
Nm2, Pa
Coefficient of linear or areal or volume
ML2T2 1
M1L1T2
C1 or K1
n.
expansion
formula
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Physical quantity
Thermal conductivity
Compressibility
Wm1K1
MLT3 1
poise
ML1T1
Pa1, m2N2
M1LT2
CV1, farad
M1L2T4I2
Ohm1 or mho or
siemen
siemen/metre or Sm
M1L2T3I2
M1L3T3I2
Electric charge or quantity of electric charge
coulomb
IT
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Electric conductance
dv
dx
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Electric capacitance
MT2
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Coefficient of viscosity (F =
Nm1 or Jm2
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Surface tension
Electric current
ampere
Electric dipole moment
Cm
LTI
Intensity of electric field
NC1, Vm1
MLT3I1
Electric resistance
ohm
ML2T3I2
Emf (or) electric potential
volt
ML2T3I1
Energy density
Jm3
ML1T2
coefficient of self induction
Henry (H)
ML2T2I2
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Electric conductivity
Nkg1
L1T2
Intensity of magnetization
Am1
L1I
Jcal1
MoLoTo
Latent heat
Jkg1
MoL2T2
Magnetic dipole moment
Am2
L2 I
Magnetic flux
Weber (Wb)
Magnetic induction
NI1m1 or T
Magnetic pole strength
Am
Modulus of elasticity
Momentum
Permeability of free space
Poissons ratio
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Plancks constant
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Permittivity of free space
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Pressure coefficient or volume coefficient
ML1T2
kgm2
ML2
kgms1
MLT1
Hm1 or NA2
MLT2I2
Fm1 or C2N1m2
M1L3T4I2
Js
ML2T1
MoLoTo
C1 or
disintegrations per
Radioactivity
second
Refractive index
Resistivity or specific resistance
MT2I1
Nm2, Pa
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Moment of inertia
ML2T2I1
LI
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heat
n.
Joules constant or mechanical equivalent of
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Intensity of gravitational field
MoLoT1
MoLoTo
ML3T3I2
siemen/metre or
1
M1L3T3I2
Specific heat
Jkg1 1
MoL2T2 1
Stefans constant
Wm2 4
MLoT3 4
Universal gravitational constant
Nm2kg2
M1L3T2
Specific conductance or conductivity
Sm
Quantities having same dimensions
a) Work, energy, torque, moment of force, energy
b) Angular momentum, Plancks constant, rotational impulse
c) Stress, pressure, modulus of elasticity, energy density.
d) Force constant, surface tension, surface energy.
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e) Angular velocity, frequency, velocity gradient

f) Gravitational potential, latent heat.
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n.
g) Thermal capacity, entropy, universal gas constant and Boltzmann are constant.
Measurements and Errors

Accuracy: Closeness of the measured value to the true value is called accuracy
Precision: Closeness of the measurements done with an instrument to one another called
Precision
E.g.: The time period of a seconds pendulum is T = 2 sec
Clock A: 2.10 sec, 2.01 sec. 1.98 sec (Accurate)
Clock B: 2.56 sec, 2.57 sec 2.57 sec (Precise)
Error: The difference between the measured value and true value of a physical quantity is called
Type of errors: 1) Systematic Errors 2) Random Errors
and
1) Systematic Errors: These may be either positive or negative.
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Error
3) Gross Errors
a) Constant or Instrumental errors: These are due to i) imperfect design and ii) zero error
b) Imperfection in experimental arrangement: In the calorimeter experiment, the loss of heat
n.
due to radiation, the effect on weighing due to buoyancy of air cannot be avoided.
c) Environmental Errors like changes in temperature, pressure wind velocity etc.
carelessness in taking observations
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d) Personal or Observational errors are due to the improper setting of the apparatus,
2) Random Errors: These are due to fluctuations in temperature, voltage supply etc .
of all the readings.
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Accurate value can be obtained by taking a number of readings and finding the arithmetic mean
3) Gross Errors: These due to the carelessness of the observer in taking measurements towards the
sources of error.
In tangent galvanometer experiment, the coil should be placed in magnetic meridian position
errors
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and other magnetic materials should be kept away. Neglecting these precaution result in gross
No corrections can be applied to these errors. Care should be taken to avoid these errors
Estimation of errors
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a) Absolute Errors ( a ) : The magnitude of the difference between the true value of a physical
quantity and the individual measured value is called absolute error of that measurement
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Absolute error = True value - measured value
Or
i = mean i
Absolute error is always positive. It has the same units as that of the quantity measured
b)
Mean absolute Error ( mean
: The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is called mean
absolute error (or) final absolute error

Mean absolute error
mean =
1 + 2 + 3 + ..... + n
n
1 n
i
n i =1
Mean absolute error is always positive and has the same units as that of the measured physical
quantity.
c)
Relative Error: The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured is
called relative error.
mean
mean
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Relative error =
Relative error has no units.
Percentage Error ( ) : When the relative error is multiplied by 100, it is called percentage
mean
100 %
n.
mean
error =
Combination of errors
a)
Error of a sum or a difference
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i) If x = a + b
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d)
Let a and b be the absolute errors in a and b respectively. Let the error in x be x
x=a+b
Maximum possible value of x = a + b

x a + b
=
x
a+b
x
a + b
% =
100 %
x
a + b
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Relative error,
Percentage error,
ii) If x = a b
Maximum possible value of x = a + b
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Relative error,
x
a + b
% =
100 %
x
a b
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Percentage error,
x a + b
=
x
a b
b)
Errors of multiplication or Division

i) If x = a b
Maximum relative error,
Percentage error,
ii) If x =
x
a b
+
%=
100%
x
b
a
a
b
Maximum relative error

c)
x a b
=
+
x
a
b
x
a b
+
%=
100%
x
b
a
Errors of a measured quantity that involves product of powers of observed quantities:

i) If x = a n
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ii) If x =
x
a
% = n 100 %
x
a
a pbq
cr
x
b
c
a
+q
+r
%=p
100%
x
b
c
a
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Percentage error,
x
a
b
c
=p
+q
+r
x
a
b
c
n.
Significant figure: Significant figures in a measurement are defined as the number of digits that are
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known reliably plus the uncertain digit
Rules for determining the number of significant figures

1.
All the non-zero digits in a given number are significant without any regard to the location of
the decimal point if any
E.g.: 4205, 42.05, 4.205, 420.5 all have 4 significant digits.
All zeros occurring between two non-zero digits are significant without any regard to the
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2.
location of decimal point if any

E.g.:
3.
2.002, 20.02, 200.2 all have 4 significant digits.
All the zeros to the right of the decimal point but to the left of the first non zero digit are not
significant
0.003 in these number significant digits are 1.
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E.g.:
4.
All zeros to the right of the last non zero digit in a number after the decimal point are
significant
0.4200 has 4 significant figures
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E.g.:
5.
All zeros to the right of the last non zero digit in a number having no decimal point are not
significant
E.g.:
4200 has 2 significant figures
But if the zeros are obtained from actual measurement, then the number of significant figures in
4200 are 4.
Rounding off
1.
The preceding digit is raised by one if the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is more
than 5
E.g.: When 4228 is rounded off to three significant figures, it becomes 4230
2.
The preceding digit is to be left unchanged if the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is
E.g.: If 4228 is rounded off to two significant figures it becomes 4200

3.
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less than 5
If the immediate insignificant digit to be dropped is 5 then there will be two different cases
a) If the preceding digit is even, it is to be unchanged and 5 is dropped
If 4.728 is to be rounded off to two decimal places, it becomes 4. 72
b) If the preceding digit is odd, it is to be raised by 1
If 4.7358 is to be rounded off two decimal places it becomes 4.74
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E.g.:
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Eg:
Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures

1.
Addition and subtraction:
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For addition and subtraction, the rule in terms of decimal places
i) After completing addition or subtraction, round off the final result to the least number of
decimal places (n)
Eg
1): Find the value of 2.2 + 5.08 + 3.125 + 5.3755
Ans: 15.78 is rounded off to 15.8
Eg (2): Find the value of 44.8 21.235
2.
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Ans: 23.565 is rounded off to 23.6

Multiplication and division
In multiplication and division, the rule is in terms of significant figures

i) In a given set of numbers, notice the number with the least number of significant figures
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( n ) and the round off the other number to ( n + 1) significant figures. Complete the arithmetic
operation
ii) After completing multiplication or division round off the final result to the least number of
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significant figures ( n )
E.g.: (1): Find the value of 1.2 2.54 3.257

1.2 2.54 3.26 = 9.93468
Final result is rounded off to 9.9

Eg:
2) Find 9.27 41
9.27
= 0.2260975
41
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n.
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Final result is rounded off to 0.23
Horizontal Motion
1. An object is said to be at rest, if the position of the object does not change with time
with respect to its surroundings.
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2. An object is said to be in motion, if its position changes with time with respect to its
surroundings.
3. Rest and motion are relative.
n.
Ex: A person travelling in a bus is at rest w.r.t. the co-passenger and he is in motion
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w.r.t. the person on the road.

4. Distance and Displacement
a) The difference between the final and initial positions of a particle is known as
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displacement.
Displacement x = xf xi
b) Displacement of a particle is the shortest distance between its initial and final
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position and directed form initial position to final position.

c) The length of the actual path covered by a particle in a time interval is called
distance.
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5. Speed
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d) Distance is a scalar quantity and displacement is a vector quantity.
a) Speed of a body is the rate at which it describes its path. Its SI unit is ms1.It is a
scalar quantity.
Speed = distance travelled .

time taken
b) A body is said to move with uniform speed, if it has equal distances in equal
intervals of time, however small the intervals may be.
c) A body is said to move with non uniform speed, if it has unequal distances in
equal intervals of time or equal distances in unequal intervals of time, however
small the intervals may be.
d) Average speed =
Total distance
Total time
e) Instantaneous speed =
Lt
t 0
s ds
=
t
dt
f) If a particle covers the 1st half of the total distance with a speed v1 and the second
Average speed =
2v 1v 2
v1 + v 2
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half with a speed v2.

.
g) If a particle covers 1st 1/3rd of a distance with a speed v1, 2nd 1/3rd of the distance
3v1v2v3
.
v1 + v2 + v3
6. Velocity
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Average speed =
n.
with speed v2and 3rd 1/3rd of the distance with speed v3.
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a) The rate of change of displacement of a body is called velocity. Its SI unit is ms1.It
is a vector quantity.
b) A body is said to move with uniform velocity, if it has equal displacements in
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equal intervals of time, however small these intervals may be.

c) If the direction or magnitude or both of the velocity of a body change, then the
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body is said to be moving with non-uniform velocity.

d) The velocity of a particle at any instant of time or at any point of its path is called
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instantaneous velocity.
s ds
=
dt
t 0 t
V = Lt
7. Average velocity
Total distance
Total time
a) Average speed =
b) If a particle under goes a displacement s1 along a straight line t1 and a

displacement s2 in time t2 in the same direction, then
Average velocity=
s1 + s 2
t1 + t 2
c) If a particle undergoes a displacement s1 along a straight line with velocity v1 and

a displacement s2 with velocity v2 in the same direction, then
Average velocity =
(s1 + s 2 )v 1v 2
s1v 2 + s 2 v 1
d) If a particle travels first half of the displacement along a straight line with velocity
v1 and the next half of the displacement with velocity v2 in the same direction,
then
2v 1v 2
v1 + v 2
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Average velocity =
e) If a particle travels for a time t1 with velocity v1 and for a time t2 with velocity v2
in the same direction, then
n.
v 1t 1 + v 2 t 2
t1 + t 2
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Average velocity =
f) If a particle travels first half of the time with velocity v1 and the next half of the
time with velocity v2 in the same direction, then
8. Acceleration
v1 + v 2
2
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Average velocity =
a. The acceleration is defined as the time rate of change of velocity.
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b. The acceleration and velocity of a body need not be in the same direction. eg : A
body thrown vertically upwards.
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c. If equal changes of velocity take place in equal intervals of time, however small
these intervals may be, then the body is said to be in uniform acceleration.
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d. Negative acceleration is called retardation or deceleration.

e. The acceleration of a particle at any instant or at any point is called instantaneous
acceleration.
= Lt v = dv
t 0
t
dt
f. A body can have zero velocity and non-zero acceleration. Eg: for a body
projected vertically up, at the highest point velocity is zero, but acceleration is g.
g. If a body has a uniform speed, it may have acceleration. Eg : uniform circular motion
h. If a body has uniform velocity, it has no acceleration.
i.
Acceleration of free fall is called acceleration due to gravity (g) and it is equal to
980 cms2 or 9.8 ms2.
9. The equations of motion for uniform acceleration

1) v = u + at
1 2
at
2
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2) s = ut +
3) v2 u2 = 2as
4) sn = u +
1)
n.
u+ v
t
2
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5) s =
a
(2n
2
10. One dimensional motion (uniform acceleration)

Sn Sm
nm
second, then a =
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a) If a body starting from rest travels a distance Sm in mth second and Sn is in nth
b) If a particle travels along a straight line with uniform acceleration and travels
distances Sn and Sn+1 in two successive seconds, the acceleration of the particle is
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a = Sn+1 - Sn
c) If a particle travels along a straight line travels distances S1 and S2 in two
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successive intervals of n seconds each, the acceleration of the particle is

S2 S1
n2
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a=
d) If a body starting from rest, attains a velocity 'v' after a displacement 'x', then its
velocity becomes 'nv' after a further displacement (n2 - 1)x.
e) If a bullet loses (1/n)th of its velocity while passing through a plank, then the
number of such planks required to just stop the bullet is =
n2
2n 1
f) The first compartment of a train crosses a pole with a speed u and the last
compartment of the train crosses the pole with a speed v , the speed with which
the middle compartment of the train crosses the pole with a speed V =
u 2 + v2
2
g) Starting from rest a body travels with an acceleration '' for some time and then
with deceleration '' and finally comes to rest. If the total time of journey is 't',
then the maximum velocity and displacement are given by
1
t and s =
2 +
Also, average velocity =
Vmax
2
t
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Vmax =
+
h) A body is projected vertically up from a topless car relative to the car which is
n.
moving horizontally relative to earth.
If the velocity of the car is constant, ball will be caught by the thrower.
ii.
If the velocity of the car is constant, path of ball relative to the ground is a
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i.
parabola and relative to the car is straight up and then straight down.
If the car accelerates, ball falls back relative to the car.
iv.
If acceleration or retardation of the car is constant path relative to car is a
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iii.
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straight line and relative to ground is a parabola.
Motion under Gravity
1.
Freely falling body

a) The equations of motion
V = gt
h = gt2
Vt
h t2
V1
t
= 1
V2
t2
h1
t2
= 12
h2
t2
a
2
iv) sn = u + (2n 1)
V2 = u2 + 2as
V2 = 2gh
V2 h
(2n-1)
hn (2n 1)
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V1
h
= 1
V2
h2
g
2
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hn =
co
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iii)
ii) s = ut + at2
V = u + at
n.
i)
gh
2
b) The average velocity during fall (V) =
The ratio of distances traveled in first, first two, first three seconds is
1:4:9..n2
The ratio of time taken to travel first, 2nd, 3rdnth unit of distances is
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e)
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d)
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c) The ratio of distance traveled in 1st, 2nd, 3rd.. n seconds is 1:3:5(2n-1)
1 : 2 1 : 3 2
n n 1
f)The ratio of times taken to travel first, first two, first three first n units of distances
2 : 3 : .. n
is 1 :
g) If x is the distance traveled in the n th second, then the distance traveled in the (n +1)th
second is
2n+1
x
2n1
(or) x + g.
h) If x is the distance traveled in the n th second, then distance traveled in the (n-1) th
2n 3
second is
x (or) x - g
2n 1
i) The ratio of distances covered in the nth second and the distance traveled in n seconds
is
sn
2
1
2n 1
=
2 =
s
n n
n2
j) Sn+1 sn = g
k) If a body travels
T = n +
1
n
n ( n 1)
th of the total distance in the last second the total time of fall
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l) If a particle takes x seconds less and acquires a velocity y ms-1 more at one place than at
another in falling through the same distance. If g1 and g2 are accelerations due to
gravity at these two places, then x: y is
(1 /
g1g
).
1 dm
d
= g1 m
d
db
b
n.
m) The acceleration of a body in a medium is given by gI = g
at
io
Where dm = density of the medium and db = density of the body
n) If a body is dropped into a well of depth h the time taken to hear the sound from start
ed
uc
(v is the velocity of sound) T is given by
T=
2h h
+
g v
2. Body thrown vertically upwards

The equations of motion
b) s = ut + at2
v = u gt
h = ut gt2
sh
i
a) v = u + at
ak
a)
w
.s
c) V2 = u2 + 2as
u = 2 gh
d) sn = u +
a
(2n 1)
2
hn = u -
g
(2n 1)
2
b) Maximum height reached = H =
u2
2g
c) Time of ascent = Time of descent =

Time of flight =
u
g
2u
g
2
1 gT
gT 2
=
d) Maximum height H =
2g 2
8
e) The velocity of the body at the half of the maximum height is
gh (or)
u2
2
f) A body projected vertically up from the top of a tower of height h reaches the ground
in a time t , then
h = ut +
1
2
gt 2
and h =
u
2g
g) A body is projected up with a velocity u and another body is also projected up from the
same point with same velocity but after t sec. Then they will meet after a time
T
u
g
t
2
co
m
h) A body projected up from the top of a tower with a velocity u reaches the ground in a
time t1. Another body projected down with same velocity reaches the ground in time t2
i) The time difference (t1 t2) =
2u
g
1
gt 1t 2
2
g
(t1 t2)
2
ed
uc
iv) Velocity of projection is u =
at
io
iii) Height of the tower is h =
t 1t 2
n.
ii) Time take by the freely falling body to reach the ground is
w
.s
ak
sh
i
i) If air resistance is considered, time of ascent < time of descent.
Graphs
1.
Displacement-time graph
1) Slope of straight line gives velocity
2) Smooth curves represents uniform acceleration
3) Zig zag curve represents non-uniform acceleration
1. At rest
n.
at
io
ed
uc
2. Motion with
Acceleration
x=c
vo
velocity
xo
a
v = aot
ao
w
.s
acceleration
v
x = vot - (1/2)aot2
4. Motion with
x = vot +(1/2)aot2
ak
3. Motion with
sh
i
vo
constant
deceleration.
2.
x = vo t + x o
constant
constant
Velocity
co
m
Displacement
Velocity-time graph
a0
1) Slope gives the acceleration.
2) Area under the graph gives the distance travelled

3) Curve represents non-uniform acceleration.
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
4) Straight line represents uniform acceleration.
Vector Addition
1. Scalar: A physical quantity having only magnitude but no direction is called a scalar.
eg: Time, mass, distance, speed, electric charge, etc.
2. Vector: A physical quantity having both magnitude and direction and which obeys the
laws of vector addition is called a vector quantity.
co
m
eg: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, intensity of electric field, etc.

3. Surface area can be treated both as a scalar and a vector. A is magnitude of surface area
which is a scalar. If
is a unit vector normal to the surface, we can write
A n
as a vector.
n.
4. Electric current and velocity of light are not vectors even though they have direction since
they do not obey the laws of addition.
at
io
5. A vector quantity which has direction by its nature is called a polar vector. Ex: velocity.
6. A vector quantity which has direction by a convention is called a pseudo (or) axial (or)
rule. Ex: Angular velocity.
ed
uc
non-polar vector. The direction of pseudo vector can be known from right hand thumb
7. Equal vectors: Vectors having same magnitude and which have same direction are called
equal vectors. Their corresponding components are equal.
sh
i
8. Negative vectors: A vector which has the same magnitude as that of another and which is
opposite in direction is called a negative vector.
ak
9. Null Vector (Zero Vectors): A vector whose magnitude is zero and which has no specific
w
.s
direction is called a null vector.
e.g. 1) The cross product of two parallel vectors is a null vector.
2) The difference of two equal vectors is a null vector.

10. Unit vector: It is a vector whose magnitude is unity. A unit vector parallel to a given
vector.
A
. i, j and k are units
If A is a vector, the unit vector in the direction of A is written as A =
| A|
vectors along x, y and z axis.

11. Position vector: The position of a particle is described by a position vector
P
which is drawn from the origin of a reference frame.The position vector of a

particle P in space is given by
OP = r = xi + yj + zk .
Its magnitude is given by r = x 2 + y 2 + z 2

r=
Unit vector of r is given by
r
xi + yj + zk
=
r
x2 + y2 + z 2
Addition of Vectors
12. Resultant can be found by using
a) Triangle law of vectors
b) Parallelogram law of vectors
c) Polygon law of
co
m
vectors
13. Triangle law: If two vectors are represented in magnitude and direction by the two sides
of a triangle taken in order, then the third side taken in the reverse order represents their
n.
sum or resultant both in magnitude and direction.

14. Parallelogram law
at
io
If two vectors P and Q are represented by the two sides of a parallelogram

drawn from a point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and
point.
P 2 + Q 2 + 2PQ cos
Q sin
P + Q cos
tan =
and
P sin
Q + P cos
sh
i
Tan =
ed
uc
direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through that
R=
then < .
ak
15. If the resultant R of P and Q makes an angle with P and with Q and if P > Q
w
.s
16. For two vectors P and Q , R max = P + Q and Rmin = P Q

17. If two vectors P and Q have equal magnitudes x, then
R = 2 x cos
18. Vectors addition obeys
a) Commutative law:
A +B =B+ A
) (
b) Associative law:
A + B+C = A +B +C
c) Distributive law:
m A + B = mA + m B
where m is a scalar.
19. Polygon law: If a number of vectors are represented by the sides of a polygon taken in
the same order, the resultant is represented by the closing side of the polygon taken in
the reverse order.
20. Resolution of a vector
Consider a vector A represented along OA in two co-ordinate system, which makes an

Y
angle with X-axis.

A = Ax i + Ay j
Sin =
Ay j
Ax
Ax = A Cos
A
Ay
A
Ax
Ay
Axi
Ay = A Sin
co
m
Cos =
A = Ax2 + Ay2
and
If the vector makes an angle with X-axis, with Y axis and with Z-axis Then
Cos 2 + Cos 2 + Cos 2 = 1
and Cos =
(or)
And Sin 2 + Sin2 + Sin 2 = 2
n.
Ay
Ax
= ; Cos =
=m
A
A
Az
=m
A
2 + m2 + n2 = 1
ed
uc
Cos =
A = Ax2 + Ay2 + Az2
and
at
io
A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k
(Law of cosines)
21. If 1 , m1 , n1 and 2 m2 n2 the direction cosines of two vectors and is the angle between
them then cos = 1 2 + m1m2 + n1n2 .
and
B = Bx i + By j + Bz k
are parallel, then
Ay
Ax
A
=
= z
Bx
By
Bz
and
where K is a scalar.
w
.s
A =K B
A = A x i + A y j + A z k
ak
23. If vectors
sh
i
22. Component of a vector is a vector.
Equilibrium
24. Equilibrium is the state of a body in which there is no acceleration i.e., net force acting on
a body is zero.
25. The forces whose lines of action pass through a common point are called concurrent
forces.
26. Resultant force is the single force which produces the same effect as a given system of
forces acting simultaneously.
27. A force which when acting along with a given system of forces produces equilibrium is
called the equilibrant.
28. Resultant and equilibrant have equal magnitude and opposite direction. They act along the
same line and they are themselves in equilibrium.
29. Triangle law of forces: If a body is in equilibrium under the action of three
coplanar forces, then these forces can be represented in magnitude as well as
direction by the three sides of a triangle taken in order.
Where p, q, r are sides of a triangle.
P, Q, R are
|Q|
|R|
a body in
co
m
P, Q and R keep
and A1 = A2 = A3 = An, then the adjacent vectors
are inclined to each other at an angle
2
N
or
360
.
N
n.
A1 + A 2 + A 3 + .... + An = 0
31. If
at
io
equilibrium,
|P|
coplanar vectors.
30. Lamis theorem: When three coplanar forces

then P = Q = R
sin sin sin
R r
32. N forces each of magnitude F are acting on a point and angle between any two adjacent
, then resultant force Fresultant =
33. Body Pulled Horizontally
ed
uc
forces is
N
F sin
2 .
sin( / 2)
sh
i
The horizontal force required to pull a suspended body
T = F + ( mg )
l
T
F
w
.s
ak
and T cos = mg
T sin = F
2
l2-x2
through an angle with the vertical is given by
F
Tan =
mg
mg
F = mg Tan
Motion of the boat in a river

34. Let VB be the velocity of the boat and VR the velocity of the river.
1. The time taken by the
boat to go from A to B and B to A in still water T =
2d
VB
2. If the river is flowing
tdown
d
=
VB + VR
T = t d + tu =
tup =
and
d
VB VR
V B sin
2d VB
VB2 VR2
VB
3. d = (VB Sin ) t
V B co s
Time taken by the boat to cross the river is t =
d
VB Sin
moves along AB.

35. Shortest Path
= Sin
VB
Or
VB
V
90 + Sin1 R with stream
VB
And
VB2
VR
VR2
d
VB
VB
d
VR
x
C
Vnet = VB2 + VR2
VR x
V
= x= R d
VB d
VB
ed
uc
w
.s
Time taken to cross the river is t =

Also Tan =
VB2 VR2
VB2
+ VR2
ak
Resultant velocity =
t=
sh
i
36. Shortest time
VR
Resultant velocity = VB2 VR2

Time taken to cross the river
n.
1 VR
VR
at
io
V
Sin = R
VB
co
m
If = 90o , then t is minimum .i.e. the boat can cross the river in a shortest time if it
37. Subtraction of two vectors

a) If P and Q are two vectors, then
P Q is
defined as P + ( Q) where
is the negative vector
of Q .
If
R = P Q,
then
R = P 2 + Q 2 2PQCos
In the parallelogram OMLN, the diagonal OL represents

represents
A B
A +B
and the diagonal NM
b) subtraction of vectors does not obey commutative law

c) subtraction
of
vectors
does
not
obey
A B B A
Associative
law
A (B C) ( A B) C
d) Subtraction of vectors obeys distributive law m ( A B) = mA mB .

R = 2 x Sin
2
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
38. For two equal vectors
Relative Velocity
1. Relative velocity: When the distance between two bodies is altering either in magnitude
or direction or both, then each is said to have a relative velocity with respect to the other.
Relative velocity is vector difference of velocities.
The relative velocity of body 'A' w.r.t. 'B' is given by
VR = VA VB
b.
The relative velocity of body 'B' w.r.t. 'A' is given by
VR = VB VA
c.
VA VB and VB VA
d.
VR = VA VB =
are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction
For two bodies moving in the same direction, relative velocity is equal to the
difference of velocities. ( = 0.cos 0 = 1)
= VA VB
ed
uc
VR
f.
n.
VA2 + VB2 2 .VA VB . cos
at
io
e.
co
m
a.
For two bodies moving in opposite direction, relative velocity is equal to the sum of
their velocities. ( =180;cos180 = 1)
g.
VR
=VA + VB
sh
i
If they move at right angle to each other, then the relative velocity =
ak
2. Rain is falling vertically downwards with a velocity
w
.s
is travelling with a velocity

with respect to the person is
Then the relative velocity of rain
VP .
a person
-VP
VP
V = VR VP .
VR
VR + VP
Relative velocity = | V |=
VR and
v 12 + v 22
3. The direction of relative velocity (or) the angle with the vertical at which an umbrella is to
be held is given by Tan =
VP
VR
Product of Vectors
1. Dot Product
a)
Scalar product (or) dot product is defined as the product of the magnitudes of two
vectors and the cosine of the angle between them. The dot product of two vectors a and
c)
Scalar product is distributive i.e., a.(b + c ) = a.b + a.c
d)
If a and b are parallel vectors, then a . b = ab.
e)
If a and b are perpendicular to each other, then a . b = 0.
f)
If a and b are anti-parallel vectors, then a . b = ab.
g)
Component of a along b
h)
Component of b along a ( b cos ) = a . b
at
io
Scalar product is commutative i.e.,
n.
a.b = b.a
b)
a. b
b
ed
uc
a cos =
co
m
b is given by a . b = ab cos
Vector component of a along b = a cos b
sh
i
i)
Vector component of b along a = b cos a
k)
In the case of unit vectors,

i . i = j . j = k . k = 1
and
i . j = j . k = k . i = 0 .
If A = A x i + A y j + A zk and B = B x i + By j + Bzk , then A . B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz .
l)
w
.s
ak
j)
2. Applications of Dot Product

a) The dot product of force and displacement is called work done W = F.S .
b) The dot product of force and velocity is called power P = F.V .
3. Cross Product
(a b )
b
a) Cross product (or) vector product of two vectors is a vector which is the
product of the magnitudes of the two vectors and the sine of the angle
between them.
A B = AB sin . n
Where n is a u nit vector along A B .
Eg: angular momentum ( L = r ), torque ( = r F ), angular velocity ( V = r ) etc.

b) The direction of A B can be known from right hand thumb rule (or) Cork screw rule.
j i = k
jk = i
k j = i
k i = j
ik = j
If A = A x i + A y j + A z k and B = B x i + B y j + B z k
, then
A B
= BxA
m(A B) = (mA) B = A (mB)
g) The area of the triangle formed by
A and B as adjacent sides is
A and B
Az
Bz
1
A B
2
as adjacent sides is
A B.
are diagonals of a parallelogram, then area of parallelogram= 1 ( A B) .
w
.s
A and B
ak
h) The area of the parallelogram formed by

i) If
Ay
By
(Anti-commutative)
sh
i
A B B A
not null vectors, then they are parallel to each other.
A (B + C) = A B + A C ;
f)
Ax
Bx
ed
uc
A xB
A and B are
at
io
( A yB z A zB y )i ( A xB z A zB x )j + ( A xB y A yB x )k
e) If A x B = 0 and
n.
d)
i j = k
co
m
c) i i = j j = k k = 0
4. Applications of Cross Product
a) Torque is the cross product of radius vector and force vector,
= r F
b) Angular momentum is the cross product of radius vector and linear momentum,
L = r p
Motion in a Plane Oblique Projection
1. A body which has uniform velocity in the horizontal
is called a projectile.
2. The path of a projectile is called trajectory and it is a
n.
parabola.
co
m
direction and uniform acceleration in the vertical direction
at
io
3. For a projectile, the horizontal component of velocity (ux = u cos ) remains constant
throughout its motion.
5. Equations of a projectile
ed
uc
4. The vertical component (uy = u sin ) is subjected to acceleration due to gravity.
a) Maximum height reached =

Time of flight = 2u sin
g
sh
i
b)
u 2 sin 2
2g
Time of ascent = time of descent = u sin
d)
Range = u
sin 2
g
w
.s
c)
ak
tan =
4Hmax
R
and tan =
gT 2
2R
6. At the highest point of the projectile
a) Velocity is u cos (minimum).

b) Vertical component of velocity is zero.
c) KE of the body is 1 mu 2 cos 2 .
2
d) PE of the body is 1 mu 2 sin 2 .

2
e) Angle between the velocity and acceleration is 90.
f) The direction of motion of the body is horizontal.

7. Velocity after time "t"
a) Vertical component of velocity Vy = u sin gt
(u cos ) 2 + (u sin gt ) 2
c) The angle made by a projectile after t seconds, then tan =

8. If projected from level ground
u sin gt
.
u cos
co
m
b) Velocity of a projectile after t seconds v =
a) Velocity of the projectile when it moves perpendicular to its initial velocity is U
n.
cot.
9. Position of the projectile after time 't'
at
io
b) Time taken for the velocity to become perpendicular to the initial velocity is
u
g sin
ed
uc
a) If x and y represent the horizontal and vertical displacements with respect the
point of projectiont seconds after projection
x = (u cos) t
1 2
gt
2
sh
i
y = (u sin) t
b) Equation of trajectory is
Y = ( tan ) x
ak
g
2
2u cos
2
x
If y = Ax Bx2, then
w
.s
10.
a) The angle of projection = tan-1A
b) Maximum height H =
c) Range
R=
A2
4B
A
B
d) Time of flight
T =
2
Bg
e) Velocity of projection
u=
g ( A 2 + 1)
2B
11. At the half of the maximum height

a) Vertical component of velocity is
u sin
2
b) Horizontal component of velocity is u cos

1/ 2
co
m
1 + cos 2
c) Velocity of the body is u
2
12. If the angle of projection is and (90 - ) (Complementary angles)
u2
2g
at
io
b) Sum of maximum heights is
n.
a) Range is same
c) Ratio of max heights is tan2:1
ed
uc
d) Ratio of times of flight is tan : 1

e) If h1 and h2 are the maximum heights, then
f) Range =
1
gT1T 2
2
R = 4 h1h2
where T1 and T2 are the times of flights.
vertical height R/2.
sh
i
13. If a man throws a body to a maximum distance R then he can project the body to
then
h = (u sin) t +
1 2
gt
2
w
.s
ak
14. If a body is projected down at an angle with the horizontal from the top of a tower
Law of Motion
1. Newtons first law of motion: Every body continues to be in the state of rest or of uniform
motion unless it is compelled by an external unbalanced force to change that state.
2. The first law of motion gives the concepts of force and inertia.
co
m
3. Inertia is the inability of a body to change its state of rest or of uniform motion along a
straight line in the absence of any external force
4. Inertia is of three types
n.
i) Inertia of rest
at
io
ii) Inertia of motion and

iii) Inertia of direction
5. Inertia of rest: The inability of a body to change its state of rest by itself is called inertia of
ed
uc
rest.
Eg: When a bus at rest starts suddenly passengers fall back.

6. Inertia of motion: The inability of a body to change its uniform motion by itself is called as
sh
i
inertia of motion. Eg: When a bus in uniform motion suddenly stops, the passengers fall
forward.
ak
7. Inertia of direction: The inability of a body to change its direction of motion by itself is
called inertia of direction. Eg: When a bus takes a turn passengers will be pulled outwards.
w
.s
8. Force: Force is that which changes or tries to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of
a body along a straight line.
9. Momentum: Momentum is the product of mass and velocity ( P = mv ). SI unit is kg ms1. It is
a vector quantity.
10. Newtons second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the impressed force and it takes place in the direction of force.
11. Newtons second law gives the quantitative definition of force and defines the unit force.
12. F =
dp d (m v)
=
dt
dt
OR
dv dm
F = m + v
dt dt
(a) If m = constant , F = m
dv
= ma
dt
(b) If v = constant , F = v
dm
dt
( For a variable mass system )
13. A unit force: A unit force is one which when acting on unit mass produces unit acceleration
in its direction. Unit of force : newton
Gravitational unit of force :1kgwt= 9.8 Newton
co
m
14. Rocket Propulsion
Velocity of a rocket at any instant of time is given by v = u0 + vr log e
v0 = velocity of the rocket at t = 0

m = mass of the rocket at any instant of time
ed
uc
v = velocity of the rocket at any instant of time
at
io
n.
m0 = mass of the rocket at t = 0
m0
m
vr = velocity of the exhaust gases relative to the rocket
a) If the rocjet is to moveup with constant speed over comming its weight then
dm
sh
i
Thrust on the rocket =

u = Mg
dt
ak
b) If the rocket moves up with constant acceleration a. then

dm
w
.s
Thrust on the rocket =

u = Mg + Ma
dt
15. A liquid of density d flowing through a pipe of length l and cross section A with a velocity V
strikes a vertical wall normally
a) If the liquid comes to rest after striking the wall then F = Av 2 d

b) If the liquid moves back with same velocity then F = 2 Av 2d
c) Power P = P = Av3d
d)
If the rate of water ejected is n times the initial rate then, force become n2 times and
power becomes n3 times.
c) If water reflects with a velocity v1 then,

e) Pressure exerted on the wall
F = A vd
(v
+ v')
F
A
b) In the above case if water strikes the surface at angle with the normal and reflects with
the same speed, force exerted on the wall is 2Av2dCos.
16. If a machine gun fires n bullets each of mass m with a velocity u in a time t , then the force
required to hold the gun is F =
mnu
t
17. If a plate of mass M is suspended in air by firing the bullets on to it
co
m
a) If bullets comes to rest after striking the plate then m n u = M g

T
b) If the bullets gets reflected back with the same Velocity perpendicular to the plate, then
m nu
= M g
T
n.
19. Linear Momentum
ed
uc
d B dl
dB
given by a =
at
io
18. A body of density d B moves down in a liquid of density dl then the acceleration of the body is
a) If the initial velocity of a body is u and final velocity is v then the change in momentum
sh
i
is given by P = m ( v u )
P = m u 2 + v 2 2uv cos
Where is the angle between u and v .
ak

If v = u, P = 2mu sin
2

w
.s
b) If a ball of mass m strikes a wall normally and bounces

back with same velocity, then the change in momentum is
P = mv ( i ) mv ( i )
P = 2m vi
The magnitude of the change in momentum is
P = 2mu
c) If a ball of mass m strikes a wall at angle of incidence with a velocity u and bounces
back with same velocity at the same angle
i) Along the wall, P = mu sin ( j ) ( mu sin ) j = 0
ii)
Perpendicular to the wall,
P = mu cos ( i ) mu cos ( i ) = ( 2mu cos ) i
P = +2mu cos
d) If a ball of mass m strikes a wall at an angle with the wall with a velocity u and
bounces back with same velocity at the same angle then
i) Along the wall , P = mu cos ( j ) mu cos ( i ) = 0
co
m
ii) Perpendicular to the wall,

P = mu sin ( i ) mu sin ( i ) = ( 2mu sin ) j
P = 2mu sin
n.
reaching the ground is m 2 gh
i.
ed
uc
20. Impulse
at
io
iii) A body of mass m is released from a height h, the momentum of the body on
Very large force acting for a short interval of time is called impulsive force. Eg:
Blow of a hammer on the head of a nail.
ii.
The impulse of a force is defined as the product of the average
sh
i
force and the time interval for which it acts.

Impulse J = FAV t = m
Impulse due to a variable force is given by the area under Ft
w
.s
graph.
iv.
- mu
ak
iii.
If a force F1 acts on a body at rest for a time t1 and after that another force F2 brings
it to rest again in a time t2, then F1t1 = F2t2.
While catching a fast moving cricket ball the hands are lowered, there by increasing
v.
the time of catch which thus decreases the force on hands.
vi.
A person jumping on to sand experiences less force than a person jumping on to a

hard floor, because sand stops the person in more time.
21. The gravitational force that acts on a body is called its weight (W = mg). It is a vector always
pointing in a vertically downward direction.
22. A bird is in a wire cage hanging from a spring balance when the bird starts flying in the cage,
the reading of the balance decreases.
23. In the above case, if the bird is in a closed cage or air - tight cage and it hovers in the cage,
the reading of the spring balance does not change.
24. In the above case for a closed cage if the bird accelerates upward reading of the balance is
R = Wbird + ma, where m is the mass of the bird and a, its acceleration.
25. Apparent weight of a person in a lift
Cable
N
W=
co
m
Consider a person of mass m in a stationary lift whose weight is

mg
a) If the lift moves up with an acceleration a apparent wt
mg
W ' = mg + ma W ' = W 1 + a
n.
at
io
b) If the lift moves down with an acceleration a

a
W ' = W 1
g
ed
uc
W ' = mg ma OR
Cable
N
c) If the lift is freely falling under gravity
mg
w' = 0
i.e. If a = g, then
W ' = W = mg
sh
i
d) If the lift is moving up or down with uniform velocity, i.e. if a = 0 then
ak
26. Newtons third law: For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
27. Newtons first and third laws are only special cases of second law.
w
.s
28. Limitations of Newtons law of motion

a) It is applicable only for speeds V << C (C = speed of light)
b) It is not applicable in the domain of atoms, molecules, and sub atomic particles.
c) It is not applicable when there is a very strong gravitational field.

d) The Newton III law is not applicable, when particles interact with each other by means of a
force field.
e) Newtons laws are not applicable for very small accelerations. (a < 101 ms2)
Dynamics-Connected Bodies
1. Atwoods machine
m1 g T = m1a
a) For body A,
T m2 g = m2 a
For body B,
Acceleration and tension of the system respectively
( m1 m2 ) g
( m1 + m2 )
And
T=
2m1m2 g
( m1 + m2 )
co
m
a=
are
( m1 + m2 )
( m1 + m2 ) ( m1 + m2 ) ( m1 + m2 )
at
io
m m2
a = 1
g
m1 + m2
n.
b) aCM = ( m1a1 m2 a2 ) = ( m1 m2 ) a = ( m1 m2 ) ( m1 m2 ) g
c) The reaction at the pulley, R = 2T R = 4m1m2 g
ed
uc
( m1 + m2 )
2. If the mass of the pulley is also taken into consideration, then

For body A,
--- (1)
T2 m2 g = m2 a
--- (2)
sh
i
For body B,
m1 g T1 = m1a
pulley.
1
a
MR 2
2
R
w
.s
(T1 T2 ) R =
ak
For the pulley, (T1 T2 ) R = I , where R is the radius of the
1
Ma
2
--- (3)
T1 T2 =
From equations (1), (2) and (3)
a=
( m1 m2 ) g
m1 + m2 +
2
m1 2m2 + g
2
T1 =
M
m1 + m2 +
2
and
m2 2m1 + g
2
T2 =
M
m1 + m2 +
2
3. One object having horizontal motion and other having

vertical motion:
a) For the body at A,
m2 g T = m2 a
T = m1a
For the body at B,

a =
m2 g
( m1 + m2 )
and T =
Thrust on the pulley is
m1m2 g
( m1 + m2 )
2T
For the body at A,
m2 g T = m2 a
For the body at B,
T m1 g = m1a
( m2 m1 ) g
( m1 + m2 )
m1 g T1 = m1a
T2 m2 g = m2 a
For the body at C,
T1 T2 = Ma
and
( m1 + m2 + M )
m1 [ 2m2 + M ] g
m1 + m2 + M
and
T2 =
m2 [ 2m1 + M ] g
m1 + m2 + M
sh
i
T1 =
( m1 m2 ) g
ed
uc
For the body at A,
a=
m1m2 (1+ ) g
( m1 + m2 )
n.
4. For the body at A,
T=
And
at
io
a=
co
m
b) If the coefficient of friction between table and the mass is ' ' then
5. Two masses m1 and m2 connected by a string pass over a pulley. m2 is suspended and
ak
m1slides up over a frictionless inclined plane of angle

T m1 g Sin = m1a
w
.s
m2 g T1 = m2 a
and
Tension in the string T = m2g m2a =
m1m2 [1+ sin]g

(m1 + m2 )
6. m1 g Sin T = m1a
T m2 g Sin = m2 a
Tension (T) =
m1m 2 (sin + sin )g

m1 + m 2
m1
m2
m1g
Acceleration,
(m2 m1 sin)g
a=
m1 + m2
sin
g
1
m1cos
g(m1 sin m2 sin )

Acceleration (a) =
m1 + m2
90
Force on the pulley F = 2T Cos
7. The acceleration in the following case

m2 m1
g
m
g =
g =
3
3m
m1 + m2
co
m
a) a =
b) T= pulling force F = 2mg

T mg = ma
n.
mg = ma
8. Consider the following system

m2 m1
2M M
g =
2M + M
m1 + m2
g =
3
ed
uc
a) a =
at
io
a = g
b) Tension in the string AB is

T Mg = Ma
4 Mg
3
sh
i
T = Mg + Ma =
c) Tension in the string BC is
ak
Mg T1 = Ma
w
.s
T1 = Mg Ma
2 Mg
3
Or T1 =
9. Two weights w1 and w2 are suspended as shown. When the pulley is

pulled up with an acceleration g, the tension in the string is
T=
2m1m2
(g + g)
( m1 + m2 )
Or T = 4m1m2 g = 4w1w2
( m1 + m2 ) ( w1 + w2 )
10. Bodies in contact:

a. Consider two bodies m and M which are in contact and placed on a horizontal smooth
surface. Let a force f is applied on the system as shown. Let R be the contact force
f
M +m
ed
uc
2) f R = Ma and R = ma
at
io
1) a =
n.
co
m
between the two bodies
f
M +m
ak
1) a =
sh
i
b.
2) f R = ma
R = Ma
w
.s
and
placed on a horizontal smooth
surface and pulled with a
force F at one of its end. Let m
11. A uniform rope of length L is
be the mass per unit length of the rope. The tension in the rope at a distance l force the end
where force is applied is given by
a)
a=
F
mL
Ll
F
L
b) T =
12. A block of mass M is pulled by a rope of mass m by a force P on a smooth horizontal

plane.
m
M
p
M+m
a) Acceleration of the block a =
b) Force exerted by the rope on the block

F=
Mp
(M + m)
T1 T2 = m2 a
For the second body,

For the third body,
T2 = m 3 a
m3 F
( m1 + m2 + m3 )
T2 =
T1 =
And
( m2 + m3 ) F
m1 + m2 + m3
sh
i
F
m1 + m2 + m3
ed
uc
Acceleration of the system
at
io
F T1 = m1a
For the 1st body,
a=
n.
co
m
13. Consider the following system
If the force (F) acts on m3 , then
( m1 + m2 ) F And
mF
T =
( m1 + m2 + m3 )
(m + m + m )
ak
T2 =
w
.s
14. Masses m1, m2, m3 are inter connected by light string and are pulled with a string with
tension T3 on a smooth table.
T1
m2
T2
m3
T3
m1
a) Acceleration of the system

a=
T3
(m1 + m 2 + m 3 )
b) Tension in the string

T1 = m1 a =
m1T3
m1 + m 2 + m 3
T2 = (m1 + m 2 )a =
(m1 + m 2 )T3
m1 + m 2 + m 3
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
T3 = (m1 + m2 + m3) a
Horizontal Plane
1. Friction in due to the interlocking of irregularities between the surfaces in contact with
co
m
each other.
2. Frictional force is a non-conservative force.
3. Frictional force is electromagnetic in nature.
n.
4. Frictional force acts along the tangent drawn to the surface in contact
at
io
5. Advantages of friction
i) Safe walking on the floor is possible due to the friction between the floor and the
ed
uc
feet.
ii) Nails and screws are driven in the walls due to friction.
iii) Friction helps the fingers to hold a drinking water tumbler.
sh
i
iv) Vehicles move on the roads without sliding due to friction and they can be
stopped due to friction.
ak
6. Disadvantages of friction
i) Friction results in the power loss in engines.
w
.s
ii) The wear and tear of the machine increases due to the friction.
7. Methods of reducing friction
i) Friction between two surfaces of contact can be reduced by polishing the surfaces.
ii) A lubricant is a substance which forms a thin layer between two surfaces in
contact and reduces the friction.
iii) Ball bearings reduce the friction because rolling friction is minimum.
iv) Automobiles and aero planes are stream lined to reduce the air friction.
8. Methods of increasing the friction
i) Tyres of a vehicle have irregular projections to increase the friction.

ii) Belts on the wheels of grinding machines are waxed frequently to increase the
friction.
iii) Sand in poured on the railway tracks during rainy season to increase the friction.
iv) Wheels of a train (or) rails are smoothened to increase the friction.
co
m
v) Vigorous polishing increase the friction due to the increase in the intermolecular
forces.
n.
9. Types of Friction
at
io
a) Static Friction
i. The force of friction between the bodies in contact which have no relative
ed
uc
motion is called Static friction.
ii. Static friction is a self adjusting force (i.e.) it is equal to the applied force until
the body just begins to move.
iii. When the body is ready to slide the static friction becomes maximum and it is
sh
i
called limiting friction.
ak
iv. Limiting friction (Fs) is independent of the area of contact of the surfaces.
v. Fs = s N where s is called the coefficient of static friction. It depends upon
w
.s
the nature of the surfaces in contact and their state of roughness.
vi.s between two given surfaces is independent of the normal force between the
two surfaces.
vii.s > 0, it can also be greater than one, but in most of the cases it is less than
one
viii. The angle between normal reaction and the

resultant of normal reaction and friction is
called the angle of friction .
Tan =
b) Kinetic friction
The frictional force that exists between the bodies which are in relative motion
with each other in called kinetic (or) sliding friction.
co
m
It is constant and in independent of velocity of the body provided the velocity

is low.
n.
The force of kinetic friction is independent of the area of the surfaces in
at
io
contact and is proportional to the normal reaction Fk N.

i. Fk = k N
ed
uc
ii. Where k is coefficient of kinetic friction

Whenever a body is in motion
Net force = Applied force - friction force
sh
i
ma = F - f K
Force of kinetic friction may be greater than the
ak
static friction but it is
w
.s
1. Always less than the

limiting friction.
2. OA static friction
3. A Maximum Static friction
4. BC kinetic friction
C) Rolling friction
i.
Rolling friction comes into play when a body rolls on a surface.
ii.
Rolling friction arises due to the deformation of the two surfaces in contact
with each other.
iii.
Greater the deformation greater is the rolling frictional force.
iv.
The rolling frictional force is inversely proportional to the radius of the
v.
If R is the coefficient of rolling friction
vi.
R < k < s for a given pair of surfaces.
co
m
rolling body.
n.
10. Block on a rough fixed horizontal surface
a) If a force required to just move the body is continuously applied then the
at
io
acceleration given by
a = (s - k) g
ed
uc
b) If the block slides with an acceleration under the influence of an external force F,
the acceleration of the block is a =
F fk
m
11. Motion on a rough horizontal plane
sh
i
(a) Pulled with a horizontal force F:

(i) Body moving with uniform
ak
velocity F = k mg.
(ii) Body moving with uniform acceleration
w
.s
F = m ( k g + a).
(b) Pulled with a force F inclined at an angle
with
the horizontal and
the body moving with uniform velocity.

k mg
mg sin
Where is the angle of friction
=
cos + k sin cos( )
w
w
F=
between the two surfaces.
c) The minimum possible force among all directions required to just move the body
is mg sin (or)
mg s
1 + 2s
where is the angle of friction.
c) Pushed with a force F inclined at an angle
with the horizontal and the body
moving with uniform velocity:

F=
k mg
.Hence
cos k sin
pulling is easier than pushing.
12. A uniform chain of length L lies on a table. If the coefficient of friction is , then the
sliding down is
co
m
maximum length of the chain which can overhang from the edge of the table without
L
.
+1
1
mu 2 = k mg
2
distance s, then
s=
v = gt
Also,
u2
2k g
ed
uc
(Or)
at
io
rest after traveling some
n.
13. If a block is pushed with are initial velocity u and released and if the block comes to
v = k rg and =
g
r
mv 2
= k mg
r
(or)
sh
i
14. If a vehicle is moving on a curved un-banked road
ak
15. When a bicycle is pedaled (accelerated) the direction of the frictional force on the
w
.s
front and rear wheels are
a) Front wheel - Opposite to the direction of motion

(b) Rear wheel - In the direction of motion
16. When a bicycle is in uniform motion, then the direction of frictional forces is
a) Front wheel - Opposite to the direction of motion

b) Rear wheel - Opposite to the direction of motion
17. A body of mass m is at the back side of an open truck. If the trolley moles forwards
with an acceleration a, then a pseudo force (ma) acts an the body
(1) If ma < s mg , the block does not slide, then, Frictional force f = ma
(2) If ma = s mg . Then the block just slides. Then the frictional force f = s mg
(3) If ma > s mg . The block moles over the truck in the backward direction with
acceleration a = k g
co
m
18. If a body is pushed with a force P towards a vertical wall then

1) If the block is at rest Fx = N P = 0 (or) N = P
Fy = f s mg = 0 (Or) f s = mg
mg
ed
uc
Pmin =
mg
at
io
The block is at rest if P
n.
f s mg ( or ) s P mg
19. A vehicle is moving on a horizontal surface. A block of mass
sh
i
'm' is stuck on the front part of the vehicle. The coefficient of

friction between the truck and the block is ''. The minimum acceleration with which the
ak
truck should travel, so that the body may not slide down is a = g/ .
w
.s
20. If a book is pressed between two hands then mg = 2 F where F is the pressing force
applied by each hand.
Friction
Inclined Plane
1.
For a block of mass m on an inclined plane of inclination with

N
the horizontal,
mg sin
If Applied force < frictional force

Or m g
Or
sin < f
Tan < s
Or mg sin < s mg cos
Or Tan < Tan
<
Then the block doesnt
mg cos
mg
n.
slide. Since the static friction is rest adjusting,
If Applied force = frictional force
at
io
Frictional force = mg sin

b)
co
m
a)
ed
uc
mg sin = f (or), if = , then the body tends to move (or) ready to move. The angle of
inclination in this condition is called the angle of repose. Angle of repose in independent
of the weight of the body
sh
i
Frictional force = mg sin = s mg cos
ak
s = Tan
c) If Applied force > frictional force

Or mg sin > s mg cos
w
.s
Or mg sin > s N
or Tan > s
Or >
Now, the frictional force = f k = k N
f k = k mg cos
The resultant force on the block is given by

ma = mg ( sin k cos ) Or
a = g ( sin k cos )
This is the acceleration of the body sliding down the inclined plane.
2. Sliding down the inclined plane
a) If , the block slides down with an acceleration given by a = g [sin - k cos].
b) If , and the block slides down from the top of the inclined plane. Velocity at the
bottom of the plane is
V = 2 gl (sin k cos ) .
c) In the above case time of descent is
t=
2L
g(sin k cos )
3. Moving up the inclined plane
co
m
a) If a block is projected up a rough inclined plane, the acceleration of the block is

a = g [sin + k cos].
b) Force opposing the motion of the block is
n.
F = mg sin + k mg cos.
u2
.
2g(sin + k cos )
d) The time of ascent is t =

sliding only if .
ed
uc
S=
at
io
c) The distance traveled by the block up the plane before the velocity becomes zero is
u
.
g(sin + k cos )
In the above case the block will come down
n 2 1
2
.
n + 1
ak
= tan
sh
i
e) In the above case if time of decent is n times the time of ascent, then
f) Force needed to be applied parallel to the plane to move the block up with constant
w
.s
velocity is
F = mg (sin + k cos).
g) Force needed to be applied parallel to the plane to move the block up with an
acceleration a is
F = mg (sin + k cos) + ma.
h) If block has a tendency to slide, the force to be applied on the block parallel and up the
plane to prevent the block from sliding is F = mg( sin - s cos).
4. Smooth inclined plane
a) Normal reaction (N) = mg cos

a) Acceleration of sliding block a = g sin
mg sin
mg cos
mg
b) If l is the length of the inclined plane and h is the height. The time taken to slide down
starting from rest from the top is
21
=
g sin
t=
2h
.
g sin 2
d) Velocity of the block at the bottom of the inclined plane is

V=
2gl sin = 2gh
same as the speed attained if block falls freely from the top of the
inclined plane.
S=
co
m
e) Distance traveled up the plane before its velocity becomes zero is

u2
.
2g sin
n.
5. If the time taken by a block to slide downs a rough inclined plane of angle is an n time
at
io
that on identical smooth inclined plane. Then of the rough plane is = 1
1
Tan .
n2
ed
uc
6. Sand is piled up on a horizontal ground in the form of a regular cone of a fixed base of
radius R. The maximum volume of the cone without the sand collapsing is Vmax =
7.
1 h3
.
3 3
An inclined plane of inclination is upper half smooth and lower half rough. A body
sh
i
starts sliding from the top from rest and comes to rest at the bottom. If the coefficient of
w
.s
ak
friction of the lower half is , then = 2 tan .
Friction
Block on block
Case I: (lower block pulled and there is no friction between lower block and the
co
m
horizontal surface.)
a) When the lower block is pulled upper block is accelerated by

the force of friction acting upon it.
mu
n.
b) The maximum acceleration of the system of two blocks for
static friction between the two blocks.
at
io
them to move together without slipping is a = s g, where s is the coefficient of

c) If a < s g blocks move together and applied force is F = (mB + mu ) a.
ed
uc
d) If a < s frictional force between the two blocks f = mu a.
e) The maximum applied force for which both blocks move together is
Fmax = s g (mu + mB).
sh
i
f) If F > Fmax blocks slip relative to each other and have different accelerations. The
acceleration of the upper block is k g and lower block is
F
mB + mu
ak
a=
w
.s
Case - II (Upper block pulled and there is no friction between lower block and the
horizontal surface)
a) When the upper block is pulled, lower block is accelerated by

f
the force of friction acting upon it.
b) The maximum acceleration of the system of two blocks for

them to move together without slipping is amax =
mu
g
mB
mB
(s = coefficient of static
friction between the two blocks)

c) If a < amax frictional force between the two blocks is f = MB a.
mu
F
f
d) If a < amax' then applied force on the upper block is F = (mB + mu) a.
e) The maximum force for which both blocks move together is Fmax = s
mu
g (mu
mB
mB).
f) If F>Fmax blocks slide relative to each other and hence have different accelerations.
k
mu
g
mB
and the acceleration of the upper
co
m
The accele-ration of the lower block is

block is (F k mu g) .
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
mu
Rotatory Motion
Horizontal Circular Motion
co
m
1. In translatory motion, every point in the body follows the path of its preceding one
with same velocity including the centre of mass.
2. In rotatory motion, every point move with different velocity with respect to the axis
n.
of rotation. The particle on the axis of rotation will have zero velocity.
3. The angle described by the radius vector in a given interval of time is called the
at
io
angular displacement.
4. Angular displacement is a vector passing through the centre and directed along the
ed
uc
perpendicular to the plane of the circle whose direction is determined by right hand
screw rule (It is a pseudo vector).
5. Angular displacement is measured in radians.
rads 1 .
sh
i
6. The rate of change of angular displacement is called angular velocity ().
ak
7. Angular velocity is a vector lying in the direction of angular displacement.

8. Linear velocity ( V ) = r .
w
.s
9. Rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration (). Unit is rads2.
change in angular velocity
time
a = r .
10. Linear acceleration = radius angular acceleration.
11. Resultant acceleration a = where ar = radial acceleration and aT = tangential

acceleration.
12. Comparison of linear and angular quantities.
Translatory motion
Rotatory motion
2 = 1 + t
v = u + at
s = ut +
1
2
= 1t + t 2
1 2
at
2
22 = 12 + 2
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
co
m
u +v
s=
2
1 + 2
Moment of inertia (I)
n.
Mass (m)
Torque = I
at
io
F = ma
Impulse = Ft
ed
uc
Angular impulse = t
Angular momentum
ak
Work = FS
= mv
sh
i
Linear momentum p
L = I
W =
P =
w
.s
Power = FV
m1v1 = m2v 2
E=
p2
2m
KE =
I11 = I 22
E =
L2
2I
1
2
Rotational KE = I2
1
mv 2
2
13. If a particle makes n rotations per second = 2 n .

14. Angular velocity is a pseudo vector (or) axial vector. v = r and v .r = r . = 0 .
15. Rate of change of angular velocity is called angular acceleration ( ). Unit is rad s2.
=
change in angular velocity

time
The angular acceleration is a pseudo (or)
axial vector.
16. The direction angular acceleration ( ) is along the change in angular velocity.
co
m
a = r and a.r = a . = 0 .
17. The direction will be same as that of if it is increasing and opposite to that of
if it is decreasing.
n.
18. Uniform circular motion
due to the change in the direction.
dv
= r . This is along the tangent drawn along the
dt
ed
uc
b. Tangential acceleration aT =
at
io
a. Tangential acceleration is due to change in the speed and normal acceleration is
circular path.
c. For vertical circular motion the tangential acceleration is given by
sh
i
aT = r = g sin
v2
d. Radial (or) normal (or) centripetal acceleration a N =
= r 2 = 4 2n 2r
r
ak
e. In uniform circular motion: ( =constant)
w
.s
i) Tangential acceleration is zero ( at = 0 )

ii) Normal acceleration aN = constant
19. In non uniform circular motion
Net acceleration
(or)
a =
a = aN2 + aT2
v2
+ (r
r
2
) and
a = a N i + aT j
20. aN = 0 and aT = 0 uniform linear motion.

21. aN = 0 and aT 0 - accelerated (or) non uniform linear motion.
22. a N 0 and aT = 0 uniform circular motion.
23. a N 0 and aT 0 - non uniform circular motion.

24. The force which makes a body move round a circular path with uniform speed is
called the centripetal force. This is always directed towards the centre of the circle.
Centripetal force=
mv 2
= mr 2 = 4 2n 2mr .
r
co
m
25. A body moving round a circular path with uniform speed experiences an inertial or
pseudo force which tends to make it go away from the centre. This force is called the
centrifugal force and this is due to the inertia of the body.
n.
26. Centrifugal force = centripetal force (but these are not action and reaction).
at
io
27. No work is done by centripetal force.
28. The kinetic energy of the body revolving round in a circular path with uniform speed
F=
2E
r
ed
uc
is E. If F is the required centripetal force, then
29. Uses of centrifugal forces and centrifugal machines.

i) Cream is separated from milk (cream separator)
sh
i
ii) Sugar crystals are separated from molasses.

iii) Precipitate is separated from solution.
ak
iv) Steam is regulated by Watts governer.

v) Water is pumped from a well (Electrical pump).
w
.s
vi) Hematocentrifuge, Grinder, Washing machine, etc.

30. The angle through which a cyclist should lean while taking sharp turnings is given by
2
.
rg
the relation = Tan 1 v
31. Safe speed on an unbanked road when a vehicle takes a turn of radius r is v =
rg
where = coefficient of friction.
32. The maximum speed that is possible on curved unbanked track is given by g = v2h/ar
Where h = height of centre of gravity and a = half the distance between wheels.
33. Angle of banking

At curves the outer edge of the road is slightly above the lower edge. The angle made
by the tilled road with the horizontal is called angle of
banking.
mv 2
r
and N cos = mg
Tan =
co
m
N sin =
v2
rg
h v2
v 2l
=
h=
l rg
rg
at
io
tan = sin
n.
For small angles,
34. Conical Pendulum: Let Tbe the tension in the
r
r r 2
=
=
h
h
g
w
.s
b. Tan =
v 2 r 2
=
rg
g
sh
i
Tan =
mv 2
And T cos = mg
r
ak
a. T sin =
ed
uc
string.
c. Time period T = 2
1
2
(Or) T = 2
l2 r2
g
g
.
h
And frequency n =
h
g
g
h
d. T sin = mr 2 = m ( l sin ) 2 .
Dynamics
WorkPowerEnergy
1. Conservative force
the body.
b) Work done by a conservative force for a closed path is zero.
co
m
a) A force is said to be conservative if the work done by it is independent of path followed by
c) Work done by a conservative force depends only on the initial and final positions of the
n.
body.
at
io
d) Work done by a conservative force is the product of Force and displacement.

e) During a round trip the body attains the same initial K.E.
2. Non - Conservative force
ed
uc
Ex. Gravitational force, Electrostatic force etc.
a) A force is said to be non- conservative if the work done by it depends on the path followed
by the body.
sh
i
b) Work done by a non-conservative force for a closed path is not zero.

c) During a round trip the body attains a different K.E. as that of initial.
ak
d) Work done by a non-conservative force is the product of Force and distance.

e) Due to a non-conservative there may be a loss of mechanical energy but the total energy is
w
.s
constant.
Ex. Frictional force
3. Work
a. Work is said to be done when the point of application of force has some displacement in the
direction of the force.
b) The amount of work done is given by the dot product of force and displacement.
W=
F.s = Fs cos
c) Work is independent of the time taken and is a scalar.

d) If the force and displacement are perpendicular to each other, then the work done is zero.
e) A person rowing a boat upstream is at rest with respect to an observer on the shore.
According to the observer the person does not perform any work. However, the person
performs work against the flow of water. If he stops rowing the boat, the boat moves in the
direction of flow of water and work is performed by the force due to flow, as there is
displacement in the direction of flow.
f) If the work is done by a uniformly varying force such as restoring force in a spring, then the
work done is equal to the product of average force and displacement.
co
m
g) If the force is varying nonuniformly, then the work done = F.ds = F.ds. cos .
h) The area of Fs graph gives the work done.
i) SI unit of work is joule.
n.
j) Joule is the work done when a force of one Newton displaces a body through one metre in
the direction of force.
at
io
k) CGS unit of work is erg; 1 J = 107 ergs.
l) If the force or its component is in a direction opposite to the displacement, the work is
ed
uc
negative.
Ex. When a body is lifted vertically upwards, the work done by the gravitational force is
negative, as the displacement is upward whereas the gravitational force is acting
sh
i
downwards.
m) The work done in lifting an object of mass m through a height h is equal to mgh.
(h2 h1).
ak
n) When a body of mass m is raised from a height h1 to height h2, then the work done = mg
w
.s
o) Let a body be lifted through a height 'h' vertically upwards by a force 'F' acting upwards.
Then, the work done by the resultant force is W = (F mg)h.
p) The work done on a spring in stretching or compressing it through a distance x is given

W = 1 kx2 where k is the force constant or spring constant.
q) Work done in changing the elongation of a spring from x1 to x2 is W =

r) The work done in pulling the bob of a
1
k ( x 22 x 12 ) .
2
simple pendulum of length L through
an angle
W = mgL(1cos )
s) The work done in lifting a homogeneous metal rod lying on the ground such that it makes
an angle '' with the horizontal, is W = mgl sin .
2
t) The work done in rotating a rod or bar of mass m through an angle
suspension is W =
mgL
(1
2
about a point of
cos ) = mgLsin2 (/2) where L is the distance of the centre of
gravity from the point of suspension.

u) The work done in lifting a body of mass 'm' and density 'ds' in a liquid of density 'dl'
1 th
part
n
v) Work done in pulling back a
d
1 l
d
s
co
m
through a height 'h' under gravity is W = m g h
of length of a chain hanging from the edge onto a
smooth horizontal table completely is W = mgl2 .
n.
2n
i.
at
io
w) Inclined plane
Work done in moving a block of mass 'm' up a smooth inclined plane of inclination ''
ii. If the plane is rough, then
W = Fs = (mg sin) s.
W = mg (sin+k cos)s
ed
uc
through a distance 's' is
x) Work done by a position dependent force
If the position of a body changes from x1 to x2 then work done is given by

= area under F S curve.
sh
i
x2
W = F dx
x1
F
m
w
.s
a=
ak
y) Work done by a time dependent force
Now a =
W=
1
m ( v2 u 2 )
2
And
dv
v = dv = a dt
dt
z) Work done when position depends on time

v=
ds
dt
When t= t1 v= v1 and when t= t2 v= v2, then

W=
1
m ( v22 v12 ) .
2
4. Springs
a) The restoring force on the spring per unit elongation is called force constant or spring
constant
F = - Kx
(Negative sign indicates that the force is opposite to elongation)

W=
b) The work done in stretching or compressing a string through x is given by

F
K =
x
F
1
x 2 = Fx
2x
2
co
m
c) W =
x =
k
n.
1
F F2
d) W = F =
2
K 2k
1 2
Kx
2
Also,
W=
at
io
e) If the spring is stretched from x1 and x2 then the work don is given by W = K ( x2 2 x12 )
1
( F2 x2 F1 x1 )
2
1
2
ed
uc
f) If a body is dropped from a height h on to a spring of constant k, and if x is the

compression in the spring, then
mg ( h + x ) =
1 2
kx
2
1
2
sh
i
g) If air friction is considered, ( mg f )( h + x ) = kx 2
h) If a body of mass on moving with a speed v collides a spring in its pith and compresses
1 2 1 2
mv = kx . If friction is considered.
2
2
ak
the spring through x then,
w
.s
1 2 1 2
1
kx = mv f .s = mv 2 mgs
2
2
2
i) If a spring of spring constant k is cut into n equal parts the spring constant of each part is
nk
j) If a spring of constant k is cut into unequal parts, then. k1l1 = k2l2 = k3l3 = .... = k ( l1 + l2 + l3 ...)
5. Power
a. Rate of doing work is called power.
Power =
work
time
= Force x velocity.
b. SI unit of power is watt and CGS unit is erg/second.1 horse power = 746 watt.
c. If a vehicle travels with a speed of v overcoming a total resistance of F, then the power of
the engine is given by P = F.v .
d. If a body is rotated in circular path, the power exerted is given by
P=
d
=
dt
e. If a block of mass 'm' is pulled along the smooth inclined plane of angle '', with constant
velocity 'v', then the power exerted is, p = (mg sin )v
f. If the block is pulled up a rough inclined plane then the power is P = mg (sin + k cos)
v.
inclined plane then the power is P = mg (sin - k
co
m
g. If the block is pulled down a rough

cos) v.
h. When water is coming out from a hose pipe of area of cross section 'A' with a velocity 'v'
n.
and hits a wall normally and

by water is P = A v3 ( = density of water)
at
io
i) stops dead, then force exerted by the water on the wall is Av2 . And the power exerted
i.
ed
uc
ii) If water rebounds with same velocity (v) after striking the wall, P = 2Av3
When sand drops from a stationary dropper at a rate of
dm
dt
on to a conveyer belt moving
with a constant velocity, then the extra force required to keep the belt moving with a
constant speed V is given by F = v. dm and the power required = P =
sh
i
dt
dm 2
v .
dt
ak
j. If a pump lifts the water from a well of depth 'h' and imparts some velocity 'v' to the water,
P=
1
mv 2
2
t
w
.s
then the power of pump
mgh +
k. Power exerted by a machine gun which fires 'n' bullets in time 't' is
P=
mnv 2
2t
l. If a pump delivers V litres of water over a height of h metres in one minute, then the
power of the engine
(P) =
Vgh
60
m. A motor sends a liquid with a velocity 'V' in a tube of cross section 'A' and 'd' is the density
of the liquid, then the power of the motor is P =
1
AdV3
2
n. A body of mass M initially at rest on a smooth horizontal surface accelerates uniformly

and acquires velocity V1 in time t1 .The work done on the body in time t is
mv12 2
i) Work done = 2 t
2t1
ii) Average power =
W
t
1 mv12
t
2 t12
iii) Instantaneous power = Fv =
mv12
t
t12
6. Energy
co
m
a) The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy. Ex.
A fired bullet, blowing wind, etc
For a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v, kinetic energy =
1
mv2.
2
at
io
Ex. A bent bow, Water stored in a reservoir etc.
n.
b) The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
c) A flying bird possesses both K.E. and P.E.
d) The work done in lifting an object of mass m through a height h is stored as
ed
uc
potential energy in the body and it is equal to mgh.
e) Workenergy theorem: The work done by the constant resultant force acting on a
body is equal to the change in its kinetic energy. W = 1 mv 2 1 mu 2
2
sh
i
f) If the kinetic energy of a body of mass m is E and its momentum is P, then E = P .

2m
ak
g) If the momentum of the body increased by n times, K.E increase by n2 times.
w
.s
h) If the K.E of the body increases by n times, the momentum increases by
i) If the momentum of the body increases by P%, % increase in K.E.= 2 +
j) If the momentum of the body decreases by p%, % decrease in K.E. =
times.
P
P%
100
100
p%.
k) If the K.E of the body increases by E%, % increase in momentum= 1 + E 1100% .
100
l) If the K.E of the body decreases by E%, % decrease in momentum= 1
1+
E
100% .
100
m) If two bodies, one heavier and the other lighter are moving with the same
momentum, then the lighter body possesses greater kinetic energy.
n) If two bodies, one heavier and the other lighter have the same K.E. then the heavier
body possesses greater momentum.
o) Two bodies, one is heavier and the other is lighter are moving with the same
momentum. If they are stopped by the same retarding force, then
ii) They will come to rest within the same time interval
1
m
co
m
i) The distance travelled by the lighter body is greater. (s
p) Two bodies, one is heavier and the other is lighter are moving with same kinetic
energy. If they are stopped by the same retarding force, then
n.
i) The distance travelled by both the bodies is same.
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
ii) The time taken by the heavier body will be more. (t
m)
Vertical Circular Motion

1. A body of mass m is rotated in a vertical circle of radius r.
A v1 = gr ; T1 = 0
co
m
B v2 = 2 gr ; T2 = 1.5mg
60
C v3 = 3gr ; T3 = 3mg
60
60
n.
D v4 = 4 gr ; T4 = 4.5mg
at
io
E v5 = 5 gr ; T5 = 6mg
ed
uc
2. If a body of mass m is rotated in a vertical circle of radius r the velocity and tension at
any point of the vertical circle is given by T
a) Speed of the particle u 2 2 gr (1 Co v = u 2 2 gr (1 Cos )

Where u is the velocity at the lowest point
sh
i
b) Centripetal force mv2 / r = T - mg cos
mgsin
c) Tangential acceleration = g sin
ak
C
P
mgcos
mg
w
.s
d) Tangential force = mg sin

e) Tension in the string
T = mv2/r + mg cos = m [v 2
r
+ g(r h)]
f) Velocity, speed, K.E, linear momentum, angular momentum, angular velocity, all
are variables. Only total energy remains constant
g) If u <
2gr
the body oscillates about A.
h) If 0 < u <
i) If
2gr
<u<
2gr
5gr
0 < < 90.
the body leaves the path without completing the circle.
j) A body is projected with a velocity 'u' at the lowest point

i)
Height at which velocity u = 0 is h = u2/2g
u 2 + rg
3g
ii)
Height at which Tension T = 0 is h =
k)
Angle with vertical at which velocity v = 0 is Cos = 1
l)
Angle with vertical at which the tension T = 0 is Cos = 2/3 u2/3 gr
co
m
u2
2gr
3. Reaction on the road
Concavity up:
ak
mv 2
R = mg
r
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Convexity up:
mv 2
R = mg +
r
r.
w
.s
4. A particle is freely sliding down from the top of a smooth convex hemisphere of radius
a. The particle is ready to leave the surface at a vertical distance h = r/3 from the
highest point.
b. If the position vector of the particle with respect to the centre of curvature makes an
angle with vertical
c. Velocity =
then Cos = 2/3 and = cos1 2 = 4811

3
2 g R
3
d. If the body starts from initial velocity, then c o s
u 2
2
=
+
3
3
r
g
5. A body of mass m is sliding along an inclined plane from a vertical

height h as shown in the figure. For the body to describe a vertical circle
of radius R, the minimum height in terms of R is given by h = 5R .
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
Dynamics Collisions
1. Newtons third law explains the law of conservation of linear momentum
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2 v2
Where
m1, m2 - Masses of the colliding bodies.
co
m
u1 , u2 - Velocities of the bodies before collision.

v1 , v2 - Velocities of the bodies after collision.
n.
2. Recoil of a Gun: If a bullet of mass 'm' travelling with a muzzle velocity, is fired from a
a) Velocity of recoil of the gun is V = mv/M
at
io
rifle of mass 'M', then
c)
KE b M v
=
=
KE r m V
ed
uc
b) K.E of the bullet is greater than the K.E of the rifle.
d) When a gun of mass M fire a bullet of mass m releasing a total energy E.
f) Energy of gun EG=
E.M
M+m
sh
i
e) Energy of bullet Eb=
E.m
M+m
ak
3. When a moving shell explodes, its total (vector sum) momentum remains constant but its
w
.s
total kinetic energy increases.
4. If the velocities of colliding bodies before and after collision are confined to a straight
line, it is called head on collision or one dimensional collision.
5. Elastic collisions
1. Both kinetic energy and linear momentum are conserved.

2. Total energy is constant.
3. Bodies will not be deformed.
4. The temperature of the system does not change.
e.g. Collisions between ivory balls, molecular, atomic and nuclear collisions.
6. Perfect elastic collisions

a) When m1, m2 are moving with velocities u1, u2 and v1, v2 before and after collisions,
then
a) v 1 = m 1 m 2 u 1 + 2 m 2 u 2
m1 + m 2
m1 + m 2
b) v 2 = 2 m 1 u 1 + m 2 m 1 u 2
m1 + m 2
m1 + m 2
b) Two bodies of equal masses suffering one dimensional elastic collision, exchange
their velocities after collision. i.e., if m1 = m2 then v1 = u2 and v2 = u1.
If a body suffers an elastic collision with another body of the same mass at rest,
the first is stopped
dead, whereas the second moves with the velocity of the
co
m
c)
first.
i.e. if m1 = m2 and u2 = 0 then v1 = 0; v2 = u1.
When a very light body strikes another very massive one at rest, the velocity of
n.
d)
at
io
the lighter body is almost reversed and the massive body remains at rest. i.e., if m2
>> m1 and u2 = 0, then v1 = u1 and v2 = 0.
e)
When a massive body strikes a lighter one at rest, the velocity of the massive
ed
uc
body remains practically unaffected where as the lighter one begins to move with a
velocity nearly double as much as that of the massive one. i.e., if m1 >> m2 and u2 = 0,
then v1 = u1 and v2 = 2u1.
perfectly elastic. Then
sh
i
7. A body of mass m1 collides head on with another body of mass m2 at rest. The collision is
ak
a) Fraction of kinetic energy lost by the first body is
4m1m 2
(m1 + m 2 ) 2
.
2
b) Fraction of kinetic energy retained by first body is m1 m 2 .
w
.s
m1 + m 2
8. Inelastic collision
1. Linear momentum is conserved.
2. Kinetic energy is not conserved.

3. Total energy is conserved.
4. Temperature changes.
5. The bodies may be deformed.
6. The bodies may stick together and move with a common velocity after collision
8. Two bodies collide in one dimension. The collision is perfectly inelastic, then m1u1 +
m2u2 = (m1 + m2) V
9. Common velocity after collision
v=
m1u1 + m 2u 2
(m1 + m 2 )
10. Total loss of kinetic energy in perfect inelastic collision

= 1 . m1m2 (u1 u2 ) = 1
2
m1m 2
(u1 u 2 )2
2 m1 + m 2
m1 + m2
9. Ballistic Pendulum: A block of mass M is suspended by a light

string. A bullet of mass m moving horizontally with a velocity 'v'
strikes the block and gets embedded in it. The block and the bullet
rise to a height h. Then
b) V =
2gh
c) mv = (M+m)
2gh
(M + m)
2gh
m
n.
d) v =
co
m
a) mv = (M+m)V
the length of the string is l (when 90)
v=
at
io
e) If the string of the ballistic pendulum makes an angle with vertical after impact and
M+m
2gl(1 cos )
m
v=
ed
uc
f) If the ballistic pendulum just completes a circle in the plane, velocity of the bullet
M+m
5gl
m
10. Co-efficient of restitution (e): The co-efficient of restitution between two bodies in a
sh
i
collision is defined as the ratio of the relative velocity of separation after collision to the
relative velocity of their approach before their collision.
ak
a) e = relative velocity of separation = v 2 v 1

relative velocity of approach
u1 u 2
w
.s
e = 1 for a perfect elastic collision

e = 0 for a perfect inelastic collision
For any other collision e lies between 0 and 1
b) Loss of K.E. = 1 m 1 m 2 ( u 1 u 2 )2 (1 e 2 )
2 m1 + m 2
c) A body falls from a height of h onto a surface of coefficient of restitution e. If it

repeatedly bounces for several times, then
i. A body is dropped from a height h rebounds to a height ' h1 ' , then
e=
h1
h
ii. For nth rebounce, hn = e2 n h
d) A body dropped from a certain height strikes the ground with a velocity v in a time t
and rebounds with a velocity v1 in a time t1, then
i. e =
ii.
v1
t
And e = 1
v
t
After nth bounce, vn = env and
tn = e nt
2h
g
T=
1 + e
1 e
co
m
iii. Total time taken before it stops rebounding is
n.
iv. Total displacement of the body before it stops rebounding is h.

v. Total distance traveled before it stops rebounding s = h 1 + e2
1 e
at
io
vi. Average velocity before it stops rebounding is

vii. Average Speed before it stops rebounding
Vel =
Speed =
ed
uc
gh 1 e
2 1 + e
gh
2
1 + e2
2
(1 + e )
viii. The time elapses from the moment it is dropped to the second impact with
t=
sh
i
the floor,
2h
(1 + 2e )
g
ak
11. A ball falls vertically onto a floor with a momentum of P and bounces repeatedly. The total
1+ e
P == p
1 e
w
.s
momentum imported by the ball on the floor is given by

12. If a body is vertically projected up with a velocity u ,
a) The total space covered up to the instant of nth bounce is
b) Total time taken upto the instant of nth bounce
T =
H=
u2 1 e2n
g 1 e2
2u 1 e n
g 1 e
13. A body is projected with a velocity u making an angle ' ' with horizontal. It makes
number of bounces before coming to rest.
a. The total time taken before it stops rebounding is
T =
2 u s in
g [1 e ]
b. Total distance traveled before it stops

rebounding. R
u 2 s in 2
g (1 e 2 )
14. Oblique collision: After collision if the bodies

move in directions making angle a n d with
the initial direction of motion, then
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 cos + m2 v2 cos
co
m
0 = m1v1 sin m2 v2 sin
15. A ball strikes a wall with a velocity v at an angle of incidence and
u sin = v sin
eu cos = v cos
tan =
tan
e
and
v2 v cos
=
v1 u cos
ed
uc
Perpendicular to the wall, e =
at
io
Along the wall,
n.
bounces at an angle of reflection with a velocity v1, then
v = u sin 2 + e2 cos 2
16. A ball strikes a wall with a velocity v at an angle with the wall and
sh
i
bounces with a velocity v1 at an angle
with the wall, then
v1 cos = u cos
ak
Along the wall,
v2 v1 sin
=
v1 u sin
w
.s
Perpendicular to the wall, e =
v1 sin = eu sin
Centre of Mass
1.
Centre of mass is the imaginary point at which the total mass of the system is supposed to
be concentrated.
2.
There need not be any mass at the centre of mass. Ex.: Hollow sphere, ring etc
3.
Internal forces, however strong they are, cannot produce acceleration in centre of mass.
4.
When a force is applied along a line passing through the centre of mass, the entire system
5.
co
m
moves in linear motion.
If no external force acts on a system, the acceleration of centre of mass is zero, the
velocity and momentum of the centre of mass remains constant, though velocity and
n.
momentum of individual particles vary.
The motion of the centre of mass can be studied using Newton's laws of motion.
7.
The algebraic sum of moments of masses of all the particles about the centre of mass is
at
io
6.
always zero.
Couple cannot change the position of centre of mass.
9.
An imaginary point at which the total weight of the system is supposed to be concentrated
is known as centre of gravity.
ed
uc
8.
sh
i
10. For small objects c.m. and c.g. coincide but for large or extended objects like hills,
buildings they do not coincide.
ak
11. At the centre of the earth there is no centre of gravity
( g = 0 )
w
.s
12. The position of center of mass depends on the shape of the body and distribution of mass.
13. The location of the centre of mass is independent of the reference frame used to locate it.
14. The centre of mass of a system of particles depends only on the masses of the particles
and their relative positions.
15. Centre of mass of a system is unaffected, with the change of the co-ordinate system.
16. If the system consists of n particles CM is given by x c m =
m 1 x 1 + m 2 x 2 + .. . + m n x n
m 1 + m 2 + .. . + m n
17. If the system of particles lies along y-axis then y c m =
m 1 y 1 + m 2 y 2 + ... + m n y n
m 1 + m 2 + ... + m n
18. If the system of particles lies along z-axis then z c m =
m 1 z1 + m 2 z 2 + ... + m n z n
m 1 + m 2 + .... + m n
19. Velocity of centre of mass is Vcm =
m1V1 + m2V2 + ...

m1 + m2 + ....
20. Acceleration of CM acm =
m1a1 + m2 a2 + ....
m1 + m2 + ....
21. Two particles of masses m1, m2 are separated by a distance r, then distance of centre of
mass is
m1
m2
r1
r2
r
m2 r
m1r
and r2 =
m1 + m2
m1 + m2
co
m
r1 =
The centre of mass will be nearer to the particle of more mass. If m1 = m2, then r1 = r2.
r23
r + r2 ) and
3
3 ( 1
r1 + r2
d2 =
r13
( r1 + r2 )
r13 + r23
at
io
centre of Ist sphere is equal to d1 =
n.
22. Two spheres of same material r1 and r2 are kept in contact, distance of C.M from the
[d2 distance of C.M from centre of second sphere]
r2
d1 = 2 2 2 ( r1 + r2 )
r1 + r2
ed
uc
23. In the above case, instead of spheres they are circular discs then
and
d2 =
r12 ( r1 + r2 )
(r
2
1
+ r22 )
dis tan ce between cm of

the body and removed part mass of removed part
mass of remaining part
ak
mass ( x ) =
sh
i
24. When a portion of m2 is removed from a body of mass m1 then shift in the position of center of
w
.s
25. From a disc of radius R, a disc of radius r is removed from one end then shift in centre of
mass is
x=
r 2 (R r)
.
(R2 r 2 )
26. From a uniform solid sphere of radius R, a sphere of radius r is removed from one end,
and then the shift in CM is
x=
r3 (R r)
.
( R3 r 3 )
27. When a person walks on a boat in still water, centre of mass of person, boat system is not
displaced.
a)
If the man walks a distance L on the boat, the boat is displaced in the opposite direction
relative to shore or water by a distance x =
b)
mL
M+m
Distance walked by the mass relative to shore or water is (L - x).
Moment of Inertia
1. Moment of inertia
i. Moment of inertia (I) of a body about an axis is defined as the sum of the products
of the masses and the squares of their distances of different particles from the axis
of rotation.
ii. For a particle of mass 'm' rotating at a distance r from the axis of rotation. I = mr2
co
m
iii. For a rigid body I = mk2 where K is called radius of gyration
iv. Effective distance of all particles of the body from the axis of rotation is called
K=
r12 + r22 + r32 +.....+ rn2

n
n.
radius of gyration.
temperature of the body.
at
io
v. MI depends on the mass, distribution of mass, the axis of rotation, shape, size and
vi. MI opposes the change in the rotatary motion.
ed
uc
vii. MI is least about an axis passing through CG of the body.

viii. MI of any particle on the axis of rotation is zero.
2. Two small spheres of masses m1 and m2 are joined by a rod of length r and of
sh
i
negligible mass. The moment of inertia of the system about an axis passing through the
centre of mass and perpendicular to the rod, treating the spheres as particles is
m1m 2
m1 + m 2
2
r
ak
I =
w
.s
3. Perpendicular axes theorem: The moment of inertia of a plane lamina about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is the sum of the moments of inertia of the same lamina
about two mutually perpendicular axes, lying in the plane of the lamina and
intersecting on the given axis.

Iz = I x + I y
4. Parallel axes theorem: The moment of inertia of any rigid body about any axis is
equal to the moment of inertia of the same body about a parallel axis passing through
its centre of mass plus the product of the mass of the body and square of the distance
between the parallel axes. I = IG + Md2.
5. If two particles of masses m1 and m2 are separated by a distanced then MI of the
system of two particles.
1) About CM
m2
x1 = d
m1 + m2
And
m1
x1 = d
m1 + m2
I = m1 x12 + m2 x22
m1 m 2 2
I =
d
m1 + m 2
co
m
2) About the mid point

2
d2
d2 = m + m d
( 1 2)
I = m1 + m2
4
4
4
n.
7. A uniform rod of m and length l makes a constant angle with axis of
at
io
rotation which passes through one end of the rod. Its MI is
8. Pure rolling: When a body is rolling on a horizontal surface

KE =
1 2
mv
2
ed
uc
a. Translational
b. Rotational KE = 1 I2 = 1 mK 2 v2 =
2
1
mv
2
K
1 +
r
r
2
1 2 k2
mv 2
2
r
sh
i
c. Total KE =
ak
d. Fractional translation KE =
e. Fractional rotational KE =
r2
r + k2
2
k2
r2 + k2
w
.s
f. Ratio of translational and rotational
KE =
r2
k2
9. Body rolling on a smooth inclined plane
a) Acceleration = a =
ml 2
I=
sin 2
3
g sin
k2
1+ 2
r
b) Velocity at the bottom v =
2 gh
and
k2
1+ 2
r
c) Time taken by the body to reach the bottom of the
MI
Er
Et
Et
E
Er
E
1:2
1:2
mr 2
gh
1
g sin
2
4l
g sin
1:1
Hollow sphere
2 2
mr
3
6 gh
5
1
g sin
3
10l
3 g sin
Solid sphere
2 2
mr
5
10 gh
7
5
g sin
7
14l
5 g sin
Disc (or)
mr 2
2
4
gh
3
2
g sin
3
3l
g sin
3:5
2:5
2:5
5:7
2:7
1:2
2:3
1:3
ed
uc
solid cylinder
2:3
at
io
Hollow cylinder
n.
Ring (or)
10.
co
m
Body
k2
k2
2l 1 + 2
2h 1 + 2
r
plane t = r =
g sin
g sin 2
A rod of length l is allowed to fall placing it vertical on a table .The lower end which is in
contact with the table does not slide.
a) The angular velocity of the tip of the rod when the rod makes an angle with the
3 g (1 c o s
l
sh
i
vertical
ak
b) The linear velocity is given by
6g

S in
l
2
v = r = 3gl (1 cos )
w
.s
16. Formulae for moment of inertia for some important cases

Axis of rotation
Object
1) through its centre and
1. Disc of radius R
perpendicular to its plane

2) about the diameter
3) about a tangent to its own
plane
4) tangent perpendicular to the
plane of the disc
2. Annular ring or disc of outer
Moment of inertia
MR 2
2
MR 2
4
5MR 2
4
3MR 2
2
M(R 2 + r 2 )
2
and
inner radii R and r
perpendicular to its plane

M(R 2 + r 2 )
4
2) about the diameter

3) about a tangent to its own
M(5R 2 + r 2 )
4
plane
3. Solid cylinder of length L
radius R
co
m
and
MR 2
2
1) axis of cylinder
L2 R 2
M
+
12
4
n.
perpendicular to the axis of
at
io
cylinder
3) diameter of the face
ed
uc
4. Thin rod of uniform length L
perpendicular to its length
2) through one end and
sh
i
ak
w
.s
6. Hollow sphere of radius R
7. Thin circular ring of radius
2
MR2
5
2) about a tangent
7
MR 2
5
about a diameter
2
MR 2
3
1) Perpendicular to its plane and
9. Rectangular lamina of length

l and
breadth b
about axis of the cylinder

1) through
and perpendicular
its
MR2
MR 2
2
2) about its diameter

8. Hollow cylinder of radius R
ML2
12
1) about a diameter
passing through its centre.
L2 R 2
M
+
3
ML2
3
perpendicular to its length
5. Solid sphere of radius R
centre
to its plane
MR2
l2 b 2
M
+
12 12
2) through its centre and parallel
to breadth along its own plane
3) through its centre and parallel
to length along its own plane
4) edge of the length in the plane
5) edge of the breadth in the
Mb 2
3
the lamina
Ml 2
3
11.
at
io
n.
plane of
Mb 2
12
co
m
of the lamina
Ml 2
12
Angular momentum ( L )
axis of rotation.
ii.
L = mvr = mr 2 = I
Or
ed
uc
i. The moment of linear momentum is called angular momentum of the particle about the
L = r p = m( r v )
12. Torgue
F
acting on a particle at p whose position vector is r . Then the
w
.s
i. A force
ak
sh
i
iii. It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is kgm2s1
torque F about 'O' is defined as
= rx F =
ii. It is an axial vector. Its direction is given by right hand thumb rule. Its S.I unit is N.m
13. Angular impulse ( J )
i. It is the product of torque and time for which it acts.

ii. Angular impulse = J = t = It = I2 I1 = L 2 L1 = change in angular momentum
14. Couple
i. Two equal and opposite forces not having the same line of action constitute a couple.
e.g.: Turning water tap, turning the key in a lock.
ii. The moment of couple or torque is the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance of separation between the forces.
iii. To balance a couple, another equal but opposite couple is necessary.
15. Law of conservation of angular momentum: When the resultant external torque on a system
is zero, the angular momentum of the system remains constant.
I11 = I 2 2 ==
constant.
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
Circus acrobats, divers and ballet dancers take advantage of this principle.
Gravitation
Basic Forces and Keplers Laws
co
m
1. Fundamental forces of the universe

a) Gravitational Force
i) These are long range attractive forces.
n.
ii) These are weak forces and are appreciable only when the interacting objects
at
io
are massive.
iii) These are independent of presence of other bodies and the medium between the
bodies.
ed
uc
iv) These are conservative forces and these form action reaction pairs.
v) Gravitational force exists even when there is no physical contact between them.
b) Electromagnetic force
sh
i
i) These are long range forces
ii) These have intermediate strength between electric and magnetic forces.
ak
iii) According to quantum field theory electromagnetic force between two

charges is mediated by exchange of Photons.
w
.s
c) Nuclear force
i) They are a short range, strong force of attraction between nucleons, which
provides stability to the nucleons.
ii) It is the strongest of all the fundamental forces and has a range of 1 Fermi (1015
m).
3. a) Order of Range
Range of Gravitational force > Range of Electromagnetic force > Range of nuclear
force
b) The ratio of relative strengths of nuclear, electromagnetic and gravitational forces

is
1: 1015: 1035.
4. Keplers first law of motion (Law of orbits): Every planet revolves around the Sun
in an elliptical orbits keeping the Sun at one of the foci.
planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
co
m
5. Keplers second law (Law of areas): The radius vector joining the Sun and the
a) The line joining the sun and the earth sweeps out equal areas is equal intervals of
n.
time
b) Areal velocity is
dA 1 2
= r
dt
2
L is the angular momentum of the planet of mass m in the given orbit.
ed
uc
dA
L
=
dt
2m
at
io
i.e. areal velocity is constant.
c) Kepler's second law is a consequence of law of conservation of angular

momentum (I = constant).
away from the sun.
sh
i
d) A planet moves faster when it is nearer to sun and moves slower when it is far
Vmax rmin = Vmin rmax.
Keplers third law(Law of Time Periods)
ak
6.
w
.s
a) Square of the period of any planet (T2) about the sun is proportional to cube of the mean
distance (R3) of the planet from the sun.
T2 R3 or
T12
R13
T22
R32
b) According to third law, as the distance of the planet increases, duration of the year
of the planet increases.
c) If the gravitational force varies inversely as the nth power of distance R, then the
orbital velocity V R (1-n)/2 and the time period T R (n+1)/2 .
7. Newtons law of universal gravitation: Everybody in the universe attracts every

other body with a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
a) If m1 and m2 are the masses of two bodies and d is the distance between them, the
gravitational force of attraction F between them is given by
F=
m1m 2
d2
Where G is called universal gravitational constant and it is equal to
co
m
6.671011 Nm2kg2.
b) G was first accurately determined by Cavendish. It is a scalar quantity.
c) G is independent of the properties of intervening medium and the presence of
n.
other particles.
at
io
8. Properties of gravitational force
a) The gravitational force of attraction between two particles from an action and
reaction pair i.e. equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
particles.
ed
uc
b) Gravitational force is a central force i.e. it acts along the line joining the two
c) Gravitational force between two particles is independent of the properties of
sh
i
intervening medium.
d) Gravitational force between two particles is independent of the presence of other
ak
particles.
e) Principle of superposition: If a number of particles interact with each other, the
w
.s
net force acting on a given particle is the vector sum of the forces acting upon it,
due to its interaction with each of the other particles.
f) They are long range attractive forces.

9. Universal law of gravitation cannot explain the reason for gravity between objects
and force of attraction between two bodies even when they are not in physical
contact.
10. The relation between g and G is given by g =
GM
R
4
RG
3
where M is the mass of
the planet, R is its radius and is the mean density of the planet.
Variation of g
1. Variation of g
a) Rotation and Shape of the earth
co
m
Earth is flat at the poles and bulged at the equator. The polar radius is lesser than
the equatorial radius by 2s1 km. Hence g is greater at the poles than at the
equator.
n.
Due to the spin of the earth, more centrifugal force acts on bodies near the
equator. Hence g value is less at the equator.
at
io
The value of g near the equator is 9.78 ms2 and near the poles it is equal to 9.83
ms2 and is zero at the centre of the earth.
ed
uc
Spin of the earth does not affect the value of g at the poles.
If the earth stops spinning, g increases slightly near the equator.

If the earth spins at 17 times the present speed, g becomes zero at the equator.
sh
i
b) Latitude
Variation of g latitude angle is given by, g = g R 2 cos 2
At poles = 900 , g = g
At the equator = 00 , g = g R 2
w
.s
ak
c) Height and Depth

2
a) Acceleration due to gravity at a height h is

b)
Acceleration due to gravity at a depth d is
R
2h
gh = g
g 1 .
R
R+h
g d = g 1
R
Where R is the radius of the earth

g
depth
Altitude
d=R
distance from
centre of earth
c)
co
m
At the centre of the earth acceleration due to gravity and weight of the body
is zero.
n.
2. Gravitational Field
at
io
a) Gravitational force exists even when the particles have no physical contact. This
is called action at a distance or force at a distance.
To overcome the difficulties in the gravitational law, field concept is introduced.
c)
The space around a body in which its influence is there is called gravitational
ed
uc
b)
field.
d) The gravitational intensity I =
GM
r2
.This magnitude is numerically equal to g.
sh
i
Unit is same as that of g. This is a vector.
Gravitational potential (V) =
w
.s
f)
ak
e) Zero intensity point from the least mass is given by,
g) Gravitational PE =
h) Gravitational KE =
i)
x=
Total separation
m2
+1
m1
GM
.
r
GMm
= mgr .
r
GMm mgr
=
2r
2
Gravitational Total energy =
.
GMm
2r
= mgr .
2
2. Propagation of gravitational fields

a) According to Einstein, gravity is because of distortion of space time due to the
presence of matter.
b) According to General theory of relativity whenever mass particles are accelerated,

the gravitational field around them changes and they are said to produce gravitational
waves, which are ripples in space time.
c) It is difficult to detect gravitational waves, but there are observational
consequences such as near a pulsar, Black hole or when a massive star undergoes a
co
m
gravitational collapse.
d) According to quantum theory all fields are quantum in nature including gravity.
particles is mediated by a particle called graviton.
n.
According to quantum theory of gravity, gravitational force between two mass
at
io
e) A graviton has zero rest mass, travels with the velocity of light; therefore
gravitational field propagates with the velocity of light.
3. Frames of reference
ed
uc
i) Inertial frames
a) In these frames Newton Laws of motion are applicable.

b) These move with uniform velocity relative to each other.
sh
i
c) All fundamental forces of nature are real.
d) Observers in all inertial frames measure the same acceleration for a given object
ak
but might measure different velocities

ii) Non - Inertial frames
w
.s
a) In these frames Newton Laws are not applicable.

b) Pseudo force exist for observers only in non - inertial frames, such forces have no
existence relative to an inertial frame.
c) If a is the acceleration of a non - inertial frame. The Pseudo force acting on an

object of mass m, relative to an observer in the given non- inertial frame is
F Pseudo
= ma
i.e. Pseudo force acts on an object opposite to the direction of acceleration of the
non - inertia frame.
e) Centrifugal force: It is a pseudo force experienced radically outward by an object

relative to the object, moving in a circular path relative to an inertial frame.
Inertial mass and gravitational mass
a) Inertial mass (m1): The inertial mass of a body is the ratio of the force acting on
the body to the acceleration produced by the force.
co
m
b) It is difficult to measure inertial mass.
c) Gravitational Mass (mg): If is the ratio of the gravitational force acting on a body
to the acceleration due to gravity.
at
io
e) Inertial and gravitational mass of a body are equal.
n.
d) Gravitational mass can be measured using spring balance and common balance
4. Principle of Equivalence
When experiments are conducted in inertial and non inertial frames under the same
ed
uc
conditions, give the same results, the frames are to be identical. This is the principle
w
.s
ak
sh
i
of equivalence.
Orbital and Escape Velocities

1. Orbital Velocity
a) The velocity required for a satellite to orbit round the earth very close to it is
co
m
called orbital velocity (vo).

GM
GM
gR
R+h
R
b) Orbital Velocity V0 =
Vo = 1.7 kms1 for moon bound satellites.

the
satellite
velocity 0
GM
r3
is
very
g
R
close
to
the
earth,
then
at
io
c) If
n.
Vo = 7.92km/sec. for the earth bound satellites.
orbital
angular
= 1.24x103 rads1.where r = R + h.
e) Orbital time period T0 = 2
ed
uc
d) Angular momentum of the satellite is L = m GM ( R + h )

r3
GM
3
4dg
ak
T0 = 2
sh
i
f) If the satellite is orbiting very close to the Earth, then T0 = 2 R = 84 min .( Nearly ) and
w
.s
g) V0 depends on mass of the planet and radius of the orbit.

h) If a body is taken from one orbit to another orbit , then
I. Radius of the orbit increases.
II. Orbital velocity and Orbital angular velocity
decrease.
III. Time period of revolution increases.
IV. Angular momentum increases.

V. Kinetic energy decreases.
VI. Potential energy increases.

VII. Total energy increases.
i) A satellite of mass m orbiting close to the earth has kinetic energy and potential
energy.
j) Kinetic energy of the satellite = GMm
2R
mgR
2
k) Potential energy of the satellite = GMm

R
GMm
2R
(negative sign signifies that the body is bound
co
m
l) Total energy = K.E + P.E =

to the earth)
n.
m) If kinetic energy is E, then potential energy will be 2E and total energy will be E.
n) The increase in gravitational potential energy of a body of mass m taken to a
the surface of the earth = mgh
R
+h
GMmh
R(R + h)
at
io
height h from
2. Geo Stationary Satellite
ed
uc
a) An orbit in which the time period of revolution of a satellite is 24 hours is called

geostationary orbit or parking orbit or synchronous orbit. It appears stationary with
respect to the earth.
sh
i
b) Radius of the geostationary orbit is approximately 42,400 km. Speed of geo

stationary satellite in it is 3.1 kms1.
ak
c) The relative velocity of a geostationary satellite with respect to the earth is zero.
d) Height of the parking orbit is 36,000 km approximately from the surface of earth
w
.s
GM
h = 2 T 2 1/3 R
4
e) Geo stationary satellite orbits above the equator in the equatorial plane.
f) Gravitational mass cannot be determined in a geo-stationary satellite ( g = 0)
g) Satellite is launched from the equatorial region, from west to east direction, with a
velocity same as that of the revolution of the earth.
h) Geostationary satellites are used

1. To study the upper layers of atmosphere.
2. To forecast the changes in the atmosphere.
3. To know the shape and size of the earth.

4. To identify the minerals and natural resources present inside and on the surface
of the earth.
5. To transmit the T.V. programs to distant places.
6. To undertake extensive research work on the planets, satellites and comets etc.,
3.
co
m
which are present in space.

Escape velocity
a) A body is taken to a height nR above the surface of the Earth. The change in
GMm
GMm
R
(R + nR )
GMm n
n .
= mgR
R n + 1
n + 1
at
io
Change in PE =
n.
PE is given by
h=
v2 R
2 gR v 2
ed
uc
b) The height to which the body reaches, if it is projected with a velocity v,
c) The work done in lifting a body of mass m from the surface of the earth to a
W=
mgh .
h
1 +
R
sh
i
height h is given by
d) Velocity with which a body is projected so that it reaches a height h

2Rgh
R+h
ak
v =
w
.s
e) The escape velocity of a body on earth or on any planet is Ve =

2GM
R
or Ve
2gR
f) It depends upon mass M of the earth or planet and radius R of the earth or
planet.
It is independent of mass of the body and angle of projection. Its value on
earth surface is 11.2Kms-1. Ve on moon = 2.5 kms1
g) If r. m. s. velocity of gas molecules is equal or greater than escape velocity,
then there will be no atmosphere.
h) Orbital velocity and escape velocity are related as Ve =
2 v0
i) When a body is projected with escape velocity its total energy is zero.
4. Both the escape velocity and the orbital velocity are independent of the mass of the
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
body.
Elasticity
1. Elasticity: The property of a body by virtue of which it regains its original size and shape
immediately after the removal of deforming forces is called elasticity.
2. Elastic body: A body which shows elastic behavior is called elastic body. There are no
perfect elastic or plastic bodies in nature. E.g. steel, rubber. Quartz is very nearly perfectly
co
m
elastic body.
3. Plastic body: A body which does not show elastic behavior is called plastic body. E.g.
putty, clay, mud, wax, lead, dough, chewing gum, butter wax etc.
without moving it as a whole is called deforming force.
n.
4. Deforming force: A force which changes or tries to change the shape or size of the body
at
io
5. Restoring force: A force which is developed inside the body and which tries to regain the
original shape or size of the body is called restoring force.
ed
uc
6. A body in which it is more difficult to produce strain is more elastic.

a) Steel is more elastic than rubber.
b) Water is more elastic than air.
sh
i
c) Springs are made of steel but not of copper because steel is more elastic than copper.
7. Factors Effecting Elasticity
ak
a. Elasticity decreases with the increase of temperature but for nickel and invar steel
temperature has no effect on elasticity.
w
.s
b. Addition of impurity to metal may increase or decrease the elasticity

c. Hammering and rolling increases the elasticity.
d. Annealing decreases the elasticity.
8. Stress: The restoring force developed per unit area of cross-section of the deformed body
is called stress.
Stress =
Unit =
Restoring force
F
=
Cross sec tional area A
N
m2
or pascal
Dimensional formula: M1L1T2
9. Stress is of three types
i) Longitudinal stress: If the restoring forces are perpendicular to the area of crosssection and are along the length of the wire, the stress is called longitudinal stress.
ii) Tangential stress or shearing stress: If the restoring forces are parallel to the surface,
the stress is called shearing stress. Here the body under goes a change in shape but not
volume. Shearing strain is applicable only for solids.
10. Bulk stress or volume stress: If a body is subjected to equal forces normally on all the
volume but not shape. Bulk strain is applicable only for fluids.
co
m
faces, the stress involved is called bulk stress. Here the body under goes a change in
11. Strain: The ratio of change in dimension of the body to its original dimension is called
a) Longitudinal strain = change in length = e

original length
Lateral displacement between two layers

Perpendicular distance between the two layers
ed
uc
b) Shearing strain = =
c) Bulk strain=
at
io
n.
strain. Strain has no unit and no DF.
change in volume v
=
original volume
v
sh
i
c) Shearing strain = 2 x longitudinal strain

d) Bulk strain = 3 x longitudinal strain
ak
e) Longitudinal strain: shearing strain: bulk strain = 1:2:3
w
.s
12. Hookes law: Within the elastic limit of a body, stress is directly proportional to strain.
stress
= E = constant
strain
newton
Unit of E:
or Pascal
m2
13. Types of moduli of elasticity: There are three moduli of elasticity.

a) Youngs modulus: Youngs modulus is the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal
strain within the elastic
Y=
limit of a body.
longitudinal stress Fl
=
longitudinal strain Ae
When a mass M is attached to the lower end of a wire,

Y=
gl M
r 2 e
b) Rigidity modulus: Rigidity modulus is the ratio between shearing stress and shearing
F
strain within the elastic limit of a body.
B B
n=
n=
shearing stress
F
=
shearing strain A.tan
F AD
A AA '
co
m
c) Bulk modulus: Bulk modulus is the ratio between volume stress and volume strain
within the elastic limit of a body.
K=
n.
Or
(Negative sign indicates the decrease in volume)
Pv
v
r
Lateral contraction strain
r
=
l
Longitudinal elongation strain
l
ed
uc
14. Poissons ratio () =
at
io
K=
F
volume stress
A
=
volume strain
v
i) Poissons ratio has no unit and has no dimensions.

ii) Theoretical limits of = 1 to 0.5.
sh
i
iii) Practical limit of = 0 to 0.5
iv) When the volume of a wire is constant, then
= 0.5.
ak
v) A cylindrical rod is made of material of poisons ratio . When it is stretched, the
w
.s
fractional change in its volume is
v l
v r
l
= (1 2 ) (or)
=
2
v
l
v
r
15. Relation among elastic constants Y, , K, :
9 1 3
= +
Y K
i)
ii)
iii) Y = 3K (12)
Y = 2(1 + )
iv)
3K 2
2( + 3K)
16. Linear strain is applicable only for solids.

17. Y is infinity for a perfect elastic material.
18. Y is zero for gases, liquids and perfectly inelastic materials.
19. The reciprocal of bulk modulus
1

K
is called compressibility(C).
20. The strain produced in a loaded spring is shearing strain.
21. The temporary loss of elasticity of a body due to successive stress and strain is called
elastic fatigue.
22. The time delay in regaining the original shape (or) size of the body after removing the
deforming force is called elastic after effect.
23. Elastic after effect is not exhibited by quartz or phosphor bronze.
l1T2 l 2 T1
T2 T1
e=
l 2 dg
2Y
n.
25. .Elongation produced in a wire due to its own weight
co
m
24. If l1 and l2 are the length of a wire under tension T1 and T2, the actual length of the wire =
stress
ed
uc
27. Isothermal elasticity = pressure of the gas
P
Where P is the breaking
dg
at
io
26. Length of the wire which breaks under its own weight L =
28. Adiabatic elasticity = pressure of the gas

29. Thermal stress
F
= Y t
A
F = YA t
(or)
sh
i
Were the coefficient of linear expansion of the solid and t is the rise in temperature of the
ak
solid.
Similarly Pressure
(or)
w
.s
(P) = K t
K =
P
P
=
t 3t
is the coefficient of volume expansion of a solid.
30. Strain energy
Work done in stretching a string is stored as elastic potential energy.

W=
1
2
W= Fe
1
stress
2
strain volume
1 (stress ) 2
W
1
= Y (strain ) 2 or W =
2
2
V
Y
Also, Potential energy stored in a wire due to twisting= 1

2
31. Strain energy density
www.sakshieducation.com2
Energy per unit volume =
work
1
= x stress x strain
volume 2
1 ( stress )
2
y
32. Springs
i) For a spring that obeys Hookes law, equivalent force constant or spring constant is K
= YA .
l
ii) If a spring (or a wire) of force constant K is cut into n equal parts, the force constant
of each part of the wire is nk.
(m + n)k
m
co
m
iii) If a spring (or a wire) of force constant k is cut in the ratio of m:n, km=
kn= (m + n)k
1 2 1 F2
Kx =
2
2 K
at
io
iv) Potential energy of a stretched spring = 1 Fx =
n.
v) Two springs have force constants K1 and K2
E2.
ed
uc
a) When they are stretched by the same force and if their elastic energies are E1 and
E1 K 2
=
E2
K1
sh
i
b) When they are extended by the same length
E1 K 2
=
E2
K1
c) When they are extended till their energies are same,
F1
=
F2
K1
K2
ak
d) The potential energy of a spring increases, whether it is stretched or compressed.
w
.s
e) Springs in series Keff=
K 1K 2
K1 + K 2
f) Springs in parallel Keff=K1+K2
g) The reciprocal of spring constant is called compliance.
25. If a rod of length l and radius r is fixed at one end and the other end is
twisted by an angle , then l= r. Where is angle of shear.
The upper end of a cylinder is clamped and a tangential force is applied
at the lower end so that the cylinder is twisted through an angle
shearing strain developed is
r = l
or
r
l
26. Behavior of a wire under the action of a load :
A = Proportionality limit
B = Elastic limit
C = Yielding point
Sb
Stress
a)
D = Breaking point
Sb = Ultimate tensile strength
b) Stress is proportional to strain upto a limit, which is called
B C
A
O OI
Strain
proportionality limit. A is the limit of proportionality. Upto this limit, Hookes law is
co
m
obeyed.
c) The smallest value of stress which produces a permanent change in the body is called
elastic limit.
n.
d) If the wire is loaded beyond the elastic limit, a stage is reached where the wire begins
at
io
to flow with no increase in the load and this point is called yield point.
e) Beyond the yield point, if the load is increased further the extension increases rapidly
is called breaking point.
ed
uc
and the wire becomes narrower and finally breaks. The point at which the wire breaks
f) A permanent set (OP) is produced in the wire beyond elastic limit.

g) The stress required to reach the breaking point is called breaking stress.
a ductile metal.
If the wire breaks soon after exceeding limit, the metal is said to be brittle. (If the gap
ak
i)
sh
i
h) If the gap between elastic limit and breaking point (BD) of a metal is large, it is called
w
.s
BD is small).
Viscosity
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Statics
co
m
1. Density of a homogeneous substance is defined as the ratio of its mass to its volume. In other
words density is the mass per unit volume.
d= m , where d=density, m=mass and v=volume
n.
S.I unit: kgm3.
at
io
2. Specific gravity of a material is defined as the ratio of its density to that of water at 4oC it is a
mere number and has no units. It is also known as relative density.
(m1 + m 2 )d 1d 2
m1d 2 + m 2 d 1
If m1 = m2, then
d =
2d 1d 2
d1 + d 2
sh
i
d =
of the mixture
ed
uc
3. If two liquids of masses m1 and m2 and densities d1 and d2 respectively are mixed the density
4. If two liquids of volumes v1 and v2 and density d1 and d2 are mixed, then the density of the
d =
v 1d 1 + v 2 d 2
v1 + v 2
d =
d1 + d 2
2
w
.s
If v1 = v2, then
ak
mixture is
5. Pressure is defined as the ratio of the normal force acting on the area on which the force acts.
Pressure is a scalar quantity.

F
A
where P = pressure, F = normal component of force and A = area on which force acts.
P=
S.I unit: pascal (Pa).
6. Fluid Pressure
a. The pressure due to a liquid column of height h and density d is given by P = hdg
where g = acceleration due to gravity.This is called gauge pressure.
b. The pressure exerted by the atmospheric air at any point is equal to the weight of air
contained in a column of unit cross sectional area and extending up to the top of the
atmosphere. This is called atmospheric pressure.
c. The total pressure P acting at the bottom of an open liquid column of height h and
density d is given by
P=Pa+hdg where Pa= atmospheric pressure
co
m
d. Atmospheric pressure =1.013x105 Pa =1.013x106 dynes/cm2 =76 cm of Hg

7. Pascals law: When ever pressure is applied on any part of a fluid contained in a vessel, it is
transmitted equally in all directions.
n.
8. Archimedes principle: When a body is immersed wholly or partially in a fluid at rest, the
fluid exerts an upward force on the body equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
at
io
body.
9. The loss of weight (W) of a solid when immersed in a liquid is given by W = vdg where v
10. From Archimedes principle

i) Relative density of solid =
ed
uc
= volume of the displaced liquid, d = density of the liquid and g = acceleration due to gravity.
weight of solid in air

loss of weight of solid in water
loss of weight of sinker in liquid

loss of weight of sinker in water
sh
i
ii) Relative density of a liquid =
ak
11. The upward force is called the buoyant force or force of buoyancy.
body.
w
.s
12. Buoyant force depends on the volume of the displaced liquid and not on the volume of the
13. Buoyant force depends on the density of the liquid and not on the density of the body.
14. When a body is immersed in a fluid, when
i) If the weight of the body (W) is more than the up thrust (WI) i.e., W > WI, the body will
sink.
ii) If the weight of the body (W) is equal to up thrust (WI) i.e., W = WI, the body will float,
the whole if its volume being inside the liquid and
iii) If the weight of the body (W) is less than the up thrust (WI) i.e., W < WI, the body will
float with a part of it being outside the liquid.
15. When a solid of density floats in a liquid of density d, then the volume fraction of solid
immersed in liquid is given by
Vi =
where Vi = volume fraction of the solid inside the liquid.
Vo = 1Vi where Vo = volume fraction of the solid outside the liquid.

16. When an ice block floating on water melts, the level of water remains the same.
17. If a floating piece of ice contains an air bubble, the level of water does not change when the
ice metals.
co
m
18. If a floating ice block contains a piece of cork embedded inside, there is no change in the
level of water when the ice melts.
19. A floating block of ice contains a piece of lead. The level of water decreases when the ice
n.
melts.
level of the liquid.
at
io
20. When a block of ice floating on a liquid denser than water melts, there is an increase in the
21. When a block of ice floating on a liquid whose density is less than that of water melts, there is
ed
uc
a decrease in the level of the liquid.
22. A man is sitting in a boat which is floating in a pond. If the man drinks some water from the
pond, the level of the water remains the same.
sh
i
23. A boat carrying a number of stones is floating in a water tank. If the stones are unloaded into
w
.s
Fluid Dynamics
ak
the water, the water level in the tank decreases.
24. Streamline flow : The flow of a liquid is said to be streamlined or orderly if the particles of
the liquid move along fixed paths known as streamlines and velocity of the particles passing
one after the other through a given point on a streamline remains unchanged in magnitude as
well as direction at that point.
25. Steady flow or streamline flow :

a. Every particle of the liquid follows the path of its preceding one.
b. The mass of the liquid entering the tube is equal to the mass of the liquid leaving the
tube.
c. The path followed by the particle is called streamline.
d. Streamlines may be curves or straight lines.
e. The tangent drawn to the streamline gives the direction of flow of liquid
f. No two streamlines intersect each other
g. No radial flow
h. Pressure at any cross-section is same.
co
m
i. A bundle of streamlines having same velocity is called tube of flow.

26. Turbulent Flow
a. The velocity of the particle crossing any particular point of the liquid is not constant in
n.
both magnitude and in direction.
at
io
b. Velocity varies with time
c. The velocity of the liquid at which streamline flow converts into turbulent flow is called
27. Critical velocity ( Vc)
ed
uc
critical velocity ( Vc )
a. The velocity of the liquid above which the flow becomes streamline is called critical
velocity.
K
d
sh
i
b. Critical velocity (Vc) =
and d Diameter of the pipe
ak
Density of the liquid
w
.s
c. If K < 2000, the flow is streamline or laminar,

d. If K > 3000 the flow is turbulent.
e. If K is in between 2000 and 3000 the flow is unsteady.
f. High viscous and less dense liquids in narrow pipes have stream line motion.
g. Low viscous and high dense liquids in wider pipes have turbulent motion.
28. Equation of continuity

a. When a non-viscous liquid flows steadily through a tube of uniform bore the product of
area of cross section and the velocity of the flow is same at every cross-section of the tube.
Mass flux = constant
(or)
Volume flux = constant
(or)
Or
Avd = constant
AV = constant
r2 v = const.
b. If the cross-sectional area is large, the velocity of the flow of the liquid will be less.
c. Water stream narrows as it comes down.
d. If a part of the mouth of a tube through which water is coming out is closed with a finger,
the speed of flow increases.
e. Equation of continuity represents the law of conservation of mass in case of moving fluids.
(a) Potential energy, (b) kinetic energy, (c) pressure energy.
co
m
29. Energy of a liquid: The energy at any point in a flowing liquid is of three kinds.
a) Potential energy: The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its height is called
Potential energy per unit mass m = gh

Potential energy per unit volume = gh
at
io
Potential energy of mass m of the liquid = mgh
n.
potential energy.
ed
uc
b) Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion is called kinetic
energy.
Kinetic energy per unit mass= 1 v 2

2
1 2
v
2
sh
i
Kinetic energy per unit volume =
ak
c) Pressure energy: The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of the pressure acting on it is
called pressure energy.
w
.s
Pressure energy = PV
Pressure energy per unit mass =
Pressure energy per unit volume = P
Where is density of liquid
30. Bernoullis theorem

a. If an ideal fluid (non viscous, incompressible) is in streamline flow in a tube of non
uniform cross-section the sum of the pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential energy
at any point per unit mass or per unit volume is constant.
P V2
+
+ gh =constant
or
P V2
+
+ h =constant
g 2g
or
P + gh +
1 2
V =constant
2
Here
V2
2g
P
=pressure
g
head
=velocity head
h=gravitational head
is called static pressure
1 2
V Dynamic
2
co
m
pressure
n.
b. This obeys the law of conservation of energy.
31. Applications of Bernoullis theorem
at
io
Ex: Spinning motion of a cricket ball (Magnus Effect), Aerodynamic lift, Atomizer etc.
A) Torricellis theorem: The velocity of efflux of a liquid through an orifice of a vessel is
ed
uc
equal to the velocity acquired by a freely falling body from a height

which is equal to that of liquid level from the orifice.
V = 2gh
B) Time taken by the efflux liquid to reach the ground is given by

2(H h)
g
sh
i
t=
H-h
2gh x
2(H - h)
= 2 h(H h)
g
w
.s
x=
ak
C) Horizontal range of liquid is given by
D) Horizontal range is maximum, when orifice is at the middle of liquid level and bottom.
H
; xmax=H
2
h=
The horizontal range (x) of liquid coming out of the holes at depths h or (Hh) from its free
surface is the same.

E) Time taken for the level to fall from H1 to H2
t=
A
Ao
2
g
[H
H2
Where Ao is area of orifice, A is area of cross-section of container.

32. Venturimeter: Venturimeter is used to measure flow speed and rate of flow in a pipe.
Velocity of flow V1=
2gh
2
A1
1
A2
A1
2gh
V1
A1
A 1
2
V2
0
P2 A2
P1
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
Rate of flow Q= A 1
Viscosity
1. Viscosity: The property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes the relative motion between
the layers of the liquid is called viscosity (or) internal friction of the liquid.
co
m
2. Viscous force (Newtons formula): The viscous force (F) acting tangentially on a layer of a
fluid is directly proportional to the (i) surface area A of the layer, (ii) velocity gradient
F= A dV
n.
which is perpendicular to the direction of flow.
dV
dx
dx
at
io
The constant of proportionality is called the coefficient of viscosity.

3. Coefficient of viscosity
gradient in the
ed
uc
a) The viscous force acting tangentially on unit area of the liquid when there is a unit velocity
direction perpendicular to the flow is called the coefficient of viscosity. It is
also called coefficient of dynamic viscosity.
NS
sh
i
b) The S.I unit of coefficient of viscosity is
m2
or Pa-s or decapoise.
ak
c) The CGS unit of is poise.

1 Pa-s=10 poise
w
.s
d) The dimensional formula of is ML1T1

4. Coefficient of kinematic viscosity
a) The ratio of the coefficient of dynamic viscosity to the density of liquid

viscosity.
coefficient of kinematic
b) Dimensional formula L2T1
c) The S.I unit of is m2s1

d) The unit in CGS system is stoke and 1 stoke=104 m2s1
5. Factors that influence viscosity
a) Pressure
is called
i) Viscosity of a liquid increases with the increase of pressure even though the effect is
small.
ii) Viscosity of a gas is independent of pressure. However at low pressures, viscosity
decreases with the decrease of pressure due to the increase of mean free path.
b) Temperature
co
m
i) As temperature increases viscosity of liquid decreases due to the decrease of cohesive

forces.
ii) In summer high viscous and in winter low viscous lubricants are used for machine
n.
parts.
at
io
iii) Increase of temperature increases the viscosity of a gas due to the increase in
momentum of the gas molecules.
6. Poiseuilles equation
volume
V =
of
the
liquid
Pr 4
8l
ed
uc
a) For less viscous liquids (ex. Water), flowing in a capillary tube of radius r and length l, the
flow
per
sec
(or)
volume
flux
is
given
by
sh
i
Where the co-efficient of viscosity of the liquid and P is is is the pressure difference
8l
r 4
is known as fluid resistance.
w
.s
R=
ak
between the ends of the capillary tube.
b) Poiseuilles equation is applicable under the following conditions.

i) The flow must be steady and laminar.
ii) The liquid in contact with the walls of the capillary tube must be at rest.
iii) The pressure at any cross-section of the capillary tube must be same.
c) When a liquid is flowing through a tube, the velocity of the flow of a liquid at a distance x
from the axis of the tube is given by V=
P 2
r x2
4l
].
d) When two capillaries are joined in series across constant

pressure difference P the fluid resistance R=R1+R2.
R=
8l1
r14
8l 2
r24
and Q =
P
R1 + R 2
R2
R1
The total pressure difference P=P1+P2
g) If two capillaries are joined in parallel, the pressure difference
across the two tubes is the same but the volume of fluid flowing
through the two tubes is different. The total volume of the fluid flowing through the tubes
is one second is Q = Q1 + Q2.
1
1
1
=
+
R R1 R 2
where R1= 84l1 and R2= 8l42

r1
r2
The volume of liquid flowing through first capillary Q1=

.
and the volume of liquid
n.
P
R2
P
R1
at
io
flowing through second capillary Q2=
co
m
Fluid resistance R is given by
7. Stokes law
a) The viscous force of high viscous liquids like castor oil, glycerin is given by F = 6rv
viscosity and
ed
uc
Where r is the radius of the spherical body falling through a medium of coefficient of
VT is the velocity of the body.
vT =
2 r 2 ( )g
sh
i
b) Terminal velocity of a spherical body
w
.s
ak
c)
d) where = density of the body
= density of the fluid through which the body is falling.

1
e) VT
, greater the viscosity, lesser the terminal velocity.
f) VT r2, bigger rain drops acquire more velocity.

g) VT ( - ), if is more the body rises up. Ex: Air bubble in water rises up.
h) When n drops of same size each having terminal velocity V combine, the terminal velocity
of the single drop is
i) If m is the mass , then
VT = n 2 / 3V
2
V m3
Surface Tension
Surface Tension-Surface Energy
co
m
1. Every surface of a liquid behaves like a stretched elastic membrane and thereby
develops surface tension.
2. The force acting on the surface of the liquid per unit length on its either side is called
Force( F )
N/m
length(l )
at
io
T=
n.
surface tension
3. The maximum distance up to which the cohesive force between two similar
ed
uc
molecules exists is called molecular range (about 10-9m).
4. An imaginary sphere around a liquid molecule with molecular range as radius is

called sphere of influence.
5. Every molecule on the surface of a liquid has maximum potential energy. In
sh
i
minimizing this PE, the molecule on the surface tries to acquire minimum surface
area. Thereby surface tension is developed.
ak
6. Small mercury drops acquire spherical shape to minimize the surface potential
energy.Bigger mercury drops are flat at the upper side, to minimize the gravitational
w
.s
potential energy.
7. Factors influencing surface tension
a. Highly soluble impurities increase the S.T. of a liquid. Ex.: Salt water.
b. Less soluble (or) insoluble impurities decrease the S.T. of a liquid. Ex: Camphor
in water, oil on water etc.
c. Organic solvents decrease the surface tension of water ex: soap water.
d. Electrification reduces the surface tension of a liquid.
e. As temperature increases, the S.T. of a liquid decreases. T = T0(1 - )
- Temperature Coefficient of S.T

Ex.: 1) Hot soup is tastier than cold soup 2) Hot water bath is preferable to cold
water bath.
f. For molten copper and cadmium, as temperature increases, S.T. increases.
co
m
g. At critical temperature, at Boiling point and at absolute zero S.T. of a liquid is zero
8. A metallic wire of density d floats horizontally on water. If the surface tension of
water is T. Then the maximum radius of the wire so that the wire may not sink.
2T
dg
n.
r =
at
io
9. Surface Energy
a. The surface energy of a liquid film is the work done to increase the surface area of
W =T(A2 A1) or
ed
uc
the film by unit amount

T =
W
A
J/m2
b. Work done to blow a soap bubble of radius r W = 8r2T

W = 8T (r22
r12
sh
i
c. Work done to increase the radius of the soap bubble from r1 to r2 is ,
ak
d. If two soap bubbles of radius r1 and r2 combine under isothermal conditions in

r 2 = r12 + r 22
w
.s
vacuum then the radius of the single bubble
e. If two liquid drops of radius r1 and r2 combine into a single under isothermal
conditions its radius is r 3 = r13 + r23 .
f. n identical drops of same size each of radius r combine into a single drops of
radius R
i) Energy released (or) works done is given by
W = 4 r2 (n n2/3)
V Volume of the drop

1
ii) W = 4T (nr2 R2) = 4R3 r
1
T
R
(Or) W = 4R2 T (n1/3-1) = 3VT
1 1

r R
iii) The rise in temperature is
t =
3T 1 1

dJs r R
s Specific heat of the liquid

d Density of the liquid
J Joules constant
v =
6T
d
1 1

r R
v) Surface area decreases
n.
velocity of the single drop
co
m
iv) If this energy is completely converted as the KE of the single drop, then the
g. The work done to blow a soap bubble is w. The work done in increasing the
at
io
w = w n 2 / 3 1
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
bubble to n times the initial volume
Surface Tension
Capillarity Excess Pressure
1. Angle of contact()
a. It is the angle between the tangent drawn at the point of contact of a solid and liquid and the
co
m
surface of solid within the liquid.

b. The angle of contact depends on solid-liquid pair, temperature and impurities.
c. The angle of contact is not altered by the amount of inclination of solid object in the
n.
liquid.
at
io
d. For pure water and glass, the angle of contact is zero.

e. For mercury and glass, angle of contact is about 140
f. For silver and water angle of contact is 90.
~
. 139C.
ed
uc
g. For ordinary water angle of contact is about 8.
h. If a liquid wets the solid, then the angle of contact is less than 90 and if the liquid doesnt
wet the solid, then the angle of contact is greater than 90.
sh
i
2. Capillarity
a. The property of rise or fall of a liquid due to surface tension in a capillary tube is known as
ak
capillarity.
b. Oil ascends in a wick due to capillarity.
w
.s
c. Flow of ink through a nib is due to capillarity.

d. A painters brush under water has its hair spread but on withdrawal from water they adhere
to each other due to surface tension.
e. Ploughing of land brings moisture to the top by capillary action.

f. The addition of a detergent decreases the surface tension and angle of contact.
g. Wetting agents are used in detergents in order to clean clothes.
h. The addition of a water proofing agent like waxy substance to a liquid increases angle of
contact.
i. If the angle of contact () is acute ( < 90), there will be capillary rise. e.g.: water in glass
capillary.
j. If the angle of contact () is obtuse ( > 90), there will be capillary depression. e.g.:
mercury in capillary.
k. If the angle of contact is 90, there will be neither rise nor fall. e.g.: water in silver
capillary.
3. S.T. by capillary method
a. When a capillary tube of radius r is immersed in a liquid , the upward force on the liquid
inside the capillary tube is given by ( is the angle of contact) F = 2r T cos
co
m
b. In capillary rise the force due to surface tension in upward direction is equal to the weight
of liquid column 2rT cos = mg .
c. Surface tension by capillary rise method.
rhdg
2 cos
if h >> r
In the case of pure water, T =
n.
2 cos
rhdg
.
2
at
io
T = rdg(h + r / 3)
ed
uc
d. Jurins law: According to Jurins law, inversely the height of the liquid (h) risen in
capillary tube is proportional to the radius (r) rh = constant or
h 1 r1 = h 2 r2
e. A graph between h and r is a rectangular hyperbola.
f. If a liquid rises to a height h in a capillary tube and the tube is inclined at an angle to
sh
i
the vertical, the length of the liquid column inside the tube increases but the vertical height
to which the liquid rises remains the same.
h Where
cos
L = length of the liquid column inside the tube.
ak
L=
w
.s
g. If a capillary tube is dipped in water in a satellite, the water level will rise to the full length
of the tube.
h. In a capillary tube of insufficient length, the liquid rises to the top end of the tube and the
h 1 r1 = h 2 r2
radius of curvature of the meniscus increases.
Where r1 and r2 is the radius of curvature of the meniscus
i. In an artificial satellite (or) in a freely falling lift the liquid rises in the top end of the tube.
The liquid does not overflow.
j. The height of the liquid column remaining in the capillary tube
k. PE of the liquid =
2T 2
dg
cos d- Density of liquid
h=
4T
rdg
l. Two parallel square glass plates of side l are separated in air by a small distance x. The
combination is dipped vertically into a liquid of surface tension T, density d and angle of
contact < 90. If the plane of the plates is perpendicular to the liquid surface, the height to
which the liquid rises in between the plates is
h=
2T cos
xdg
4. Excess Pressure
co
m
1. Pressure difference across a surface film

a. If the liquid surface is plane, the net force
on the liquid molecule on the surface is zero.
(b)
(a)
(c)
n.
b. If the liquid meniscus is concave upwards,
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io
the net force is directed out wards.
c. If the liquid meniscus is convex upwards, the net force is directed inwards.
2. Excess pressure in a drop of liquid of radius r is given by P = 2T/r.
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3. Excess pressure in a soap bubble of radius r is given by P = 4T/r.
4. Excess pressure inside a soap bubble present in a liquid P = 2T/r, where r is radius and T is
surface tension.
a) At a depth h,
sh
i
5. If an air bubble of radius r is in a lake

P = P0 + hdg +
2T
R
ak
b) At the surface inside the liquid

2T
R
w
.s
P = P0 +
c) Outside the surface
P = P0 +
4T
R
6. If a liquid drop is present between two glass plates separated by a distance d then
Excess pressure = P =
2T
d
and
Force required separating the glass plates is

F=
2T
2Tm 2T 2
A=
=
A
d
d 2 V
Density of the liquid

m Mass of the drop
V Volume of the drop
A Area of the drop
7. When two bubbles of radii r1 and r2 combine to have a common surface,

radius of curvature of the common surface
r=
r1r 2
r 2 r1
the
r2
r1
Air flow
8. Two soap bubbles of radii r1 and r2 combine into a single bubble of radius r isothermally.
If the change in volume is V and change in area is A, atmospheric pressure is P, then
a) 3PV + 4TA = 0
P ( r 3 r13 r 23 )
co
m
T =
4( r12 + r 22 r 2 )
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
b)
Thermometry
1. Heat is a form of energy which has capacity to do the work.

2. Temperature is degree of hotness or coldness in a body which determines direction of
co
m
flow of heat.
3. Units of Heat
a) Standard calorie is amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1g of water from
1 cal = 4.2Joule
4. Units of Temperature
C
32
273
212
80
373
UFP 100
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LFP
at
io
n.
14.5C to 15.5C
sh
i
C 0
F 32
R0
K 273
=
=
=
100 212 32 80 0 373 273
Or
C F R K
=
=
=
100 180 80 100
ak
5. Since cylindrical surface has more surface area, thermometric bulbs are cylindrical.
6. Any property which changes with temperature is called thermometric property.
w
.s
X X0
X 2 X0
t = t
100 and t2 =
t1
X100 X 0
X1 X0
7. The temperature at which both centigrade and Fahrenheit coincide. (-40)
8. The temperature at which both Kelvin and Fahrenheit coincide. (574.25)

9. Range of Thermometers
Mercury Thermometer (-30C to 330C)
Alcohol thermometer (-130C to 78C)
Gas Thermometer (-260C to 1600C)
Resistance Thermometer (-200C to 1200C)
Vapour pressure Thermometer (5k to 0.71k)
Radiation Pyrometer (800C to 3000C)
10. Of all the thermometers, gas thermometers are more sensitive because of their high
volume expansion. They have the same scale for all gases.
11. Mercury is used as a thermometric liquid because it has low specific heat, low thermal
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
capacity, low vapour pressure, high thermal conductivity and more expansion.
Expansion of Solids
1. Lattice vibrations are purely harmonic and then PE curve is a symmetric parabola
indicating no thermal expansion the average inter-atomic distance remains same
2. If the lattice vibrations are an-harmonic, PE curve is not a symmetric parabola indicating
co
m
the thermal expansion. The average inter-atomic distance increases with increase of
ed
uc
at
io
n.
temperature.
3. Coefficient of linear expansion (): The ratio of increase in length per one degree rise in
Co
l 2 l1
l1( t 2 t 1 )
or K1
ak
Unit of :
sh
i
temperature to its original length is called coefficient of linear expansion. =
w
.s
4. Coefficient of area or superficial expansion (): The increase in area per unit area per one
degree rise in temperature is called coefficient of areal expansion.=
a 2 a1
a1( t 2 t 1 )
Unit of : C o or K1
5. The coefficient of volume or cubical expansion () is the increase in volume per unit
volume per degree rise in temperature.=
Unit of :
Co
V2 V1
V1( t 2 t 1 )
or K1
6. If x , y and z denotes coefficient of linear expansions along X, Y, Z directions

respectively, then
avg =
7. : : = 1:2:3 or =3;
x + y + z
3
= x +y +z
=2;
= + .
8. The numerical value of coefficient of linear expansion of a solid depends on the nature of
the material and the scale of temperature used.
9. The numerical value of coefficient of linear expansion of a solid is independent of physical
dimensions of the body and also on the unit of length chosen.
10. The numerical value of or or in the units of per C is 9/5 times its numerical value in
per F =
5
.
9
per C.
per R =
5
.
4
per C.
n.
in /C
do
1+ t
at
io
per K =
co
m
the units of per F.
11. The density of solid decreases with increase of temperature.
ed
uc
at 0C.
dt =
Where do is density
12. If two rods of different materials have the same difference between their lengths at all
temperatures, then 1L1 = 2 L2
1
2
x and L2 =
x
1 ~ 2
1 ~ 2
sh
i
If the constant difference in their lengths is x, then L1 =
13. Pendulum clocks lose or gain time as the length increases or decreases respectively.
t
2
ak
The fractional change= T

T
w
.s
The loss or gain per day= t x86400 seconds.

2
14. If a metal rod is prevented from expansion on heating, stress will be developed, which is
known as thermal stress.
Thermal stress developed in the rod,
F
= Y t
A
Thermal stress is independent of length of the rod.

15. As temperature increases, moment of inertia of a body increases. The Fractional change in
moment of inertia is
I
= 2 t
I
16. When the scale & body both are expanding
lcorrect = lscale 1 ( body scale ) t
17. A metal scale is calibrated at a particular temperature does not give the correct
measurement at any other temperature.
a) When scale expands correction to be made = t, correct reading=L+l
b) When scale contracts correction to be made l=L t, correct reading=Ll.
L=measured value.
Lmeasured=Ltrue[1(t)]
H correct = H scale 1 ( H g scale ) t
co
m
18. For a mercury barometer
19. Applications of expansions of solids
a. A cavity of a solid object expands on heating just like a solid object of the same
n.
volume.
in temperature, both expand equally.
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b. If a thin rod and a thick rod of same length and material are heated to same rise
c. If a thin rod and a thick rod of same length and material are heated by equal
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uc
quantities of heat, thin rod expands more than thick rod.
d. A metal plate contains two holes at a certain distance apart from each other. If
the plate is heated, the distance between the centers of the holes increases.
sh
i
e. Platinum is used to seal inside glass because both have nearly equal coefficients
of linear expansion.
ak
f. Iron or steel is used for reinforcement in concrete because both have nearly
equal coefficients of expansion.
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.s
g. Pyrex glass has low . Hence combustion tubes and test tubes for hating purpose
are made out of it.
h. Invar steel (steel + nickel) has very low . So it is used in making pendulum
clocks, balancing wheels and measuring tapes. (Composition of invar steel is

64% steel and 36% nickel).
i. Thick glass tumbler cracks when hot liquid is poured into it because of unequal
expansion.
j. Hot chimney cracks when a drop of water falls on it because of unequal
contraction.
k. A brass disc snuggly fits in a hole in a steel plate. To loosen the disc from the
hole, the system should be cooled.
l. To remove a tight metal cap of a glass bottle, it should be warmed.
m. While laying railway tracks, small gaps are left between adjacent rails to allow
for free expansion without affecting the track during summer. Gap to be left
(l)=lt=expansion of each rail.
n. Concrete roads are laid in sections and expansion channels are provided between
them.
o. Thermostat is a device which maintains a steady temperature.
p. Thermostats are used in refrigerators, automatic irons and incubators.
co
m
q. Thermostat is a bimetallic strip made of iron and brass. The principle involved
are different materials will have different coefficients of linear expansion.
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
= Y t = 2 x 1011 x 11 x 10-6 x 100 = 2.2 x 108 N/m2
Expansion of Liquids
1. Linear and areal expansions have no significance for a liquid, since shape of liquid
depends on shape of vessel.
2. Liquids do not possess any definite shape and require a container to hold them. Hence only
co
m
cubical expansion is considered.

3. For liquids there are two types of cubical expansion
ii) Coefficient of real or absolute expansion (r)
n.
i) Coefficient of apparent expansion (a)
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4. Coefficient of apparent expansion of a liquid is the ratio of the apparent increase in volume
per 1C rise of temperature to its initial volume.
apparent increase in volume
original volume x rise in temperatur e
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uc
a =
Unit of a : C1.
5. Coefficient of real expansion is the ratio between real increase in volume per 1C rise of
r =
sh
i
temperature and the original volume of the liquid.

V V
real increase in volume
= 2 1
original volume x rise in temperatur e V1 (t2 t1 )
ak
Unit of r : C1.
w
.s
6. r = a + vessel = a+3.
7. If v=+ve and r<v, a=ve, the level decreases continuously when heated.
8. If v=+ve and r=v; a=0, the level will not change when heated.
9. If v=+ve and r>v; a=+ve, the level first falls and then rise when heated.
10. If v=0; r=a, the level will increase continuously when heated.
11. If v=ve, a>r, the level will increase continuously when heated.
12. The real expansion of a liquid does not depend upon the temperature of the container.
13. The apparent expansion of liquid depends on a) initial volume or liquid, b) rise in
temperature c) nature of liquid and d) nature of container.
14. The fraction of the volume of a glass flask that must be filled with mercury so that the
volume of the empty space left may be the same at all temperatures is 1/7.
15. If the same liquid is heated in two different vessels x and y then ( ra ) x + 3 t = ( ra ) y + 3 y
16. In determining r by Dulong and Pettits method, if h0 and ht are heights of liquid is the
two limbs of a U - tube maintained at 0C and tC r =
ht h0
/C
h0t
17. In determining a by specific gravity bottle method.

Weight of empty bottle = w1g
Weight of (bottle + remaining liquid) = w3g
Massof the liquid exp elled

Massof the remaining liquid Temp.diff .
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io
app =
( w3 w2 )
/C
( w3 w1 )(t2 t1 )
n.
app =
co
m
Weight of (bottle + liquid) = w2g
m1 m2
m2 (t2 t1 )
ed
uc
18. If m1 is mass of liquid and m2 is mass of remaining liquid, then a =
19. A specific gravity bottle contains m g of liquid of apparent expansion at 0C. if it is

heated through tC, mass of expelled liquid is
x=
mt
1+ t
is
heated
to
sh
i
20. When a solid substance is immersed in a liquid at 0C, the loss of weight is w0. Now liquid
tC,
loss
of
weight
in
the
substance
is
wt.
Then
ak
wt = w0 1 + ( s R ) t
w
.s
21. A solid of negligible volume expansion floats in a liquid. At t1C & t2C. the fractions f1, f2
of volumes of the solid remains submerged in the liquid. The coefficient of volume
a2 a1
a1t2 a2t1
expansion of liquid is R =
22. To keep the volume of empty space in a vessel (volume vg) constant at all temperatures by
pouring certain amount of a liquid of volume vl, the condition is vll=vgg where
l=coefficient of cubical expansion of liquid and g=coefficient of cubical expansion of
vessel.
23. The density of a liquid usually decreases when heated. If d1 and d2 are the densities of a
liquid at 0C and tC respectively, then
dt =
do
1+ r t
dt = do (1rt);
r =
d1 d 2
/o C
d1t 2 d 2 t 1
24. Anomalous Expansion of Water

a) When water at 0C is heated, its volume decreases up to 4C and from 4C its volume
increases with the increase of temperature. This peculiar behavior of water is called
anomalous expansion of water.
b) Water has maximum density and minimum volume at 4C.
maximum density at 4C.

d) Dilatometer is used to prove anomalous expansion of water.
co
m
c) Hopes apparatus is used to demonstrate that water has
n.
e) Aquatic animals are surviving in cold countries due to the anomalous expansion of
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water.
f) During winter, in cold countries, even if the temperature falls far below 0C, the water
in the frozen lakes or seas at the bottom remains at 4C.
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g) When water freezes, it expands and consequently water pipes burst in winter.
h) When water at 4C is filled to the brim of a beaker, then it over flows when it is either
cooled or heated.
4C.
sh
i
i) Water has positive coefficient of expansion above 4C and negative coefficient below
w
.s
ak
j) At 4C the coefficient of expansion of water is zero.
Transmission of Heat
1. Conduction and Convection
1. In general heat travels from one point to another whenever there is a difference of
temperatures.
co
m
2. Heat flows from a body at higher temperature to a lower temperature.

3. Heat is transferred by three distinct processes namely conduction, convection and radiation.
4. Conduction
n.
a. Conduction is the slowest process.
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b. Conduction is nil in vacuums.
c. Conduction is maximum in solids and minimum in gases.
d. In metals conduction is due to free electrons and in bad conductors conduction is due to
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collisions.
e. When a metal rod is heated continuously, after some time the temperature of any part of
the rod does not change with time. Such a state is called steady state.
sh
i
f. Under steady state the temperature gradient (temperature difference per unit length) and
rate of flow of heat through the rod are constant.
and
Q
= Constant
t
ak
t 2 t1
= Constant
l
w
.s
g. Heat conduction does not depend on the mass but depends on dimensions.
h. The amount of heat (Q) flowing through a rod is directly proportional to
i) The area of cross section (A) of the rod
ii) Temperature difference ( 1 2 ) between the ends of the rod
iii) The time (t) of flow the heat through the rod and
iv) is inversely proportional to the length (l) of the rod.
Q=
KA( 1 2 )t
.
l
Where K, is called the co-efficient of thermal conductivity of the rod

i. Unit of K : watt / m/k
j.
Q ( 1 2 )
=
t
(l / kA )
Here
DF : [MLT-3K-1]
Q
Heat current
t
l
(K-sec/J)
KA
k. Thermal resistance =
l. Thermal conductivity of a conductor depends on the material of the rod and is independent
of the dimensions of the rod.
m. Among solids silver is the best conductor ( k = 1.01w/m/k )
watt/k/m)
o. Among gases H2 and He have
water
= 1410-4
co
m
n. Among liquids mercury is the best conductor (KHg = 0.02 W/m/k; K
high conductivity.(H2= 31.8 105W / m / k and He
= 33.9 105W / m / k )
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io
q. K of a bad conductor is determined by Lees method.
n.
p. K of a good conductor is determined by Searles method.
r. Felt is a better insulator. The air enclosed in the fibers of the felt does not move.
s. Cloudy nights are warmer than clear nights because clouds (bad conductors) prevent heat
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from escaping into space.
t. A cooking vessel should have low specific heat and high thermal conductivity.
u. The thermometric conductivity or diffusivity is defined as the ratio of the coefficient of
sh
i
thermal conductivity to the thermal capacity per unit volume of the material.
Thermal capacity per unit volume= m s = s where
K
s
w
.s
Diffusivity D =
is density of substance.
ak
5. Combinations
a) Series combination
Rate of flow of heat same.

K 1A (1 ) K 2 A ( 2 )
=
l1
l2
Interface temperature =
If
l1 = l 2 = l , then
1
l1
K 11l 2 + K 2 2l1
K 1l 2 + K 2l 2
K =
and
2K 1K 2
K1 + K 2
2
k1
l2
l1 + l 2
l
l
= 1 + 2
K
K1 K 2
k2
b) Parallel combination
K ( A1 + A2 ) = K1A1 + K 2 A2
K 1A1 + K 2 A2
A1 + A2
If A1 = A2 = A
then,
K =
K1
K2
A2
K1 + K 2
2
co
m
K =
A1
1
6. Ingen hausz experiment If l1,l2 ,l 3 ..... are the lengths up to which is wax is melted on the rods
K1 K 2 K 3
= 2 = 2 = .....
l12
l2
l3
n.
of conductivities K1, K 2 , K 3 ....
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7. When the temperature falls below 0C say to C, the time taken for the thickness of ice
growing from x1 cm to x2 cm on a lake is given by t=
L
( x 2 2 x 12 )
2K
where
density of ice,
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K=coefficient of thermal conductivity of ice, L=latent heat of fusion of ice.

8. Convection
a. The transmission of heat from one part to another by the actual transfer of particles of
sh
i
matter is known as convection.
b. The process of transfer of heat from hotter part of the medium to the colder part of the
ak
medium by the bodily movement of the particles of the medium is called convection.
c. This is not possible in solids because of strong intermolecular forces.
w
.s
d. Convection is possible only in fluids.

e. Land breeze and sea breeze are due to convection and high specific heat of water.
f. Convection of is of two types

i.
Natural convection takes place in a still fluid. In natural convection heating is
done from the bottom and cooling is done from the top. e.g., hot air rises by natural
convection.
ii.
Forced convection which takes place in a stream of a fluid. In forced convection

heat transfer may take place in any direction.
e.g., cool air from open window enters the room and sends the hot air through
ventilators.
g. Natural convection cannot take place in gravity free space.
h. The rate of heat convection is proportional to 1) temperature difference between object and
the fluid (2) area of contact Q = hA (1 2 )
t
Where h is the convection co-efficient which depends on density, viscosity, specific heat
co
m
thermal conductivity etc.
2. RADIATION
1. Thermal radiation
n.
a. It is the process of transmission of heat from one place to another without any material
b. It is the fastest process of transfer of heat.

c. Heat radiation travels with velocity of light.
ed
uc
d. It comes under infra-red radiation.
at
io
medium.
e. During radiation, medium do not get heated.
f. Heat radiation does not require any material medium.
sh
i
g. Heat radiation obeys the laws of reflection, refraction etc and inverse square law ( I
1
d2
h. Heat radiation does not exhibit photo electric effect due to its law energy.
ak
i. Bodies which allow heat radiation are called diathermanous. eg: vacuum.
w
.s
j. Bodies which do not allow heat radiation are called athermanous. eg: wood.
k. Heat radiation belongs to continuous spectrum. This can be formed by rock salt and KCl
prism.
l. Heat radiations can be measured with (a) Ether thermo scope, (b) Bolometer (wheat
stones Bridge) (c) Thermopile (d) Thermister (e) Radiation pyrometer.
m.In this process medium is not heated.
2. Black body
a. The amount of heat radiation falling on a body may be (1) absorbed (a) (2) reflected (r)
and (3) transmitted (t)
a + r + t = 1
b. If a = 0 and t = 0, then r = 1, the surface is a perfect reflector (or) perfect white body.
c. If a = 0 and r = 0 then t = 1. The body is a good transmitter.
d. If t = 0 and r = 0 then a = 1, then the surface is a perfect absorber (or) a perfect black body.
e. Space and Sun are treated as perfect black bodies.
f. The absorption is 96% for lamp black and 98% for platinum black.
g. Weins black body and Ferrys black bodies are artificial black bodies.
co
m
h. The wave length ( ) of the heat radiation emitted depends on the temperature of the body.
3. Prevosts theory of heat exchanges
a. Every object emits and absorbs radiant energy at all temperatures except at absolute zero.
n.
b. The energy emitted by a body does not depend on the temperature of the surroundings.
c. The rate of emission increases with the increase in the temperature of the body.
at
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d. If the body emits more energy than absorbed its temperature decreases.
e. If the body absorbs more radiant energy than it emits, its temperature increases.
ed
uc
f. If two bodies continuously emit and absorb same amount of energy, then they are in
dynamical thermal equilibrium.
4. Emissive power (e)
a. The amount of energy emitted per second per unit surface area of a body at a given
sh
i
temperature for a given wavelength range ( and +d) is called emissive power.
ak
b. At a given temperature if the radiations emitted have a wavelength difference d, then the
emissive power is equal to ed.
w
.s
c. S.I unit of emissive power is Wm2 and its dimensional formula is MT3.
5. Emissivity (e): The ratio of radiant energy emitted by a surface to radiant energy emitted by a
black body under same conditions is called emissivity.
i) For a perfect black body emissivity e=1.

6. Absorptive power (a)
a. At a given temperature, for a given wavelength range, the ratio of energy absorbed to the
energy incident on the body is absorptive power.
a =
Amount of radiant energy absorbed

Amount of radiant energy incident
b. For a perfect black body, the absorptive power, a=1.

c. A surface can have different absorptive powers for different wavelengths.
d. Whenever radiant energy is incident on a surface, a part of it is absorbed, a part of it is
reflected and the remaining part is transmitted through it.
7. Reflecting power (r)
r=
Amount of radiant energy reflected

8. Transmitting power (t)

Amount of energy transmitte d
co
m
t=
9. Kirchoffs law
n.
i) The ratio of emissive power to absorptive power of a substance is constant.
at
io
ii) This constant is equal to the emissive power of a perfect black body at the given
temperature and wavelength.
e
= constant = E
a
ed
uc
i.e.,
Where E is the emissive power of perfect black body, e and a are emissive and
absorptive powers of a given substance respectively.
sh
i
iii) Good absorbers are good emitters.

iv) Poor absorbers are poor emitter.
ak
10. Applications of Kirchhoffs law
i) A piece of blue glass absorbs red wavelengths at ordinary temperature. When it is heated
w
.s
strongly and cooled it appears brighter than a piece of red glass.

ii) A piece of yellow glass absorbs blue wavelengths at ordinary temperatures when heated in
dark room it appears blue because it emits blue colour.
iii) Fraunhoffer lines in solar spectrum can be explained on the basis of Kirchhoffs law. They
are absorption lines.
iv) Black surfaces are good absorbers and so good emitters but bad reflectors.
v) Highly polished surfaces are bad absorbers and so bad emitters but good reflectors.
11. Stefans law
a. The amount of heat radiated by a black body per second per unit area is directly
proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature.
ET 4 E = T 4
Where =Stefans constant
=5.67x108 Wm2k4
b. Dimensional formula of Stefans constant is MT3T4.
c. Radiant energy emitted by a hot body per second=eAT4 where e is the emissivity of the
hot body, A its surface area, T its absolute temperature and the Stefans constant.
co
m
d. If the surface area of a body is more, it emits more heat energy. Hence it cools quickly.
e. A hot copper cube cools in a lesser time compared to a hot copper sphere of same mass
because of least surface area for sphere.
n.
f. Stefans law holds good when the surrounding medium of the black body is vacuum.
at
io
12. Stefan-Boltzmanns law
If a black body at absolute temperature T is surrounded by an enclosure at absolute

temperature To, then the rate of loss of heat energy by radiation per unit area is given by
To 4 ) .
ed
uc
E= (T 4
13. Newtons law of cooling
a. The rate of cooling of a hot body is directly proportional to the mean excess of temperature
sh
i
of the body above the surroundings, provided the difference in temperature of the body
and the surroundings is small.
where K =
ak
+ 2
d
= K 1
s
dt
2
4A3s
ms
Here
d
=Rate
dt
1, 2
are the initial and final temperature of the body respectively.
w
.s
of cooling.
is temperature of
surroundings and K is the cooling constant.
b. Newtons law of cooling is applicable when (i) the heat lost by conduction is negligible
and heat lost by the body is mainly by convection (ii) the hot body is cooled in uniformly
stream lined flow of air or forced convection (iii) the temperature of every part of the body
is same.
c. Newtons law holds good for small temperature differences upto 30C. In case of forced
convection the law holds good for large difference of temperatures.
d. Rate of loss of heat of a hot body due to cooling
dQ
d
= ms
dt
dt
Here m = mass of the body
and s = specific heat of the body.
e. Specific heat of a liquid can be determined using Newtons law of cooling.

f. If m1, m2 and m3 are masses of the calorimeter, water and liquid, s1, s2 and s3 are the
specific heats of the calorimeter, water and liquid and t1 and t2 are the times taken by water
and liquid to cool from 2 to 1C, then
m1s1 + m 2 s 2
t
= 1
m1s1 + m 3 s 3
t2
h. It can be deduced from Stefan Boltzmanns law of radiation.
co
m
g. Newtons law of cooling is a law connected with the process of convection.
i. A cube, a sphere, a circular plate of same material and same mass are heated to the same
n.
high temperature. Among them the sphere cools at the lower rate because of its least
at
io
surface area.
14. Distribution of energy in black body spectrum
ed
uc
i) The energy emitted by a black body contains large number of

wavelengths.
1646 K
1449 K
ii) Energy emitted by a black body is not distributed uniformly among

different wavelengths.
sh
i
iii) At a given temperature, the energy increases with increasing
wavelength.
1005 K
and decrease thereafter with increase in
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wavelength and reaches a maximum value
1259 K
w
.s
iv) As the temperature of black body increases, m the wavelength corresponding to maximum
energy decreases and shifts towards the shorter wavelength region.
v) The area under each curve represents total energy emitted by a black body at a particular
temperature. The energy distribution curves can be explained by different laws of black
body radiation like Wiens displacement law, Stefans law, Ray Leigh-Jeans law and
Plancks law.
vi) It can be deduced from Stefan Boltzmanns law of radiation.

15. Wiens displacement law
The wavelength
corresponding to maximum energy emitted by a black body is inversely
proportional to its absolute temperature.

mT=constant.
The value of constant is 2.9x103 mK.
i) Radiation emitted by a black body normally per unit surface area per second in unit
wavelength range is known as its monochromatic emissive power.
ii) Wiens energy temperature displacement law states that monochromatic energy density,
Em of the radiation of black body is proportional to the fifth power of its absolute
temperature.
co
m
EmT5=constant.
16. Wiens formula
A5
e b / T
d .
Where A, b are constants.
at
io
by Ed=
n.
The amount of energy contained in a spectral region between wavelength, and +d is given
i) Wiens law is valid only for shorter wavelengths.
ed
uc
17. RayLeigh-Jeans law
The amount of energy contained in a spectral region between wavelengths, and +d is given
by Ed= 8KT
d .
4
sh
i
Where K = Boltzmanns constant.
ii) Plancks law :
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i) Rayleigh-Jeans law holds good for longer wavelengths only.
iii) The entire region of black body radiant energy spectrum can be successfully explained by
w
.s
quantum theory proposed by Max Planck.

iv) Quantum theory proposes that any black body chamber contains simple harmonic
oscillators of molecular dimensions.
v) The simple harmonic oscillators can absorb or emit energy (E) in discrete amounts only.
vi) The energy emitted in the form of discrete packets is proportional to its frequency i.e.,
E E = h
where h = Plancks constant = 6.625x1034 Js.
18. Plancks radiation law
The amount of energy contained in a spectral region between wavelengths and +d is given by
E d =
8hc
hc
e KT 1
w
.s
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sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
Expansion of Gases
1. Since the expansion of gases is much more than that of liquid, all the expansions of gases are
real.
2. A gas has two types of coefficients of expansions.
ii) Pressure expansion of coefficient
co
m
i) Volume expansion coefficient and
3. Volume coefficient of a gas (): At constant pressure the ratio of
increase of volume per 1C rise in temperature to its original volume at

Vt V0
V0 t
or
V2 V1
V1t 2 V2 t 1
Or
Vt=V0 (1+t)
Unit of : C1 or K1.
4. Pressure coefficient of a gas (): At constant volume the ratio of
ed
uc
tC
-273.15 C
at
io
n.
0C is called volume coefficient of a gas.
increase of pressure per 1C rise in temperature to its original

pressure at 0C is called pressure coefficient of gas.
or
P2 P1
=
P1t 2 P2 t 1
. Unit: C1 or K1
Or
Pt=P0 (1+t)
-273.15oC
tC
sh
i
P P0
= t
P0 t
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5. Regnaults apparatus is used to determine the volume coefficient of a gas.
w
.s
6. Jollys bulb apparatus is used to determine the pressure coefficient of a gas.

7. Volume coefficient and pressure coefficient of a gas are equal and each equal to
1
/ C
273
or
0.0036/C for all gases.
8. Absolute scale of temperature

a) P-t graph or V-t graph is straight line intersecting the temperature axis at 273.15C. This
temperature is called absolute zero. (0 K)

b) Absolute zero is the temperature at which the volume of a given mass of a gas at constant
pressure or the pressure of the same gas at constant volume becomes zero.
c) The lowest temperature attainable is 273.15C or 0 K.
d) The scale of temperature on which the zero corresponds to 273C and each degree is equal to
the Celsius degree is called the absolute scale of temperature or thermodynamic scale of
temperature.
T K = t+273.15C.
e) There is no negative temperature on Kelvin scale.
9. Boyles law
a) At constant temperature, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional to its
1
V
co
m
volume.
or PV = K (n, T are constant) or P1V1 = P2V2.
n.
b) The value of K depends on the mass and temperature of the gas and the system of units.
constant temperature, the pressure of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its
at
io
c) At
density.
P d or P = K or P1 = P2 .
d1
d2
ed
uc
sh
i
d) P-V graph at a constant temperature (isothermal) is a rectangular hyperbola.

e) PV-V graph is a straight line parallel to volume axis.
1
V
graph is a straight line passing through the origin.
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f) P
w
.s
g) Many gases obey Boyles law only at high temperatures and low pressures.
10. Quill tube
11. Air bubble in a lake

An air bubble is reaching the top of a lake from the bottom (Temperature being constant),
depth of the lake is h.
a)
If the volume of the bubble becomes n times, h = H (n-1)

For the other liquid of density d,
h=
76 13.6
(n 1)
d
the
b)
h = H(n3 1)
If radius (or) diameter of the bubble becomes n times
c)
76 13.6 3
(n 1)
d
h=
For other liquid of density d,
If the surface area of the bubble becomes n times
h = H ( n3/2 1)
Where H is the atmospheric pressure

d)
For other liquid of density d,
h=
76 13.6 3 / 2
(n
1)
d
co
m
12. Charles Law (I)

The volume of a given mass of a gas is proportional to its absolute temperature at constant
pressure.
(P = const)
T
n.
V1 T1
=
V2 T2
P = const
at
io
V T (or)
T= const
P= const
ed
uc
13. Charles Law (II): The pressure of a given mass of a gas is proportional to its absolute
P T (or)
P1 T1
= (V = const)
P2 T2
sh
i
temperature at constant volume. (Gay-lusacs law)
15. Gas Equation
ak
14. The constant volume gas thermometer works on the principle of Gay-lusacs law.
PV
=r
T
w
.s
a) For 1 gm of a gas
For m grams of the gas
PV
= mr
T
r is the specific gas constant which depends on nature of the gas and amount of the gas and
different for different gases.

b) For one mole of a gas
For n moles of a gas
PV
=R
T
PV
= nR
T
Where R is the universal gas constant, which is constant for all gases
r=
R
M
c) Boltzmann constant K =
R
N
where N is the Avogadro number.
N = 6.023 1023 and
K = 1.38 10-23J/k
16. Ideal Gases

a) A gas which obeys gas laws at all temperatures and pressures is called an ideal gas.
b) Ideal gas molecules have no specific shape (or) size. These are point masses.
c) These exist in gaseous state even at absolute zero.
molecules.
They have only KE.
n.
e) At absolute zero the internal energy of an ideal gas is zero.
co
m
d) There are no molecular forces of attractions and hence there is no PE for the ideal gas
f) Values of R:
=
8.31107 erg/gm. mole/K
= 8.31J/gm mole/K
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uc
at
io
e) Real gases obey gas laws at low pressure and high temperatures.
8.31 103J/kg mole/K
1.98 cal/gm mole/oC
0.083litre atm/K
sh
i
ak
18. A sample of an ideal gas occupies a volume V at a pressure P and absolute temperature T. The
mass of each molecule is m. If K is the Boltzmann constant, then the density of the gas is
Pm
KT
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.s
d =
19. If two vessels of equal volume containing same gas at temperature T1 and T2 and pressure P1 and
P=
P1T2 + P2T1
T1 + T2
P2 combine by a time capillary tube, the final common pressure is
20. Two vessels of volumes V1 and V2 contain air pressures P1 and P2 respectively. If they are
connected by a small tube of negligible volume then the common pressure is
P=
P1V1 + P2 V2
V1 + V2
Thermodynamics
Calorimetry and Joules Law
co
m
1. When two substances at different temperatures re mixed the heat lost by the hot body
is equal to the heat gained by the cold body.
2. The transfer of heat takes place until the temperature of the two substances become
3. Water can not be converted in ice by using ice.
n.
equal.
at
io
4. Water can not be converted into steam by mere passing steam into it.
5. Steam causes severe burns than water at 1000 C as it contains more heat as latent
ed
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heat.
6. To extinguish the fire, hot water is perfectible to cold water because it readily
converts into steam which forms a layer above the fire and acts as a bad conductor of
heat and prevents the supply of oxygen.
always 1000 C .
sh
i
7. When equal amount of water and steam are mixed the resultant temperature is
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8. Ice at 00 C produces more cooling effect than water at 00 C
w
.s
9. m rams of ice at t 0C is converted into steam at 1000 C .

10. s = m1s1 + m2 s2 + m3 s3 + ..
Q = m 720 +
2
(For an alloy)
m1 + m2 + m3 + ...
11. = s11 + s22 + s33 + .. (For n liquids of same mass)
s1 + s2 + s3 + ...
12. Thermal capacity:

The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance through 1 o C (or) 1 K
is called the thermal capacity (or) Heat capacity.
Heat capacity = Q = ms or
ms =
dQ
dt
Unit:
DF: ML2T 2 K 1
cal / o C (or) J/k
s=
Thermal capacity per unit mass is called specific heat.
1 dQ
m dt
13. Water equivalent:

The amount of water which requires the same amount of heat for the same rise of
co
m
temperature as that of a body is called water equivalent.
Thermal capacity and water equivalent are equal numerically in is system.

Units: gm (or) kg
n.
14. Latent Heat
the temperature is called the latent heat.

15. Latent Heat of fusion
at
io
The amount of heat required to change the state of a one gram of a without changing
ed
uc
The amount of heat required to change the one gram of ice in to water without changing
the temperature is called the latent heat of fusion of ice.
Q= mL
16.
sh
i
L of ice = 80 cal/gm = 336 103 J / kg DF M 0 L2T 2

Latent Heat of Vaporization
ak
The amount of heat required to change the one gram water into steam without the
change in temperature is called the latent heat of vaporization of water.
w
.s
L of steam = 540cal/gm = 2.26 106 J / kg

17. Regalation: Melting of ice under pressure and resolidification when pressure is
is hoarfrost line
a) Vaporization curve (steam line)

i. It shows the variation of B.P. with pressure.
Solid
Water
A
lin
e
S
te
am
In the diagram OA is steam line, OB is ice line and OC
e
ice lin
18. Phase Diagram:
4.58 mm Pressure
Ex: Skating.
removed is called regulation.
P e
in
nl
tio
a
m
i
bl
Su
273.16 K
Vapour
Temperature
ii. As pressure increases B.P.of water increases. This is the principle of pressure
cooker.
iii. The slope of the curve is positive.
iv. Each point on the curve shows a set of values of pressure and temperature at
which the liquid and gaseous (vapor) states co-exist.
co
m
v. At any particular temperature, if the pressure is increased, the vapour will

immediately condense into the liquid
b) Fusion curve (Ice line)
As the pressure increases m.p. of ice decreases. (Regalation: skating and
n.
i.
at
io
iceberg melts at the bottom).

ii.
The slope of the curve is negative.
iii.
Each point on the ice line shows a set of values of pressure and temperature at
iv.
ed
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which solid and liquid phases co-exist.
At any particular temperature, if the pressure is increased the solid will melt
into the liquid.
sh
i
c) Sublimation curve (Hoar froast line)
As the pressure increases, the sublimation point increases.
ii.
The slope of the curve is positive.
iii.
Each point in the curve gives a set of value of pressure and temperature at
ak
i.
w
.s
which the solid and the vapour states co-exists.

iv.
At any particular temperature if the pressure is increased, the vapour changes

into solid.
d) Triple point
The three curves meet at the point O called triple point. At this temperature all
three states namely solid, liquid, and vapour states coexists.

For water: 273.16K at 610.42pa
(4.6mm of Hg)
For Co2 : 216.65K at 3.88mm of Hg

For Iodine: 387K at 90mm of Hg.
19. Specific heat
the
a. It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a

substance through 1K (or) 10 C .
Unit: cal/gm/ 0 C (or) J/kg/k
D.F: M 0 L2T 2 K 1
s=
m through t 0C , then
Q
mt
Q = mst
(or)
20. Joules Law
co
m
b. If Q is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance of mass
If W is the work done and H the quantity of heat produced, then W H
n.
W= J H
(or)
at
io
Where J is a constant called mechanical equivalent of heat (or) Joules constant.

The mechanical equivalent of heat may be defined as the quantity of work to be
expended in order to produce unit amount of heat.
ed
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J = 4.185 107 erg / cal = 4.185 joule / cal
J has no significance if both heat and work are measured in SI system. J has no DF
For a water fall,
gh
Js
sh
i
mgh =Jmst t =
For complete melting of an ice block falling from certain height ,

JL
= 34.2km
g
ak
h=
mgh = JmL
w
.s
This height is independent of mass of ice.

If the ice block falls from lesser height than 34.2km, a part of ice that is melted is
mgh
JL
mgh = JxL x =
If an ice block is dragged in horizontal rough surface mgs = JmL

If a metal block is dragged an a horizontal surface, then the rise in temperature of
the block Jmst = ms
t=
gs
J
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic processes laws
co
m
1. The branch of science in which the mutual conversion of heat and mechanical work is
studied is called thermodynamics.
2. Zeroth law of thermodynamics
n.
a. This law gives the concept of temperature.
b. If the temperatures of two bodies are equal then they are said to be in thermal
at
io
equilibrium.
c. When two bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third body C individually,
3. Internal energy
ed
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then the bodies A and B are in thermal equilibrium with each other.
a. The molecules of real gas posses both PE and KE. Hence the sum of PE and KE is
called the internal energy.
sh
i
b. The PE is due to inter molecular mutual force of attractions and this depends on the
distance between the molecules i.e. Volume of the gas.
1
2
3
2
ak
c. The KE of a gas is a function of the temperature of the gas ( mv 2 = KT where K is
w
.s
called the Boltzmanns constant)
d. For an ideal gas, as there are no inter molecular forces, there is no PE. Hence the
internal energy is only due to KE. Hence it is a function of temperature.
e. Internal energy depends only on the initial and final states of gas. But not on the path.
f. Change in the internal energy du = nCv dT
g. The change in the internal energy in a cyclic process is zero.
4. Indicator diagram
a. A graphical representation of the state of a system with the help of two thermodynamic
variables is called indicator diagram.
b. If the thermodynamic variables are P and V (general case) the graph between P and V is
co
m
called P-V diagram.
c. The work done by the system or on the system can be numerically equal to the area
under the P-V diagram with volume axis.
n.
5. Work done
at
io
a. If the volume of the gas is changed from V1 to V2, then the total work done is given
by
V2
V2
V1
V1
V1
dw = PdV = P (V )
Or W = P (V2 V1 ) = nRdT
ed
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V2
b. Work done is path dependent.
w
.s
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sh
i
c. For any cyclic process as shown
p2 p1 v2 v1
2 2
d. Work done = ab =
6. Sign Convention
a. Work done on the system is negative and work done by the system is positive.
b. Work done is positive if the system expands and work done is negative when the
system contracts.
c. Increase in the internal energy is positive and decrease in the internal energy is
negative.
d. Heat gained is positive and heat lost is negative.
(Heat given to the system is positive and heat given out by the system is negative)
7. First law of thermo dynamics
a. First law of thermodynamics obeys the law of conservation of energy.
b. According to first law heat and work are mutually convertible.
c. If an amount of heat dQ is given to a system, a part may increase the internal energy
dQ = dU + dW
co
m
(du) while the remaining part may used as external work done (dw) by the system.
d. For a cyclic process as the change in the internal energy is zero, the total heat given is
8. Limitation of 1st law of thermo dynamics
at
io
e. This law is special form of Joules law.
n.
dQ = dw = p dv ( du = 0 )
converted into work done
direction of flow of heat
ed
uc
a. Heat always flows from a hot body to cold body. But the first law does not indicate the
b. First law does not indicate as to why heat energy developed in the target can not be
converted into the KE of the bullet
sh
i
c. The first law does not indicate why the whole heat energy cannot be converted into
mechanical work continuously.
ak
9. Specific heat
a. It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1kg of a
w
.s
substance through 1K (or) 10 C .

Unit: cal/gm/ 0 C (or) J/kg/k
D.F: M 0 L2T 2 K 1
b. If Q is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a substance of mass m
through t 0C , then
s=
Q
mt
(or)
Q = mst
c. Among the solids, liquids and gases H 2 has maximum specific heat (3.5 cal/gm/ o C )
d. Among solids and liquids water has highest specific heat. (1 cal/ gm/ o C or
4200J/kg/k)
e. Specific heat may be positive or negative or zero or infinity.
f. Gases have two specific heats namely.

(1) Specific heat at constant pressure ( cP )
(2) Specific Heat at constant volume ( cV )
g. The heat given at constant volume is utilized only to increase the temperature of the
gas. (Or internal energy). But heat given at constant pressure is utilized to increase the
CP > cV .
co
m
temperature and to do work against external pressure. Hence
h. CP : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a gas of mass 1gm
n.
through 1 o C at constant pressure is called CP . (principal specific heat)
at
io
i. CP : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 mole of a gas through
1 o C at constant pressure is called molar specific heat CP
Q
( or ) Q = nCP T
nT
ed
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Molar specific heat =
Molar specific heat = M principal sp. heat

CP
=M
cP
CP
=M
cP
sh
i
CP = McP ( or )
Similarly for CV
ak
CP CV = R (Mayers relation)
w
.s
CP CV = nR and
CP
=
CV
(All are molar specific heats)
21. CV of the mixture:
CV =
n1CV1 + n2CV2
n1 + n2
n1CP 1 + n2CP 2
22. CP of the mixture:
CP =
23. of the mixture:
n1 + n2
n
n
= 1 + 2
1 1 1 2 1
n1 + n2
The fraction of energy supplied to increase the internal energy of a gas is

The fraction of energy supplied to do work is 1
24. Degrees of freedom: The total no. of co-ordinates which are to be known to describe
Name of
co
m
completely the position (or) state of a system is called dof.
Dof
CV
CP
f
R
2
+ 1 R
2
2+ f
Mono-atomic
3
R
2
5
R
2
5
3
Di-atomic
7
R
2
7
5
8
R
2
4
3
or
6
R
2
w
.s
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poly-atomic
5
R
2
sh
i
Tri-atomic
ed
uc
formula
at
io
General
n.
the gas
10. Isothermal process
a. A process in which the change in volume and pressure occur in a given gas at
constant temperature is called isothermal process.
b. This process is represented by PV=constant (Boyles law).
c. It is a slow process
d. As temperature is constant, internal energy does not change.
e. The process takes place in a thermally conducting vessel
f. In isothermal expansion heat flows from the surrounding to the gas.
g. First law of thermo dynamics is written as dQ = dW ( dU = 0 )

h. Specific heat of the gas is infinity. (t = 0 )
i. Heat content changes due to thermal contact.
v2
v2
= 2.303RT log
v1
v1
co
m
j. Work done W = RT log
Ex: slow expansion of a gas in a cylinder, change of state, leakage of air gas the
n.
cycle tube through a small hole, etc.
11. Adiabatic process
insulation is called adiabatic process.
ed
uc
b. This process is represented by
at
io
a. A process in which pressure and volume of a gas changes in complete thermal
PV = K ; TV 1 = K ; T P1 = cons tan t
c. It is a quick process.
d. Heat content of the system does not change.
sh
i
e. The process undergoes in a perfect non-conducting vessel.

f. In adiabatic expansion internal energy decreases.
ak
g. Adiabatic expansion produces cooling effect .

h. First law of thermodynamics is written du = -dw ( dQ = 0 )
w
.s
i. Specific heat is zero ( dQ = 0 )
j. Work done w =
R ( T2 T1 )
1
k. Slope of adia. curve = Slope of iso. curve

Ex; Busting of a cycle tyre, prorogation of sound wave in a gas etc
12. Isobaric Process

a. P=const.
b. dw = Pdv= P (V2 V1 )
c. dQ = du + Pdv
13. Isochoric process

a. V = const.
b. dw = Pdv = 0
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
c. dQ = dU
Thermodynamics
Heat Engines
1. Second law of thermo dynamics
a. Kelvin: It is impossible to derive a continuous supply of work by cooling a body to
co
m
the temperature lower than the coldest of the surroundings.
b. Claussius: It is impossible for a self acting machine unaided by any external
agency to transfer heat from a body at a lower temperature to another at a higher
n.
temp.
at
io
c. Planck: It is impossible to construct a heat engine which can completely convert

heat energy into mechanical energy with out rejecting heat to the surroundings.
2. Reversible process
ed
uc
a. A process which can be retraced back in the opposite direction in such a way that
the system passes through the same state as that in the direct process and finally the
system acquire the initial conditions is called a reversible process.
surroundings.
sh
i
b. The system must always be in thermal and chemical equilibrium with the
ak
c. There should not be any loss of energy.

d. Ex: fusion of ice, vaporization of water, seebeck effect etc.
w
.s
3. Irreversible process
a. A process which cannot be retraced back in opposite direction is called as an
irreversible process.
b. The system does not pass through the same intermediate states as that in the direct
process.
c. Ex: Work done against friction, joules heating effect, diffusion of gases into one
another, the magnetic hysteresis.
d. All most all natural process all irreversible.
4. Free expansion
a. When a gas expands into vacuum absorbing no heat energy from the surroundings
and performing no external work, then it is called free expansion (or) Joule
expansion.
b. In free expansion, Q = 0, W = 0 from the first law of thermodynamics,
Q = U + W
U = constant
OR
U = 0
and T = constant.
co
m
c. Boyles law is applicable in free expansion.
5. Cyclic process
n.
a. If a system undergoes a series of processes such that it finally returns to the original
at
io
state, then the system is said to undergo a cyclic process.

b. The change in the internal energy is zero.
c.
( Q = U + W )max = 0 + Wmax and
Qnet = Wheat
ed
uc
d. The net amount of heat energy absorbed by the ideal gas is equal to the net work
done by the gas.
e. If a cyclic process is represented by a PV graph the area bounded with in the closed
sh
i
curve gives the net work done by the gas.
6. When the door of a refrigerator is opened, the temperature of the room increases,
ak
because the motor of the refrigerator extract the heat from the freezing chamber and
releases it to outer atmosphere.
w
.s
7. When a thermos flask containing coffee is vigorously shaken, its temperature increases
slightly due to work done against the viscous forces of the liquid.
8. A cyclic device by which heat energy can be continuously transformed into mechanical
work by repeating the same thermodynamic process a number of times is said to be a

heat engine.
9. The material used in the operation of an engine is called the working substance which
is different for different heat engines.
10. There are three parts in a heat engine.
a) Source (hot body)
11. Efficiency =
b) Working substance
Heat converted as work

heat drawn from the source
c) Sink (cold body)
W Q1 Q 2
=
Q1
Q1
Q
T
= 1 2 = 1 2
Q1
T1
12. Efficiency depends on the temperature of the source and sink but not on the working
substance.
13. For 100% efficiency T1 = (or) T2 = 0 k. As absolute zero and infinite temperature
cannot be realized in practice, the efficiency of a heat engine can not have 100%. The
efficiency of a heat engine is always less than unity.
(i.e.) it is
co
m
14. If T2= 0 then Q2 is also zero. Since T2 = 0 is not positive Q2 = 0 is also not possible
not possible to convert whole heat energy into work without rejecting a
part to the sink.
n.
Refrigerator
at
io
a. Any device capable of transferring heat from a cold body to a relatively hotter body is
called refrigerator. An ideal heat engine operating in the reverse processes is called
refrigerator.
ed
uc
b. The working substance absorbs heat energy from the sink at lower temperature, a net
amount of work is done on it by an external agent and a large amount of heat is refused
to the source.
sh
i
c. The working substance is called refrigerant.
d. If Q2 is the heat energy absorbed from the sink at T2k and Q1 is the heat given to the
source at T1k. Then
ak
The ratio of heat extracted from the sink and to the work required to be done on the
w
.s
refrigerator is called the coefficient of performance K =
Q2
Q2
1
=
=
W Q1 Q2 T1
1
T2
e. The coefficient of performance of a refrigerator is more than 100%.
Kinetic Theory of Gases

1) Assumptions
a) Every gas consists of extremely small particles called molecules.
co
m
b) The molecules of a gas are identical, spherical, rigid a perfectly elastic point
masses.
c) Their size is negligible in comparison to intermolecular distance (109 m)
n.
d) The volume of molecules is negligible in comparison to the volume of gas.
at
io
e) Molecules of a gas are in random motion in all directions with all possible
velocities.
f) The speed of gas molecules lies between zero and infinity
ed
uc
g) The gas molecules collide among themselves as well as with the walls of vessel.
These collisions are perfectly elastic.
h) The time spent in a collision between two molecules is negligible in comparison

to time between two successive collisions.
sh
i
i) The number of collisions per unit volume in a gas remains constant.

j) No attractive or repulsive force acts between gas molecules.
ak
k) Gravitational attraction among the molecules is negligible due to their small
w
.s
masse and very high speed.

l) The change in momentum is transferred to the walls of the container causes
pressure.
m) The density of gas is constant at all points of the container.
2) Avogadros law: Equal volume of all the gases under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules i.e.
N1 = N 2 .
3) Grahams law of diffusion: When two gases at the same pressure and temperature
are allowed to diffuse into each other, the rate of diffusion of each gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of the density of the gas i.e.
r1
=
r2
molecular weight of the gas)
2
=
1
1
M
(M is the
M2
M1
r=
V
t
co
m
If V is the volume of gas diffused in t sec then

r1
V t
= 1 2
r2 V2 t1
4) Daltons law of partial pressure: The total pressure exerted by a mixture of non-
n.
reacting gases occupying a vessel is equal to the sum of the individual pressures which
For n gases
at
io
each gases exert if it alone occupied the same volume at a given temperature.
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ..... Pn
P1 , P2 , P3 , ...... Pn = Partial
pressure of
ed
uc
Where P = Pressure exerted by mixture and

component gases.
5) Vander Waal's gas equations
P + 2 (V b) = RT
V
sh
i
For 1 mole of gas
P + a
V2
(V b ) = RT
ak
For moles of gas
Here a and b are constant called Vander Waals constant

[ML5 T 2 ]
w
.s
Dimension: [a] =
and [b] = [L3]
Units: a = N m4 and b = m3.
6) Pressure of an Ideal Gas
2
1
Pressure exerted by an ideal gas P = mnv where m is the mass of each molecule, n is
3
the number molecules per unit volume and v is the mean square velocity of gas
2
molecules. Here v = v
2
x
+v
2
y
+v
where v x , v
and v z are mean square velocity
components along x, y and z directions.
1 N 2
P = m v Where N is the total number of molecules in the average of volume V
3 V
v 2 + v 2 2 + v33 + v
v = 1
N
N
= is the density of the gas
V
P =
co
m
mn = m
2
1
v
3
n.
7) Various Speeds of Gas Molecules
at
io
The motion of molecules in a gas is characterized by any of the following three

speeds.
(1) Root mean square speed: It is defined as the square root of mean of squares of
i.e.
ed
uc
the speed of different molecules

v12 + v 22 + v 32 + v 42 + ....
=
N
vrms =
v2
3P
3 PV
=
Mass of gas
Mass of gas
= Density of the gas
V
3 RT
=
M
, M =
1
2
v rms
3
3 kT
m
(mass
of gas), pV = RT , R =
kN A ,
k=
w
.s
where =
ak
vrms
P=
sh
i
(i) From the expression of pressure
Boltzmanns constant,
M
NA
= mass of each molecule.
m=
(ii) With rise in temperature rms speed of gas molecules increases as v rms
(iii) With increase in molecular weight rms speed of gas molecule decreases as
v rms
1
M
. e.g., rms speed of hydrogen molecules is four times that of oxygen
molecules at the same temperature.
(iv) rms speed of gas molecules is of the order of km/s e.g., at NTP for hydrogen
gas
3 8 .31 273
= 1840 m / s .
2 10 3
(v) rms speed of gas molecules is

v rms =
3 RT
M
and
RT
vs =
v rms =
times that of speed of sound in gas, as
co
m
3 RT
=
M
(vrms ) =
vs
(vi) rms speed of gas molecules does not depends on the pressure of gas (if
n.
temperature remains constant) because P (Boyles law) if pressure is increased
at
io
n times then density will also increases by n times but vrms remains constant.
(vii) Moon has no atmosphere because vrms of gas molecules is more than escape
ed
uc
velocity (ve).
A planet or satellite will have atmosphere only if
vrms < ve
(viii) At T = 0; vrms = 0 i.e. the rms speed of molecules of a gas is zero at 0 K. This
sh
i
temperature is called absolute zero.
(2) Most probable speed: The particles of a gas have a range of speeds. This is
defined as the speed which is possessed by maximum fraction of total number of
ak
molecules of the gas.
w
.s
Most probable speed
vmp =
2P
2 RT
=
M
2kT
m
(3) Average speed: It is the arithmetic mean of the speeds of molecules in a gas at
given temperature.
v av =
Average speed
v 1 + v 2 + v 3 + v 4 + .....
N
vav =
8P
8 RT
8 kT
8) Mean Free Path.

(1) The distance travelled by a gas molecule between two successive collisions is
known as free path.
Total distance travelled by a gas molecule between successive collisions
Total number of collisions
constant velocity and Let
1 , 2 , 3 .....
co
m
During two successive collisions, a molecule of a gas moves in a straight line with
be the distance travelled by a gas molecule
during n collisions respectively, and then the mean free path of a gas molecule is given by
(2)
n.
1 + 2 + 3 + .... + n
n
1
2nd 2
ed
uc
Where d = Diameter of the molecule,
at
io
n = Number of molecules per unit volume

(3) As PV = RT = NkT
1
kT
2
2 d P
2nd
2 (mn )d
ak
(4) From
of molecule per unit volume so
sh
i
N
P
=
= n = Number
V
kT
2d 2
[As m = Mass each molecule, mn = Mass per unit volume = Density = ]
w
.s
(5) If average speed of molecule is v then
=v
t
= vT
N
[As N = Number of collision in time t, T = time interval between two collisions].
(i) As
of a
and
i.e. the mean free path is inversely proportional to the density
gas and directly proportional to the mass of each molecule.
(ii) As =
molecules,
kT
2
2 d P
P
T
. For constant volume and hence constant number density n of gas
is constant so that will not depend on P and T. But if volume of
given mass of a gas is allowed to change with P or T then T at constant pressure

and
9.
1
P
at constant temperature.
Degrees of freedom
The total number of independent ways in which a system can possess energy is called
co
m
the degree of freedom (f).

a) Mono-atomic gas: Molecule of mono-atomic gas can have three independent
motions and hence 3 degrees of freedom (all translational).
n.
b) Diatomic gas: Molecule of diatomic gas has 5 degree of freedom.3 translational
at
io
and 2 rotational.
c) Tri-atomic gas: A non-linear molecule can rotate about any of three co-ordinate
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
axes. Hence it has 6 degrees of freedom: 3 translational and 3 rotational.
Equations
1. Any motion repeated at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
co
m
Eg: Earth revolution around itself, simple pendulum.

2. If there is retracement of the path, it is called harmonic motion. Ex: Simple
pendulum.
n.
3. Every harmonic is periodic. But every periodic is not harmonic.
etc.
at
io
4. Angular SHM: Simple pendulum, Sting under vibrations, vibrations of a tuning fork
5. Linear SHM: Loaded spring, a body dropped in a tunnel along the diameter of the
ed
uc
earth, a liquid in a U-tube etc.
6. In SHM acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement of the particle from

the fixed point, and the acceleration is always directed towards the fixed point in the
path of the body.
a x
a = kx
sh
i
(Or)
Also F x (or) F = k x
a = x
w
.s
F k
=
x.
m m
ak
Acceleration (a) =
(Or)
d 2x
k
+ 2 x = 0 Where =
2
m
dt
This is the differential equation of a body executing SHM.

7. For a body executing SHM,
Variables: Displacement, Velocity, KE, PE, acceleration.

Constants: TE, Time Period, Frequency, Amplitude, angular Velocity.
8. Phase
a. Phase represents the state of vibration of a vibrating body from the mean position
expressed in degrees (or) radians.
b. If two particles are in phase, the phase difference may be 0, 2 , 4 , 6 ,....2n

where n is an integer.
c. Phase difference =
2
path difference.
x Where is the wavelength
d. Phase difference =
2
Time difference
T
2
t Where T is the time period
T
n.
co
m
= ( t2 t1 ) =
2
( t2 t1 ) .
T
ed
uc
And for two time periods = 2 t 1 1 .
at
io
e. If at two instants of time t1 and t2 for a vibrating body. The time period is
T1
T2
9. Amplitude: The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its mean

position is called amplitude (A). It is a vector quantity. If a1 and a2 are the
sh
i
amplitudes of two SHMs with a phase difference , the resultant amplitude is given
ak
by a 2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1 , a2 cos .
10. Representation of S. H. M.: When a particle
w
.s
is executing periodic motion along a circular

path, the foot of the perpendicular drawn
P (t=sec)
A (t=0)
X
P (t=sec)
P
Y
x (t=0)
A (t=0)
Y
Phase constant=
Y=Asint-
Phase constant=
Y=Asint+
=0
Y=Asint
from the instantaneous position of a particle on any diameter executes simple
harmonic motion.
The simple harmonic motion is represented as

Y = A sin (w t +)
Y = instantaneous displacement
A = Amplitude
Wt + = phase; is called initial phase.
Characteristics of S H M
A) Instantaneous displacement: The distance of the particle from mean position in
a particular direction at any instant of time is known as instantaneous displacement.
It is given by Y = A sin (t +)
Y = 0, at Mean position
ii)
Y = A at extreme position
n.
i)
co
m
If the particle starts from Mean position, = 0 then
B) Velocity: The rate of change of displacement is called velocity.

dy
dt
= Aw cos (wt +)
v=
A2 y2
at
io
v=
and
If the particle starts from the mean position, = 0 then
ed
uc
i) v = A, ie., maximum at Mean Position
ii) v = 0, ie., minimum at extreme Position
acceleration.
a=
dv
dt
sh
i
C) Acceleration: the rate of change of velocity of a particle in S H M is called
= A2 sin (t +) = 2y
or
ay
ak
If the particle starts from the Mean position, = 0, then

a = 0, i.e., minimum at mean position
ii)
a = 2 A, i.e., maximum at extreme position.
w
.s
i)
D) Time Period: Time taken by vibrating particle in S.H.M. to complete one
vibration is called Time period

General formula:
T = 2
or period of oscillation.
displaceme nt
acceleration
= 2
y
a
E) Potential Energy
P.E. =
1
1
m 2 x 2 = m 2 A2 sin 2
2
2
Where m = mass of S.H.M.
x = displacement of S.H.M. from its mean position

A = amplitude of oscillation
= phase angle from its mean position
During one complete vibration average potential Energy is given by = 1/4 m2A2
The K. E. of a particle in S.H.M is given by
co
m
F) Kinetic Energy
K. E = 1/2 m2 (A2 - y2 ) = 1/2
m2A2 cos2 (t )
n.
During one complete vibration average kinetic Energy = 1/4 m2A2
i) T. E. = P. E. + K. E. = 1/2 m2A2 +U0
at
io
G)Total Energy
ii) When a particle is in S. H. M. At any position T. total energy is constant.
ed
uc
Energy and displacement curve.
K.E.
sh
i
P.E.
X=0
X=A
ak
X=A
11. Equilibrium Position: the point at which no net force acts on the oscillating body is
w
.s
known as equilibrium position or mean position.

i) Displacement of the body is Minimum.
ii) Velocity of the body is Maximum.

iii) Acceleration of the body is Minimum.
iv) P. E. of the body is Minimum.

v) At the Mean position K.E. of the body is Maximum
12. Extreme Position: the point at which maximum force acts on the oscillating body is
known as extreme Position.
i) Displacement of the body is Maximum.
ii) Velocity of the body is Minimum.

iii) Acceleration of the body is Maximum.
iv) P. E. of the body is Maximum.
v) K. E. of the body is Minimum.
2 2
2 2
13. If V1 and V2 are the velocities at displacements y1 and y2 ,then A = V1 y22 V22 y1
V12 V22
2
2
y2 y1
co
m
V1 V2
2
2
and T = 2 y22 y12 .
V1 V2
n.
14. If f is the frequency of SHM, then the frequency of kinetic energy or potential energy
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
is 2f.
Simple Pendulum
1. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is independent of amplitude (for small
co
m
values only), length being constant.

2. At constant length, the period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is independent of
l = length of the simple pendulum

g = acceleration due to gravity at a place.
. Where
ed
uc
3. Tension in the string of simple pendulum
L
g
at
io
Time period of a simple pendulum (T) = 2
n.
size, shape or material of the bob.
a. Tmin = mg Cos (when bob is at extreme position)
b. T = mg (3 - 2 Cos) (When bob is at any position)

Where is any angular amplitude.
sh
i
4. I - T2 graph of a simple pendulum is straight line passing through origin.

5. l-T graph of a simple pendulum is parabola.
ak
6. At the point of intersection of l-T graph and lT2 graph of a simple
l -T
l -T2
w
.s
pendulum.
i) T = 1 second
l
ii) n = 1 Hz.
iii)
l=
g
4 2
25cm
On the surface of the earth
7. If L = (infinity). T = 2 R = 84.5 min.

g
8. If L = R ,
T = 2
R 84.5
=
min
2g
2
9. If L is very small compared to Radius of the earth, T = 2
10. Restoring Force on the bob of the pendulum is F = mg sin .

11. Seconds pendulum
i) The simple pendulum whose time period equal to 2 seconds is called seconds
pendulum.
iii) Since T = 2 sec, L =
co
m
ii) The length at place where g = 9.8 m/s2 is 100 cm.

g
2
g1 g 2
n.
iv) For two places, change in length =
When the elevator is going up with an acceleration a, then its time period is given
by T =
ii)
L
g+a
When the elevator is moving down with an acceleration a, then its time period is
given by T =
L
ga
When the elevator is at rest or moving up or down with constant velocity the time
sh
i
iii)
ed
uc
i)
at
io
Application
period is given by T = 2 T = 2 L
iv)
ak
When the elevator is moving down with an acceleration (-a) then its time period
v)
w
.s
is given by T = 2
L
.
g+a
In case of downward accelerated motion is a > g the pendulum turns upside and
L
ag
oscillates about the highest point with T = 2
vi)
If a simple pendulum of length 'L' suspended in a car that is travelling with a

constant speed around a circle of radius 'r', then its time period of oscillation is
given by
T = 2
L
v2
g2 +
r
vii) If a simple pendulum of length 'L' suspended in car moving horizontally with
acceleration 'a' is given by T = 2
L
g + a2
2
The equilibrium position is inclined to the vertical by an angle ''. Where =

g
co
m
tan1 a opposite to the acceleration.

viii) If the bob of a simple pendulum is given a charge 'q' and is arranged in an electric
field of intensity 'E' to oscillate.
l
Eq
g
m
. So time period increases.
at
io
g1=g- Eq .Then T1=2
n.
a) Opposite to g, Electric force Eq will be opposite to the force mg. Hence
b) In the direction of g Electric force Eq will be in the direction

Eq
m
then T1 = 2
ed
uc
of force mg. Hence g1 = g +
period decreases.
so time
l
g+
+ve charge
Eq
+q
Eq
m
-ve charge
Then T1=2
. So time period decreases.
Eq
g2 +
If a simple pendulum of length L is suspended from the ceiling of a cart which is
w
.s
ix)
Eq
g2 +
ak
Henceg1 =
sh
i
c) Perpendicular to g Electric force Eq will be perpendicular to the force mg.
sliding without friction on an inclined plane of inclination ''. Then the time
period of oscillations is given by T =
x)
L
g cos
since the effective acceleration
changes from g to g cos.
A simple pendulum fitted with a metallic bob of density ds has a time period T.
When it is made to oscillate in a liquid of density d1 then its time period
increases. T = 2
d
g1 l
ds
12. Time period of Torsion pendulum T = 2
I
C
I = moment of Inertia about the
suspension wire C = couple per unit twist.

13. When a hole is drilled along the diameter of the earth and if a body is dropped in it, it
moves to and from about the centre of the earth and is in S.H M. with a time period of
= 84.6 minutes.
co
m
R
g
w
.s
ak
sh
i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
T = 2
Springs
1. The spring constant of a spring may be defined as the force required producing an
extension of one unit in the spring. K = F / x.
2
2 K
1 2
Kx .
2
co
m
2. Potential energy of the spring = 1 Fx = 1 F
3. If a spring is cut into two pieces (of equal size), each piece will have a force constant
double the original.
n.
4. When a spring of force constant k is cut into n equal parts, the spring constant of each part
at
io
is nk.
5. If a uniform spring of spring constant K is cut into two pieces of lengths in the ratio l1 : l2,
then the force constants of the two springs will be
K(l1 + l 2 )
K(l1 + l 2 )
and K 2 =
.
l1
l2
ed
uc
K1 =
6. The spring constant of a spring is inversely proportional to the number of turns.
sh
i
F / x or Kn = constant or K1n1 = K2n2.
7. If two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are joined in series, the combined force
k 1k 2
k1 + k 2
ak
constant k =
w
.s
8. If two springs of force constants k1 and k2 are joined in parallel, the combined force
constant k = k1 + k2.
9. When a body is just dropped on a spring, the maximum compression is double that of
when the body rests on it in equilibrium.
T = 2
m
k
T = 2
m
k1 + k 2
T = 2
m
k1 + k 2
m(k1 + k 2 )
k1k 2
m
k1 + k 2
co
m
n.
T = 2
T = 2
m(k1 + k 2 )
k1k 2
at
io
m
k1 + k 2
m
k
T = 2
m1m2
k(m1 + m2 )
w
.s
ak
sh
i
T = 2
T = 2
ed
uc
T = 2
Wave Motion
Wave and Wave motion
Wave is a carrier of energy.
co
m
Wave is a form of disturbance which travels through a material medium due to

the repeated periodic motion of the particles of the medium about their mean
position. The disturbance is handed over from one particle to another particle of
n.
the medium.
at
io
Characteristics of wave motion
Wave motion is the disturbance traveling through the medium.
mean positions.
ed
uc
When a wave travels through a medium, its particles execute SHM about their
Particles of medium hand over the energy to their next neighbors, but their
displacement over one time period is zero.
sh
i
As the disturbance reaches a particle, it starts vibrating. The disturbance is

transverse to the next particle a little latter. Hence there is a regular phase
ak
difference between consecutive particles.

The wave travels with a uniform velocity where as the velocity of the particles is
w
.s
different at different positions.

The wave velocity depends on the medium and the particle velocity is the
function of time.
In wave motion, the transfer of energy and momentum takes place from one
point to another of the medium, but not matter.

The properties of medium necessary for wave propagation
a) The medium should have the property of inertia.
b) The medium should posses the property of elasticity.

c) The medium should have low resistance (non viscous).
Types of Motion
Wave motion is of two types
1) Transverse wave motion and 2) Longitudinal wave motion
Transverse wave motion
The wave motion in which the particles of the medium vibrate about their mean
co
m
positions at right angles to the direction of propagation of the wave is called

transverse waves.
Ex: Waves in a stretched string, ripples on water surface, Electromagnetic Waves etc.
n.
The region of elevation of the medium through which the wave propagates is
at
io
called crest and the region of depression is called trough.
The distance between two consecutive crests (or) troughs is called wavelength
( ).
ed
uc
These travel in a medium which has the elasticity of shape.

These can travel in solids.
Density of the medium does not change during wave motion

The phase difference between the particles at two consecutive crests (or) troughs
sh
i
is 2 radians (or) 360 .
ak
These can be polarized.

Longitudinal wave motion
w
.s
The wave motion in which the particles of the material medium vibrate back and
forth about their mean position along the direction of the propagation of wave is
called longitudinal waves Ex: Waves produced when a spring fixed at one end
is placed and released, sound waves in air etc
The region in which particles come close to a distance less than the normal
distance is called compression. The region in which the particle get apart to a
distance greater than the normal distance between them is called rare fraction
The distance between two consecutive compressions (or) rarefactions is called
wave length ( )
These travel in a medium which it has elasticity of volume.
These can travel in solids, liquids and gases.

Density of the medium changes during wave motion. In the compression region,
the density of the media increases and in the rare fraction, the density of the
medium decreases.
The phase differences between the particles at two consecutive compressions has
co
m
rare fraction is 2 radians or 360 .

These cannot be polarized.
Properties of Progressive waves
at
io
Energy is propagated via these waves.
n.
These waves propagate in the forward direction of medium with finite velocity.
In these waves all the particles of the medium execute S.H.M. with same amplitude
ed
uc
and same frequency.
In these waves all the particles of the medium pass through their mean position or
positions of maximum displacements one after the other.
In these waves the velocity of the particle and the strain are proportional to each
sh
i
other.
This wave is an independent one.
medium.
ak
In these waves equal change in pressure and density occurs at all points of
w
.s
In these waves equal strain is produced at all points.
In these waves all the particles of the medium cross their mean position once in
one time period.
In these waves the average energy over one time period is equal to the sum of
kinetic energy and potential energy.
The energy per unit volume of a progressive wave is
1
A 2 2
2
where , is the
density of the medium.

The equation of a progressive wave along the positive direction of x-axis is
y = Asin( t -kx)
Or y = Asin2 (
t x
Or y = Asin2 n(t
= amplitude;
x
)
V
where y = displacement of a particle at an instant t; A
= angular frequency = 2 n; T = time period and k =
co
m
propagation constant or angular wave number or wave vector and is equal

to 2 .
n.
The time taken for one vibration of a particle is called time period or period of
(T =
1
)
n
and
at
io
vibration
Velocity of the wave v = n
amplitude.
ed
uc
The maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from its mean position is called
The phase of vibration at any moment is the state of vibrating particle as regards its
position and direction of motion at that moment.
2
x Path
difference.
sh
i
Phase difference =
ak
The distance travelled by a wave in the time in which the particles of the medium
complete one vibration or the distance between two nearest particles in the same
w
.s
state of vibration (i.e., same phase) is called wavelength ( ).

Reflection and Refraction of Waves
Rigid end: When the incident wave reaches a fixed end, it exerts an upward pull
on the end; according to Newton's law the fixed end exerts an equal and opposite
down ward force on the string. It result an inverted pulse or phase change of.
Crest (C) reflects as trough (T) and vice-versa, Time changes by
T
2
and Path
changes by .
2
Free end: When a wave or pulse is reflected from a free end, then there is no
change of phase (as there is no reaction force).
Crest (C) reflects as crest (C) and trough (T) reflects as trough (T), Time changes
by zero and Path changes by zero.
Principle of Superposition
The displacement at any time due to any number of waves meeting simultaneously
one of the waves at that point at the same time.

If
y1 , y 2 , y 3
co
m
at a point in a medium is the vector sum of the individual displacements due each
. are the displacements at a particular time at a particular position,
n.
due to individual waves, then the resultant displacement.

y = y1 + y 2 + y 3 + .....
at
io
Properties of Stationary waves
a) All the particles except a few (at nodes) execute S.H.M.
ed
uc
b) The period of each particle is the same but the amplitude of vibration varies from
particle to particle.
c) The distance between any two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to /2.
d) The distance between a node and neighboring antinodes is equal to /4.
sh
i
e) The wave is confined to a limited region and does not advance.
is zero.
ak
f) All the particles of a wave in a loop are in the same phase and the phase difference
w
.s
g) Stationary waves are formed by combining two longitudinal progressive waves or

two transverse progressive waves.
h) These waves do not transfer energy.
i) The change in pressure or density or strain will be maximum at nodes and
minimum at antinodes.
j) The particle velocity at a node is zero and at antinodes it is maximum.

k) The phase difference between the particles in adjacent loops in a stationary wave
is .
l) The equation of a stationary wave is

y = 2A sinkx.cos t or y = 2A coskx.sin t.
Types of vibrations
Whenever a body, capable of vibration, is displaced from its equilibrium position
and then left to itself, the body begins to vibrate freely in its own natural way
co
m
called the free or natural vibration of the body with a definite frequency. This
frequency is called natural frequency.
The free vibrations of a body have a unique frequency and it is dependent on the
n.
elasticity and inertia of the body and the mode of vibration.
at
io
When a body is set into vibration with the help of strong periodic force having a
frequency different from its natural frequency, then the vibrations of the body are
called forced vibrations.
ed
uc
If the amplitude of vibrations progressively decreases with time, then they are
called damped vibrations. E.g. Vibrations of a tuning fork.
Bells are made of metals and not of wood because wood dampens the vibrations
sh
i
while the metals are elastic.
If the natural frequency of a vibrating body is equal to the frequency of the
ak
external periodic force and if they are in phase, the frequencies are said to be in
resonance.
w
.s
Tuning a radio or television receiver is an example of electrical resonance.

Optical resonance may also take place between the atoms in a gas at low
pressure.
Vibrations of a string
a) String can have only transverse vibrations that too when it is under tension.
b) The velocity of transverse wave propagating along a string or wire under tension is
V=
T
m
where T is tension and m is linear density of the string or wire.
M= M = A.d = r 2 .d where M is total mass of wire of length l, A is area of crossl
section of wire and r is its radius. Hence V=

c) If s is stress in the wire, S=T/A, hence V=
s
d
T
=
m
Tl
=
M
; also V=
T
=
Ad
Y.Strain
d
T
r 2 d
velocity of transverse wave at a temperature t2 is V=
co
m
d) A wire held at the two ends by rigid support is just taut at temperature t1. The
Y( t 2 ~ t 1 )
d
where
=co-
n.
efficient of linear expansion, Y=Youngs modulus, d=density.
at
io
Frequency of a vibrating string
a) The waves formed in a string under tension are transverse stationary.
ends.
ed
uc
b) Always nodes are formed at fixed ends and antinodes at plucked points and free
c) A string can have number of frequencies depending on its mode of vibration.

Fundamental frequency: When a string vibrates in a single loop, it is said to vibrate
sh
i
with fundamental frequency.
a) Frequency is minimum and wavelength is maximum in this case.
ak
b) If l is the length of the string l=
w
.s
c) The fundamental frequency, n=
= 2l .
1 T
2l m
where T=tension, m=linear density.

T
1
=
2 Ml 2l
T
1
=
Ad 2l
T
2
r d
1
2l
s
d
d) The fundamental frequency is also given by n= 1
e) For small change in tension in string, the fractional change in frequency is
n 1 T
=
n
2 T
f) The fundamental frequency is also called the first harmonic.

Overtones: If string vibrates with more number of loops, higher frequencies are
produced called overtones.
a) If string vibrates in p loops, it is called pth mode of vibration or pth harmonic or (p

1)th overtone. The corresponding frequency
n p p;
n1
p
= 1
n2 p2
np =
p T
2l m
=p.n Hence, for a string,
when other, quantities are constant.
c) The wavelength is above case is
p =
2l
p
co
m
b) The fundamental and overtone frequencies are in the ratio 1:2:3:4

i.e., wavelengths are in the ratio
Laws of transverse waves along stretched string
1:
1 1
: : ...
2 3
n 1/ l
where T & m are constants, nl=constant, n1l1=n2l2.
at
io
length of the string
n.
a) Law of length: The frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional to the
b) Law of tension: The frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional to

n T
When l & T are constant.
ed
uc
square root of tension.
=constant,
n1
T1
n2
T2
c) Law of mass: The frequency of a stretched string is inversely proportional to

square
of
=constant; n1
linear
density
when
&
are
constants.
m1 = n 2 m 2
sh
i
n m
root
ak
Sonometer is used to determine the velocity of transverse waves in strings and to

verify the laws of transverse waves.
l12
w
.s
RD =
l12 l 22
Stationary waves in Organ pipes
An organ pipe is a cylindrical tube having an air column. The vibration of a

cylindrical air column are made of two progressive longitudinal vibrations moving in
opposite directions with equal and opposite speed superposed on each other. Hence
the waves are longitudinal stationary waves.
The possible frequencies in which standing waves are formed are called harmonics.
Closed pipes
A Pipe whose one end is closed and the other end is open is called closed pipe. At the
at
io
n.
co
m
closed end of the pipe always a node is formed.
n1 =
ed
uc
If is the length of the pipe
V
This is called fundamental frequency (or) 1st harmonic
4
3V
= 3 n1
4
ak
n2 =
sh
i
In the 1st overtone (or) 2nd harmonic, two nodes and two antinodes are formed in the pipe
w
.s
Similarly for the 2nd overtone (or) 3rd harmonic three nodes and three antinodes are
formed in the pipe
n3 =
5V
= 5 n1
4
n1 : n2 : n3 : .... = 1: 3 : 5 : ....
Open pipes
A pipe whose both ends are open is called open pipe. At the open ends of the pipe
n.
co
m
always antinodes are formed.
at
io
If is the length of the pipe in the simplest mode of vibration two antinodes are
n1 =
ed
uc
formed, one at each end with a node at the middle of the pipe.
V
This is called the fundamental frequency (or) 1st harmonic.
2
sh
i
In the 1st overtone (or) 2nd harmonic, two nodes and three antinodes are formed in the
ak
pipe.
w
.s
n2 =
V
= 2 n1
Similarly for the 2nd overtone (or) 3rd harmonic, three nodes and four antinodes are
formed in the pipe.
n3 =
3V
= 3 n1
2
n1 : n2 : n3 = 1: 2 : 3 : ....
It is observed that in an open pipe all harmonics are formed where as in a closed pipe
only odd harmonics are formed.
In General Antinodes are formed nearer to the open end outside the pipe. The exact
distance between the position of the antinode and the mouth of the pipe is measured
co
m
as end correction (e). The end correction is double for open pipe.
End correction = e = 0.3 d = 0.6 r where d is the diameter and r is the radius of the
pipe.
at
io
For a closed pipe, c + e =
n.
The distance of the exact antinode from the brim of the pipe is called end correction.
4
ed
uc
4 c
e=
For an open pipe, o + 2e =
sh
i
2 o
e=
ak
Beats
w
.s
When two sounds of slightly different frequencies superimpose, the resultant

sound consists of alternate waxing and waxing. This phenomenon is called beats.
One waxing and one waning together is called one beat.
If simple harmonic progressive waves of frequencies n1 & n2 travelling in same
direction
superimpose,
n1 n 2
2
y= 2a cos 2
the
n + n2
t sin 2 1
2
resultant
wave
is
t .
n1 n 2
t .
2
The amplitude of resultant wave is 2a cos 2
The maximum amplitude is 2a and minimum amplitude zero.
represented
by
n1 + n 2
2
The frequency of resultant wave is
The number of beats produced per second or beat frequency is equal to the
difference of frequencies of nodes producing beats. n=n1~n2.
1 and 2
velocity of sound can be determined by n=
produce n beats per second, then
1 2
V
V
~
or V =
.
1 2
( 2 ~ 1 )
co
m
If two sound waves of wavelengths
The maximum number of beats heard by a person is 10, since persistence of
n.
hearing is 1/10 sec.
at
io
The time internal between two consecutive maxima or minima is

The time interval between consecutive maxima and minima is
1
.
(n1 ~ n 2 )
1
2(n1 ~ n 2 )
ed
uc
Beats can be produced by taking two identical tuning forks and loading or filing
either of them and vibrating them together.
When a tuning fork is loaded its frequency decreases and when it is filed frequency
ak
Doppler Effect
sh
i
increases.
The apparent change in frequency due to relative motion between the source and the
w
.s
listener is called Doppler Effect.

Let VO and Vs represents the velocities of a listener and a source respectively.
Let V be the velocity of sound and n and n1 be the true and apparent
frequencies of the sound. Then if
V
V
Vs
a) The source alone is in motion towards the observer, n1 = n
Clearly n1 > n.
V
V
+
Vs
b) The source alone is in motion away from the observer, n1 = n

n.
Clearly n1 <
V + VO
V
c) The observer alone is in motion towards the source, n1 = n
V VO
V
d) The observer alone is in motion away from the source, n1 = n
Clearly n1 > n.
. Clearly n1 < n.
V + VO
.
V Vs
co
m
e) The source and the observer both are in motion towards each other, n1 = n
f) The source and the observer both are in motion away from each other, n1
V VO
.
V + Vs
= n
n.
g) The source and the observer both are in motion, source following the observer, n1
V VO
.
V Vs
at
io
= n
h) The source and the observer both are in motion, observer following the source, n1 =
ed
uc
V + VO
n
V + Vs
i) The source, observer and the medium all are moving in the same direction as the
sh
i
sound,
V + V w VO
V + V w Vs
n1 = n
where Vw = velocity of wind.
ak
j) the source and the observer are moving in the direction of the sound but the
w
.s
direction of wind is opposite to the direction of the propagation of sound,

V V w VO
V V w Vs
n1 = n
If the source of sound is moving towards a wall and the observer is standing
between the source and the wall, no beats are heard by the observer.
When source and observer are not moving along the same line then
V
nI = n
V
cos
where
is angle between source velocity and line joining
source and observer
When source and observer do not move along the line joining them, then
components of their velocities along the line joining them must be taken as
velocity of observer and velocity of source in Doppler is formula n =
V + V0 cos 2
n 0
V Vs cos 1
r
is unit vector along line joining source and observer,
(taken from the source to observer),
v0
is velocity of sound
co
m
If
is velocity of observer and

=
is velocity
( v.r v 0 .r )
n.
( v.r v s .r )
n.
of source then Dopplers effect in vector form is n|
vs
at
io
Doppler Effect in sound is asymmetric. This means the change in frequency

depends on whether the source is in motion or observer is in motion even though
relative velocities are same in both cases.
ed
uc
Motion of source produces greater change than motion of observer even though
the relative velocities are same in both cases.
Eg :
v
nI =
n
v u
ak
nI > nII
sh
i
v + u
nII =
n
v
Doppler Effect in sound is asymmetric because sound is mechanical wave
w
.s
requiring material medium and v, v0, vs are taken with respect to the medium.
Doppler effect in light is symmetric because light waves are electromagnetic (do
not require medium)

Doppler effect is not applicable if
1) V0=Vs=0 (both are at rest)
2) V0=Vs=0 and medium is alone in motion

3) V0=Vs=u (V0, Vs are in same direction)
4) Vs is
to line of sight
Doppler effect is applicable only when, V0<<v and Vs<<v. (v=velocity of sound)
a) Doppler Effect in sound is asymmetric.

b) Doppler Effect holds good for light also. An increase of frequency is called blue
shift and it indicates that the source is approaching the observer. Red shift
indicates that the source is receding from the observer.
co
m
Red shift ( ) =
c) Doppler Effect in light is symmetric.
d) The red shift observed by Hubble in many stars supports the Big Bang Theory
n.
of the universe.
at
io
Uses of Doppler effect

It is used in
a) SONAR
space) (Radio waves)
ed
uc
b) RADAR (Radio detection and Ranging used to determine speed of objects in
c) To determine speeds of automobiles by traffic police.
sh
i
d) To determine speed of rotation of sun and to explain Saturns rings.

e) Led to the discovery of double stars/Binary stars.
ak
f) In accurate navigation and accurate target bombing techniques.

g) In tracking earths satellite.
w
.s
Dopplers effect is used in the estimation of the velocities of aero planes and
submarines, the velocities of stars and galaxies and the velocities of satellites.
If the observer is standing behind the source moving towards a wall with a velocity
V
V
V Vs V + Vs
Vs, then the number of beats heard is equal to n

equal to 2nVs .
V
and is approximately
Electrostatics
Coulombs Law and Electric Field
Synopsis
co
m
1. Study of stationary electric charges at rest is known as electrostatics.

2. Electric Charge
i)
It is a fundamental property of matter and never found free.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
ii) There are two kinds of charges namely positive and negative. If a body has
excess of electrons, it is said to be negatively charged and if it is deficient in

electrons, it is said to be positively charged.
iii) Like charges repel and un-like charges attract.
iv) Charge is conserved. It can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be
transferred from one object to other.
v) Charge is quantised. The smallest charge is associated with electron () and

proton (+) is 1.61019 coulomb.
hi
vi) All charges in nature exist as integral multiples of electron charge. q = n.e.
ks
n Integer
3. Coulombs law
.s
a
i) The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies is directly

proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.
w
w
ii) It acts along the line joining the two charges considered to be point charges.
iii)
iv)
F=
q 1q 2
d2
1
qq
1 2
4or d2
(Or)
F=
1
qq
1 2
4oK d2
(or)
F=
1 q1q2
4 d2
a) Where is absolute permittivity?

K or
r is
the relative permittivity or specific inductive capacity and
the permittivity of free space.
1
o is
b) K or
r is
also called as dielectric constant of the medium in which the two
charges are placed.

v) a) Relative permittivity of a material =
r = K =
Fa
Fm
co
m
r =
Force between two ch arg es in air

Force between the same ch arg es in
the medium at the same dis tan ce
b) For air K = 1
ed
uc
at
io
n.
c) For metals K = infinity
d) Force between 2 charges depends upon the nature of the intervening medium,
where as gravitational force is independent of intervening medium.
vi) For air or vacuum,
F=
since for air or vacuum,

vii) The value of
1
4 o
1 q 1q 2
.
4 o d 2
r =
K=1
is equal to 9x109 Nm2/C2.
viii)A coulomb is that charge which repels an equal charge of the same sign with a
o is
8.861012 C2/Nm2 (or) 8.861012 Fm1
ks
ix) The value of
hi
force of 9x109 N when the charges are one meter apart in vacuum.
x) Coulomb force is conservative mutual and internal force.

Coulomb force is true only for static charges.
.s
a
xi)
4. Coulombs law in vector form
F21
F12 =
w
w
1)
qq
1
12 2 r12 ; F12 = F21
4 0
r12
q1
r12
q2
Here F12 is force exerted by q1 on q2 and F21 is force exerted by q2 on q1.
2) Coulombs law holds for stationary charges only which are point sized.
3) This law obeys Newtons third law (ie
F12 = F21
).
5. Force on a charged particle due to a number of point charges is the resultant of

forces due to individual point charges i.e.
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ......
2
F21
6. i) If the force between two charges in two different media is the same for
different separations,
F=
1 1 q1q2
K 4 0 r 2
= constant.
ii) Kr2 = constant or K1r12 = K2r22

iii)
If the force between two charges separated by a distance r0 in vacuum is

r0
medium, Kr2 = r02 r =
co
m
same as the force between the same charges separated by a distance r in a
7. i) Two identical conductors having charges q1 and q2 are put to contact and then
q1 + q2
2
. If the charges are q1 and
ed
uc
at
io
n.
separated, then each have a charge equal to

q2, then each have a charge equal to q1 q2 .
2
ii) Two spherical conductors having charges q1 and q2 and radii r1 and r2 are put to
contact and then separated then the charges of the conductors after contact are
r
r
q1 = 1 (q1 + q2 ) & q2 = 2
+
r
r
r1 + r2
1 2
(q1 + q2 ) .
iii) The force of attraction or repulsion between two identical conductors having
hi
charges q1 and q2 when separated by a distance d is F. If they are put to contact

F(q1 + q2 )
4q1q2
ks
and then separated by the same distance the new force between them is F =
.s
a
If charges are q1 and q2 then F = F(q1 q2 ) .

2
4q1q2
8. A charge Q is divided into q and (Q q). Then electrostatic force between them is
w
w
maximum when
q 1
=
Q 2
(or)
(Q q)
=1
9. Electric field and electric intensity

i) The space around an electric charge in which its influence can be felt is known as
electric field.
ii)
The intensity of electric field (E) at a point is the force experienced by a

unit positive charge placed at that point.
iii)
It is a vector quantity.
3
E = F/ q, unit of E is NC1 or Vm1
iv)
v) Due to a point charge q, the intensity at a point d units away from it is given by
the expression
E=
q
4d
NC1. Another unit is volt/meter.
vi) The electric field due to a positive charge is always directed away from the
co
m
charge.
vii) The electric field due to a negative charge is always directed towards the
charge.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
viii) The intensity of electric field at any point due to a number of charges is equal to
the vector sum of the intensities produced by the separate charges.
10. Force experienced by a charge Q in an electric field.
F = QE
Where E is the electric intensity
i) If Q is positive charge, the force

=
QE
m
acts in the direction of E . Acceleration a = F
=F =
QE
m
ks
hi
ii) If Q is negative charge, the force F acts in a direction opposite to E Acceleration a
iii)A charge in an electric field experiences a force whether it is at rest or moving.
.s
a
iv)The electric force is independent of the mass and velocity of the charged particle,
it depends upon the charge.
v) A proton and an electron in the same electric field experience forces of same
w
w
magnitude but in opposite directions.
vi) Force on proton is accelerating force whereas force on electron is retarding force.
If the proton and electron are initially moving in the direction of electric field
Acceleration of Pr oton
mass of electron
=
Re tardation of electron
mass of proton
11. Dielectric Strength: It is the minimum field intensity that should be applied to
break down the insulating property of insulator.
4
i) Dielectric strength of air = 3 106 V/m
Dielectric strength of Teflon = 60 106 Vm1
ii) The maximum charge a sphere can hold depends on size and dielectric strength
of medium in which sphere is placed.
ii) The maximum charge a sphere of radius r can hold in air = 40r2 dielectric
co
m
strength of air.
12. When the electric field in air exceeds its dielectric strength air molecules become
ionized and are accelerated by fields and the air becomes conducting.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
13. Motion of a charged particle in an electric field.
i) If a charged particle of charge Q is placed in an electric field of strength E, the

force experienced by the charged particle = EQ.
ii) The acceleration of the charged particle in the electric field,

iii)
The velocity of charged particle after time t is
velocity is zero.
EQ
m .
EQ
V = at =
t
m
S=
hi
iv) The distance travelled by the charged particle is
a=
if the initial
1 2 1 EQ 2
at =
t
2
2 m
if the
ks
initial velocity is zero.
v) When a charged particle is projected into a uniform electric field with some
.s
a
velocity perpendicular to the field, the path traced by it is parabola.

vi) The trajectory of a charged particle projected in a different direction from the
direction of a uniform electric field is a parabola.

vii) When a charged particle of mass m and charge Q remains suspended in an
w
w
vertical electric field then mg=EQ.
viii) When a charged particle of mass m and charge Q remains suspended in an

electric field, the number of fundamental charges on the charged particle is n
then
mg
= E(ne)
n=
mg
Ee
5
xi)The bob of a simple pendulum is given +ve charge and it is made to oscillate in
vertically upward electric field, then the time period of oscillation is T =
2
g
EQ
m
x) In the above case, if the bob is given a ve charge then the time period is given
T=
2
g+
EQ
m
co
m
by
ed
uc
at
io
n.
xi) A charged particle of charge Q is projected with an initial velocity u making

an angle to the horizontal in an electric field directed vertically upward. Then
a) Time of flight =
2u sin
EQ
g
m
b) Maximum height =
u 2 sin2
EQ
2 g
u2 sin 2
EQ
hi
c) Range =
ks
xii) Density of electric field inside a charged hollow conducting sphere is zero.
xiii) A sphere is given a charge of Q and is suspended in a horizontal electric
.s
a
field. The angle made by the string with the vertical is,
xiv) The tension in the string is
A bob carrying a +ve charge is suspended by a silk thread in a vertically
w
w
xv)
(EQ) 2 + (mg) 2
EQ
= tan 1
mg .
upward electric field, then the tension in the string is, T = mg - EQ.
xvi) If the bob carries ve charge, tension in the string is T = mg + EQ
14. Surface charge density ()

i) The charge per unit area of a conductor is defined as surface charge density.
ii) = q
iii)
total ch arg e
area
, when A=1 m2 then = q.
Its unit is coulomb/ meter and its dimensions are ATL2.

6
iv) It is used in the formulae for charged disc, charged conductor and infinite sheet
of charge etc.
v)
1
r2
i.e. 1
2
r22
r12
vi) is maximum at pointed surfaces and for plane surfaces it is minimum.

depends on the shape of the conductor and presence of other conductors
co
m
vii)
and insulators in the vicinity of the conductor.
viii) is maximum at the corners of rectangular laminas and at the vertex of
ed
uc
at
io
n.
conical conductor.
max
min
max
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
min
7
Gauss Law and Applications
Statement: The total normal electric flux e over a closed surface is 1 times
0
1.
co
m
the total charge Q enclosed within the surface.

1
Q
0
e =
Gauss Law is applicable for any distribution of charges and any type of closed
ed
uc
at
io
n.
2.
surface, but it is easy to solve the problem of high symmetry.

3.
At any point over the spherical Gaussian surface, net electric field is the vector
hi
sum of electric fields due to + q1 , q1 and q 2 .
Applications of Gauss Theorem
a)
Electric field at a point due to a line charge
.s
a
ks
4.
A thin straight wire over which q amount of charge be uniformly distributed. l
be the linear charge density i.e, charge present per unit length of the wire.
q
2 0 rl
w
w
E=
E=
2 0 r
8
co
m
This implies electric field at a point due to a line charge is inversely proportional
to the distance of the point from the line charge.
Electric field intensity at a point due to a thin infinite charged sheet
ed
uc
at
io
n.
b)
q amount of charge be uniformly distributed over the sheet. Charge present per
q
2 A 0
ks
E=
hi
unit surface area of the sheet is .
q
q
where =
2 0
A
.s
a
E=
E is independent of the distance of the point from the charged sheet.

Electric field intensity at a point due to a thick infinite charged sheet
w
w
c)
q amount of charge be uniformly distributed over the sheet. Charge present per
unit surface area of the sheet be .
9
E=
=
A 0 0
Electric field at a point due to a thick charged sheet is twice that produced by the
thin charged sheet of same charge density.
Electric intensity due to two thin parallel charged sheets
co
m
d)
Two charged sheets A and B having uniform charge densities A and B

respectively.
E=
ed
uc
at
io
n.
In region I
1
( A + B )
2 0
ks
hi
In region II
1
( A B )
2 0
.s
a
EII =
In region III
w
w
EIII =
e)
1
( A + B )
2 0
Electric field due to two oppositely charged parallel thin sheets

EI =
EII =
1
[ + ( )] = 0
2 0
[ ( )] =
0
2 0
10
EIII =
f)
1
( ) = 0
2 0
Electric field due to a charged Spherical shell

q amount of charge be uniformly distributed over a spherical shell of radius R
q
4 R 2
co
m
= Surface charge density, =
i) When point P, lies outside the shell

1
q
2
4 0 r
ed
uc
at
io
n.
E=
This is the same expression as obtained for electric field at a point due to a point
charge. Hence a charged spherical shell behaves as a point charge concentrated
at the centre of it.
E=
1 .4 R 2
q
=
2
4 0
r
4 r 2
E=
.R 2
0 r 2
ks
hi
ii) When point P, lies on the shell: E =
.s
a
iii) When Point P lies inside the shell
w
w
E=0
The electric intensity at any point due to a charged conducting solid sphere is
same as that of a charged conducting spherical shell.
11
g) Electric Potential (V) due to a spherical charged conducting shell (Hollow
sphere)
q
R
co
m
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i) When point ( P3 ) lies outside the sphere ( r > R ) , the electric potential, V =
ii) When point ( P2 ) lies on the surface ( r = R ) , V =
q
4 0 r
q
4 0 R
iii) When point ( P1 ) lies inside the surface ( r < R ) , V =
q
4 0 R
.s
a
ks
that on the surface.
hi
Note: The electric potential at any point inside the sphere is same and is equal to
w
w
Note: The electric potential at any point due to a charged conducting sphere is
same as that of a charged conducting spherical shell.
12
Electric Potential
Synopsis
1. Electric potential (V)
unit +ve charge from infinity to the point.
co
m
i) Electric potential at a point in a field is the amount of work done in bringing a
iii)
It is a scalar.
iv)
S.I unit is volt.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
ii) It is equal to the Electric potential energy of unit + ve charge at that point.
v) Potential at a distanced due to a point charge q in air or vacuum is V =

vi)
V = E.dx
vii)
E=
dv
dx
1 q
.
4 0 d
(or) V = Ed .
viii) A positive charge in a field moves from high potential to low potential where
as electron moves from low potential to high potential when left free.
Work done in moving a charge q through a potential difference V is W = q V
hi
ix)
ks
joule
.s
a
x) Gain in the Kinetic energy;

xi) Gain in the velocity v =
1
mv 2 = qV
2
.
2qV
m
2. Equipotential surface
w
w
i) A surface on which all points are at the same potential

ii) Electric field is perpendicular to equipotential surface
iii)
Work done in moving a charge on equipotential surface is zero.
3. In the case of a hollow charged sphere.

i) Intensity at any point inside the sphere is zero.
ii) Intensity at any point on the surface is same and it is maximum
E=
1
q
.
4 0 r 2
0
13
iii) Outside the sphere
E=
1
q
.
4 0 d 2
d = distance from the centre
iv)It behaves as if the whole charge is at its centre.

v) Electric field Intensity in vector form
E =
1
q
. 3d
40 d
or
E =
1
q
. 2 d
40 d
E = E1 + E 2 + E 3 + ...............
4. In the case of hollow charged sphere
co
m
vi)The resultant electric field intensity obeys the principle of superposition.
point on its surface

1 q
.
4 0 r
V=
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i) The potential at any point inside the sphere is same as that at any
ii) It is an equipotential surface.

iii)
Outside the sphere, the potential varies inversely as the distance of the point
from the centre.

1 q
.
4 0 d
V=
hi
Note: Inside a non conducting charged sphere electric field is present.

Electric intensity inside the sphere
1 Q
.
d
40 R3
ks
E=
.s
a
Here d is the distance from the centre of sphere.

E d
5. Electron volt
w
w
i) This is the unit of energy in particle physics and is represented as eV.

ii) 1 eV = 1.602x10-19 J.
6. Charged particle in electric field

1) When a positive test charge is fired in the direction of an electric field,
i) It accelerates,
ii) Its kinetic energy increases and hence
iii) Its potential energy decreases.
14
2) A charged particle of mass m carrying a charge q and falling through a
potential V acquires a speed of
2Vq / m
7. Electric dipole
i) Two equal and opposite charges separated by a constant distance is called
electric dipole.
Dipole moment ( P ) is the product of one of the charges and distance
co
m
ii)
P = q.2l .
between the charges. It is a vector directed from negative charge towards the
positive charge along the line joining the two charges.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
iii) The torque acting on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field is
given by the relation = P x E
i.e., = PE sin ,
where is the angle between P and E .
iv) The electric intensity (E) on the axial line at a distanced from the centre of an
electric dipole is
(E) =
E=
1
P
4 0 (d2 + l2 ) 3 / 2
1
2Pd
40 (d2 l2 )2
and on equatorial line, the electric intensity
v) For a short dipole i.e., if l2 << d2, then the electric intensity on axial line is
1
2P
.
4 0 d 3
hi
given by E =
ks
vi) For a short dipole i.e., if l2 << d2, then the electric intensity on equatorial line
is given by
1
P
3
4 0 d
.s
a
E=
vii) The potential due to an electric dipole on the axial line is

1
P
4 0 (d 2 l 2 )
and at any point on the equatorial line it is zero.
+Q
w
w
V=
viii) Two unlike equal charges +Q and Q are separated by distance

1) The net electric potential is zero on the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the charges.
2) The bisector is equipoptential and zero potential line.

3) Work done in moving a charge on this line is zero.
4) Electric intensity at any point on the bisector is perpendicular to the bisector.
5) Electric intensity at any point on the bisector parallel to the bisector is zero.
15
8. Electric potential energy
i) A charge placed in an electric field possesses potential energy and is measured
by the work done in moving the charge from infinity to that point against the
electric field.
ii) If two charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance d, the P.E. of the system is
iii)
1 q1q2
4 0 d
co
m
U=
If two like charges (two protons or two electrons) are brought towards each
other, the P.E of the system increases.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
iv) If two unlike charges (a proton and an electron) are brought towards each
other, the P.E. of the system decreases.
v) If three charges q1, q2 and q3 are situated at the vertices of a
q1
triangle (as shown in the figure), the P.E. of the system is

U =U12 + U23 + U31
vi)
1
4 0
q1q2 q2 q3 q3 q1
+
+
d2
d3
d1
d1
d3
q2
d2
q3
If four charges q1, q2 , q3 and q4 are situated at the corners of a square as
shown in the figure, P.E of the system
q2
d
hi
qq
1
qq
qq
q d qq
qq
1 2 + 2 3 + 3 4 + 4 1 + 2 4 + 1 3
40 d
d
d
d
2d
2d
q1
q3
d
q4
ks
vii) In the field of a charge Q, if a charge q is moved against the electric field
.s
a
from a distance a to a distance b from Q, the work done W is given by

W = ( Vb Va )q =
1 Qq
1 Qq
Qq
=
4o b
4o a
4o
Qq
1 1
b a = 4
a b
ab
9. Combined field due to two point charges
w
w
a) Due to two similar charges

i) If charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r, null point (where
resulting field intensity is zero) is formed on the line joining those two
charges.
ii) Null point is formed within the charges.

iii) Null point is located nearer to weak charge.
16
iv) If x is distance of null point from q1,
(Weak charge) then
q1
x
q1
(r x ) 2
q2
r
q 2 / q1 + 1
Here q1 and q2 are like charges
ed
uc
at
io
n.
b) Due to two dissimilar charges
co
m
x =
q2
i) If q1 and q2 are unlike charges then null point is formed on the line joining
two charges.
q2
q1
x
rx
ii) Null point is formed outside the charges.

iii) Null point is form nearer weak charge.
hi
iv) x is the distance of null point from q1(weak charge) then
q2
(r + x ) 2
ks
x =
q1
x2
.s
a
q 2 / q1 1
In the above formulae
q 2 / q1 is
numerical ratio of charges
c) Zero potential point due to two charges
w
w
i) If two unlike charges q1 and q2 are separated by a distance r, the net

potential is zero at two points on the line joining them.
ii) One in between them and the other outside the charges.
iii) Both the points are nearer to weak charge (q1).
q2
q1
=
(r x )
x
(For point 1, within the charges)

q1
P2
y
P1
q2
x
r
17
q2
q1
=
(r + y )
y
(For point 2, outside the charges)
Here q2 is numerical value of strong charge

r
q2
+1
q1
y =
r
q2
1
q1
co
m
x =
d) Due to two similar charges zero potential point is not formed.

10. Equipotential surface
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i) The surface which is the locus of all points which are at the same potential is
known as equipotential surface
ii) No work is required to move a charge from one point to another on the
equipotential surface.
iii) No two equipotential surfaces intersect
iv) The direction of electric lines of force or direction of electric field is always
normal to the equipotential surface.
v) Inside a hollow charged spherical conductor the potential is constant. This can
hi
be treated as equipotential volume. No work is required to move a charge from
ks
the centre to the surface.
vi) For an isolated point charge, the equipotental surface is a sphere. I.e.
.s
a
concentric spheres around the point charge are different equipotential surfaces.
vii) In a uniform electric field any plane normal to the field direction is an
equipotential surface.
w
w
viii) The spacing between equipotential surfaces enables us to identify regions of

strong and weak field.
E=
dV
1
E
dr
dr
40V
30V
EP<EQ<ER
20V 10V
18
Electrical Capacity
Synopsis
1. Electrical Capacity
ii)
co
m
i) Electrical capacity of a conductor is its ability to store electric charge.

The potential acquired by a conductor is directly proportional to the charge
given to it i.e., V Q.
i.e., Q V or Q = CV where the constant of proportionality C is called the
iii)
ed
uc
at
io
n.
electrical capacity of the conductor.
Thus the capacity of a conductor is defined as the ratio of the charge to the
potential.
iv) Its SI unit is farad.
v) 1 milli farad (1 mF) = 10-3 farad
1 micro farad (1 F) = 10-6 farad

1 pico farad (1 pF) = 10-12 farad
hi
vi) The capacity of a spherical conductor in farad is given by C = 4 0 r , where r =
ks
radius of the conductor.
vii) If we imagine Earth to be a uniform solid sphere then the capacity of earth
6400 10 3
.s
a
C=
4 0R =
9 10 9
= 711F
1 mF
2. Parallel plate Capacitor

i) Condenser (usually, a combination of two conductors) is a device by means of
w
w
which larger amount of charge can be stored at a given potential by increasing

its electric capacity.
ii) Capacitance of a capacitor or condenser is the ratio of the charge on either of its
plates to the potential difference between them.
iii)
Capacity of a parallel plate condenser without medium between the plates

C0 =
0 A
d
A = area of each plate; d = distance between the plates

19
Iv) With a medium of dielectric constant K completely filling the space between the
plates
C=
0 A
d
v) The dielectric constant of a dielectric material is defined as the ratio of the

its capacity with air or vacuum between the plates.
K=
C
C0
Capacity of the condenser with dielectric medium between plates

= Capacity
of the same condeser with air as medium between plates
co
m
capacity of the parallel plate condenser with the dielectric between the plates to
C=
0 A
t
dt+
k
0 A
1
d t 1
k
ed
uc
at
io
n.
vi) When a dielectric slab of thickness t is introduced between the plates
vii) In this case the distance of separation decreases by

capacity increases
t 1
k
and hence the
viii) To restore the capacity to original value the distance of separation is to be

increased by t1 1
a) If a metal slab of thickness t is introduced between the plates C =
0 A
dt
ks
ix)
hi
because for metals K is infinity.
.s
a
b) If a number of dielectric slabs are inserted between the plates, each parallel
to plate surface, then equivalent capacity.

0 A
1
1
1
t 2 1
........... tn 1
d t11
K1
K2
Kn
w
w
C=
If those slabs completely fill up the gap between the plates leaving without any
air gap
C=
0 A
t1
t2
tn
K + K + ......... + K
2
n
1
x) In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field at the edges is not uniform and
that field is called as the fringing field.
20
Electric field between the plates is uniform electric intensity
E=
xii)
Q
Q
=
=
0 A 0 Cd
. Here is the surface charge density on the plates = Q/A.
Potential difference between the plates V = E.d =
xiii) Force on each plate
F=
1
1 Q 2 1 CV 2
EQ =
=
2
2 Cd 2 d
Q
.d
0 A
Q2
1
= 0 AE 2
2 0 A 2
=1
xiv) Energy stored per unit volume of the medium =
1
0E2
2
3. Combination of Condensers
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i) When condensers are connected in series
co
m
xi)
1) All plates have the same charge in magnitude
2) Potential differences between the plates are different

3) V1 : V2 : V3 =
1
1
1
:
:
C1 C 2 C3
4) Equivalent capacity is C then,
+q q +q q +q
C1
C2
q
C3
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
C C1 C 2 C 3
5) The equivalent capacity is less than the least individual capacity
1
1
1
:
:
C1 C 2 C 3
ks
hi
6) Energies of the condensers E1 : E2 : E3
7) Total energy of the combination=E1+E2 + E3.
.s
a
ii) When condensers are connected in parallel

1) P.D. across each condenser is same
2) Charge of each condenser is different Q1 : Q2 : Q3 = C1 : C2 : C3
w
w
3) Equivalent capacity of the combination C = C1 + C2 + C3
4) The equivalent capacity is greater than the greatest individual capacity

5) Energies of the condensers E1 : E2 : E3 = C1 : C2 : C3
6) Total energy of the combination=E1+E2+E3
iii)
When n identical condensers each of capacity C
1) Combined in series, the effective capacity

= Cs = C/n
2) Combined in parallel, the effective capacity Cp = nc.
21
+ C
1
+ C
2
+ C
3
3) Ratio of the effective capacities Cs:Cp= 1: n2
iv) Mixed group: If there are N capacitors each rated at capacity C and voltage V,
by combining those we can obtain effective capacity rated at C1 and voltage V1.
For this n capacitors are connected in a row and m such rows are connected in
Then n =
V1
V
and m =
nC1
C
where mn = N
co
m
parallel.
v) If Cp and Cs are the equivalent capacities of two capacitors of

capacity C1 and C2 in parallel and series respectively then
C1 =
CP + Cp2 4CP CS
2
C2 =
1
CP CP2 4CPCS
q C2
V2
V1
ed
uc
at
io
n.
and
q C1
vi) Two capacitors are connected in parallel to a battery as shown in the figure.
i) V1=
VC 2
C1 + C 2
ii)
V2 =
VC1
C1 + C 2
vii) Two capacitors are connected in parallel to a battery as shown in the figure.
qC1
C1 + C 2
ii) q2
qC 2
C1 + C 2
hi
i) q1 =
viii) If n identical capacitors each of capacity C are connected in a

V
ks
square then
.s
a
a) The resultant capacity between any two adjacent corners A and B

=
4C
3
C1 q
C2
b) The resultant capacity between any two opposite corners A and C= C
w
w
ix) If n identical capacitors each of capacity C are connected in a polygon then

a) The resultant capacity between any two adjacent corners =
nC
n 1
b) The resultant capacity between any two opposite corners =
4C
n
x) a) If n identical capacitors are given then they can be connected in 2n1 different
ways by taking all the condensers at a time (n > 2).
b) In n different capacitors are given then they can be connected in 2n different
ways by taking all the condensers at a time.
22
xi)
In a parallel plate capacitor, if n similar plates at equal distance d are
arranged such that alternate plates are connected together, the capacitance (C)
of the arrangement is
(n 1) 0 A
d
for air or vacuum and it becomes
(n 1) 0 AK
d
in a
dielectric medium of dielectric constant K.

4. Energy of capacitor
V=
This energy is stored in the uniform electric field that is present between the
plates of the capacitor.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
ii)
Q2
CV 2
QV
or
or
2C
2
2
C1
V1
C2
V2
co
m
i) The electrostatic energy stored in a charged capacitor is equal to
5. Combination of charged capacitors
i) If two condensers of capacities C1 and C2 are charged to potentials V1 and V2

respectively and are joined in parallel (+ve plate connected to +ve plate), then
the common potential
Q1 + Q 2
C1 + C 2
C1 + C 2
U=
C1C 2
( V1 V2 ) 2 .
2(C1 + C 2 )
C1
When two condensers of capacities C1 and C2 charged to potentials V1 and
.s
a
iii)
hi
The loss of energy in this process (manifested as heat) is given by
ks
ii)
= C1V1 + C 2 V2
V2 are connected anti-parallel (+ve plate connected to ve plate) as shown in
the figure.
w
w
a) Common potential V =
Q1 Q 2
C1 + C 2
C1V1 C 2 V2
C1 + C 2
b) Loss of energy
=
1
1
1
C1V12 + C 2 V22 (C1 + C 2 )V 2
2
2
2
C1C 2
(V1 + V2 )2
2 C1 + C 2
=1
c) Loss of energy is more in this case compared with previous case.
23
+
C2
6. Capacitance of spherical condenser
a) Capacitance of single isolated sphere = 4 0R where R is its radius.
b) In two concentric spheres (outer radius a and inner radius b)
i) When the inner is charged and the outer is earthed, then
ab
Kab
(a b )
co
m
C = 40rab = 4 0
C=
4 0 r a 2 4 0 Ka 2
=
ab
ab
ed
uc
at
io
n.
ii) When the inner sphere is earthed, then
7. Introduction of dielectric in a charged capacitor
A dielectric slab (K) is introduced between the plates of the capacitor.
S.No
Physical
quantity
permanently
connected
With battery
disconnected
Capacity
K time
K times
2.
Charge
increases
increases
3.
P.D.
K times
Remains
4.
Electric
increases
constant
Intensity
Remains
K times
constant
decreases
Remains
K times
constant
decreases
K times
K times
increases
decreases
.s
a
ks
hi
1.
5.
w
w
With battery
24
8. The distance between the plates of condenser is increased by n times.
S.No.
Physical
quantity
With battery
permanently
connected
With battery
disconnected
Capacity
n time
n times decreases
2.
Charge
decreases
Remains constant
3.
P.D.
n times
n times increases
4.
Electric
decreases
Remain constant
ed
uc
at
io
n.
5.
co
m
1.
Intensity
Remains
Energy
constant
stored in
n time
condenser
decreases
n times increases
n times
hi
decreases
ks
9. Combination of charged spherical drops

When n identical charged small spherical drops are combined to form a big
.s
a
drop
Quantity
w
w
S.no.
For each
charged small
drop
For the big

drop
a.
Radius
R = n1/3r
b.
Charge
Q=nq
c.
Capacity
C1 = n1/3 C
d.
Potential
V1 = n2/3 V
e.
Energy
1 = n5/3
25
Current Electricity
Ohms Law, Circuits and Cells
Synopsis
co
m
1. Electric Current
a) Net charge flowing across the cross section of the conductor in one second is
called electric current.
or
Q = it
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i =Q / t
b) S.I. unit of current is ampere

1 ampere
1 coulomb
1 sec ond
c) The current flowing through a conductor is said to be one ampere when one
coulomb of charge passes through it in one second.
d) If 6.251018 electrons pass across the crosssection of a conductor in one second, the
strength of the current flowing across the
ks
hi
conductor is one ampere.
2. Drift velocity (Vd)
.s
a
a) The average velocity of the charge is called as Drift velocity (Vd).

b) Drift velocity is the average velocity and not instantaneous velocity of the
w
w
charge.
i = AVd c
Where A is area of cross section of the conductor; Vd is drift velocity; c is
charge per unit volume.

i = AVdne
Where n is number of electrons per unit volume. Drift velocity per unit field is
termed as mobility ().

=
Vd
E
1
3. Two terminologies are used for current regarding the direction of flow. They are
i) Electronic Current: Here the direction of this current is taken as the
direction in which the electrons are transferred.
ii) Conventional Current: The direction of this current is taken as opposite to
that of electronic current.
b) Positive and negative ions are charge carriers in liquids.
c) Positive ions and electrons are charge carriers in gases.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
d) Holes and electrons are charge carriers in semiconductors.
co
m
4. a) Free electrons are charge carriers in metals.
5. The current in different situations is calculated as follows:
a) Due to translatory motion of charge : If n particles, each of charge q passes

through a given area in time t seconds then i =
nq
t
b) Due to rotatory motion of charge : If a point charge q is moving in a circle of

radius r with speed v, constant frequency f and time period T then
i=
q e
qv
= = qf =
t T
2r
hi
6. AC and DC
ks
a) If the magnitude and direction of current does not vary with time. It is known
as direct current DC.
.s
a
b) If a current is periodic i.e. magnitude varies periodically and polarity reverses

after each half cycle, it is known as alternating current (AC).
7. Ohms law: At constant temperature, the current (i) flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference (V) between its ends.
w
w
V i or V = iR where R is the electrical resistance of the conductor
a) Ohms law is not a universal law.

b) Conductors which obey Ohms law are called ohmic (or) linear conductors.
Ex. metals.
c) The graph between V and I for ohmic conductor is straight line passing
through the origin.
2
d) Conductors which do not obey Ohms law are called Non ohmic (or) Non
linear conductors.
Ex: Carbon compounds, electrolytes, transistors, diodes, semiconductors,
discharge tubes, Thermionic valves, vacuum tubes.
Metalconductor
Vacuumtube
8. Thermistor
a) It is a thermal resistor.
Electrolyte
Thermistor
ed
uc
at
io
n.
f)
co
m
e) The graph between V and i for non ohmic resistance is a curve
b) It is a heat sensitive non ohmic device.
c) Made of semiconductor compounds as oxides of nickel, iron, cobalt and Cu.

d) It is enclosed in a capsule with an epoxy surface.
e) Symbol is
or
resistance.
hi
f) One type of thermistor has high positive temperature co-efficient (PTC) of
resistance.
ks
g) Another type of thermistor has high negative temperature co-efficient (NTC) of
.s
a
h) (i) NTC thermistor is used as resistance thermometer for measuring low

temperatures of the order of 10 K.
(ii) High resistance at low temperature makes it possible to measure low
w
w
temperature very accurately.
i) Thermistors one in the form of beads, discs or rods to which a pair of platinum
wires are provided at leads.
j) A tiny bead form thermistor serves as thermometer and can measure

temperature changes of the order as small is 103 K.
k) Thermistor used in measuring the rate of energy (power) in a mino wave beam.
l) Thermistor used in radio circuits to avoid sudden and large surge of current.
m) Thermistor is used as thermostat.
3
9. Resistance
a) The property by virtue of which a conductor opposes the flow of charge in it is
known as resistance.
b) It is measured as the ratio between potential difference between the ends of the
conductor and current flowing in the conductor R= V/i.
1 ohm = 1 volt / 1 amp
co
m
c) SI unit of resistance is Ohm.

d) Ohm is the resistance of a conductor through which a current of 1 ampere flows
ed
uc
at
io
n.
when the potential difference between its ends is 1 volt.

e) Dimensions formula R is ML2T3I2.
f) For good conductors resistance is very low and for insulators or bad conductors
it is high.
10. Conductance
a) The reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance G = 1 /R.

b) SI unit of G is siemen (S) (or ohm1 or mho)
c) Conductance decreases on increasing temperature
hi
11. Dependence of Resistance
ks
a) Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length and inversely

proportional to its area of cross section.
R=S
or
.s
a
Here S or is known as resistance or specific resistance
w
w
R=
b) R =
r 2
Where r is radius of cross section.
l l 2
V
m
l 2 d
=
= 2 = 2 =
A
V
m
A
A d
c) Resistance does not depend on current and potential difference.

Through resistance of a linear conductor is independent of applied voltage, for
a given body it is not unique and depends on length and area of cross section.
(i.e. how the potential difference is applied)If ,b, h denote length, breadth and
thickness of a slab, ( >b>h),
Rmax =
bh
and
R min =
h
b
4
12. Specific Resistance
a) It is equal to resistance of the conductor of unit length and unit area of
cross section.
b) R
or R=
s
A
RA
or s =
c) S.I. unit : Ohm meter

e) It is independent of dimensions of the conductor.
f) For silver and copper specific resistance is small
ed
uc
at
io
n.
g) For Nichrome, constantan, Manganin it is large.
co
m
d) It depends only on the material of the conductor and temperature.
13. Conductivity: (or) specific conductance ()

a) It is reciprocal of resistivity. =
b) S.I unit : siemen / m
c) For insulators = 0
1
=
s RA
d) For perfect conductors, = infinity
14. Temperature co-efficient of resistance () :
hi
a) It is defined as the change in specific resistance (or resistance) per 1C rise of
c) =
R t R0
R0 t
t = 0 (1 + t )
c)
t 0
0 t
.s
a
b) =
ks
temperature to the original specific resistance (or resistance) at 0C.
(1)
w
w
d) Rt = R0 (1 + t) (2)
0 and R0 are the specific resistance and resistance at 0C,
t and Rt are the corresponding values at t C
e If R1 and R2 are resistances at t1C and t2C then

=
R 2 R1
R1t 2 R 2 t 1
5
= +ve
0
= ve
x
f) For small temperature variation,
T = To [1 + (T To )]
where
resistivities at temperatures To and T respectively and
To and T
are the
is a constant for a
given material and is called the temperature coefficient of resistivity.

=
1 d
dT
co
m
15. Series Connection

i) Current is the same through all the resistors
ii) Total p.d. = sum of individual p.d.s across each resistor.
R2
R1
R3
iii) Individual p.d. is directly proportional to individual resistor.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
iv) Total resistance is greater than the greatest individual resistance.

v) Total resistance = sum of the individual resistances.
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + .
R1
R2
V1
V2
vi) Two resistances in series:
a) The total resistance RS = R1 + R2

c) V2 =
VR 2
R1 + R 2
b) V1 =
d) i =
VR1
R1 + R 2
V1 V2
=
R1 R 2
hi
vii) A conductor and Semi conductor are connected in series. If the resistance of
ks
the combination is same at all temperatures then R1 1 = R22 where R1, R2 are
resistances of conductor and semi conductor.
.s
a
16. Parallel Connection
i) Potential difference remains the same across each resistor.
R1
i1
i2
i3
R2
R3
ii) Total current=sum of the individual currents.
w
w
iii) Individual currents are inversely proportional to the individual resistances.

iv) Effective resistance is less than the least individual resistance.
v) When a number of conductors are connected in parallel, the reciprocal value of
the resultant resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocal values of the
individual resistances.
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ .....
R R1 R 2 R 3
6
c) I2 =
R2
R1R 2
R1 + R 2
IR 2
R1 + R 2
IR1
R1 + R 2
; V = I1R1 = I2R2
co
m
b) I1 =
R1
I2
vi) Two resistances in parallel

a) The total resistance RP =
I1
If RS and RP be the resultant resistance of resistances R1 and R2, when connected

in series and parallel then
1
2
R S + R S 4R sRP
2
R2 =
2
R S + R S 4R sRP
2
ed
uc
at
io
n.
R1 =
If n equal resistances each of resistance R are connected to form triangle (or) Square
(or) Polygon then effective resistance between any two adjacent corners is
R1 =
n 1
R .
When twelve identical resistors each of resistance R are connected in the form of a
skeleton cube, the effective resistance across
(i) the ends of a side is (7r/12),
hi
(ii) the opposite vertices on the same face is (3r/4) and
ks
(iii) the diagonally opposite vertices is (5r/6)

17. Electrical power
.s
a
The rate at which work is done in maintaining the current in electric circuit
Electrical power
W
V2
watt (or) joule / sec
= V I = I 2R =
t
R
P=
w
w
18. Electrical Energy

The electric energy consumed in a circuit is defined as the total work done in
maintaining the current in an electric circuit for a given time.
Electrical Energy = Vt = Pt =
I2Rt =
V2t
R
S.I. unit of electric energy is joule

Where
1 Joule=1watt 1 sec = 1 volt
ampere
1 sec
7
1Kwh = 1000Wh = 3.6 106 J
19. Bulbs connected in Series

If Bulbs (or electrical appliances) are connected in series, the current through
each
resistance
is
same.
Then
power
of
the
electrical
appliance
P R & V R P = i2Rt
co
m
i.e. In series combination; the potential difference and power consumed will be
more in larger resistance.
When the appliances of power are in series, the effective power consumed (P) is
i.e. effective power is less than the power of individual
ed
uc
at
io
n.
1 1
1
1
=
+
+
+ .........
P P1 P2 P3
appliance.
If n appliances, each of equal resistance R are connected in series with a

voltage source V, the power dissipated Ps will be
Ps =
V2
nR
20. Bulbs connected in parallel
1) If Bulbs (or electrical appliances) are connected in parallel, the potential

difference across each resistance is same. Then
1
R
and
1
.
R
ks
hi
i.e. The current and power consumed will be more in smaller resistance.
When the appliances of power
are in parallel, the effective power
P = P1 + P2 + P3 + .........
.s
a
consumed (P) is
P1, P2 , P3 ....
i.e. the effective power of various electrical appliance is more than the power of
individual appliance.
w
w
If n appliances, each of resistance R are connected in parallel with a voltage

source V, the power dissipated Pp will be
PP =
V2
nV 2
=
(R / n ) R
PP
= n2 ( or ) PP = n2PS
PS
This shows that power consumed by n equal resistances in parallel is

that of power consumed in series if voltage remains same.
8
n2
times
In parallel grouping of bulbs across a given sources of voltage, the bulb of greater
wattage will give more brightness and will allow more current through it, but will
have lesser resistance and same potential difference across it.
For a given voltage V, if resistance is changed from R to R , power consumed
n
P=
V2
R
where R = R , then P =
n
V2
nV 2
=
= np .
(R / n ) R
co
m
changes from P to nP
Filament of lower wattage bulb is thinner that of higher wattage bulb i.e. filament
of 60 watt bulb is higher than that of 100 watt bulb.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
If I is the current through the fuse wire of length l, radius r, specific resistance
P and Q is the rate of loss of heat per unit area of a fuse wire, then at steady
state,
I2R = QA
I2 =
Or
I2Pl
r 2
= Q 2r l
2 2 Q 3
r I r 3/2
P
radius as.
t1, t 2 are
the time taken by two different coils for producing same heat with same
supply, then
ks
If
hi
Hence current capacity of a fuse is independent of its length and various with its
.s
a
If they are connected in series to produce same heat, time taken
t = t1 + t 2
w
w
If they are connected in parallel to produce same heat, time taken is
9
t=
t1t 2
t1 + t 2
Cells
1. Electric Cell
a) It is a device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
b) There are two types of cells
ii) Secondary cell
2. Electromotive force (e.m.f) of a Cell
co
m
i) Primary cell
a) The work done is carrying a unit positive charge once in the whole circuit
ed
uc
at
io
n.
including the cell, is defined as the electromotive force.
b) Electromotive force is the potential difference between the terminals of a cell in

open circuit.
c) Electromotive force depends on (1) nature of electrolyte (2) metal of the

electrodes.
d) Electromotive force does not depend on (1) area of plates (2) distance between
the electrodes (3) Quantity of electrolyte (4) size of the cell.
e) Electromotive force is the characteristic property of the cell. The direction of
hi
current inside the cell is always from negative to positive electrode.

f) The unit of electromotive force is volt.
ks
3. Internal resistance (r): The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered
.s
a
by the column of the electrolyte between the positive plate and the negative plate.
i) The internal resistance of a perfect cell or ideal cell is zero.
ii) Internal resistance depends on
a) Strength of electrolyte (r strength)
w
w
b) Distance between plates (r d)
c) Area of the plates
r A
d) Temperature of electrolyte
r t
10
4. Relation between EMF and PD
1) In case of charging of a cell
a) The current flows from +ve to ve terminal inside
the
cell.
b) V > E
co
m
c) V = E + ir
2) In case of discharge of a cell
a) The current flows from ve to +ve terminal inside the cells

b) V < E
E
r
ed
uc
at
io
n.
c) V = E ir
3) The difference between E and V is called lost volts

Lost volts = E V = ir
4) A cell of emf E and its resistance r is connected to resistance R.

a) i =
E
R+r
ER
R+r
hi
b) P.D. across resistance R is given by

V = iR=
E
r
ks
c) Fraction of energy useful = V

E
R
R+r
.s
a
d) % of fractional useful energy= V 100 =
e) Fraction of energy lost =
w
w
f) % of lost energy
g) r =
R
100
R +r
E V ir
r
= =
E
E R+r
r
=
100
R + r
(E V )R
V
h) For single cell, the condition for maximum current is R = r.
5. Back emf
a) The copper electrode gets covered with a layer of hydrogen and this hinders
flow of current. In the neighbourhood of both electrodes, the concentrations of
11
ions get altered. This results in an emf acting in a direction opposite to the emf
of the cell. This is called back emf.
b) This formation of hydrogen around the anode is called polarization.
c) To reduce the back e.m.f manganese dioxide and potassium dichromate are
added to electrolyte of cell. These are called depolarizers.
+
a) E = E1 + E2 + E3 + En
E1
E2
E3
co
m
6. Series combination of cells
b) r = r1 + r2 + r3+ . rn
ed
uc
at
io
n.
c) When cells of e.m.f. are E1, E2, and E3. and of internal resistances r1, r2,
r3.. are connected in series across an external resistance R, the current i is

given by
i=
E1 + E 2 + E 3 ........
R + (r1 + r2 + r3 + .....)
d) If the e.m.f s of all the n cells and their internal resistances are same, then
i
nE
(R + nr )
e) If n r >> R, then i = E/r, i.e. the current obtained from n cells is equal to that
hi
obtained from a single cell.
ks
f) If n r << R then i = n E/R.
g) This type of combination is used when the internal resistance of battery is
.s
a
negligible in comparison to the external resistance and e.m.f required is high.
h) In this combination same current flows through all the cells.
7. Wrongly connected cells
w
w
Suppose by mistake m cells are wrongly connected in above circuit then
a) Total emf = emf due to properly connected cells emf due to wrongly
E1
connected cells
r1
= (n m) E mE = (n 2m) E
b) Total internal resistance of cells = nr

c) Total resistance in the circuit = R + nr
d) The current in circuit =
(n 2m)E
R + nr
12
E2
r2
Em
rm
R
8. Cell in parallel
i) i = i1 + i2 + i3 + .. in
ii) The e.m.f of the combination is equal to the e.m.f of a single cell i.e. E=E1= E2
=
E
r
R +
m
iii)If r >> R then I = mE/r

i = n (current obtained from a single cell)
iv) If r << R then i = E /R
co
m
= E3 = i
ed
uc
at
io
n.
This type of combination is used when r >>R and more current is required in
the circuit.
v) If the e.m.f of m cells and their internal resistance are different then
1) i = i1 + i2 + i3 . in
E total
1
R +
hi
4)
rtotal =
.s
a
3)
E
r
=
1
ks
2)
E1 E 2
E
+ ....... m
+
r
r
rn
I= 1 2
1 1
1
1 + R + + ............
rn
r1 r2
E

r
1

r
1
1
9. If two cells of emf E1 and E2 having internal resistances r1 and r2 are connected in
parallel to an external resistance R, then
w
w
i)
E1
+ r1
i2
E2
+ r2
R
i1
a) The effective emf,
E=
E1r2 + E 2r1
r1 + r2
b) The effective internal resistance, r =
r1r2
r1 + r2
13
c) Current through the circuit,
i=
E
r +R
d) i = i1 + i2
e)
i1 =
E1 iR
r1
and
i2 =
E 2 iR
r2
E1
+ r1
i2 E2
+r2
R
ii)
i
a) The effective emf,
E r E 2r1
E= 12
r1 + r2
c) Current through the circuit,

d) i = i1 i2
i1 =
E1 iR
r1
and
i2 =
r1r2
r1 + r2
ed
uc
at
io
n.
b) The effective internal resistance, r =
e)
co
m
i1
i=
E
r +R
E1
E2
E 2 + iR
r2
En
hi
10. Mixed grouping of cells
ks
m rows
.s
a
i) The e.m.f of cells in a row = nE.
w
w
ii) Total e.m.f of the combination = nE

iii)The total internal resistance =
nr
m
iv) The total resistance of the circuit = R +
nr
m
v) The current flowing through the external resistance (i)
14
mnE
nE
=
nr mR + nr
R+
m
vi) For maximum current to flow through the external circuit, the external
resistance should be equal to the total internal resistance. or R =
nr
m
or, mR = nr
11. Two cells if e.m.f.s E1 and E2 be connected in a circuit. Let r1 and r2 be the internal
resistance of the cells.
E1
r1
E2
co
m
a) The current through the circuit I =
E1 + E 2
r1 + r2
b) The terminal voltage across the cells

V1 = E1 Ir1
r2
E1
r1
ed
uc
at
io
n.
V2 = E2 Ir2
12. Let two cells of e.m.f.s E1 and E2 be connected in parallel in a circuit.
E2
Let r1 and r2 be the internal resistance of the cells.
a) The direction of the resultant current is determined by the direction of the higher
e.m.f.
b) If E1 < E2, the current through the circuit is I =
E1 E 2
r1 + r2
c) While the cell E1 is discharging, the cell E2 is in the charging. The terminal
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
voltage across the cells V1 = E1 Ir1 and V2 = E2 + Ir2.
15
r2
Kirchhoff's Laws and Bridges

1. Kirchhoff's laws
a) First law
i1
i) The algebraic sum of electric currents meeting at a junction is zero.
i3
i4
i2
i1 + i2 - i3 i4 i5 = 0 (or) i1 + i2 = i3 + i4 + i5
i5
co
m
for the junction 'P' ;
ii) Kirchhoff's first law is known as junction law or point law of kirchhoff's current
ed
uc
at
io
n.
law.
iii)Kirchhoff's first law obeys law of conservation of electric charge.

b) Second Law
i) The algebraic sum of emfs or potential differences around a closed

circuit is zero.
i1
E1
R1
R5
R2
i2
R3
E2
i3
i5
i4
R4
For the closed circuit ABCDEA
+ E1 i1 R1 i1R2 i3R3E2 i4R4 + i5R5 = 0
ii) Second law is known as loop theorem or Kirchhoffs voltage law.
hi
iii)Kirchhoff's second law obeys law of conservation of energy.

c) Sign convention in Kirchhoffs laws
ks
i) While going from +ve of a battery to the negative through a cell, emf is negative.
.s
a
ii) While going in the direction of the current through a conductor, potential
difference is negative.
2. Wheatstone Bridge
w
w
i) Wheatstone bridge is a circuit used to compare the ratio of nearly
equal resistance. It consists of four ams, each consisting a resistor.
ii) If two of the resistors of the four are known, the other two can be
P
G
compared.
iii) If three resistances are known the fourth one can be calculated.
iv) If the current through the galvanometer in a Wheatstone bridge is made zero,
then the bridge is balanced.
16
()
v) Under balanced condition
P R
=
Q S
a)
b) The same current passes through the P& Q.

c) The same current passes through the R & S.
d) The P.D. across the ends of the galvanometer is zero.
affected.
f) The effective resistance = (P + Q)(R + S)
ed
uc
at
io
n.
P+Q+R+S
co
m
e) When galvanometer and cell are interchanged, the balance point is not
vi) Wheatstones bridge is more sensitive if P = Q = R = S

vii) The number of closed circuits in bridge = 7.
3. Meter Bridge
i) It works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. It is the simplified form of

Wheatstone bridge.
ii) It is used to find
hi
a) Unknown resistance of a wire
ks
b) Specific resistance of the wire
.s
a
c) And also to compare resistances

iii) When the Meter Bridge is balanced then
Where
resistance in the left gap

=
resistance in the right gap 100
is the balancing length from the left end.
w
w
iv) A high resistance box is connected in series to the galvanometer to protect it

from higher currents.
v) Meter bridge is more sensitive if
= 50 cm.
vi) The resistance of copper strip is called end resistance.

vii) The resistance in two gaps (x and R) are interchanged to reduce the effect of end
resistance.
viii) If a conductor is connected in the left gap and it is heated then blanching point
shifts towards right.
17
ix) If a semiconductor is connected in the left gap and it is heated then balancing
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
point shifts towards left.
18
Potentiometer
1.
Potentiometer
i) It is a device which is used to
a) Compare the e.m.f.s of two cells
co
m
b) To determine the e.m.f of a cell

c) Determine the internal resistance of a cell
d) Calibrate a voltmeter and an ammeter
ed
uc
at
io
n.
e) Determine the current in a circuit

f) Determine unknown resistance
g) Measure thermo emfs
ii) A cell of E and internal resistance r in the primary circuit maintains uniform
potential gradient along the length of its wire.
iii) Current through the potentiometer wire, i =
E
r +R
iR
where 'l' is the total
hi
iv) Potential gradient or potential drop per unit length =
length of potentiometer wire, 'R' is the total resistance of the wire and 'i' is the
ks
current through potentiometer wire due to primary circuit.
.s
a
v) If a resistance Rs is connected in series with the potentiometer wire then i =

E
r + R + RS
R
E
r
R
R
+
+
S
Potential drop per unit length =
w
w
vi)
vii) Comparison of emfs using potentiometer

a)
1 and
are balancing lengths when two cells of emfs, E1 and E2 are
connected in the secondary circuit.
One after the other then,
E1
=
E2
1
2
19
b) By sum and difference method,
E1 + E 2 L1
E
L + L2
=
or 1 = 1
E1 E 2 L 2
E 2 L1 L 2
viii) Internal resistance of a cell
E V
r =
R =
V
= balancing length for the cell connected in the secondary circuit.
co
m
When
= balancing length when a resistance R is connected in parallel to the cell.
V = Terminal voltage
ed
uc
at
io
n.
E = emf of the cell in the secondary circuit
ix)The sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by decreasing the potential

gradient. i.e., by increasing the length of potentiometer wire for a given B.
x) The best instrument for accurate measurement of the e.m.f of cell is
potentiometer because it does not draw current from cell.
xi) Potentiometer acts like a voltmeter of infinite resistance.
xii) Eb (emf of battery in the primary circuit) must be greater than Ec ( emf of cell
in the secondary circuit) otherwise e.m.f will not be balanced even over the
hi
complete length of wire.
ks
xiii) + ve terminals of both battery and cell must be connected at same point
w
w
.s
a
otherwise Ib and Ic will be in same direction and null point is never obtained.
20
Magnetic Effects of Current

Magnetic Moment [M]
co
m
i) The product of the length of the magnet (2l) and pole strength is called magnetic
moment.
JJJG
( )
JJG
Magnetic movement ( M ) = 2lm
Unit: A m2.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
ii) It is a vector quantity. SN .
D.F: IL2
iii) If a bar magnet is cut into 2 equal parts perpendicular to its length.
a) Length becomes half
b) Pole strength doesnt change.
c) Moment becomes half M1 = M

2
hi
iv) If a bar magnet is cut into n equal parts perpendicular to its length M =
M
n
ks
v) If a bar magnet is cut into 2 equal parts along its length

a) Length does not change
.s
a
b) Pole strength becomes half
c) Magnetic moment becomes half
w
w
vi) If bar magnet is cut into n equal parts along its length M =
M
n
vii) If a bar magnet is cut into n equal parts first along the length and then perpendicular
to its length, its pole strength becomes m/n are moment becomes M/n2.
viii) If two bar magnets are making an angle with each other the resultant movement
is given by M 2 = M 12 + M 22 + 2M 1M 2 cos .
Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
i) A current carrying circular coil behaves as a bar magnet whose magnetic moment is
M = NiA Where N = Number of turns in the coil, i = Current through the coil and
A = Area of the coil
right hand thumb rule.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Current
N
co
m
Magnetic moment of a current carrying coil is a vector and its direction is given by
ii) For a given perimeter, circular shape has maximum area. Hence magnetic moment
is maximum.
at centre due to current in loop, and
are always parallel.
B, M
ks
B, M
hi
iii) For any loop or coil
.s
a
Hence the current carrying coil behaves like a magnetic dipole with the poles on either
w
w
side of its faces.
North Pole can be imagined to have formed on the face carrying anti clockwise current.
South Pole can be imagined on the face carrying clockwise current.
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
i) Consider an electron is revolving in a circular orbit of radius r with a speed v
and frequency n. Consider a point p on the circle then the electron crosses this
point once after every revolution. Then, due to the motion of the electron, an electric
current is associated with the coil so that it creates a magnetic field then the magnetic
dipole moment is given by
e
t
M =
ev
r2
2 r
M =
evr
2
M =
co
m
M = iA M = A
er 2
2
vr =
L
m
M =
eL
2m
L
specific ch arg e
2
M =
ed
uc
at
io
n.
The angular momentum of the revolving electron is L = mvr
ii) A wire of length l is bent in the form of a circular loop with n turns and carries
a current i, then its magnetic moment is,
l = n ( 2 r )
M = ni ( r 2 )
l
2 n
hi
r=
l2
2 2 n 2
M =
iL2
4 n
.s
a
ks
M = ni
L
specific ch arg e
2
M =
w
w
Coulombs Law
i) The force of attraction (or) repulsion between two magnetic poles is directly
proportional to the product of their pole strengths and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them and acts along the line joining the poles.
F =
m1m 2
Where is called the Permeability of the medium and = 0 v
4 d 2
Where, 0 is the permeability of free space and r is the relative permeability of
the medium.
Fmedi =
0 r m1m 2
4 d 2
But, for air (or vacuum r = 1

0 m1m2
Here 0 = 4 107 Newton/amp2 (or) Henry / meter
2
4 d
ii) Coulombs law in the vectorial form can be written as F =

mm
0 m1m2 r
Or F = 0 1 3 2 .r
.
2
4 r
4 r
r
iii) Ferro Magnetic r >>> 1

Para Magnetic r > 1
Diamagnetic
0 m1m2
.r
4 r 2
ed
uc
at
io
n.
F=
co
m
Fair =
r < 1 (Negative)
Magnetic lines of force
north pole travels.
hi
A line of force in a magnetic field is the path or the curve along which a free unit
Magnetic lines of force start from North Pole and ends on the South Pole
.s
a
i.
ks
Characteristics of magnetic lines of force
outside the magnet.
ii. Inside the magnet magnetic lines of force run from South Pole to North Pole.
w
w
iii. They are closed loops.

iv. No two magnetic lines of force intersect each other.
v. They have a tendency to repel each other laterally (They have lateral elongation).
vi. They contract longitudinally.
vii. The tangent drawn to the magnetic line of force at any point gives the direction
of magnetic field at that point.
viii. In uniform magnetic field lines of force will be straight and parallel lines.
ix. The number of lines of force at a region represents the intensity of magnetic field
at that region.
i.e., if field is strong, the lines of force are crowded, where as in weak fields they
are spaced apart.
Lines of force in case of isolated poles
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
i) For an isolated Northpole, the lines of force are radial, pointing away.
ii) For an isolated Southpole, the lines of force are radial, pointing inwards.
Magnetic flux density (or) magnetic induction (B)
i) The magnetic lines of force per unit area through a normal plane in a magnetic
field is called flux density (or) magnetic induction. It is a vector quantity. Its unit
B=
hi
is Weber / m2 (or) Tesla.
ks
Magnetic induction can also be defined as the force acting on a unit North Pole
.s
a
placed in a magnetic field.
B=
0 m
4 d 2
The force acting on a pole of pole strength m placed in a magnetic field is given
F = mB
by
w
w
If the pole is north, F and B and parallel

If the pole is south, F and B are anti - parallel.
Units of B: wb/m2 (or) Tesla (or) N/A-m.
DF of B: M 1L1T 2 A 1
Intensity of magnetic field (H)
i) It is the force acting on a unit pole placed in a magnetic field.
Unit of H: A/m
H =
1 m
4 d 2
DF: ( AL )
1
B = H = 0 r H
B = 0 H
co
m
For air (or) vacuum
Intensity of magnetization (I)
The magnetic moment per unit volume (or) pole strength per unit area is called
I=
ed
uc
at
io
n.
the intensity of magnetization.

M
m
=
amp/m
vol. area
This is a vector quantity.

Susceptibility ( )
The magnetic susceptibility of a magnetic substance is the ratio of the intensity of

magnetization to the magnetic intensity.
ks
> 1 for Para

< 1 for dia
I
H
hi
>>> 1 for Ferro
.s
a
Magnetic permeability ( )
Permeability of a substance as the ratio of magnetic induction and the magnetic

B
H
intensity =
w
w
It gives the degree of concentration of magnetic lines of force through a specimen.

Unit of : Teslameter / amp.(or) Henry/meter.
Couple acting and bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field

i)
= MB sin
(Or)
= 0MH sin
Where M (=2lm) is called the moment of the magnet

In the vector form,
= M B
Where the direction of the torque is perpendicular to the plane containing
and B .
ii) The work done to rotate the bar magnet from a position 1 to a position 2 with in
this field is given by W = M B ( co s 1 co s 2 )
o l
co
m
Magnetic induction at a point on the axial line of a bar magnet

P
Baxial
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Let P is a point which is at a distanced from the centre of a bar magnet on its
axial line.
The magnetic induction field at point P is given by

i) For a short bar magnet
<<d2 Hence
B axial =
can be neglected.
0
2Md
4 d 2 A 2
B axial =
0 2M
4 d3 .
ii) The direction of B is from south to north along the axial line.
Magnetic induction at a point of the equatorial line of a bar magnet
hi
Let P is a point on the equatorial line of a bar magnet which is at a

distanced from the centre of the bar magnet.
ks
Bequi
0
M
4 d2 + A 2
w
w
i) For a short bar magnet,
3/2
Beqi =
.s
a
The magnetic induction field at point P is given by
Beqi =
0 M
4 d3
Magnetic induction at a point due to a dipole
Let P is a point which is at a distance d from the centre of a

short bar magnet and the line joining the point (P) to the centre of
the magnet makes an angle with the axis of the bar magnet,
then magnetic induction at point P is given by,
B=
0 M
1 + 3 cos 2
4 d3
P
S
Solenoid
i) Cylindrical coil of many tightly wound turns of insulated wire with generally
diameter of the coil smaller than its length are called a solenoid.
Solenoid
co
m
ed
uc
at
io
n.
A magnetic field is produced around and within the solenoid. The magnetic field
within the solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis of solenoid.
(1) Finite length solenoid
If N = total number of turns, l = length of the

solenoid, n = number of turns per unit length
N
l
(i) Magnetic field inside the solenoid at point P is

given by
B=
0
4
(2 ni)[sin + sin ]
= = ( / 2) .
ks
inside the solenoid i.e.
hi
(ii) Infinite length solenoid: If the solenoid is of infinite length and the point is well
.s
a
Bin = 0 ni
(iii) If the solenoid is of infinite length and the point is near one end i.e. = 0 and
1
( 0 ni )
2
( B end
B end =
= ( / 2)
1
B in )
2
w
w
Earth's Magnetic Field (Terrestrial Magnetism)

(i) A vertical plane passing through the geographical axis is called geographical
meridian.
(ii) Magnetic axis and Geographical axis don't coincide but they make an angle of
17.5 with each other.
(iii) Direction of earth's magnetic field is from S (geographical south) to N
(geographical north).
Magnetic Elements
The magnitude and direction of the magnetic field of the earth at a place are
completely given by certain quantities known as magnetic elements.
(i) Magnetic Declination (): It is the angle between geographic and the magnetic
BH
oE
BV
B
Magnetic
meridian
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Geographical
meridian
oW
co
m
meridian planes.
(A)
(B)
(ii) Angle of inclination or Dip (): It is the angle between the direction of intensity
of total magnetic field of earth and a horizontal line in the magnetic meridian.
(iii) Horizontal component of earth's magnetic field (BH): Earth's magnetic field is
horizontal only at the magnetic equator. At any other place, the total intensity can be
B cos
B=
tan =
B V = B sin
BH 2 + BV 2
BV
BH
w
w
.s
a
And
and
ks
Also BH=
component (BV).
hi
resolved into horizontal component (BH) and vertical
Magnetic Materials
PARAMAGNETIC
SUBSTANCES
SUBSTANCES
1. This
is
universal 1. Properties are specifically
SUBSTANCES
1. Properties are specifically
possessed by some
possessed by some materials
materials only.
only. (In general
ed
uc
at
io
n.
property of all materials.
FERROMAGNETIC
co
m
DIAMAGNETIC
ferromagnetic substances
show all the properties of
paramagnetic substances
with greater intensity).
2. When placed in a
2. They get magnetised in the 2. They get magnetised in the
magnetic field, they get
direction of the applied
hi
magnetised in a direction
field.
field.
ks
opposite to the applied
.s
a
field.
3. When
direction of the applied
placed
in
a 3. They move from weaker
magnetic field, they move

from stronger to weaker
3. They move from weaker to
to stronger parts of the
stronger parts of the field.
field.
w
w
parts of the field.
4. When a rod of a
4. When a rod of
4. When a rod of paramagnetic
diamagnetic substance is
paramagnetic substance is
substance is freely
freely suspended in a
freely suspended in a
suspended in a magnetic
magnetic field, it orients
magnetic field, it orients
field, it orients itself in the
itself perpendicular to the
itself in the direction of
direction of the field.
field.
the field.
5. Behaviour of a
diamagnetic liquid.
5. Behaviour of a
5. Behaviour of a
paramagnetic liquid.
ferromagnetic liquid.
when poles are very close

6. When a paramagnetic sub- 6. When a ferromagnetic sub-
co
m
6. When a diamagnetic sub-
stance is placed in a
magnetic field, the
magnetic field, the
magnetic field, the
concentration of magnetic
concentration of lines of
concentration of lines of
lines of force is more
force is slightly more
force inside is much more
inside than outside the
than outside the substance.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
outside than inside the

substance.
substance.
7. Behaviour of
corresponding substance
.s
a
ks
hi
in a U-tube.
8. Permeability ( ): less
8. Slightly greater than 1.
8. Much greater than 1.
9. Small and positive.
9. Large and positive.
than 1 and positive.
w
w
9. Susceptibility ( ): low
&negative.
10. Do not obey Curie's law. 10. Obey Curie's law.

=
10. Obey Curie's law. At Curie
C
T
temperature ferromagnetic
substances changes to
paramagnetic substances.
=
11. E.g.: inert gases : He, 11. E.g.: gases: O2, N2

etc.
E.g.:
Fe,
Co,
Ni,
(Gd),
and
Metals: Al, Pt, Mn, Cr, Pd
Gadolinium
Metals: Au, Zn, Cu, Hg,
Alkali & alkaline earth
Dysprosium (Dy) alloys
Bi, Sb, Pb, Sn, and
metals and rare earths.
like Alnico.
Others Like: P, H2O,

Marble,
Alkyl
halides and many organic

compounds.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Glass,
co
m
Ar
11.
C
T TC
Magnetic Maps and Neutral Points
(i) Magnetic maps: Magnetic maps (i.e. Declination, dip and horizontal component)
over the earth vary in magnitude from place to place. It is found that many places have
hi
the same value of magnetic elements. The lines are drawn joining all places on the earth
ks
having same value of a magnetic element. These lines form magnetic map.
(ii) Isogonic lines: These are the lines on the magnetic map joining the places of
.s
a
equal declination.
(iii) Agonic line: The line which passes through places of zero declination is called
agonic line.
w
w
(vi) Isoclinic lines: These are the lines joining the points of equal dip or inclination.
(v) Aclinic line: The line joining places of zero dip is called aclinic line (or magnetic
equator)
(vi) Isodynamic lines: The lines joining the points or places of the same value of
horizontal component of earth's magnetic field are called isodynamic lines.
Electromagnetic Induction
Magnetic flux
1. The number of lines of force passing through any area in a magnetic
co
m
field is known as magnetic flux.
2. When magnetic field makes an angle with the normal to the plane
3. The flux emanating out of a surface depends upon
n.
then the magnetic flux linked with the plane is = B. A = BA cos .
at
io
4. If = 90, (i.e,) if the plane of the coil is in the direction of the field = 0.
5. If = 90, (i.e,) if the plane of the coil is in the direction of the field = 0.
Electromagnetic induction
ed
uc
6. If = 180 = -BA
i) The phenomenon of production of electromotive force on account of change in
sh
i
magnetic flux linked with a circuit is defined as electromagnetic induction.

ii) The phenomenon of production of induced current in a closed circuit on account of
ak
change in magnetic flux linked with the circuit is defined as electromagnetic

induction.
w
.s
iii) In the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, the mechanical and magnetic
energy is converted into electrical energy.
Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction

First law
1. When the flux linked with a closed circuit changed then an e.m.f. is induced in the
circuit. The induced e.m.f. exists so long as the change in magnetic flux lasts.
2. If the circuit is closed then an induced electric current also flows in the circuit on
account of induced e.m.f. which depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux
d
dt
i.e.,
Second law
magnetic flux is
these
d
.
dt
d
dt
If during small interval of time t , the change in
or e 2 1 .
t 2 t1
n.
linked with the circuit, i.e.,
co
m
1. The magnitude of induced e.m.f. depends upon the rate of change of magnetic flux
at
io
2. This law explains the magnitude of induced e.m.f.

3. If the number of turns in the coil is N, then e
ed
uc
flux is linked with the coil.
d
(N) ,
dt
4. If the area of coil of N turns is A and angle between

e=
d
(NBA cos t )
dt
eN
d
dt
B and A is ,
where
N effective
then
sh
i
d
(NBA cos )
dt
or
ak
e = NAB sin t
5. Induced e.m.f. depends on the following factors
w
.s
a) on magnetic permeability
b) on the number of turns N,
c) on rate of change of flux
d
,
dt
d) on area A,
e) on relative motion between the coil and the magnet.
Lenzs law
1) The direction of induced e.m.f. or induced current in any circuit or coil is such that it
opposes the very cause which is responsible for its own production.
2)
e = N
d
dt
3) Induced e.m.f. is generated on account of change in magnetic and mechanical energy.

4) This law explains the direction of induced e.m.f. or induced current.
5) This law is based on the law of conservation of energy.
emf induced at
co
m
6) If the rod moves with velocity v along a direction making an angle

its ends is e =Bvlsin
7) The induced e.m.f. generated on account of rotation of a conducting rod in a
e=
BL2
2
at
io
8)
n.
perpendicular magnetic filed
9) Induced e.m.f. generated in a disc rotating with a constant angular velocity in a
10) e = Br 2f = Br
ed
uc
perpendicular magnetic field
11) Induced e.m.f. generated due to linear motion of a rectangular coil in a uniform
12) = 0
e = 0
sh
i
magnetic field.
ak
13) Induced e.m.f. generated on account of linear motion of a coil in a uniform finite
magnetic field.
w
.s
14) Induced e.m.f. generated on account of linear motion of a conducting rod in a
perpendicular uniform magnetic field e = (V B ) ; e = B( v ) .
Self induction
1) Self inductance is the property of a conductor or coil which enables to induce an
emf due to change of current in the same coil.
2) When an inductive circuit is closed then the main current in it rises from zero to
maximum value.
3) Due to this the value of magnetic flux produced in the coil also increases from zero
to maximum.
4) Due to this varying flux in the coil, an induced current is generated in the coil which
flows in a direction opposite to that of main current and thus opposes the rise of
main current.
co
m
5) The phenomenon of production of induced current in a circuit due to change in main

current in the same circuit is defined as self induction.
6) The magnetic flux produced in a coil is directly proportional to the current flowing
I or = LI
n.
in it, i.e.,
at
io
The constant of proportionality L is defined as the coefficient of self induction.

7) If I=1 amp, then L= , i.e., the self inductance of coil is equal to the magnetic flux
ed
uc
produced in it as a result of unit current flow in it.
8) The induced e.m.f. generated in the coil is given by

9) If
dl
=1
dt
e=
d
dl
= L
dt
dt
amp/sec, then L=e i.e., the self inductance of a coil is equal to the induced
sh
i
e.m.f. generated in it as a result of unit change of current in it.

10) The inductance of a coil (L) depends on
ak
a) The area of cross section of the coil (A)

b) The number of turns in the coil (N)
w
.s
c) The permeability of the core material inside the coil

11) Self inductance of a plane coil is given by the formula
L=
0N2 A
N2r
(or) L = 0
.
2r
2
2
12) The inductance of long solenoid or a toroid is give by L = 0N
. Where N is total
number of turns, l is length and A is area of cross- section.
13) Energy stored in inductor is E =
1 2
L
2
14) If two inductors connected in series effective inductance is L1 + L2.

15) If two inductors connected in parallel effective inductance is
L1L2
L1 + L2
Mutual induction
1) The phenomenon of production of induced e.m.f. in an inductive circuit, as a result
of change of current in another closely lying inductive circuit, is defined as mutual
induction.
2) That phenomenon of electromagnetic induction, in which if the current in one of the
co
m
two closely lying coils is changed then e.m.f. is induced in another coil, is defined as
mutual induction.
n.
Coefficient of mutual induction (M):
at
io
1) The coefficient of mutual induction between two coils is equal to that magnetic flux
linked with the secondary coil which is produced as a result of unit current flow in
the primary coil.
When I1=1 amp, then
M21 = 2
ed
uc
M21 = 2
I1
2. The coefficient of mutual induction is numerically equal to that induced e.m.f. in
the primary coil,

e2
dI1
dt
dI1
=1
dt
amp/s, then M21=e2
w
.s
3. Similarly
When
ak
M21 =
sh
i
the secondary coil, which is produced as a result of unit rate of change of current in
M12 =
e1
dI2
dt
M12 = 1
I2
4. According to reciprocity theorem M21=M12=M. Hence M= and M=
changing the names of the coils, M remains unchanged.

5. Dependence of M : M depends on
i.
Number of turns in the coils
e
dI
dt
i.e., on
ii.
The distance between the coils
iii.
The geometrical shape of coils
iv.
The material of the core and
6. The angle between the axes of the coils .If angle between two coils is 0, then M is
maximum and if it is 90, then M is minimum.
8. Mutual inductance of two solenoids or coils is

0 N1N 2 A
2rp
. N1, N2 are number of turns in primary coil, secondary coil,
is
at
io
length and A is area of cross section of the coils.
n.
M=
0NpNs A
co
m
7. Mutual inductance of 2 plane coils given by the formula M =
9. If L1 and L2 are self inductances of two coils, the mutual inductance between the
L 1L 2
ed
uc
coils M =
AC Generator/Alternator/Dynamo
1) An electrical machine used to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy is
sh
i
known as ac generator/alternator.
ak
2) It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction i.e., when a coil is rotated in

uniform magnetic field, an induced emf is produced in it.
Nd
= NBA sin t =
dt
e0 sint
w
.s
e =
e
e
= 0 sin t = i0 sin t
R
R
R Resistance of the circuit
i=
where e0 = NBA
DC generator
1. If the current produced by the generator is direct current, then the generator is called
dc generator.
2. DC generator consists of (i) Armature (coil) (ii) Magnet
(iii) Commutator (iv)
Brushes.
3. In dc generator commutator is used in place of slip rings. The commutator rotates

along with the coil so that in every cycle when direction of e reverses, the
commutator also reverses or makes contact with the other brush so that in the
Transformer
co
m
external load the current remains in the some direction giving dc.
1. The device based on the principle of mutual induction used to change the value of
alternating voltage (or e.m.f.) is defined as transformer.
n.
2. There are two coils in a transformer which are wound on the same iron core
at
io
a) Primary coil
b) Secondary coil
as the primary coil.
ed
uc
Primary coil: The coil, to which the source of alternating voltage is connected, is defined
Secondary coil: The coil in which induced alternating voltage is generated is known
as the secondary coil.
vp
vs
np
ns
sh
i
3. These coils are wound on the opposite sides of the same laminated soft iron core.
4. These coils are mutually connected to each other magnetically.
ak
5. In an ideal transformer these coils are tightly coupled (i.e., K=1) i.e., the magnetic
w
.s
flux generated in the primary is fully linked to the secondary.

6. There are two types of transformer
a) Step-up transformer
b) Step-down transformer
Other Salient features

1. In a transformer VS and VP are in opposite phase i.e., a phase difference of exists
between them.
2. In this the frequency of induced e.m.f. (output voltage) is same as that of applied
e.m.f. (input voltage) i.e., nP=nS.
3. For this the law of conservation of energy is held valid.
4. It converts magnetic energy into electrical energy.

5. Direct voltage or current cannot be varied with the help of this instrument.
6. Alternating current or voltage is obtained with the help of it.
7. Long distance transmission of electrical energy is effected with the help of it.
8. It does not amplify power.
co
m
Energy losses in transformer and their minimization
1. Copper loss: Due to current flow in primary and secondary coils of a transformer
Joule heat is generated in both the coils on account of their finite resistance. i.e.,
n.
electrical energy is dissipated in the form of heat energy. This loss of energy is
are made of thick copper wire.
at
io
known as copper loss. To minimise this energy loss the primary and secondary coils
2. Magnetic flux leakage: Some magnetic flux leaks in air between primary and
ed
uc
secondary. Hence the flux produced in the primary does not wholly get linked with
the secondary. This type of energy loss is known as magnetic flux leakage. This
type of energy loss is minimised by winding the two coils one over the other.
sh
i
3. Eddy current losses: When a transformer core is placed in a variable magnetic field
then induced currents (Eddy currents) are produced in it. The heat energy produced
ak
due to these induced currents is known as Eddy current losses. This type of energy
loss can be minimised by taking a laminated soft iron core.
w
.s
4. Hysteresis loss: On account of alternating currents in the transformer coils, its core
is magnetized and demagnetized again and again. Consequently due to repeated
rotations of domains the core gets heated i.e., the magnetic energy gets converted
into heat energy. This type of energy loss can be minimised by using core of high
resistance ferrites at high frequencies and soft iron or silicon core at low
frequencies.
5. Uses: Transformer is used in a) power stations, b) television, c) telephones, d)

telegraph e) radio
Alternating current
1. An alternating current or e.m.f. is one whose magnitude and direction vary
periodically with time.
co
m
2. Alternating current abbreviated as ac not A.C or a.c.
3. The simplest types of alternating current and e.m.f. have a sinusoidal variation, given
respectively by i=i0sin t and
= 0 sin t
are called peak values of
is the angular frequency.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
current and voltage respectively and
where i0,
4. The time taken by alternating current to go through one cycle of changes is called its
period (T) and T = 2 .
5. The number of cycles per second of an alternating current is called its frequency,
n=1
T
.
2
The phase of an alternating current at any instant represents the fraction of
the time period that has elapsed since the current last passed through the zero position
hi
of reference. Phase can also be expressed in terms of angle in radians.
ks
6. An alternating current or e.m.f. varies periodically from a maximum in one direction

through zero to a maximum in the opposite direction, and so on. The maximum value
.s
a
of the current or e.m.f. in either direction is called the peak value.

7. The average or mean value of alternating current or e.m.f. for complete cycle is zero.
It has no significance. Hence, the mean value of alternating current ( i ) is defined as
w
w
its average over half a cycle. For positive half cycle
i = i0 sin t =
2
i0 = 0.636i0
i=
1 T/2
i dt
T 0
2
where
similarly average value of e.m.f. = 20 .
8. The root mean square (r.m.s.) value of an alternating current is the square root of the
average of i2 during a complete cycle where i is the instantaneous value of the
alternating current.
(Or)
It is the steady current, which when passed through a resistance for a given time will
produce the same amount of heat as the alternating current does in the same
resistance and in the same time.
co
m
(Or)
The r.m.s. velocity of an alternating voltage can be defined as that direct voltage
which produces the same rate of heating in a given resistance. The r.m.s. value of
2
=
irms
i rms =
1T2
i dt
T0
i0
2
ed
uc
at
io
n.
alternating voltage is also called as the effective or the virtual value of the voltage.
Where i=i0sin t
= 0.707i 0
Similarly
rms =
1T 2
dt where = 0 sin t
T0
0
2
hi
2
rms
=
ks
Voltage marked on ac instruments is the r.m.s. voltage, i.e. 220 V ac means
.s
a
Erms = 220 V.
9. In any circuit, the ratio of the effective voltage to the effective current is called the
impedance Z of the circuit. Its unit is ohm.
10. A diagram representing alternating voltage and current as vectors with phase angle
w
w
between them is called Phasor diagram.
11. Purely resistive circuit: A circuit containing an A.C. source and a resistor is known
as purely resistive circuit. If
= 0 sin t
and the current at a time t is i, then
0 sin t = Ri
R
i
~
E
i
t
Here both voltage and current are in same phase.
Instantaneous power dissipation
p=
i = 0 i 0 sin 2 t
P = rmsirms
Average power dissipation
as purely inductive circuit.
= 0 ; di = 0 sin tdt
dt
L
i = i0 sin t where i0 = 0
2
L
by integration we get
ed
uc
at
io
n.
If = 0 sin t , the circuit equation is L di
co
m
12. Purely inductive circuit: A circuit containing an A.C source and inductor is known
The constant XL= L plays the role of effective resistance of the circuit. The constant
XL is called the reactance of the inductor. It is zero for direct current ( =0) and
increases as the frequency increases. The current lags the voltage in phase by / 2 and
the quantity L is a measure of the effective opposition to the flow of A.C. The
average power consumed in a cycle is zero.
C
hi
ks
.s
a
90o
w
w
13. Purely capacitive circuit: A circuit containing an A.C source and a capacitor is
known as purely capacitive circuit. If
= 0 sin t ,
the circuit equation is
Q= c = c0 sin t by differentiating;
i=
dQ
= i0 sin t +
dt
2
Where
i0 =
0
1
90o
~
i
co
m
The current leads the voltage in phase by / 2 .
ed
uc
at
io
n.
The quantity 1/ C is a measure of the effective opposition of alternating current by a

capacitor. It is denoted by XC and is called capacitive reactance XC =
1
C
14. The peak current and the peak e.m.f. in the entire above three circuits can be written
as
i0 = 0
Z
where Z=R for a purely resistive circuit, Z=1/ C for a purely capacitive
circuit and Z= L for a purely inductive circuit. The general name for Z is
impedance.
15. If the e.m.f of an A.C circuit is represented by = 0 sin t , the current can be
hi
represented as i = i0 sin( t + ) . For purely resistive circuit =0; for a purely capacitive
.s
a
phase factor.
ks
circuit = / 2 and for a purely inductive circuit = / 2 . The constant
is called
16. LR series circuit
The impedance Z of the circuit is given by Z=
w
w
The current i in the steady state is given by

The applied voltage leads the current by
R
i=
R 2 + 2L2
0
R2 + 2L2
.
sin(t )
L
Tan1
where
L
tan =
17. R-C series circuit
The impedance Z of the circuit is given by Z=
The current i in the steady state is given by
1
R2 +
i = 0 sin(t + )
Z
.
where
co
m
1
Tan1
CR
The applied voltage leads the current by

C
1/C
18. LCR series circuit
1/C
ed
uc
at
io
n.
hi
1/C-L
ks
.s
a
2
rms = R
+ ( L ~ C )2
Z = R2 + ( XL ~ XC )2 = R2 + L
L 1 / C
R
w
w
tan =
(i) When
L >
0 =
1
LC
1
, tan
C
is positive i.e.,
1
, tan
C
is negative i.e.,
is positive in such case e.m.f leads the
current.
(ii)When
L <
is negative in such case e.m.f lags behind
the current.
(iii)
When
L =
1
, tan
C
is zero i.e.,
is zero in such case current and e.m.f are
in phase with each other.

When
XL = XC or L =
1
C
the impedance becomes minimum and hence current will
be maximum. The circuit is then said to be resonance and the corresponding
0
R
. The
ed
uc
at
io
n.
peak current in this case is
1
1
.
2 LC
co
m
frequency is known as resonant frequency. The resonant frequency=
19. Quality factor of resonance: the selectivity or sharpness of resonant circuit is

measured by Q-factor called quality factor.
The Q factor or quality factor of a resonant LCR circuit is defined as ratio of the
voltage drop across inductor (or capacitor) to the applied voltage.
Q=
volt age acros L(or C)

applied voltage
Q=
1
R
L
C
is large or C is low.
hi
The Q-factor of LCR series circuit will be large (or more sharpness) if R is low or L
ks
20. Power in A.C. circuit: The average power P delivered by A.C source in a complete
cycle is given by P= rms .irms cos where cos is called the power factor of LCR
.s
a
circuit. P also represents the average power delivered in a long time.

21. Advantages of AC over DC
1. The generation of AC is more economic than DC.
w
w
2. AC voltages can be easily stepped up or stepped down using transformers.

3. AC can be transmitted to longer distances with less loss of energy.
4. AC can be easily converted into DC by using rectifiers.
22. Disadvantages
1. AC is more fatal and dangerous than DC.
2. AC always flows on the outer layer of the conductor (skin effect) and hence AC
requires stranded wires.
3. AC cannot be used in electrolysis like electroplating etc.
Growth of Current in LR Circuit

1. When switch S is closed at t=0,
di
= Ri
dt
.
co
m
DC Circuits
ed
uc
at
io
n.
2. At time t,
current i = 1 e L
R
3. The constant L/R has dimensions of time and is called the
0.63
inductive time constant ( ) of the LR circuit.

4.
t = ; i = 0.63i0 ,
in one time constant, the current reaches 63% of
growth of current
hi
the maximum value. The time constant tells us how fast the
time
ks
current will grow.
b
S
a
.
R
.s
a
5. i=i0, when t= , where i =
Theoretically current grows to maximum value after infinite time. But practically it
grows to maximum after 5.
w
w
Decay of current
6. When switch S is open at t=0;
di
= Ri
dt
at t=0, i=i0
0.37
at time t,
i = i0
decay of current
time
The current reduces to 37% of the initial value in one time constant i.e., 63% of the
decay is complete.
7. Energy stored in inductor E= 1 Li2 .
Charging of a capacitor
8. When a capacitor is connected to a battery, positive charge
R i=0
ed
uc
at
io
n.
appears on one plate and negative charge on the other. The
co
m
potential difference between the plates ultimately becomes
equal to e.m.f of the battery. The whole process takes some
0.63 c
b
S
a
growth of charge
time and during this time there is an electric current through

connecting wires and the battery.
9. Using Kirchhoffs loop law q + Ri = 0 .
time
t
CR
hi
t
CR
; i = i0
.s
a
V=
CR
E 1 e
Q 1 e
ks
10. At any time t,
RC
q = C1 e
=
11. The constant RC has dimensions of time and is called capacitive time constant ( ).
w
w
12. In one time constant ( =RC), the charge accumulated on the capacitor is q=0.63 C .
Discharging of a capacitor
q
13. When the plates of a charged capacitor are connected

through a conducting wire, the capacitor gets
0.37c
discharged, again there is a flow of charge through the

wires and hence there is a current
decay of charge
time
14.
15.
q
Ri = 0
C
q = Qe
t
RC
V = Ee
, where Q = C
t
CR
; ; i = i0
t
CR
i0
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
16. At t=RC, q=0.37Q, i.e., 63% of the discharging is complete in one time constant.
Electromagnetic Waves
1)
According to Max well an accelerated charge produces a sinusoidally varying

magnetic field which in turn produces sinusoidal time varying electric field. These
ed
uc
at
io
n.
co
m
two fields are mutually perpendicular to each other.
The electric and magnetic fields shown in the above figure are mathematically
represented by
i) E = Ey = E0 sin [kx - wt] = E0 sin 2 vt
Ex = Ez = 0
Bx = By = 0
ks
hi
ii) B = Bz = B0 sin [kx - wt] = B0 sin 2 vt
.s
a
iii) E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the electric fields.
The mutually perpendicular electric & magnetic field constitutes electromagnetic
w
w
2)
iv) E and B are the instantaneous values.
waves which can propagate through empty space. The velocity of the
electromagnetic wave in vacuum is given by c =
3)
0 0
In any isotropic medium the velocity is given by v =
.
1
4)
Displacement Current
The current following due to the varying electric field but not due to the actual flow
of charges is called displacement current.
dqe
dt
ii) id =0 A
dE
dE
Where
is variable electrical field
dt
dt
ed
uc
at
io
n.
5) Maxwells Displacement Current
co
m
i) id = 0
i) The rate of change of electrical flux produces a current called displacement

current i d".
ii) The displacement current is also called induced magnetic field.
iii) Maxwell made the laws of electricity and magnetism symmetrical with the help
of displacement current.
iv) Unlike conduction current displacement current exists where there is rate of
hi
change of electrical flux.
ks
v) The displacement current is found between the plates of a condenser during its
charging or discharging.
.s
a
vi) It is also found between the plates of a condenser when AC is applied.

vii) It is called current because it produces a magnetic field.
6) Displacement current in the gap between the condenser plates
w
w
i) When a charging current i which is constant is given, i d the displacement
current = charging current i.

ii) When a variable electrical field is applied to the gap id = A 0
dE
.
dt
iii) When a variable potential difference is applied to the plates of a condenser of

capacity C
id = C
dv
.
dt
vi) Ampere - Maxwells law or Amperes Law is modified by Maxwell.

v)
JG JG
B.dl = 0 ( ic + id )
and
JG JG
d E
B.dl = 0 ic + 0
dt
co
m
ic = The conduction current found in a conductor carrying current

id = Displacement current which is found between the plates of a condenser
7) Maxwells Equations
JG JG
ed
uc
at
io
n.
which is discontinuous.
i) E. d A. = qnet / 0 [Gauss law in magnetism]

ii)
v B.ds = 0 [Gauss law in magnetism]

JG G
iii) E. dl. =
JG G
d B
[Faradays law]
dt
ks
8) Pointing vector
dE
= 0 ( ic + id ) [Ampere-Maxwell law]
dt
hi
vi) B. dl. = 0ic + 0 0
.s
a
The rate of flow of energy in an electro magnetic wave is described by a vector

G
called pointing vector and it is given by the expression S =
w
w
Wm-2.
9) Energy density in electric field

1
Ed = 02
2
10) Energy density in magnetic field
1 G G
B .Its unit is

0
B2
Ed =
2 0
11) Total Energy Density

1 2 B2
0 +
0
2
co
m
( Ed )T =
12) Radiation Pressure
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i) When electromagnetic waves incident on any surface the pressure exerted on the
surface is called radiation pressure.
ii) If a portion of electromagnetic wave is propagating with speed c, then the linear
momentum of electromagnetic wave is P =
U
c .
Where U is the total energy transferred to the surface in a time t.
iii) When the radiation incident on a surface is entirely reflected back along its original
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
path, the magnitude of the momentum delivered to the surface is P =
2U
c .
Optics
Reflection
When light travelling through homogeneous transparent medium is incident on a surface which
co
m
separates this medium from another, then a part of the light comes back into the first medium in
a definite direction. This is called reflection of light. The surface from which reflection takes
place is called a reflector. The amount of light reflected depends on:
The angle of incidence and
(ii)
(ii) The nature of the two media.
1.
Laws of reflection
i.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
(i)
The incident ray, the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence and
the reflected ray, all lie in one plane.
ii.
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
iii.
Deviation produced in Reflection is
hi
= 1800 ( i + r )
ks
Since r = i
w
w
.s
a
= 1800 2i
2.
Image formed by a plane mirror: The image of a point source after reflection on a
plane mirror
i.
Lies on the normal drawn from the source to the mirror,
ii.
Is as far behind the mirror as the source is in front of it,
iii.
Is virtual in nature,
iv.
Is of the same size as the object and
v.
3.
Is laterally inverted.
A plane mirror can form a real image if a convergent beam strikes the mirror. (object is
virtual)
4.
The angle between the incident ray and the plane mirror is known as angle of glancing.
5.
The angle between the incident ray extended and the reflected ray is called the angle of
co
m
deviation. If i is the angle of incidence, then the angle of deviation is (1802i). The
angle of glancing and the angle of incidence are complementary i.e., their sum is 90.
For a normal incidence, the angle of deviation is 180.
7.
For the same incident ray, if the plane mirror is rotated through , then the reflected ray
ed
uc
at
io
n.
6.
rotates through 2 . Sextant, optical lever and lamp and scale arrangement work on the
above principle.
8.
When an object is moving in front of a plane mirror with a velocity v, the image of the
observer (as seen by him) travels to or opposite to the object with twice the velocity with
which the observer moves to or opposite to the mirror. Any stationary observer in front
of the mirror sees the image moving with a velocity v.
9.
The minimum size of a plane mirror fixed on the wall of a room in which an observer at
hi
the center of the room can see the full image of the wall behind him is one third of the
ks
wall.
The minimum size of the mirror for seeing the full image of a person is half his size.
11.
Two mirrors are inclined at an angle . If a ray of light is obliquely incident on the first
.s
a
10.
mirror, the deviation after two reflections is 3602 i.e., the deviation of the ray due to
successive reflections at the two mirrors does not depend on the angle of incidence but
w
w
depends on the angle between the mirrors.
12.
If two plane mirrors are kept at an angle
and if an object is kept between them, then
the number of images formed (n) is given by the formula, n= 360
or n= 360 which
ever is odd.
13.
Spherical mirror: If the reflecting surface of a mirror is spherical, then it is called a

spherical mirror.
2
14.
Convex mirror: When the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is bulging, then it is
called a convex mirror.
15.
Concave mirror: When the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is hollow, then it is
called a concave mirror.
16.
The relation between the focal length (f) and the radius of curvature (r) of a spherical
co
m
mirror is r=2f.
17.
Types of images formed with a concave mirror
18.
With a convex mirror, the image is always formed behind the mirror within its focal
19.
The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object is called linear magnification
(m) and m=v/u.
20.
Mirror formulae :
1 1 1
uv
= +
or f =
f u v
u+v
v=f(1+m) and u= f 1 +
21.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
length. The image if diminished, virtual and erect.
In spherical mirrors of large aperture, the marginal and paraxial rays do not come to the
A paraboloidal mirror has no spherical aberration. It is used in reflecting telescopes and

in search lights.
The field of view of a convex mirror is more than that of a plane mirror. Hence convex
.s
a
23.
ks
22.
hi
same focus. This is known as spherical aberration.
mirror is used as a rear-view mirror.

Concave mirror is an ideal one for shaving purposes. Ophthalmoscope consists of a
24.
w
w
concave mirror. It is also used by dentists.
Position of
Position of
Point size; real;
At infinity
At F
Beyond C
Between F & C
At C
At C itself
Between F & C
At F
inverted
co
m
inverted
inverted
Magnified; real;
Beyond C
inverted
Real
Behind the mirror
Magnified; virtual;
erect
ks
hi
Object lies at infinity
Diminished; real;
Same size; real;
At infinity
Between P & F
Nature
image
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Object
Object lies between infinity and C
w
w
2.
.s
a
Real, inverted very small image isformed at F
Real, inverted diminished image is formed between F and C
3.
Object lies at C
4
Real, inverted image is formed at C
Object lies between F and C
co
m
4.
5.
Object lies at F
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Real, inverted magnified image is formed between C and infinity
Real, inverted, very large image is formed at infinity

Object lies between F and P
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
6.
Refraction
When a light ray travels from one medium to another, it suffers a change of direction at
co
m
1.
the surface of separation of the two media. This is known as refraction.

2.
Laws of refraction
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i.The incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal at the point of
incidence on the surface of separation of the two media, all lie in
one plane.
rarer medium
denser medium
ii.For the same pair of media and for the same colour of light, the ratio of the sine of the
angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant. This is known as
Snells law.
sin i
sin r
If the first medium is vacuum, then it is called absolute refractive index.
When a ray is incident normally i = 0, r = 0 and hence there is no deviation.
4.
When a ray of light travels from a rarer medium into a denser medium, its velocity
ks
hi
3.
5.
.s
a
decreases, wavelength decreases and its frequency remains unaltered.

Refractive index is dependent on the colour of light. It is minimum for red and
maximum for violet.
Refractive index varies with wave length z as =
A+
B
2
. This relation is known
w
w
6.
as Cauchys relation.
7.
Principle of reversibility of light: If the path of a light ray, after going through a
number of reflections and refractions is reversed, it always retraces its path in the
opposite direction.
8.
As the temperature of a medium increases, its refractive index decreases.

a b
= b =
a
b a
Medium a
i
r1
r1
r2
Medium b
r2
Medium c
i
Medium a
a b .b c .c a = 1
When a ray is passing from one medium ( 1 ) into another medium ( 2 ), then
1 Sin
10.
V
= o
V
1 2
11.
i=
2 Sin
r.
Where Vo = velocity of light in vacuum and V = velocity of light in the medium.

V1
V2
co
m
9.
Where V1 = velocity of light in medium 1 & V2 =velocity of light in medium 2.
When light is traveling from rarer medium to denser medium it bends
ed
uc
at
io
n.
towards normal. When light is traveling from denser medium to rarer
rarer
medium it bends away from normal.
denser
12.
When an object placed in a denser medium is seen through a rarer
medium, it appears to be closer. Eg. a coin placed inside water. When an object in a
rarer medium is seen from a denser medium, it appears to be shifted to a point farther
away from the eye of the observer.
=
hi
The apparent shift produced by a denser medium of thickness (t) is t(1 1 ).
ks
13.
Re al depth
Apparent depth
14.
.s
a
The apparent shift due to multiple layers=
r
t
t1(1 1
1
)+t2(1 1
2
r
x
)+
When a ray travels through a glass slab, it suffers displacement or lateral shift but is not
deviated. Lateral shift (x) is given by x = t sin (i - r) .
When a light ray travels from a denser medium into a rarer medium, the angle of
w
w
15.
cos r
incidence for which the angle of refraction becomes 90 is known as critical angle (C)
of the denser medium with respect to the rarer medium.
16.
The critical angle for water ( = 4/3) is 4835I and for glass ( = 3/2) it is 4149I.
17.
The critical angle is proportional to the wavelength of the spectral line. It is maximum
for red and minimum for violet. The critical angle is proportional to temperature.
18.
The critical angle (C) depends on the two media. If the angle of
incidence is greater than the critical angle, instead of refraction,
rarer
denser
r
i
i >c
reflection occurs. This is known as total internal reflection.

a b
1
1
; sinCb =
= b a
sin Cb
a b
source
Mirages and looming are due to total internal reflection.
20.
Diamond has maximum refractive index and hence the least critical angle. Hence a well
cut diamond shines brilliantly due to total internal reflection.
co
m
19.
A small air bubble in water shines due to total internal reflection.
22.
A bob coated with lamp black, placed under water appears silvery white due to total
ed
uc
at
io
n.
21.
internal reflection.
23.
The conditions for total internal reflection are (i) light must travel from a denser medium
to a rarer medium and (ii) the angle of incidence must be greater than the critical angle.
24.
Uses of total internal reflection:

i)
It confines the light only to the denser medium and avoids refraction,
ii)
It permits lossless propagation known as non radioactive propagation i.e., there is
25.
The phenomenon finds wide application in optical communication.
ks
iii)
hi
no energy loss during transmission;
For a fish or diver under water, the outside world appears to be within a cone of vertex
26.
.s
a
angle 2C (= 98).
If h is the depth of the fish from the surface of water of refractive index , the radius of
the circle R on the surface of water through which it can see the outside world is
w
w
R = htanC or R =
h
2
Lenses & Prism

R
c
c
pond
1.
fish
A transparent substance bounded by two surfaces of definite geometrical shape is called
co
m
Lens.
2.
A lens may be considered to be made up of a number of small prisms put together.
3.
Principal axis: The line joining the two centres of curvature of the spherical surfaces
4.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
constituting a lens is called principal axis.
Radius of curvature: A double convex lens or a concave lens is bounded by two

spherical surfaces which are parts of spheres. The centre of such a sphere is called the
centre of curvature and the distance from this centre upto the spherical surface is called
the radius of curvature.
5.
Optic centre: When a ray of light incident on one surface of a lens meets the second
surface of the lens after refraction and passes through a particular point on the principal
hi
axis inside the lens such that the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray, then that
6.
ks
point on the axis is called optic centre (C).

Principal focus : When a narrow beam of light parallel to the principal axis strikes a
.s
a
lens, the rays after refraction either focus at a point (in the case of convex lens) or
appear to diverge from a fixed point on the principal axis (in the case of a concave lens)
Focal length: The distance between the optical centre and the principal focus is called
w
w
7.
of the lens. This point is called principal focus (F).
focal length (f).
8.
Types of images formed with a convex lens

Position of object
Position of image Nature of image
At infinity
At F
Application
Point size; real;
Astronomical
inverted
telescope
Diminished; real;
Between F and 2F
Camera
inverted
Same size; real;
At 2F
Erecting lens of
ed
uc
at
io
n.
At 2F
co
m
Beyond 2F
inverted
terrestrial telescope
Magnified; real;
Between F and 2F
Beyond 2F
Projector
inverted
At F
At infinity
Within the focal
Real
Magnified; virtual;
On the same side

length
Simple microscope
9.
ks
hi
erect
With a concave lens, irrespective of the position of the object, the image is formed on
.s
a
the same side as the object within the focal length. It is always diminished, erect and
virtual.
The shape of u-v graph in the case of a convex lens or concave mirror is a rectangular
10.
w
w
hyperbola.
11.
The shape of
1 1
u v
graph in the case of a convex lens or concave mirror is a straight line.
10
12.
Lens formulae
1 1 1
uv
v
= + ; f =
; m= ;
f u v
u+v
u
v = f(1 + m); u = f(1 +
Refraction at curved surfaces :
co
m
13.
1
)
m
ed
uc
at
io
n.
1 2 2 1
+
=
u
v
R
Where
2 =
1 =
refractive index of the medium in which the object lies.
refractive index of the medium on the other side of curved surface
Sign convention
hi
R = radius of curvature of curved surface
ks
R is positive, if object faces convex surface
.s
a
R is negative, if object faces concave surface

v is positive, if image is real (forms on the other side of the lens)
v is negative, if image is virtual (form on the same side of the lens)
w
w
First principal focus is the object point for which image point lies at infinity.
u = f1; v = and 1 = 2 1
f1
Power of refracting surface is given by
1 2 1
=
f1
1R
Second principal focus is the image point for which object point lies at infinity.
u = ;
1
v = f2 and 2 = 2
f2
R
11
Power of refracting surface is given by
14.
1
1
= 2
f2
2R
Lens makers formula is

1
1
1
= ( 1)
f
R1 R 2
Where
l =
1
1
R
R
2
1
refractive index of the material of lens and
m =
surrounding medium of the lens.
Double Convex ,
R2
refractive index of the
ed
uc
at
io
n.
This formula is applicable for thin lens and for paraxial rays.
R1
co
m
1 l m
=
f m
R1 J +ve; R2 J -ve
Double Concave,
hi
Convexo-concave,
R1 J -ve; R2 J -ve
R1 J +ve; R2 J +ve
.s
a
ks
Concavo-convex,
R1 J -ve; R2 J +ve
The focal length of a plane glass plate is infinity.
16.
The reciprocal of focal length of a lens measured in metres is called its focal power (P).
w
w
15.
P=
1
100
(or) P =
f in metres
f in cm
17.
The unit of focal power is dioptre.
18.
One dioptre is the focal power of a lens of focal length one metre.
19.
When two thin lenses of focal lengths f1 and f2 are kept in contact and f is the focal length of
the combination, then
1 1
1
=
+
f f1 f 2
or P = P1 + P2.
12
20.
When two thin lenses are separated by a distance d then

f1f 2
1 1
1
d
or f =
=
+
f f1 f 2 f1f 2
f1 + f 2 d
Or
P = P1+P2 P1P2d. It acts as a glass slab if f1+f2 =d.

21.
If a double convex lens is vertically cut into two pieces, each piece will have a focal
length equal to twice the original.
If a convex lens of focal length f is broken into two semicircular pieces, each piece will
co
m
22.
have a focal length f.
An air bubble in water behaves like a divergent lens (i.e., concave lens)
24.
If a convex lens of focal length f made of glass ( =1.5) is immersed in water ( =4/3),
ed
uc
at
io
n.
23.
its focal length becomes 4f. The focal power decreases by a factor 4.
25.
If a glass lens is immersed in a liquid of the same refractive index, it disappears and
does not act like a lens. i.e., the lens will have infinite focal length or zero focal power.
26.
A convex lens immersed in a liquid of refractive index greater than the refractive index
of the lens behaves like a concave lens.
27.
If a planoconvex lens of radius of curvature R and of focal length f is silvered on the

2
plane surface, it acts like a convex mirror of focal length f
.s
a
29.
or
R
.
2( 1)
If a planoconcave lens of radius of curvature R and of focal length f is silvered on the
ks
28.
hi
plane surface, it acts like a concave mirror of focal length f
or
R
.
2( 1)
If a planoconvex lens of radius of curvature R and of focal length f is silvered on the
w
w
curved surface, it acts like a concave mirror of focal length R / 2 .

30.
PRISM
a)
A prism is a piece of gas or any other transparent material, bounded by two triangular
and three rectangular surfaces.
A
d
i1
i2
r1 r2
i
13
b)
When a light ray passes through a prism it bends towards the base of the prism.
c)
The angle made by emergent ray with incident ray is called angle of deviation (d).
d)
d=i1+i2A, A=r1+r2 where i1 angle of incidence,

i2 angle of emergence, A angle of prism,
r1 angle of refraction at first retracing face,
e)
co
m
r2 angle of refraction at second refracting face.

As the angle of incidence increases, angle of deviation first decreases to a minimum
value (D) and then increases.
If d=D, then i1=i2=i and r1=r2=r
ed
uc
at
io
n.
f)
D = 2i A, A = 2r
g)
A +D
sin
2
=
A
sin
2
h)
The prism whose angle is very small is called thin prism.
i)
For a thin prism D= ( 1) A.
31.
Refraction through a prism
ks
D angle of deviation
hi
A angle of the prism or refracting angle

i1, i2 are the angles of refraction
Angle of prism, A=r1+r2
ii.
Angle of deviation D=i1+i2A
Refractive index of the prism,
sin i1 sin i 2
=
sin r1 sin r2
w
w
iii.
.s
a
i.
32.
Limiting angle of the prism
a)
It is the angle of the prism for which a ray grazing on one of the face of the prism after
refraction grazes out from the second face.
b)
In this case i1=i2=90, r1=r2=C

As A=r1+r2
A=2C
14
c)
1
1
=
=
sin C sin( A / 2)
d)
Angle of deviation, D=i1+i2A=90+902C. D=1802C
33.
Deviation in a small angled prism :
a)
From Snells law
For a small angled prism, i1, i2, r1 and r2 are small

i1= r1
and i2= r2
b)
ed
uc
at
io
n.
d=(i1+i2)A= (r1+r2)A= AA
d=( 1)A
As v
> R .
co
m
sin i1= sin r1 and sin i2= sin r2
Therefore the deviation for violet colour is more than the deviation for red
colour (dv>dr).
c)
For a given colour of light the deviation increases as the angle of the prism increases.
d)
For a given monochromatic light
e)
In case of thin prism, the angle of minimum deviation, dm= ( 1) A.
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
d1
A
= 1
d2
A2
15
Optical Instruments and Dispersion

1.
Defects of Vision
In case of eye, following are the common defects of vision:
Myopia [or Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness]
A short - sighted eye can see only nearer objects.
co
m
a)
In it distant objects are not clearly visible, i.e., far point is at a distance lesser than infinity
ed
uc
at
io
n.
and hence image of distant object is formed before the retina [Fig. (A)].
This defect is remedied by using spectacles having divergent lens.

1
1
1
= =P
F .P. ( distance of object ) f
1
1
=
f F .P.
hi
And if the object is at , P =
ks
Note: This is due to elongation of eye ball
.s
a
b) Hyperopia or Hypermetropia [or Long sightedness or far sightedness]

The far sighted eye can see only farther objects.
In it near objects are not clearly visible, i.e., near point is at a distance greater than 25 cm
w
w
and hence image of near object is formed behind the retina [Fig.(A)]
This defect is remedied by using spectacles having convergent lens.

1
1
1
= =P
N .P. ( distance of object ) f
16
If object is placed at D = 25cm = 0.25cm

P=
1 1
1
=
f 0.25 N .P.
Note: This is due to contraction of eye ball.
c) Presbyopia
co
m
In this both near and far objects are not clearly visible, i.e., far point is lesser than infinity
and near point greater than 25 cm. This is remedied by using bifocal lenses.
d) Astigmatism
ed
uc
at
io
n.
In it due to imperfect spherical nature of eye lens, the focal length of eye lens in two
orthogonal directions becomes different and so eye cannot see objects in two orthogonal
directions clearly simultaneously. This defect is directional and is remedied by using
ks
hi
cylindrical lens in a particular direction.
.s
a
e) The far and near point for normal eye are usually taken to be infinite and 25 cm
respectively, i.e., a normal eye can see very distant objects clearly but near objects only
if they are at a distance greater than 25 cm from the eye. The ability of eye to see objects
w
w
from infinite distance to 25 cm from it is called power of accommodation.

f) In eye, convex eye lens forms real, inverted and diminished image at the retina by
changing its convexity (the distance between eye lens and retina is fixed).
g) The human eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light having wavelength 5550 A0 and
least to violet ( 4000 A0 ) and red ( 7000 A0 ) .
h) The size of an object as perceived by eye depends on its visual angle. When object is
distant, its visual angle and hence image I1 at retina is small and it will appear small
17
[Fig.(A)] and as it is brought near to the eye its visual angle 0 and hence size of image
I 2 will increase.
co
m
i) If object is at infinity, i.e., parallel beam of light enters the eye, the eye is least strained
ed
uc
at
io
n.
and said to be relaxed.
(A)
(B)
or unstrained [Fig.(A)]. However, if the object is at least distance of distinct vision

[L.D.D.V.], i.e., D (=25 cm), eye is under maximum strain [Fig.(B)] and visual angle is
maximum.
j) The limit of resolution of eye is one minute, i.e., two objects will not be visible
distinctly to the eye if the angle subtended by them at the eye is lesser than one minute.
hi
k) The persistence of vision is (1/10) sec, i.e., if time interval between two consecutive
light pulses is lesser than 0.1 sec, eye cannot distinguish them separately. This fact is
.s
a
ks
taken into account in motion pictures.
Optical Instruments
1.
The nearest point at which an object is seen clearly by the eye is called the near point of
2.
w
w
the eye.
2.
The least distance upto which on object can be clearly seen by a naked eye is called the
least distance of distant vision. That is D = 25 cm for normal eye.
3.
The farthest point from an eye at which and object is distinctly seen is called far point, for
a normal eye it is theoretically at infinity.
4.
Visual angle : It is the angle subtended by an object at the eye.

It is maximum when the object is at the least distance of distinct vision.
18
It h is the height of the object placed at the near point, the visual angle is 0 =
h
D
(The angle is small)
5.
Microscopes
Visual angle with instrument

Visual angle when object is placed at least dis tan ce of distinct vision
ed
uc
at
io
n.
m=
co
m
It is an optical instrument used to see very small objects. Its magnifying power is given by
A. Simple microscope
It is a single convex lens of lesser focal length.
It is also called magnifying glass or reading lens.

Magnification m = D/u.
Magnification when final image is formed at D and (i.e. mD and).
hi
D
D
mD = 1 + and m =
f max
f min
Da
Da
and m =
f
f
w
w
.s
a
mD = 1 +
ks
If lens is kept at a distance a from the eye then
B. Compound microscope
19
Consist of two converging lenses called objective and eye lens.
f eye lens > f objective and (diameter)eye lens > (diameter)objective
Intermediate image is real and enlarged.

Final image is magnified, virtual and inverted.
u0= Distance of object from objective (o).
co
m
0 = Distance of the image A1B1 formed by objective from eye lens.
ue= Distance of A1B1 from eye lens.
f0 = Focal length of objective.

fe = Focal length of eye lens.
Magnification m =
0 D
ed
uc
at
io
n.
e = Distance of final image from eye lens.
and the length of the tube is L = 0 + ue

u0 ue
Final image formed at D: Magnification m =
D
1 + and length of the microscope
u0
fe
hi
tube (distance between two lenses) is. LD = 0 + ue
ks
Generally object is placed very near to the principal focus of the objective hence 0 LD ,
.s
a
the length of the tube.
Hence, we can write mD =

Final image formed at
0 D
w
w
m =
u0 f e
L
D
1 +
f0
fe
LD
and length of tube L = 0 + f e
f0 fe
For large magnification of the compound microscope, both f0 and fe should be small.
The magnifying power os the compound microscope may be expressed as m = m0 me ;

where m0 is the magnification of the objective and me is magnification os eye piece.
20
6.
Astronomical Telescope
(Refracting Type)
By astronomical telescope heavenly bodies are seen.
1) fobjective > feye lens and dobjective > deye lens (d= diameter)
3) Final image is virtual, inverted and diminished.

f0
and length. L = f 0 + ue
ue
5) Magnification: mD =
(For normal adjustment)
7
Terrestrial Telescope
f0
fe
f0
1 + and m =
fe
D
fe
ed
uc
at
io
n.
4) Magnification: m =
co
m
2) Intermediate image is real, inverted and small (diminished).
hi
It is used to see distance object on the earth.
ks
1) It consists of three converging lens: objective, eye lens and erecting lens.
2) Final image is virtual, erect and diminished.
f0
(For normal adjustment)
fe
w
w
m =
f0
f
f
and mD = 0 1 + e
fe
D
ue
.s
a
4) Length: L= f0 + 4f + fe
LD = f0 + 4f + ue and
= f0 + 4f + fe
(f = focal length of erecting lens)
21
8.
Galilean Telescope
co
m
It is also type of terrestrial telescope but of much smaller field of view.
1) Objective is a converging lens while eye lens is diverging lens.
mD =
f0
ue
f0
fe
f0
1 and m =
fe D
fe
4) Length: L= f0 + ue
ed
uc
at
io
n.
2) Final image is virtual, erect and diminished.
LD = f0 - ue and = f0 - fe
a)
Dispersion
The splitting of white light into constituent colours is called dispersion and the band of
hi
9.
ks
colours is called spectrum.
Dispersion of light was discovered by Newton.
c)
As the wavelength is minimum for violet and hence R.I is maximum for violet.
d)
As the wavelength is maximum for red and hence R.I is minimum for red.
e)
A spectrum in which there is overlapping of colours is called impure spectrum.
f)
A spectrum in which there is no overlapping of colours is called pure spectrum.
g)
Conditions to get a pure spectrum
i)
The incident beam should be passed through a narrow slit.
ii)
The incident beam is made parallel by using a convergent lens.
iii)
The prism should be in minimum deviation position.
iv)
The emergent beam is brought to focus on a screen by using a convergent lens.
w
w
.s
a
b)
22
10.
Angular dispersion
a)
The difference in deviation between any two colours (generally violet and red) is called
angular dispersion.
The angular dispersion =dVdR=( V
R )A
[since for small angled prism, dV=( V

11.
Dispersive power
a)
Dispersive power,
d V dR
d
and dR=( R
1 )A]
angular dispersion
mean deviation
where d= ( 1) A the mean deviation (i.e., for yellow colour)
V R
1
ed
uc
at
io
n.
1 )A
co
m
b)
Dispersive power is independent of the angle of prism. It depends only on refractive

index and nature of material.
b)
If
1 and 2
are the refractive indices of two colours and
is
the refractive index of the
mean colour, then the dispersive power of the two colours is given by =
2 1
1
. It is
hi
constant for those two colours and for the material of the prism. It is independent of the
c)
ks
angle of the prism but angular dispersion depends on the angle of the prism.
If f1 and f2 are the focal lengths of a lens for clours 1 and 2 and f is the focal length of the
.s
a
mean colour, then dispersive power of the lens,
df
f
where f =
f1f 2
Deviation without dispersion
a)
Deviation with out dispersion means an achromatic combination of the prisms in which
12.
w
w
net or resultant dispersion is zero and deviation is produced.
b)
For the two prisms made of different materials and of different refracting angles the net
dispersion is zero if
(d V dR ) + (d1V d1R ) = 0
( R )
A1
= V
A
( 1V 1R )
The negative sign indicates that the refracting angles
of two prisms are in the opposite directions.
23
13.
Dispersion without deviation

A combination of two prisms in which the deviation produced for the mean ray (yellow
colour) by the first prism is equal and opposite to that produced by the second prism. For
the deviation to be zero d+d1=0
( 1)
A1
=
A
( 1 1)
co
m
( 1)A + (1 1)A 1 = 0
The negative sign indicates that refracting angles of the two prisms are in the opposite
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
ed
uc
at
io
n.
directions.
24
Interference
1.
Wave Front: Wave front is defined as the locus of the particles of the medium which
are in the same state of vibration.
co
m
The line along which energy is propagated is called a ray. It is perpendicular to wave
front at any point.
Types of wave front
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Spherical wave front: A wave front due to a point source in a three dimensional
isotropic space is called spherical wave front. In case of spherical wave front intensity
varies as 1/r2.
Cylindrical wave front: If the source is a linear source of light, the wave front is a
cylindrical wave front. In case of cylindrical wave front intensity varies as 1/r.
Plane wave front: When the source is at infinite distance, the radius of curvature of
wave front will be very large. A small portion of spherical wave front with source at
hi
infinite distance is a plane wave front. In case of plane wave front intensity is constant.
ks
1. Huygenss principle: Each point on the wave front becomes a source of secondary
disturbance and sends secondary wavelets which travels with the same speed as that of the
.s
a
original waves.
2. A surface tangential to all these secondary wavelets is the new wave front. Huygenss
theory explained satisfactorily phenomena like reflection, refraction, interference and
w
w
diffraction of light.
3. Secondary wavelets spread out as spherical secondary wave fronts with the speed of light.
4. The tangential surface to all the secondary wave fronts gives the new wave front.
5. The intensity of the secondary wave front is given by I=I0 (1+cos ) where
is the angle
between the original direction of propagation and the direction of observation. This shows
that the secondary wave front has zero intensity in the backward direction.
25
Principle of superposition of light waves
When two or more than two waves superimpose over each other at a common point of
the medium then the resultant displacement (y) of the particle is
y1
+
y2
+
equal to the vector sum of the displacements (y1 and y2)

produced by individual waves i.e.,
When the displacement due to two wave are in the same
co
m
G G
G
y = y1 + y 2 .
y1+y2
direction (i.e., same phase) then resultant displacement is y = y1 + y2.
When the displacement due to two waves are mutually in opposite direction
ed
uc
at
io
n.
(i.e., opposite phase) then resultant displacement will be
y1
+
y = y 1 y 2.
_
y1-y2
If two waves are represented by y1=a1sin ( t) and
y2=a2sin( t+ ), the resultant wave equation is y=y1+y2=A

sin( t+ ) where the resultant amplitude A=
a 2 sin
= Tan 1
a1 + a 2 cos
a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2 cos
y2
and phase angle
hi
The resultant wave is also a harmonic wave of the same frequency. The resultant wave
Amax=a1+a2
ks
amplitude A will be maximum when cos =1 i.e., when =2n , n=0, 1, 2
.s
a
The interference is then said to be constructive.

The resultant wave amplitude will be minimum when cos =1, i.e., when = (2n+1) ,
n=0, 1, 2,..
w
w
Amin=|a1a2|
The interference is then said to be destructive.
Non coherent and coherent sources of light

1. Non coherent sources Two sources of light, whose frequencies are not same and phase
difference between the waves emitted by which does not remain constant with respect to
time, are defined as non coherent sources.
26
2. The light emitted by two independent sources (candles, bulbs etc.) is non-coherent and
interference phenomenon cannot be produced by such two sources.

3. The intensity of light or positions of fringes keep or changing in 108 second.
4. Coherent sources The two sources of light, whose frequencies (or wavelength ) are
same and the phase difference between the waves emitted by which remains constant with
co
m
respect to time are defined as coherent sources.

They are obtained from the same single source.
These can be apparent or real.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Laser light is highly coherent and monochromatic.

The distance between them is small.
Their state of polarization is the same.
These sources are of two types (i) Spatial coherent sources, (ii) Temporal coherent
sources.
There are two methods of obtaining these sources (i) Division of wave front,
(ii) Division of amplitude
hi
Comparative study of two methods
ks
Division of wave front
Light source is extended.
.s
a
The light source is narrow.
Division of amplitude
The amplitude of wave emitted by an
divided in two parts by reflection or
extend source of light is divided in two
The wave front emitted by a narrow source is
parts by partial reflection and partial
w
w
refraction.
refraction.
The coherent sources obtained are imaginary.
The coherent sources obtained are real.
E.g., Fresnels Biprism, Lloyds mirror,
E.g., Newtons rings, Michelsons
Youngs double slit etc.
Interferometer colours in thin films.
27
In Youngs double slit experiment two points of the same wave front are used as two
coherent sources where as in Fresnels Biprism two virtual images of same original
source are used as two coherent sources.
In Lloyds one original source and its image are used as coherent sources.
Interference of light
When two light waves of nearly same amplitude, same frequency and traveling in the
co
m
same direction of medium, superimpose over each other then there occurs variation of
intensity of light with distance (maximum and minimum). This phenomenon is defined
ed
uc
at
io
n.
as interference of light.
The experiment on interference of light was first performed by Young in 1802.
The energy or intensity of light gets redistributed non-uniformly as a result of

superposition of the light waves.
Interference is observed in both longitudinal as well as transverse waves.
In interference phenomenon energy in neither created nor destroyed rather there occurs
redistribution of energy in the form of maxima and minima.
The interference of light takes place in two waves.
hi
ks
(1) Constructive interference.
.s
a
(2) Destructive interference.
Constructive interference
The resultant amplitude of wave is equal to the sum of amplitudes of individual waves.
w
w
A=a1+a2.
The amplitude of resultant wave is maximum

The resultant intensity is more than the sum of intensities of individual waves. i.e.,
I=I1+I2+2
I1I 2
The intensity of resultant wave is maximum i.e., Imax= (
28
I1 + I 2 ) 2 .
The phase difference between two waves is an even multiple of , i.e.,
= 2n
where
n=0, 1, 2..
The path difference between two waves is an integral multiple of ; i.e., x=n where
n=0, 1, 2,
T
= 2n
2
where
co
m
The time interval between two waves is an even multiple of T/2 i.e.,
n=0, 1, 2
Destructive interference
ed
uc
at
io
n.
The resultant amplitude of wave is equal to the difference of amplitude of two waves.
A=a1a2.
The amplitude of resultant wave is minimum
The resultant intensity is less than the sum of intensities due individual waves. i.e.,
I=I1+I22
I1I 2
The intensity of resultant waves is minimum i.e., Imin= (
I1 I 2 ) 2 .
The phase difference between two waves is an odd multiple of
i.e.,
= (2n 1)
hi
n=1, 2, 3.
.s
a
where n=1, 2,..
ks
The path difference between two waves is an odd multiple of / 2 , i.e.,
x = (2n 1)
= (2n 1)
T
2
The time interval between two waves is an odd multiple of T/2, i.e.,
where
where n=1, 2, 3...
w
w
Conditions for sustained interference pattern

The source of light must be monochromatic.
Two sources of light must be coherent.
Frequencies (wavelength, time period) of two waves must be same.
The amplitudes of two waves must be nearly equal otherwise the contrast between two
light sources and the screen must be large.
29
The distance between two light sources must be small and the distance between the
source and the screen must be large.
The two coherent sources must be narrow.
If the two light waves are polarized then their states of polarization must be same.
The two light waves must travel in the same direction.
co
m
If the source of light is white, then the path difference between the waves emitted by it
must be small.
The vibrations of two waves must be in the same direction.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Shape of the fringes
The alternate bright and dark strips obtained on the screen as a result of interference are
known as interference fringes.
The interference fringes are hyperbolic in shape, because
the focus of path difference (S2PS1P) for a given value of
S1
n is a hyperbola. The foci of this hyperbola are S1 and S2.
S2
yn
O
Screen
Fringes will be straight if D>>d.
hi
Fringe of zeroth order The fringe obtained at the centre of screen is known as zeroth
ks
order fringe. The distance of other fringes are measured from this central fringe.
.s
a
The distance of nth bright fringe from central fringe
nD
d
y n = (2n 1)
where n=0, 1, 2
D
2d
where n=0, 1, 2
The distance of nth dark fringe from central fringe
yn =
w
w
The production of bright or dark fringes depends upon of path difference (x=S2PS1P).
If x=
yd
= n ,
D
If x =
yd
= (2n 1) ,
D
2
then bright fringes are produced on the screen.

then dark fringes are produced on the screen.
The formation of fringes is in accordance with the law of conservation of energy.

The distance between two consecutive bright or consecutive dark fringes is known as
fringe width .
30
D
= y n+1 y n =
d
.
, where w is width of the slit.
Angular fringe width ( )

The ratio of fringe width to source screen distance is defined as angular fringe width ( )
=

= .
D d
co
m
i.e.,
It has no unit.
Dependence of fringe width
depends on the wavelength of light used. i.e.,
depends on the distance between two coherent sources i.e.,
depends
ed
uc
at
io
n.
on the distance of screen from the source i.e.,
D .
1
d
If D is very large, then
will also be large and interference pattern will not be observed.

Fringe visibility (V)
2 I1I 2
I max I min
=
I max + I min
I1 + I 2
hi
V=
ks
If Imin=0, then V=1. In this state the fringe visibility will be maximum (best).
If Imax=0, then V=1.
.s
a
With the help of visibility, knowledge about coherence, fringe contrast and interference
pattern is obtained.
If Imax=Imin, then V=0. In this condition interference pattern will not be visible.
w
w
Resultant intensity
I=I1+I2+2
I1I 2 cos
I= a12 + a 22
+ 2a1a 2 cos
where
is the phase difference between two waves.
31
If I1=I2=I0,
I = 2I 0 [1 + cos ] = 4I 0 cos 2 .
2
I
+ I min
I av = max
2
I av = a12 + a 22 = I1 + I 2 = 2I 0
co
m
Average intensity (Iav)
Youngs double slit experiment
The interference of light was demonstrated for the first time with the help of this
experiment.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
SCREEN
ks
hi
CRESTS
TROUGHS
.s
a
In this experiment a single slit is exposed to two slits.

This experiment verifies the wave nature of light.
The slit S1 and S2 behave as coherent sources.
The bright and dark fringes are obtained alternately.
The bright fringes are the result of constructive interference whereas dark fringes are the
w
w
result of destructive interference.
The central fringe is bright with monochromatic light whereas it is achromatic (white) with
white light.
The formation of fringes is explained on the basis of the Huygenss wave theory of light.
32
Changes observed in the interference pattern obtained in Youngs double slit
experiment are
The fringe width
increases
with increase of distance between the source and the screen
and vice versa.
If the experiment is repeated in water instead of air, then
decreases
decrease.
When S1 and S2 both are open, then I=4a2= (a1+a2)2.
When one of the slits of S1 and S2 is close, then I=a2= a12
and consequently
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n.
co
m
decreases by increasing distance between two slits S1 and S2 and vice versa.
= a 22
in this state interference does
not take place and uniform illumination is obtained on the screen.
When one slit is fully open and another one is partially open the contrast between the
fringes decreases.
When the two slits are illuminated by two independent sources then interference fringes are
hi
not obtained.
If a transparent thin film of mica or glass is put in the path of one the slits (waves) then the
ks
whole of interference pattern gets shifted towards the side where film is placed. The
distance through which the central fringe gets shifted is D ( 1)t .
.s
a
When one of the slits is closed and width of another is made of the order of , then
When one of the slits is covered with the blue and another one with red transparent papers,
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w
diffraction fringes are observed.
the interference pattern is not observed because the wavelengths of two are not same.
When slit is illuminated with different colours, then fringes are obtained of the same colour
but their fringe width is different.
When the distance between the slits d< then >D i.e., the fringe pattern will not be visible
D
= d
d < > D
33
When D>>d and white light source is used, then the wavelength absent in front of one of
the sources will be
d2 d2 d2
,
,
D 3D 5D
2
Path difference= (D2+d2)D= d of the point.

2D
d2
= (2n 1)
2D
2
Where on putting n=1, 2, 3 the missing wavelengths

If an additional phase difference of
is
are obtained.
created in one of the waves then the central fringe
ed
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at
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n.
d2 d2
,
D 3D
co
m
Path difference for dark fringe
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w
.s
a
ks
hi
becomes dark.
34
Diffraction and Polarisation

1.
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the sharp edges of opaque obstacles
or aperture and their encroachment in the geometrical shadow of obstacle or aperture is
defined as diffraction of light.
The phenomenon resulting from the superposition of secondary wavelets originating
co
m
2.
from different parts of the same wave front is defined as diffraction of light.
3.
Greater the wavelength of wave higher will be its degree of diffraction i.e., more
4.
ed
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n.
deviation from its rectilinear path.
The phenomenon of diffraction of light waves takes place in the near vicinity of the edge
geometrical shadow of the obstacle only whereas the diffraction of sound waves is
observed in other parts of geometrical shadow also.
5.
Due to low degree of diffraction of light waves, it appears to be propagating in straight

lines where as due to high degree of diffraction, sound waves do not travel in straight
lines.
The phenomenon of diffraction was first discovered by Grimaldi in the year 1665. Its
hi
6.
ks
experimental study was done by Newton and Young. But the systematic explanation was
given by Fresnel on the basis of Huygenss wave theory of light.
Dependence of diffraction of waves The phenomenon of diffraction depends on (a) the
.s
a
7.
size of the obstacle (b) the wavelength of waves.

Necessary conditions of diffraction of waves The size of the obstacle must be of the
8.
w
w
order of the wavelength of the waves i.e.,
9.
a
1.
The condition for observing the diffraction at an object (obstacle, narrow slit) on a
screen is
object and
d2
4
where D is the distance between screen and object, d is the size o the
is wavelength of light.
35
10.
The wavelength of sound waves is large (1.65 cm to 16.5 m). Hence the diffraction of
sound can be observed in our daily life which occurs due to large obstacles like
windows, doors, walls, stem, branches of tree etc.
11.
The wavelength of audible sound waves is of order of one metre; hence these are
diffracted by ordinary obstacles.
The wavelength of ultrasonic waves is of the order of 1 cm. Hence these are not
co
m
12.
diffracted by ordinary obstacles.

13.
The wavelength of light (4800 8000 ) is very small. Hence its diffraction is not
under special circumstances.

14.
ed
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n.
observed in daily life. But diffraction of light waves can be observed in the laboratory
The wavelength or radio waves is very large (2.5 m 250 m), hence their diffraction can
take place due to large building and small hills. The wavelength of telephone waves is
comparatively very small
( 0.3 m), hence their diffraction cannot occur due to large buildings and hills.
15.
If the size of the obstacle as compared to the wavelength of the wave is
hi
i. Very small (i.e., a<< ) then the waves will undergo reflection and not diffraction.
ii. Very large (i.e., a>> ) then its distinct geometrical shadow will be formed and the wave
ks
will not be diffracted.
.s
a
iii. Almost equal (i.e., a ) then the waves spread maximum in the geometrical shadow and
hence undergo maximum diffraction.
Consequences of diffraction in daily life :
a.
Sound produced in one room can be heard in the nearby room.
w
w
16.
b.
When an intense source of light is viewed with the partially opened eye, colours are
observed in the light.
c.
Appearance of a shining circle around the section of sun just before sunrise.
Rectilinear propagation of light

17.
When the diffraction effect is negligible then the law of rectilinear propagation of light
is quite valid. i.e., when a>> then the law of rectilinear propagation is obeyed.
36
18.
When the size of the obstacle or aperture is of the order of wavelength of light then the
diffraction effect takes place and light encroaches in the region of geometrical shadow
of obstacles thereby deviating from its straight path. Under this condition the rectilinear
propagation of light is approximate.
19.
The diffraction effect is observed near the edge of the obstacle or the aperture, hence
co
m
rectilinear propagation is approximately obeyed in this region. Inside the region of

geometrical shadow, diffraction effect is not observable and hence the law of rectilinear
propagation is perfectly obeyed.
Diffraction can be explained by Huygenss Fresnel principle. According to this
ed
uc
at
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n.
20.
principle each point on a wave front, which is unobstructed, acts as a source of

secondary waves. Diffraction is due to interference of secondary waves coming from
same primary wave front.
Condition for observing diffraction

a) If
d2
<< 1 ,
D
b) If
d2
1,
D
c) If
d2
>> 1 ,
D
Fraunhofer diffraction is observed.
hi
Fresnel diffraction is observed.
ks
the approximation of geometrical optics is applicable.
.s
a
21.
a.
Diffraction at a Straight Edge
Fresnel diffraction occurs when a cylindrical wave front strikes the straight edge and
w
w
diffraction pattern forms on the screen in front of it.
a.
The intensity at any point on the screen will be maximum when odd number of Fresnel
zones are present between straight edge and pole of wave front and minimum when even
number of zones are present.
b.
If light exhibits rectilinear propagation the region on the screen below the point p i.e. ,
geometrical shadow region must be completely dark. But this region is illuminated with
decreasing intensity as the distance from the point p increases.
37
c.
The intensity of illumination in the geometrical shadow decreases gradually as more and
more half period zones are cut off with increasing distance from the point p.
d.
The encroachment of light in geometrical shadow shows that light undergoes diffraction
and rectilinear propagation of light is only approximately true.
e.
Diffraction due to single slit: The diffraction pattern due to a single slit consists of a
co
m
central bright band having alternate dark and weak bright bands of decreasing intensity
on both sides.
f.
The condition for nth secondary minimum is that path difference = a sin n = n , where
ed
uc
at
io
n.
n = 1, 2, 3 and the condition for nth secondary maximum is that path
difference = a sin n = ( 2n + 1) ; where n = 1, 2, 3

2
2 D 2 f
=
a
a
g.
Width of central maximum is 2 x =
h.
Here a, is width of slit and D is distance of screen from the slit; f is focal length of lens
for diffracted light.
For small angles sin n = n
j.
Distance of nth dark fringe from centre, x dark =
k.
Distance of nth bright fringe from centre, x bright =
l.
Diffraction is supposed to be due to interference of secondary wavelets from the exposed
nD
a
( 2n + 1) D
2a
.s
a
ks
hi
i.
portion of wave front from the slit.

Whereas in interference, all bright fringes have same intensity, in diffraction, bright
m.
w
w
bands are of decreasing intensity.
Resolving Limit and Resolving Power

A. Telescope
Smallest angular separations ( d ) between two distant objects, whose images are
separated in the telescope is called resolving limit.
38
Resolving limit d =
1
a
1
=
R.P
d 1.22
ed
uc
at
io
n.
(RP) =
1.22
and resolving power
a
co
m
Where a = aperture of objective.

B. Microscope
The resolving power of an optical instrument is defined as the reciprocal of smallest

angular separation between two neighbouring objects whose images are just distinctly
formed by the instrument. The smallest angular separation is called the limit of
.s
a
ks
hi
resolution.
2 sin
w
w
R.L =
and R.P.
2 sin
R.P
= Wavelength of light used to illuminate the object,
= Refractive index of the medium between object and objective
= Half angle of the cone of light from the point object, sin = Numerical aperture
39
Polarization
1.
Light waves: Light propagates as transverse electromagnetic waves.
2.
Description of light waves: The magnitude of electric field vector is much larger as
compared to the magnetic field vector. (E=cB where c=speed of light).
describe light as electric field oscillations.

3.
co
m
Also, the eye is mainly affected by electric vector; therefore, we generally prefer to
Representation of polarized light: Unpolarized light consists of a very large number of

vibrations in all planes with equal probability at right angles to the direction of
ed
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n.
propagation. Hence unpolarized light is represented by star.

4.
Unpolarized light
a)
In polarized light the vibrations of electric vector are confined to only one direction
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Polarized light
a)
The light having oscillations only in one plane is called
ks
hi
5.
polarized or plane polarized.
If the vibrations of electric vector are parallel to the plane of paper then polarized light is
.s
a
b)
represented by arrow lines. They are referred as
components.
If the vibrations of electric vector are perpendicular to the plane
c)
w
w
of paper, then polarized light is represented by dots. They are referred as
6.
components.
If unpolarized light is incident on a Polaroid, the transmitted light is plane polarized as

shown below.
Here, the vertical oscillations are transmitted because the transmission axis is also
vertical. The horizontal oscillations are not transmitted. That is why, on the right hand
side there are no dots at the intersection of lines.
40
A
D
S
Plane
polarised light
Plane of polarisation
Plane of vibration
C
Plane of vibration: The imaginary plane in a crystal containing the vibrations of
co
m
7.
Unpolarised
light
electric vector in polarized light as well as the direction of propagation of light wave is
defined as the plane of vibration.
Plane of polarization: The imaginary plane in a crystal containing the direction of
ed
uc
at
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n.
8.
propagation of light wave and which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration is defined
as the plane of polarization.
9.
Optic axis: The imaginary axis in a crystal (polarizer), parallel, to which the vibrations
of electric vector in unpolarized light pass through it, is defined as the optic axis of the
crystal.
10.
Light can be polarized by transmitting through certain crystals such as tourmaline or
Polaroids are thin films of ultramicroscopic crystals of quinine ido sulphate with their
ks
11.
hi
Polaroids.
optic axes parallel to each other.
Quinine ido sulphate is also called herapathite.
13.
Polaroids allow the light oscillations parallel to the transmission axis pass through
The intensity of the transmitted light should be 50% of the incident light. However, in
w
w
14.
them.
.s
a
12.
actual practice it is found to be about 35% of the incident light.
15.
The crystal or Polaroid on which unpolarized light is incident is called polarizer.
16.
Crystal or Polaroid on which polarized light is incident is called analyzer.
17.
If the transmission axes of the polarizer and analyzer are parallel, then whole of the
polarized light passes through the analyzer.
41
18.
If the transmission axis of the analyzer is perpendicular to that of polarizer, then no light
passes through the analyzer.
Such polarizer and analyzer are said to be crossed.
19.
Malus Law
If I0 be the intensity of the polarized light incident on the analyzer and be the angle
light transmitted through the analyzer is given by : I=I0cos2
20.
If A be the amplitude of the light transmitted through the analyzer and A0 be the
A2= A 02 cos 2 or A=A0cos
ed
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n.
amplitude of the polarized light incident on it, then
21.
co
m
between the transmission axes of the polarizer and analyzer, then the intensity of the
If Ii be the intensity of the unpolarized light incident on the polarizer and I be the
intensity of the light transmitted through the analyzer, then
Ii=
Ii
cos 2
2
Here I0=Ii/2
In the above expressions is also angle between the plane of oscillation of the polarized
hi
22.
light and the transmission axes of the analyzer.

For the crossed polarizer and analyzer, =90o hence: I=I0cos290o=0.
24.
Polarization confirms the transverse nature of the light waves.
25.
Light can be polarized by the following methods
.s
a
ks
23.
Polarization by reflection
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w
26.
(i) reflection, (ii) refraction, (iii) double refraction, (iv) dichroism, (v) scattering.
a)
If the light is incident on a surface at a certain angle known at

Brewsters angle ( b), then the reflected light is completely
polarized having oscillations perpendicular to the plane of
incidence. The Brewsters angle is also called polarizing angle.
b)
The refracted ray is partially polarized.
42
b
90o
c)
When the reflected ray is completely polarized, the angle between the reflected ray and
refracted ray is 90o. Also, the refractive index of the material on which the light is
incident is given by = tan b . Because
=
The polarizing angle
This equation is called Brewsters law.
b depends
on nature of material and wavelength of incident light.
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
ed
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at
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n.
co
m
d)
sin b
sin i
=
= tan b
sin r sin(90 b )
43
Dual Nature of Matter & Radiation

Photoelectric Effect
1. Photons
a) Photons are packets of energy which are emitted by source of radiations.
c) Photons are electrically neutral.

d) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields.
Where c = velocity of light
h =
hc
ed
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at
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n.
e) If the frequency of radiation is then energy of photon (E) =
co
m
b) Photons travel in straight line with speed of light (3 108 m/s).
= wavelength of radiation
h = Plancks constant = 6.6 1034 J.s.
f) The number of photons of wavelength emitted in t sec. from a lamp of power p is given
by n =
Pt Pt
=
hc h
2. a) The emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when exposed to electromagnetic
hi
radiation of a suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
ks
b) This phenomenon was discovered by Hertz and experimentally verified by Hallwachs,

Lenard, J.J.Thomson, R.A.Millikan and others.
.s
a
c) The current due to photoelectrons is called photoelectric current. It is independent of

frequency of light and energy of incident light. The photoelectric current does not follow the
ohms law.
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d) The photoelectric effect is based on law of conservation of energy

e) Alkali metals like lithium, sodium, potassium, cesium etc emit electrons with visible light
only.
3. Lenard laws of photoelectric emission

i. Photoelectric emission is an instantaneous phenomenon. i.e., there is no time lag between the
falling of light and emission of photoelectrons. (Time lag is 10-9 second).
ii. For every metal surface, there is a limiting frequency below which no photoelectrons are
produced. This frequency is called threshold frequency ( 0 ). Different metals have different
threshold frequencies. The corresponding wavelengths are called threshold wavelengths
( 0 ) or cut-off wavelengths
iii.The rate of emission of photoelectrons from the surface of a metal is directly proportional to
the intensity of the light falling on it.
iv. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons does not depend upon the
co
m
intensity of the incident radiation.
v. The maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is directly proportional to the
frequency of the incident radiation and depends on the nature of metals.
ed
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n.
vi. The photoelectric emission is independent of temperature of the cathode.
4. The velocity of electrons ejected from near the surface will be greater than those coming from
the interior of the substance.
5. Work function: The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the surface of a
metal without giving kinetic energy to the electron is called work function (W). Its unit is eV
6. Among the alkali metals (sodium, potassium, rubidium, cesium) cesium is the best metal for
photoelectric emission as its work function is the least.
hi
7. As the atomic number of elements increases, the work function will decrease.
ks
8. When the temperature of a metal increases, the work function will decrease.
9. Threshold frequency (0)
.s
a
i) It is the minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which photo-electrons are not
emitted from a metal surface.
ii) The work function, W = h0, where h is Plancks constant.

iii)The threshold frequency of sodium is 5.61014 Hz., that for potassium 5.26 1014 Hz and for
w
w
Caesium 4.55 1014 Hz.
10. Threshold Wavelength (0)

i) It is the maximum wavelength of the incident radiation above which there is no photo electric
emission from the surface of a metal.
ii) The threshold wavelength for sodium is 5400A, that for potassium 5700 A and for Caesium
6590 A.
iii) The work function, W = h0 =
hc
0
iv) If W is in eV and 0 in A, the above equation can be written as W =
12400
eV .
0
11. Stopping potential (Vs):

i) The stopping potential is that value of the retarding potential difference to be applied
between the surface of a photosensitive plate and the electrode of the collector, which is just
sufficient to stop the most energetic photo electrons emitted.
ii) The stopping potential or cut off potential Vs is measure of the maximum K.E. of the emitted
iii) qVs =
K=
1
m2
2
co
m
photo electrons.
Joules
Where q is the charge of the electron in C and Vs is the stopping potential in Volts.
ed
uc
at
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n.
iv) If the maximum K.E. of electron is x eV then the stopping potential is given by Vs = x volt.
v) Stopping potential (Vs) frequency of incident radiation and Vs
1
.
Work function
vi) Stopping potential is independent of intensity of incident radiation, power of the source of
light and distance between sources of light and photo metal.
vii) If atomic number of photo metal increases then stopping potential also increases because
work function decreases.
If stopping potentials corresponding to wavelengths 1 and 2 (>1) are V1and V2 then work
function of metal, W =
If wavelength of incident light is changed from 1 to 2 (< 1) then the charge in stopping
ks
13.
1V1 2 V2
2 1
hi
12.
hc 1
1

e 2 1
.
.s
a
potential, V2 V1 =
Where e = charge of electron.

Einsteins explanation of photoelectric effect
14.
w
w
a) Einstein treated photoelectric effect as a collision between a photon and the atom of photo
metal.
b) When a photon strikes a metal surface, the entire energy of the photon is transferred to a
single electron in the emitter. The energy supplied to the electron is used in two ways
i) Part of the energy is used in ejecting the electron from the metal (work function)
ii) The remaining energy is used to provide K.E. to the ejected electrons.
c) Einsteins photoelectric equation is given by
h =
1
W + m 2 or
2
h = W + K.Emax
h =
1
h 0 + m 2
2
Here is frequency of incident radiation and 0 is threshold frequency,
1
m 2
2
is maximum
KE of electrons.
K. Emax or
1 1
1
m 2 = hc
2
0
co
m
1
m 2 = h( 0 )
2
As K.Emax = Vse, we can write
Vse = hc 1
15.
1
0
Millikan Experiment
ed
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n.
Vse = h( 0)
a) R.A. Millikan verified Einsteins equation experimentally. Millikan measured stopping

potential for different frequencies of incident radiation for a given emitter.
b) Einstein photoelectric equations verified by Millikans for low
Vs
A
0
hi
frequencies of radiations.
c) Millikan plotted a graph between Vs and The graph shape is a
ks
straight line as shown in the figure. The slop of the graph =h/e.
d) Determination of h-
.s
a
K 2 K 1 e VS2 VS1
=
2 1
2 1
2)
h=
(K 2 K1 )1 2
c (1 2 )
h=
Graphs on photoelectric effect
w
w
16.
1)
a) Variation of photocurrent with intensity of incident light on the
photo metal is represented by this graph.

I
I photocurrent and
I intensity of light
b) Time dependence of photocurrent is represented by this
graph. It takes about a nano second for the photocurrent

to attain the saturation value.
t
109s
c) Variation of photocurrent with the accelerating potential difference or anode potential for
different frequencies is as shown in this graph. Here intensity of each light is same. V1, V2
and V3 are different stopping potentials for different incident frequencies 1, 2 3
respectively. (3 >2 >1 nd V3 >V2 > V1) from this graph it is observed that stopping
of
I2
I1
intensity
Vs
V3 V2 V1
ed
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n.
co
m
potential or maximum K.E. of photoelectron depends on incident frequency but independent
d) Variation of photocurrent with intensity of incident radiation for the
VS
same frequency is as shown. As the positive potential increases, the
photocurrent reaches a saturation value. If the intensity is increased by keeping the frequency
same, photocurrent and saturation current will increase. Hence Vs is the negative potential
which is stopping potential. Vs is independent of intensity.
e) For the same frequency, maximum K.E. for different photocurrents or incident intensities
varies as shown in this graph.
hi
f) The variation of stopping potential with frequency of incident
ks
radiation will be as shown in this graph. It is a straight line with

slope h/e. Intercept on frequency axis gives the threshold
K.Emax
.s
a
frequency of the photo metal. Intercept on Y axis (Vs axis)

gives h0/e when the graphs are drawn for different metals they are parallel straight lines
with the same slope h/e. Different intercepts on X axis denote different threshold
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w
frequencies for different photo metals.
g) The variation of maximum K.E. of
KEmax
photoelectrons with frequency of incident
radiation will be as shown in the graph. It is a

KEmax
straight line with slope h. Intercept on X-axis gives threshold

frequency. Intercept on Y-axis gives work function when the
Vs
graphs are drawn for different metals, they are parallel straight lines with same slope
different intercepts on
constant
co
m
X-axis denote different threshold frequencies of different photo
KEmax
metals.
h) If a graph is drawn by plotting maximum kinetic energy on Y-axis
ed
uc
at
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n.
and stopping potential on X-axis it will be a straight line passing through the origin. Slope of
the line gives electronic charge e.
i) If a graph is drawn by plotting K.Emax or Y-axis and intensity on X-axis, it will be a straight
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
live parallel to X axis.
Matter Waves
1)
Dual nature of matter: de Broglie's hypothesis

1. a) In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that matter should also possess dual nature as radiation
exhibits dual nature.
b) His hypothesis is based on two facts.
co
m
1) The whole energy in the universe is in the form of matter and energy i.e.., matter and
energy are the manifestations of the same. So these two forms of energy should possess
similar characteristics,
dual nature.
c) The wavelength
of
ed
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at
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n.
2) Nature is symmetrical in many ways. As light has dual nature, matter should also possess
the wave associated with a matter particle of mass m moving with
velocity is given by = h =
P
h
.
mv
This relation is known as de Broglie relation.
d) de Broglie wavelength of a particle is independent of the nature of the material.

e) de Broglie waves are not electromagnetic waves.
f) They do not move with the velocity of light, and are not produced by charged particles.
g) If a large number of waves of frequencies differing by very small amounts are superimposed,
hi
a wave packet is formed which will have the same velocity as the particle.
ks
h) A moving particle is always associated with a wave packet rather than a wave.
i) Electromagnetic radiation consists of particle-like discrete bundles of energy called photons
2.
.s
a
or light quanta.
Properties of photon
i) The rest mass of a photon is zero while the mass of a moving photon is h2 or
c
w
w
ii) The energy of photon (E) =
h =
hc
where
h = Plancks constant.
iii) The momentum of a photon (P) =
E h h
=
=
c c
iv) The effective mass of a photon

(m) =
E
c
h
c
h
c
h
c
v) The intensity of a beam of photons

(I) =
energy of a photon x number of photons

area x time
=
3.
energy
area x time
de-Broglie wavelength in different forms

i) If a material particle is moving with velocity and kinetic energy E we have
1
P2
m 2 =
2
2m
P=
=
2mE
h
h
=
P
2mE
ed
uc
at
io
n.
And
co
m
E=
ii) If a charged particle (q) is accelerated by a potential difference of V, then

P2
= qV
2m
h
h
=
P
2mqV
iii) deBroglies wave lengths associated with different particles

h
a) Electron = electron =
2mqV
(or)
hi
12.27
ks
electron =
2mE
0.286
V
A0.
.s
a
b) Proton: proton =
c) Deutron: deutron = 0.202 A

V
w
w
d) - particle: =
e) Neutron: neutron =
0.101
V
0.286
E
iv) If a material particle is in thermal equilibrium at temperature T, its kinetic energy is given
by
K.E=
4.
h
h
P2 3
= KT = =
P
2m 2
3mKT
From Davisson Germer experiment we conclude that d sin =n
Atoms and Nuclei

Atomic Models
co
m
I. Observations of Alpha particle scattering experiment

(a) Most of the - particles were found to pass through the gold- foil without being
deviated from their paths.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
(b) Some - particles were found to be deflected through small angles < 90 .
(c) Few - particles were found to be scattered at fairly large angles from their initial
8
9
10
11
Space
occupied
Nucleus
(+ Ze)
by Electrons
ks
r0
d)
hi
1
2
Incident beam of
particles
path > 90
A very small number of - particles about 1 in 8000 practically retracted their
(i)
.s
a
paths or suffered deflections of nearly 180 (E.g particle 6 in figure.)

The observation (a) indicates that most of the portion of the atom is hollow
inside.
w
w
(ii) Because - particle is positively charged, from the observations (b) and (c) atom
also have positive charge and the whole positive charge of the atom must be
concentrated in small space which is at the centre of the atom is called nucleus.
The remaining part of the atom and electrons are revolving around the nucleus in
circular objects of all possible radii. The positive charge present in the nuclei of
different metals is different. Higher the positive charge in the nucleus, larger will
be the angle of scattering of - particle.
1
e)
Distance of Closest Approach

Kinetic energy of the - particle
1
K = m v 2
2
Because the positive charge on the nucleus is Ze and that on the - particle 2e,
from the centre of the nucleus, is given by

1 (2e)( Ze)
.
4 0
r0
ed
uc
at
io
n.
U=
co
m
hence the electrostatic potential energy of the - particle, when at a distance r0
Because at r = r0 kinetic energy of the particle appears as its potential energy,

hence, K=U
1 (2e)( Ze) 1
= m v2
.
4 0
r0
2
r0 =
1 4Ze 2
4 0 m v 2
Above equation shows that for a given nucleus, the value of r0 depends upon the
II.
ks
hi
initial kinetic energy of the - particle.
Bohrs Model
.s
a
On the basis of quantum theory Bohr modified Rutherfords atomic model and
gave the following postulates to explain the observed facts.
(a) Electron can revolve round the nucleus only in certain allowed orbits called
stationary orbits and the Coulombs force of attraction between electron and the
w
w
positively charged nucleus provides necessary centripetal force.

k ( Ze)e mV 2
=
r
r2
-e
+ Ze
Nucleus
2
(b) Suppose m is the mass of electron, V is the velocity and r is the radius of the
orbit, then in stationary orbits the angular momentum of the electron is an
integral multiple of
L = I = mVr = n
h
where n=1, 2, 3, 4. called principal quantum number.
2
An electron in a stationary orbit has a definite amount of energy. It possesses
co
m
(c)
h
, where h is the Plancks constant. The angular momentum
2
kinetic energy because of its motion and potential energy on account of the
attraction of the nucleus. Each allowed orbit is therefore associated with a certain
ed
uc
at
io
n.
quantity of energy called the energy of the orbit, which equals the total energy of
the electron in it. In these allowed orbits electrons revolve without radiating
energy.
(d)
Energy is radiated or absorbed when an electron jumps from one stationary

orbit to another stationary orbit. This energy is equal to the energy difference
between these two orbits and emitted or absorbed as one quantum of radiation of
frequency given by Plancks equation. This is called Bohrs frequency condition.
(e) Radius of Bohrs orbit: When mass of the nucleus is large compared to
hi
revolving electron, and then electron revolves around the nucleus in circular
ks
orbit.
According to first postulate
.s
a
k ( Ze)e mV 2
1
=
where k =
. (1)
2
r
4 0
r
According to second postulate
w
w
mVr = n
(Or) V =
h
Where n = 1,2,3,4.............
2
nh
.................. (2)
2mr
After solving the equations, radius of the orbit

r=
n2 h2
42 kZme2
3
For nth orbit rn =
h2 n2
.
............(3)
42 ke 2 mZ
For hydrogen atom Z = 1, radius of the first orbit (n = 1) is given by

r1 = 0.529 1010 m 0.53
This value is called as Bohrs radius and the orbit is called Bohrs orbit.
(f)
ed
uc
at
io
n.
n2
rn = 0.53 where n = 1, 2,3,....... (4)
Z
co
m
In general, the radius of the nth orbit of hydrogen like atom is given by
Velocity of the Electron in the orbit:
nh
The velocity of an electron in nth orbit Vn =
2mrn
Hence Vn =
2ke 2 Z
.
h n
n2h2
rn = 2
... (5)
4 kZme 2
i.e. the velocity of electron in any orbit is independent of the mass of electron.
The above equation can also be written as
ks
hi
c Z
Vn =
. m / s .......... (6)
137 n
Where c is the speed of light in vacuum
.s
a
(g) Time period of electron in the orbit:
V
Z
Angular velocity of electron in nth orbit n = n = 0 3 ,
w
w
Where 0 =
rn
83k 2e4 m
......(7) is the angular velocity of electron in first Bohrs
h3
orbit.
2
=
The time period of rotation of electron in nth orbit T =
n
i.e . T
n3
.......... (8)
20 Z 2
n3
Z2
4
The time period of rotation increases as n increases and is independent of the
mass of the electron.
h)
Energy of the electron in the orbit:

The kinetic energy of the electron revolving round the nucleus in nth orbit is
22 k 2 e 4 mZ 2
. 2 ............(9)
h2
n
Kn
mZ 2
n2
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Kn =
co
m
1
1 2ke2 Z
.
given by K n = mV 2 = m
2
2 h
n
If the reference level (zero potential energy level) is at infinity then the
electrostatic potential energy is given by
42 kmZe 2
k ( Ze)e
= kZe 2
2 2
rn
n h
Un =
42 k 2 e 4 mZ 2
....... (10)
h 2 n 2
hi
Un =
22 k 2 e 4 mZ 2
........ (11)
h 2 n 2
En =
22 k 2 mZ 2e4
n2h2
.s
a
En = K n + U n =
ks
Total energy of the electron in nth orbit
w
w
The expression of total energy for hydrogen like atom may be simplified as
En = 13.6
Z2
n2
eV , n = 1, 2, 3..... (12)
Where -13.6 eV is the total energy of the electron in the ground state of an
hydrogen atom.
From the equations (9),(10)&(11) it is clear that
PE: K.E: T.E = -2: 1: -1
5
i.e. and E = -K (or) E = -K = U / 2
The state n = 1 is called ground state and n > 1 states are called excited states.
When electron go from lower orbit to higher orbit speed and hence kinetic
energy decrease, but both potential energy and total energy increases. E
1
n2
tells us that the energy gap between the two successive levels decreases as the
n=
n=2
n=1
- 0.544 eV
-0.850 eV
-1.511 eV
2nd excited state

1st excited state
-3.4 eV
ground state
ed
uc
at
io
n.
n=5
n=4
n=3
0 eV
co
m
value of n increases. At infinity level the total energy of the atom becomes zero.
-13.6 eV
Energy level diagram of hydrogen atom (Z = 1) for normal and excited states as
shown the above figure.
The energy level diagram of hydrogen like atom with atomic number Z for
normal and excited states as shown below:
n=
hi
1st excited state
n=1
- 0.544 x Z 2eV
-0.850 x Z 2 eV
-1.511 x Z 2eV
-3.4 x Z2 eV
.s
a
n=2
2nd excited state
ks
n=5
n=4
n=3
0 eV
ground state
-13.6 x Z 2 eV
The total energy of the electron is negative implies the atomic electron is bound
to the nucleus. To remove the electron from its orbit beyond the attraction of the
w
w
nucleus, energy must be required.
The minimum energy required to remove an electron from the ground state of an
atom is called its ionization energy and it is 13.6 Z2 eV.
In hydrogen atom the ground state energy of electron is 13.6 eV, so 13.6 eV is
the ionization energy of the Hydrogen atom.
6
III. Emission of Radiation
When an electron jumps from higher energy level n2 to a lower energy level n1
in stationary atom, the difference in energy is radiated as a photon whose
frequency v is given by Plancks formula.
1
1
2 eV
.
2
n1 n2
13.6 Z 2
.
eV
En =
2
n
Since 1eV = 1.6 1019 J

Hence
(Or) wave number v =
ed
uc
at
io
n.
(Or) hv = E2 E1 = 13.6 Z 2
co
m
En2 En1 = h
1 1
= RZ 2 . 2 2 m 1
n1 n2
1
Where R is called for Rydberg constant and when the nucleus is infinitely
massive as compared to the revolving electron. In other words the nucleus is
ks
hi
considered to be stationary. The numerical value of R is 1.097107 m-1
.s
a
IV. Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom

Electron in hydrogen atom can be in excited state for very small time of the order
of 10-8 second. This is because in the presence of conservative force system
particles always try to occupy stable equilibrium position and hence minimum
w
w
potential energy, which is least in ground state. Because of instability, when an

electron in excited state makes a transition to lower energy state, a photon is
emitted. Collection of such emitted photon frequencies is called an emission
spectrum. This is as showing in following figure.
7
e
Transition
photon
+
Emission spectrum
n=5
L L
n=2
Bracket series
(I.R. region)
Paschen series
(I.R. region)
Balmer series
(Visible region)
ed
uc
at
io
n.
n=3
P fund series
(I.R. region)
bluegreen
n=4
co
m
n=
n=1
Lyman series
(u.v. region)
The Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom as shown in the above figure are
explained below.
(a)
Lyman Series: Lines corresponding to transition from outer energy levels

n2 = 2,3, 4,.......... to first orbit (n1= 1) constitute Lyman series.
The wave
numbers of different lines are given by,
hi
1
1
1
= R 2 2
1 n2
ks
v=
.s
a
(i) Line corresponding to transition from n2 = 2 to n1 = 1 is first line; its

wavelength is maximum.
1
max
1 1
1 1
= R 2 2 = 1.1107
1 2
1 4
w
w
max = 1212
Similarly transition from n2 = to n1 = 1 gives line of minimum wavelength.

1
m in
1 1
= R 2 2 = 1.1107
1
min = 912
(ii)
Lyman series lies in ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum
8
(iii) Lyman series is obtained in emission as well as in absorption spectrum.
(b) Balmer Series: Lines corresponding to n2 = 3, 4,5,........ to n1 = 2 constitute
Balmer series. The wave numbers of different lines are given by,
(i)
1
1
1
= R 2 2
n2
2
co
m
v=
Line corresponding to transition n2=3 to n1=2 is first line, wavelength
corresponding to this transition is maximum. Line corresponding to transition
ed
uc
at
io
n.
n2 = to n1 = 2 is last line; wavelength of last line is minimum.

1 1
= R 2 2
2 3
1
max
max = 6568
1
min
1
1
= R 2 2
2
min = 3636
hi
(ii) Balmer series lies in the visible region of electromagnetic spectrum. The
ks
wavelength of L line is 656.8 nm (red). The wavelength of L line is 486 nm
.s
a
(blue green). The wavelength of L line is 434 nm (violet). The remaining lines
of Balmer series are closest to violet light wavelength. The speciality of these
lines is that in going from one end to other, the brightness and the separation
between them decreases regularly.

This series is obtained only in emission spectrum. Absorption lines
w
w
(iii)
corresponding to Balmer series do not exist, except extremely weakly, because

very few electrons are normally in the state n = 2 and only a very few atoms are
capable of having an electron knocked from the state n = 2 to higher states.
Hence photons that correspond to these energies will not be strongly absorbed.
In highly excited hydrogen gas there is possibility for detecting absorption at
Balmer-line wavelengths.
9
(c) Paschen Series
Lines corresponding to n2 = 4, 5, 6 ... to n1 = 3 constitute Paschen series. The
1
1
2
2
n2
3
wave numbers of different lines are given by v = R
Line corresponding to transition n2 = 4 to n1 = 3 is first line, having maximum
co
m
(i)
wavelength. Line corresponding to transition n2 = to n1 = 3 is last line,

1 1
= R 2 2
3 4
1
max
1
min
ed
uc
at
io
n.
having minimum wavelength

max = 18747
1 1
1
= R 2 = 1.1107 0
3
9
min = 8202
(ii) Paschen series lies in the infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.

(iii) This series is obtained only in the emission spectrum.
hi
(d) Bracket Series:
ks
The series corresponds to transitions from n2 = 5, 6, 7....... , to n1 = 4. The

v=
1
1
1
= R 2 2
n2
4
.s
a
wave number are given by,
(i) Line corresponding to transition from n2 = 5 to n1 = 4 has maximum wavelength
and n2 = to n1 = 4 has minimum wavelength.

1
w
w
max
1
min
1 1
= R 2 2 max = 40477
4 5
1
1
= R 2 2 min = 14572
4
(ii) This series lies in the infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.
10
(e) Pfund Series
This series corresponds to transitions from n2 = 6, 7,8,...., to n1 = 5 .The wave
(i)
1
1
1
= R
52 n 2
2
co
m
numbers are given by v =
Line corresponding to transition from n2 = 6 to n1 = 5 has maximum wavelength
1
max
1 1
= R 2 2
5 6
max = 74563
1
min
min = 22768
ed
uc
at
io
n.
and n2 = to n1 = 4 has minimum wavelength.
1
1
= R 2 2
5
(ii) This series lies in infrared region of electromagnetic spectrum.
V. Composition of the nucleus: Central part of the atom is called nucleus. It was
hi
first discovered by Rutherford.
ks
1. The nucleus is spherical in shape and has a diameter of the order of 1014 m.
2. The atomic nucleus is composed of elementary particles called protons and
.s
a
neutrons.
3. Protons have positive charge whose magnitude is equal to the charge of an
electron but heavier than electron.
w
w
4. The neutron is electrically neutral and has a mass slightly greater than that of a
proton.
5. Protons and neutrons are the building blocks of nucleus and are collectively called
nucleons.
6. The number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the atomic number denoted by
Z. The number of neutrons is denoted by N. The total number of neutrons and
protons (nucleons) in the nucleus is called mass number (A) of the atom or
nucleus i.e., A=Z+N.
11
7. A nucleus is symbolically represented by ZXA in which X is the chemical symbol
of the element.
E.g. 7N14 represents the nitrogen nucleus which contain 14 nucleons (7 protons
and 7 neutrons)
8. Nuclides with same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons i.e. same
co
m
atomic number Z, different neutron number N and different mass number A, are
called isotopes.
9. Isotopes occupy same position in the periodic table and hence, they possess
10.
1
H, 12 H, 13 H
1
11.
16
17
18
8 O, 8 O, 8 O
ed
uc
at
io
n.
identical chemical properties and possess different nuclear properties.

are the isotopes of hydrogen atom.
are the isotopes of oxygen atom.
12. Nuclides with same number of neutrons N, but with different atomic number Z,
and different mass number A are called isotones.
17 18
19
7 N, 8 O, 9 F
are isotones.
13. Nuclides with same total number of nucleons A but differ in atomic number Z and
14
14
6 C, 7 N
are isobars.
hi
also differ in neutron number N are called isobars.
ks
14. Nuclides having equal mass number A and atomic number Z but differing from
one another in their nuclear energy states are called isomers.
87 m
38 Sr
is an isomer of
.s
a
15.
87 g
38 Sr
, where m denotes metastable state and g denotes
ground state.
16. Nuclides having the same mass number A but with number of protons and
w
w
neutrons interchanged are known as mirror nuclei 74 Be and 73Li .
17. Nuclear size: The distance of closest approach of -particle to the nucleus was
taken as a measure of nuclear radius which is approximately 1015 m. The volume
of the nucleus v is proportional to its mass number. If R is the radius of the
nucleus then R=R0A1/3.
Where R0 is constant its value is 1.1x1015 m.
18. Nuclear distances are measured in units of Fermi and 1 Fermi=1015 m.
12
19. The density of the nucleus is independent of mass number i.e. the density of nuclei
of all atoms is same and is equal to 2.97x1017 kg m-3.
20. The density of the nucleus is maximum at the centre and fall to zero, as we move
rapidly outwards.
21. The nucleus does not have sharp boundaries.
co
m
22. The effective value of the radius of the nucleus is taken as the distance between its
centre to the point where the density falls to half of its value at the centre.
23. a.m.u: The magnitude of the masses of the building blocks of an atom is
ed
uc
at
io
n.
expressed in atomic mass unit. It is defined as one twelfth of the mass of the
carbon-12 atom.
1 a.m.u=1.66054021x1027 kg
The energy equivalent of 1 amu=931.54 MeV.
24. Nuclear Force: It is the force of attraction between a proton and proton, proton and
neutron and between a neutron and another neutron. It is a strong force. The
relative strengths of gravitational, Coulombs and nuclear forces among the
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
nucleons are in the ratio Fg:Fc:Fn=1:1036:1038.
13
Radioactivity
1. Natural Radioactivity
a) The nuclei of certain elements disintegrate spontaneously by emitting alpha ( ) ,
co
m
beta () and gamma ( ) rays. This phenomenon is called natural radioactivity

b) Natural radioactivity is displayed by heavy nuclei, beyond lead in the periodic
table. There are also naturally radioactive light nuclei, such as potassium isotope
, the carbon isotope
14
6 C
and the rubidium isotope 87

37 Rb .
ed
uc
at
io
n.
40
19 K
i) Alpha Radiation
a) When a nucleus disintegrates and radiates -rays it is said to undergo -decay.

b) When a nucleus emits an alpha particle its atomic number Z decreases by two
units and its mass number A decreases by four units.
c) Both electric charge and nucleon number are conserved in the process of -decay.
d) The general form of -decay can be written as
ZA24 D + 24 He
238
92 U
4
234
90 Th + 2 He
ks
Ex-1:
hi
A
ZP
e) A beam of -particles can be deflected by an electric field as well as magnetic field.
.s
a
f) The speed of -particles is of the order of 106 m/s.

g)
-particle
g)
-particles
produce intense ionization of the medium through which they pass.
can penetrate small distances in matter and can be stopped after
w
w
travelling a few mm in air. Due to large mass, the penetrating power of -particles
is lower than both -rays and -rays.
i)
particle produces scintillations when they strike fluorescent materials such as
zinc sulphide.
j)
-particles
affect photographic plate.
ii) Beta Radiation

a) When a nucleus disintegrates and radiates -rays it is said to undergo -decay.
14
b)
particles are nothing but electrons. Hence when a nucleus emits a
particle,
the atomic number of the nucleus increase by one unit, but the mass number does
not change.
c) The general form of -decay can be written as ZA P Z+A1 D + 01 e .
d)
234
90
0
Th 234
91 Pa + 1 e
co
m
Ex:
particles are deflected by electric as well as magnetic fields.
e) The speed of -particle is of the order of 1/10th of the speed of light.
ionize the medium through which they pass. The ionizing power is
1/100th of -particles.
g)
-particles
ed
uc
at
io
n.
-particles
f)
penetrate through matter. They travel a few centimeters in air. The
penetrating power of -particles is greater than that of -rays but less than that of
-rays.
h)
-rays
affect photographic plate.
iii) Gamma Radiation
hi
a) When a nucleus disintegrates and releases -rays it is said to undergo -decay.
ks
b) The emission of -rays from the nucleus does not alter either atomic number Z or
.s
a
mass number A.
c) The wavelengths of -rays is less than 1A0.
-rays are not deflected either by electric or magnetic fields because they do not
d)
w
w
posses any charge.
e)
-rays travel with the speed of light.
f) The ionizing power of the -radiations is small when compared to and
g) The penetrating power of -rays is the largest when compared to and
h)
-rays also produce scintillations when they strike fluorescent material.
i)
-rays affect photographic plates more than and particles.
15
rays.
rays.
2. The radioactive decay law
a) The radioactive decay is a random process such that the rate of disintegration is
proportional to the number of nuclei (N) available for disintegration.
dN
dN
N
= N
dt
dt
is decay constant
On solving N =
N0 et
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Where N0 is the initial number of atoms
co
m
Where
This shows that the number of atoms of radioactive element decreases

exponentially with time.
hi
b) The number of disintegrations per second is called the activity of a radioactive
ks
sample.
lt
A = N = N0 e = A 0 e t
A = N A =
0.693
t1/2
Weight in grams
23
0.693 10
massnumber(A)
A=
0.693
N
t1/2
.s
a
c)
w
w
A
t1/2
d) The unit of activity

a) Units of activity are Curie and Rutherford.
b) 1 Curie = 3.7 1010 disintegrations/sec
c) 1 Rutherford = 106 disintegrations/sec
16
d) 1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration per sec
e) The activity of 1gm of material is defined as specific activity.
f) The decay constant of the end product of a radioactive series is infinity.
e) Half-life (t1/2): The time taken by the number of atoms to decrease from N0 to N
t=
N
N
1
2.303
logc 0 t =
log10 0
N
N
co
m
is
The half life (t1/2) of radioactive nuclei is the time taken by the radioactive
t1/2 =
ed
uc
at
io
n.
element to disintegrate to half the initial number of atoms.

2.303
0.693
log10 ( 2 ) t1/2
After n half lives (i.e. t = nt1/2)

N 1
=
N0 2
f)
238
92 U
) has a half -life of 4.47 10
years and
89
36 Kr
) has a half-life of 3.16 minutes.
g) Mean life ( ): - The mean life (or) average life of a radioactive substance is equal
hi
to the average time for which the nuclei of atoms of the radioactive substance
ks
exist.
h) The mean life of an atom of a radioactive nuclide is equal to the inverse of its
.s
a
decay constant.
1
w
w
= 1.44 t1/2 , t1/2 = 0.693
i) Time required for disintegration of 75% (or) 3/4 of the radioactive element is
2t1/2.
Similarly
t7/8 (or) t87.5% = 3 t1/2
t15/16 (or) t93.75% = 4 t1/2
17
t90% =
10
t1/ 2
3
t99% =
20
t1/ 2
3
t 29.3% =
3.
1
t1/ 2
2
Mass defect and binding energy of a nucleus
co
m
t99.9% = 10t1/ 2
a) The actual mass of a nucleus is always found to be less than the sum of the
ed
uc
at
io
n.
masses of the nucleons present in it. The mass difference is known as the mass
defect and is denoted by m.
b)
m = Zmp + ( A Z)m n M
Where mp and mn are the masses of proton and
neutron respectively and M is the actual mass of the nucleus.
c) The mass defect per nucleon of the nucleus is defined as Packing fraction.
Packing fraction=
mass defect
m
=
Mass number
A
d) Binding Energy: The energy equivalent of the mass defect is the binding
hi
energy of the nucleus. Binding energy is also defined as the minimum energy
ks
required to split the nucleus into its constituent nucleons.

e) The ratio of binding energy of nucleus and the total number of nucleons in the
.s
a
nucleus is called the binding energy per nucleon. It is also called as binding
fraction or average binding energy or specific binding energy.
Binding fraction= Binding energy of
the nucleus
w
w
4. Binding energy of the nucleus= m x 931.5 MeV

The graph of binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number is shown in
the figure.
The conclusions from the binding fraction verses mass number curve are
18
a) Nuclei of the intermediate mass are most stable,
b) Heavier nuclei and lighter nuclei are less stable,
c) A large amount of energy can be liberated if heavier nuclei can be split into
lighter nuclei. (This is what happens when 92U235 undergoes fission).
d) A large amount of energy can be liberated if lighter nuclei can be made to fuse
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.s
a
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form heavier nucleus 2He4 in nuclear fusion).
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to form heavier nuclei (this is what happens when hydrogen nuclei combine to
19
Nuclear Fission and Fusion

A. Nuclear Fission
1. The process of splitting up of the nucleus of a heavy atom into two nuclei more or
less of equal fragments when bombarded with neutron simultaneously releasing a
235
1
92 U+ 0 n
141
92
1
( 236
92 U) 56 Ba+ 36 Kr +3 0 n + Q .
2. Where Q is energy released which is about 200 MeV.
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large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.
3. This phenomenon was first observed by Strassmann and Hann. It was explained by
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n.
Neils Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of the nucleus.
According to liquid drop model, the nucleus behaves like a liquid drop and owing
to surface tension it tries to be perfectly spherical in shape. When a neutron is
absorbed by the nucleus, a compound nucleus is formed and some excitation
energy is imparted to the nucleus. This excitation energy tries to deform the
nucleus where as the surface tension of the nucleus tries to keep the nucleus in
spherical shape. Due to the struggle between the surface tension and the excitation
energy, strong oscillations are set up inside the compound nucleus. These
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ellipsoid.
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oscillations will distort the shape of the compound nucleus from spherical to
4. If the excitation energy is sufficiently large, the ellipsoidal nucleus may attain the
.s
a
dumbbell shape. In this case the effect of nuclear attractive force is decreased
because of the much increased surface area of the nucleus. Further the Coulombic
repulsive force drives the two portions of the dumb bell still farther and the nucleus
undergoes fission, liberating two nuclei Ba and Kr and neutrons. These newly
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liberated neutrons are called prompt neutrons. In this process the products are not
always the same; their atomic number varies from 34 to 58. Hence the number of
prompt neutrons will also change with the mass number of the products. The
products, emitted neutrons finally become stable. These occur within few seconds
after the fission reaction. These are called delayed neutrons. They play an
important role in controlling the nuclear chain reaction in a nuclear reactor.
20
5. Chain Reaction: A chain reaction is a self propagating process in which a number
of neutrons multiply rapidly during fission till the whole fissionable material is
disintegrated.
6. Neutron multiplication factor K and conditions required for sustained chain
reaction:
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In the fission of uranium nuclei, on an average 2.5 neutrons are emitted per
fission. The neutrons produced in a fission event are fast neutrons and are referred to
as neutrons of first generation. There is certain probability for some neutrons to
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n.
escape without participating in further fission process. Therefore all emitted neutrons
are not available for further fissions. The basic conditions for self sustained chain
reaction is that at least one neutron should be available. The requirements are given
below.
a) Fast neutrons should be changed into slow neutrons by passing through

moderators.
b) At least one thermal neutron should be available to initiate the fission reaction.
c) The state of the chain reaction depends on the neutron multiplication factor K
number of neutrons in present generation

number of neutrons in the previous generation
ks
K=
hi
which is defined as
When K<1, the number of neutrons in successive generations decreases and the
.s
a
chain reaction cannot continue. This state is called sub-critical state.

If K=1, the chain reaction will proceed at a steady rate and this state is called
critical state.
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If K>1, the number of neutrons increases and the reaction is said to be

supercritical.
7. Critical mass: If the mass of uranium is too small, the neutron may escape
without participating further fission. To start the fission reaction mass of material
should be more than the critical mass or critical size.
8. Principal and working of a nuclear reactor

The device giving large amount of nuclear energy through fission process at a
controlled rate is called a nuclear reactor or atomic pile. The first nuclear reactor
21
was put into operation in Chicago (USA) in 1942 by Fermi. In the nuclear reactor
the first fission reaction results in the production of fast neutrons. If fast moving
neutrons are allowed to pass through moderator they become thermal neutrons.
Subsequently these thermal neutrons are utilized for further fission reactions to
produce a large amount of energy.
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9. Essential features of a nuclear reactor

i) Nuclear Fuel: The fissionable material used in the reactor is called nuclear
fuel.
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ii) The uranium isotopes 92U235 and 92U238, plutonium 94Pu236 and thorium 90Th232 are
commonly used as fuels in the reactors. The rods of these fuels are tightly sealed in
aluminium cylinders.
iii) Moderators: The purpose of the moderator is to slow down the fast moving
neutrons produced as a result of nuclear fission. Some of the suitable materials
used as moderators are heavy water, beryllium, carbon in the form of pure
graphite, hydrocarbon plastics etc.
iv)Control rods: These are the materials used in the nuclear reactors that can
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absorb the neutrons and control the nuclear chain reaction. Cadmium or boron
rods are generally used for this purpose. When the control rods are completely
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inserted into the carbon blocks, they absorb neutrons to such an extent that the
.s
a
chain reaction completely comes to halt.

v) Safety rods:
These are used to reduce the neutrons rate to less than one
abruptly to stop the chain reaction whenever required.
vi) Protective Shielding: To prevent the spreading of the radioactive effect to the
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space around the nuclear reactor, lead blocks, concrete walls of thickness 10 m
are used.
vii) Coolant: The material used to absorb the heat generated in the reactor is
called coolant. Commonly used coolants are light water, heavy water and
sodium gas.
The coolant releases the heat energy to water and is thus converted into steam,
which is used to run the turbines. These turbines in turn generate the power.
22
10. Radio-isotopes (Uses)
i)
Radio-isotopes are produced in nuclear reactor.
ii)
Isotopes are used to test wear and tear of engine parts like piston rings, gears,
ball bearings and helps in deciding the efficiency of lubricants.
iii)
Radio-iodine (53I131) has half life of 8 days is used in determining functioning of
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thyroid gland, information about the size and location of brain tumour.
Restriction in blood circulation can be detected using radio sodium.
v)
Leukemia disease is treated by radiation from radio-isotopes of phosphorus.
vi)
To find the age of ancient objects found in excavations, manuscripts etc., the
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iv)
technique of radio-carbon dating is used.

vii)
Radio-isotopes are used to test the metal castings and weldings.
11. Radiation hazards

i)
Damage to the intestinal mucosa, impairment of the production of the blood

corpuscles, damage to the system of producing antibodies which are important
in the defence against infections, damage to the lens of the eye, production of
cancers including leukemia etc.
The radiation damage to human beings is due to intake of radioactive materials
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ii)
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and exposure to radiation.

iii) Radio-iodine
is extremely dangerous as it is concentrated in the thyroid gland, a
.s
a
very sensitive organ.

iv) Irradiation
of the body with small dose of -rays or X-rays increases the body
temperature.
v)
Radiation causes genetic mutation.
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vi) Radon
inhaled is injurious to lungs.
vii)Because
of small penetrating power of -radiation into our bodies, its damage
is the least. The main external hazard is posed by -rays and neutrons.
viii)
To prevent radiation hazards, rules have been worked out by International
Commission of Radiation Protection (ICRP).

ix) Tolerance
doses which are permissible for individuals when exposed
professionally.
23
B. Nuclear Fusion
1. The process of the formation of a single stable nucleus by fusing two or more
lighter nuclei is called nuclear fusion.
2
2
4
1H + 1H 2 He +
24 MeV .
2. If the energy released per nucleon in fusion is considered, then it is much higher in
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a fusion reaction than in the fission reaction, which is almost 7 times.
3. To carry out the fusion of two nuclei temperature nearly equal to 107 K is required.
Once the fusion takes place the energy released can maintain the minimum
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required temperature for further and the fusion continues. Nuclear fusion reaction
is also termed as thermo nuclear reaction. The secret behind the production of
energy of the sun and the stars is nothing but the thermo nuclear reactions (Nuclear
fusion).
4. Hydrogen bomb is based on the principle of nuclear fusion.

5. Energy of the Sun and the Stars
Scientists proposed two types of cyclic processes for sources of energy in the sun
and stars. The first one is known as carbon-nitrogen cycle and the second one is
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proton-proton cycle.
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1. Carbon-Nitrogen Cycle: Bethe (1938) proposed a set of reactions taking place

in the central part of the sun and stars in which carbon and nitrogen act as
.s
a
catalysts.
1
1H
136 C +
13
7N
12
6C
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1
1H
1
1H
Q1
0
1e
14
7N +
Q2
+ 147 N 158 O + Q 3
15
8O
1
1H
13
6C
13
7N +
15
7N
15
7N
+ 01 e + Q 4
126 C +
4
2 He
All the above reactions are added to give the following net nuclear reaction.
411 H
4
2 He
+ 2 01 e + Q
24
The above set of six reactions is called carbon-nitrogen cycle. In this process the
four protons are fused to form 2 positrons and helium nuclei releasing 26.72 MeV
of energy.
2. Proton-Proton Cycle: Recent experiments show that the carbon-nitrogen cycle
comes at a rather late stage in the life of the stars. Scientists proposed another
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nuclear fusion cycle process which takes place comparatively at low temperatures
than carbon-nitrogen cycle and gives the same amount of energy as shown below.
1
1
2
0
1H + 1H 1H + 1e
+ Q1
1
3
4
0
1H + 2 He 2 He + 1e
On adding
+ Q3
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1
2
3
1H + 1H 2 He + Q2
411H 42He + 201e + Q
Energy released in this cycle is 24.6 MeV.
6. At the interior of sun, the temperature is of the order of 2x106 K at which both of
the above mentioned processes are equally probable. Stars having temperature
more than that of sun obtain their energy from carbon-nitrogen cycle and the stars
at low temperature follow proton-proton cycle in energy emission.
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7. Positron is the anti-particle of electron and was first discovered by Anderson,
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although theoretically its existence was predicted by Dirac.

8. Pair production
.s
a
A -ray can disintegrate in to positron and an electron.
e+ + e
The minimum energy of -ray to produce pair is 1.02 MeV.
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9. Pair Annihilation: An electron and positron have the same mass and spin.
However, they have the opposite charge. They annihilate each other, with the
emission of 2 photons, when they come into contact. This is represented by the
equation.
e + e + = 2
The two photons move in opposite direction.
25
Electronic Devices
Diodes
1. Solids are classified into two categories.
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a) Crystalline solids
2) Amorphous solids
2. The conductivity of solids can be explained by Band Theory of solids.
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n.
3. Band Theory of solids: A solid is a periodic arrangement of atoms. In case of

isolated atom the energy levels are discrete or well separated. For a particular
atom in the solid, neighbouring atoms influence the energies of the outer electrons.
The discrete energy levels spread into band of energy levels. The highest filled
band is called valance band. The next higher unfilled band is called conduction
band. The valance band and conduction band are separated by certain forbidden
energy region called forbidden energy gap (E.g.).
4. The energy bands which are completely filled at 0 K are called valance bands. The
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bands with higher energies are called conduction bands.
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5. Based on band theory of solids, solids are classified as conductors, semiconductors

and insulators.
.s
a
CB
CB
Eg>>kT
VB
Insulator
VB
Semiconductor
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Conductor
VB
CB
Eg~kT
6. Semi-conductors
a) If the forbidden energy gap between the conduction band and valence band is
small (about 1 eV) then such substances are called semiconductors.
E.g.: Silicon & Germanium.
b) For silicon forbidden energy gap is 1.1 eV and for germanium 0.72 eV.
c) At absolute zero, semiconductors behave as perfect insulators.
d) Semiconductors are of two types.
a) Intrinsic
2) Extrinsic
7. Hole
a) A hole is an unfilled covalent bond (or) A vacant energy state in the valance
band of a semiconductor is called hole.
semiconductor.
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b) The existence of energy level of a hole can be observed in valence band of a
c) Hole acts like a positive charge but not a particle. Hole drifts in opposite
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direction to electrons with lesser speed.
8. Fermi energy: The highest energy level which an electron can occupy at 0 k is
called Fermi level. For intrinsic semiconductors this level lies in the middle of the
forbidden gap. It can also take as average energy of charge carriers.
9. Intrinsic semiconductors
a) Pure form of Si or Ge crystals is called intrinsic semiconductors (tetravalent).

b) The responsible charge carriers for conduction are both the
free electrons and holes.
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c) The number of holes and the number of free electrons are
FermiLevel
VALENCEBAND
Intrinsicsemiconductor
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equal (ne=nh) and increase with increase of temperature.
CONDUCTIONBAND
d) Even though the responsible charge carriers are both the free electrons and
.s
a
holes the current contributed by the electrons is more than that of holes because
of their higher mobility.
e) Mobility of electrons is nearly twice to that of holes in Germanium and 4 times
in silicon.
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f) Fermi-energy level lies exactly at the midpoint of the forbidden gap.
10. Extrinsic semiconductors

a) The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor is relatively less. To increase their
conductivity pure semiconductors are doped with trivalent or pentavalent
substances.
b) Doping: Adding of selected impurities to a semiconductor to increase its
conductivity is called doping.
c) The doped semiconductors are called as extrinsic semiconductors. They are of
two types. i) p-type, ii) n-type.
a) When a trivalent substance (III group elements) like Boron,

Aluminium, Gallium, Indium etc., are added in sufficient
AcceptorLevel.
11. p-type semiconductor
quantities (1 in 106 or less) to the pure form of Si or Ge crystal
FermiLevel
VALENCEBAND
ptypesemiconductor
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then it is said to be p-type.
CONDUCTIONBAND
b) In p-type semiconductor, holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority
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carriers (nh>ne)
d) It is electrically neutral.
e) The energy level formed slightly above (about 0.01 eV) the
valence band due to acceptor impurities is called acceptor energy

level.
12. n-type semiconductor
Donorlevel.
c) The Fermi-energy level lies nearer to the valence band.
CONDUCTIONBAND
FermiLevel
VALENCEBAND
ntypesemiconductor
a) When a pentavalent substance (V group elements) like Phosphorous, Arsenic,
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Antimony etc., are added in sufficient quantities to the pure form of Si or Ge

crystal then it is said to be n-type.
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b) In n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority
.s
a
carriers. (ne>nh).
c) The Fermi-energy level in nearer to the conduction band.
d) It is electrically neutral.
e) The energy level formed slightly below (about 0.01 eV) the conduction band
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due to donor impurities is called donor energy level.

1) Conductivity of n-type > p-type > intrinsic.
2) With the increase of temperature Fermi level moves down.
13. p-n junction: When a semi conducting material such as silicon or germanium is
doped with impurity in such a way that one side has a large number of acceptor
impurities and the other side has a large number of donor impurities. The resulting
semiconductor is called p-n junction.
14. p-n junction diode
a) A p-n junction diode cannot be obtained by simple contact of p-type and n-type
semiconductor.
b) Near the junction, the free electrons from n-region migrate towards p-region
and the holes in p-region migrate towards n-region. This process is known as
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diffusion. This diffusion is due to concentration gradient.

c) Due to diffusion, positive ions are left over in n-region and negative ions are
left over in p-region, near the junction. These ions are immobile.
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n.
d) Due to the immobile ions on either side of the junction an internal electric field
is formed at the junction, which is directed from n to p.
e) The no charge carrier region formed at p-n junction due to the combination of
electrons and holes is called depletion layer.
f) The thickness of the depletion layer is of the order of 106 m.
g) When the depletion layer is sufficient by built up, it prevents the electrons
diffusion from n to p side and hole diffusion from p to n side i.e., it acts as a
barrier.
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h) The potential difference across the barrier which is set up to prevent diffusion
potential.
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of charge carriers through the junction is called potential barrier or contact
.s
a
i) The potential barrier for silicon is 0.7 volts and for germanium is 0.3 volts.
j) The potential barrier value lies in between 0.1 to 0.7 volts, which depends on
the nature of semiconductor, doping concentration and temperature of the
junction.
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k) It can be presumed to be equivalent to a condenser in which the depletion layer

acts as a dielectric.
l) p-n junction diode can be used as rectifiers, detectors.

m) In a circuit p-n junction diode is represented as. Here arrow mark represents
the direction of current in forward bias. It represents p side.
p
Drift Current
n) Due to thermal collisions, electron-hole pairs are created in the depletion
region. The electron is quickly pushed by the electric field towards the n-side
and the hole towards the p-side. As electron-hole pairs are continuously created
in the depletion region, there is a regular flow of electrons towards the n-side
p-side. This current is called the drift current.
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and of holes towards the p-side. This makes a current from the n-side to the
a) Diffusion current: When a p-n junction is formed, because of the
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concentration difference, holes try to diffuse from the p-side to n-side.
Similarly, electrons try to diffuse from n-side to p-side. This diffusion results in
an electric current from the p-side to the n-side known as diffusion current.
v) The drift current and the diffusion current are in opposite directions. In
unbiased junction, in steady state, the diffusion current equals the drift current
in magnitude there is no net transfer of charge at any cross-section.
15. Forward Bias
a) In a p-n junction diode, if p-region is connected to +ve terminal (relatively

+
hi
higher potential) of the battery and n-region is connected to ve terminal

(relatively lower potential) of the battery then it is said to be forward biased.
.s
a
decrease.
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b) In forward biased condition, the width of depletion layer and barrier potential
c) It is a low resistance connection.

d) The resistance of an ideal diode in forward biased condition is zero.
e) In forward biased condition, the flow of current is mainly due to the diffusion
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of electrons.
f) The direction of current is from p to n.
16. Reverse Bias
low potential) of the battery and n-region is connected to the +ve terminal
(relatively high potential) of the battery then it is said to be reverse biased.
a) In a p-n junction diode, if p-region is connected to ve terminal (relatively
b) In reverse biased condition, the width of the depletion layer and barrier
potential increase.
c) It is a high resistance connection.
d) The resistance of an ideal diode in reverse bias condition is infinity.
e) In reverse biased condition, the flow of current is mainly due to the drift of
f) The direction of current in it is from n to p.

qv
i-v relation of diode is
i = i 0 [e KT 1]
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charges.
where i0 is reverse saturation current, KT is
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qv
thermal energy and q is charge of electron. In forward bias i = i 0 e KT in reverse

bias i = i 0
I-V characteristics
mA
Vb
hi
V0
ks
.s
a
Vb-break down voltage

V0-barrier potential
Diode is unidirectional. It allows current in forward bias when applied potential
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is greater than the barrier potential.
17. Rectifier
a) The conversion of A.C. voltage to D.C. voltage is called rectification.
b) A p-n junction diode is used as a rectifier.
c) When a single diode is used as a rectifier, the rectification of only one half of
the A.C. wave form takes place. Such a rectification is called half wave
rectification.
18. Efficiency of half wave rectifier
a) The ratio of D.C. power output to the applied input A.C. power is known as
rectifier efficiency.
b) Rectifier efficiency
Pdc 0.406RL
=
Pac
RL + rf
where RL - load resistance, rf - diode
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resistance.
19. In half wave rectification, a maximum of 40.6% of A.C. power is converted into
D.C. power.
frequency is n Hz D.C.
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n.
In a half wave rectifier, if input frequency is n Hz A.C., then the output pulse
a) Maximum current im =
Vm
rf + R L
where Vm = maximum voltage, rf = internal
resistance of the diode, RL = load resistance.
c) rms current irms =

d) a.c power input =
im
Im
A.C.
input
Vi
RL
output
b) Average current Idc =
+ RL )
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hi
e) d.c power output Pdc = (Id3)2xRL
.s
a
20. When two diodes are used, then the rectification of both halves of the alternating
voltage or current can be obtained. Such a rectification is called full wave
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Vi
n
D1
RL
p
B
output
rectification.
A.C.
input
t
Vo
n
D2
a) In a full wave rectifier, if input frequency is n Hz A.C., then the output pulse
frequency is 2n Hz pulsated D.C
Vo
2
irms
x (rf
21. Filter circuit: The output current either from half wave rectifier or full wave
rectifier, though unidirectional is not steady. It also contains A.C. components
which are undesirable and are to be removed by using filter circuit. Filter circuit
is a device which removes the A.C. component of rectifier output and allows the
D.C. component to reach the load.
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22. Efficiency of full wave rectifier

a) The ratio of D.C. power output to the applied input A.C. power is known as
rectifier efficiency.
RL - load resistance.
Pdc 0.812RL
=
Pac
rf + RL
where rf - diode resistance,
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n.
b) Full wave rectifier efficiency
23. In full wave rectifier a maximum of 81.2% of A.C. power is converted into D.C.
power.
a) Maximum current Im =
Vm
rf + R L
where Vm = maximum voltage, rf = internal
resistance of the diode, RL = load resistance.
where Im = maximum current
Im
ks
c) rms current irms =
2Im
hi
b) Average current iav =
2
x (R L
d) A.C. power input = irms
+ rf )
.s
a
e) D.C. power output Pdc = (Id3)2xRL

24. Advantages of Semiconductor diodes
a) p-n junction diodes are minute (very small in size). Therefore these are used in
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microcircuits.
b) As they are solid state devices, no evacuation is needed as in vacuum tubes.

c) They are also quite strong and sturdy.
d) Usually they have long life.
e) There is no filament heating and consequent power loss.
f) These can be prepared to function over wide voltage ranges and to give very
large rectified currents.
25. Zener diode
a) It is a heavily doped p-n junction diode which is operated in
the breakdown region in reverse bias mode.
b) Zener diode has a sharp breakdown voltage in the reverse

bias because of heavy doping. This voltage is called Zener
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Voltage (VZ).
c) Because of heavy doping width of the depletion layer
Vb-break down voltage
decreases, the electric intensity in the depletion layer increases Zener
strong electric field.
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n.
breakdown is pulling the electrons from valence bonds by the action of this
d) In forward bias, Zener diode act like an ordinary p-n junction diode.
e) Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator.
f) Output voltage (VO)=Zener voltage (VZ)
g) Current through load resistance (IL) =
VZ
RL
h) Voltage across series resistance (V) =input voltage zener voltage. V=ViVZ
hi
i) Current through series resistance (R) is I= V
Vi VZ
R
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j) Current through Zener diode (IZ) =IIL.

k) Series resistance absorbs voltage fluctuations and Zener diode absorbs current
.s
a
fluctuations.
l) The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before commencement
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of Zener region is called the Peak Inverse Voltage [PIV].
Logic Gates
1. The electronic circuits are of two types. They are analog and digital circuits.
2. Analog circuits
The waveforms are continuous and a range of values of
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voltages are possible.

E.g. amplifier, oscillator circuits.
The waveforms are pulsated and only discrete values of

voltages are possible.
E.g. logic gates.
1(a)
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n.
3. Digital circuits
level 1
level 0
1(b)
4. In the decimal system, there are ten digits. They are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.

5. In the binary system, there are only two digits 0 and 1.
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6. Digital electronics is developed by representing the low and high levels of
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voltages in pulsated waveform with binary digits 0 and 1 (called bits).

7. The basic building blocks of digital circuits are called as logic gates, since they
.s
a
perform logic operations.
8. Generally the level 1 or high level is at 41V and level 0 to low level is at 0.2
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0.2V.
OR Gate
9. An OR gate has two or more inputs with the output.
10. The Boolean expression is Y = A + B (Y equals A or B).

11. The output (Y) of OR gate will be 1 when the inputs A or B or both 1.
a) Two input OR gate
A
V(1)
Y
b) Circuit symbol
ABY
000
011
101
111
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n.
c) Truth table
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B
V(0)
AND Gate
12. An AND gate has two or more inputs with one output.
13. The Boolean expression is Y = A, B (Y equals A and B).
14. The output (Y) of AND gate is 1 only when all the inputs are simultaneously 1.
V(1)
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hi
a) Two input AND gate
.s
a
B
V(0)
V(1)
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b) Circuit symbol
A
B
c) Truth table
ABY
000
010
100
111
NOT Gate
15. It has a single input and a single output.

16. The Boolean expression is Y = A . (Y equals not A).
17. The output of NOT gate is the inverse of the input or it performs negation
operation.
a) Transistor NOT gate
VCC=V(1)
R
Y
R1
A
V(1)
R2
b) Circuit symbol
A
c) Truth table
AY
0 1
1 0
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VB=V(1)
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n.
V(0)
NOR Gate
18. It has two or more inputs and one output. A negation (NOT operation) applied
after OR gate, gives a NOT-OR gate or simply NOR gate.
19. NOR gate output is inverse of OR GATE output
The output of NOR gate is 1 only when all the inputs are simultaneously 0.
20. The Boolean expression is
.s
a
ks
hi
a) two input NOR gate
Y = A +B
b) circuit symbol
w
w
A
B
c) truth table
ABY
001
010
100
110
NAND Gate
21. It has two or more inputs and one output. A negation (NOT operation) applied
after AND gate, gives a NOT-AND gate or simply NAND gate.
22. NAND gate output is inverse of AND gate output

23. The Boolean expression is Y = A . B .
24. The output of NAND gate is 1 only when at least one input is 0.
25. The NOR and NAND gates are considered as universal gates, because we can
obtain all the gates like OR, AND and NOT by using either NOR or NAND gates
repeatedly.
a) Two input NAND gate
A
c) Truth table
ed
uc
at
io
n.
b) Circuit symbol
co
m
ABY
001
011
101
110
XOR Gate
26. XOR gate is obtained by using OR, AND and NOT gate.
hi
27. It is also called exclusive OR gate.
ks
28. The output of two input XOR gate is 1 only when the two inputs are different.
29. The Boolean equation is
Y = A.B + B.A
.s
a
a) Two input XOR gate
b) Circuit symbol
c) Truth table
ABY
A
Y
B
w
w
000
011
101
110
XNOR GATE
30. XNOR gate is obtained by using OR, AND and NOT gates.
31. It is also called exclusive NOR gate.
32. The output of a two input XNOR gate is 1 only when both the inputs are same.
Y = A.B + A B
XNOR gate is inverse of XOR gate.
co
m
33. The Boolean equation is
a) Two input XNOR gate

A
B
ed
uc
at
io
n.
b) Circuit symbol
c) Truth table
ABY
A
Y
001
010
100
111
The basic relations for OR gate
ii) A + 1 = 1
iv)
A+A=
ks
iii) A + A = A
hi
i) A + 0 = A
The basic relations for AND gate.
.s
a
i) A.0 = 0
iv)
A.A =
iii) A.A = A
ii) A.1 = A
w
w
De-Morgans Theorems
i)
A + B = A.B
ii)
A.B = A + B
iii) A + B = A + B = A.B
iv)
A.B = A + B = A + B
Example: Verification of theorems with truth table.
Transistors
1. Transistors: A transistor is formed by sandwiching a thin layer of a p-type
semiconductor between two layers of n-type semiconductors or by sandwiching a
semiconductors.
co
m
thin layer of an n-type semiconductor between two layers of p-type
2. Transistor means Transfer of resistance and is invented by John Bardeen, W.H.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
Brattain and William Shockley in 1948.

n
3. Transistors are of two types i) n-p-n, ii) p-n-p
4. Transistor will mainly consists of three sections i) emitter, ii) base, iii) collector.
hi
5. Emitter
ks
a) It is heavily doped to get more number of majority charge carriers.

b) Width of this region is slightly less than that of collector region.
.s
a
c) Its function is to supply majority carriers to the base.

6. Base
a) It is the middle section of the transistor.

b) It is slightly doped.
w
w
c) Width of this region is very thin (of the order of 106 m)
d) Its function is to inject majority carriers to the collector.
7. Collector
a) It is moderately doped.
b) Width of this region is moderate of all regions to get large number of charge
carriers.
c) Its function is to collect majority carriers from the base.
d) In a transistor emitter region and collector region cannot be interchanged.
In a circuit p-n-p, n-p-n transistors are represented as follows:
e) In a transistor, the arrowhead should always be at the emitter base junction,
which represents the direction of flow of conventional current.
f) In a transistor, emitter-base junction should be forward biased and collector-
co
m
base junction should be reverse biased.

g) In an n-p-n transistor, the direction of current is from base to emitter.
h) In a p-n-p transistor, the direction of current is from emitter to base.
ed
uc
at
io
n.
i) Emitter current & Collector current: The electrons going from the battery
VE to the emitter constitute the electric current IE in the opposite direction. This
is known as emitter current. Similarly, the electrons going from the collector to
the battery VC constitute the collector current IC. Similarly for the holes which
move in the opposite direction but result in the current in the same direction in
p-n-p transistor.
Working of a transistor
8. Consider an n-p-n transistor connected to the proper biasing. The
IE
IC
hi
emitter base junction is forward biased, so electrons are injected by

the emitter into the base. The thickness of the base region is so small
VE
ks
that most of the electrons diffusing into the base region cross over
.s
a
into the collector region. The reverse bias at the base collector junction helps this
process, because as the electrons appear near this junction they are attracted by
the collector. These electrons go through the batteries VC and VE and are then
back to the emitter.
w
w
9. Cross sectional area of base is very large as compared to emitter. Cross sectional
area of collector is less than base but greater than emitter.
10. Transistor can be connected in three different configurations.

i) Common base configuration
ii) Common emitter configuration
iii) Common collector configuration
VC
a) In any transistor circuit IE=IB+IC.
b) In common base configuration transistor, the current gain is a.c
c) In common base configuration transistor
d) The practical value of
I C
I E
value is less than 1 ( <a).
lies between 0.95 to 0.995
f) The value of is greater than one ( >a).

g) The practical value of
lies in between 20 to 500.
I C
I B
ed
uc
at
io
n.
11. Characteristic Curves
; =
1
1+
co
m
e) In common-emitter configuration transistor, the current gain is a.c
h) Relation between
a) For a common emitter configuration transistor, the curves showing the variation
of base current (I2) with base-emitter voltage (VBE) at constant collector voltage
(VCE) are called as input characteristic curves.
V
R i = BE
I B
hi
c) Input resistance in CE configuration transistor is
V
VCE =10
b) Input characteristic curve :
VCE =0 V
IB
VCE
ks
d) For a common-emitter configuration transistor, the curves showing the variation

of collector current (I3) with collector-emitter voltage (VCE) keeping base
.s
a
current (I2) constant are called output characteristics curves.

Active region
w
w
IC
IB=40 A
Saturation
region
IB=30 A
IB=20 A
IB=10 A
Cut off region
VCE
e) Output characteristic curve

f) The output resistance in C-E configuration transistor is
V
R o = CE
I C
IB
VBE
12. The collector set of characteristics has three regions of interest.
a) Saturation region: In this region the collector current becomes almost
independent of base current. This happens when both junctions are forward
biased.
b) Cut off region: In this region the collector current is almost zero. This happens
co
m
when both junctions are reverse biased

c) Active region: In this region collector current Ic is may times greater than base
current (I2). A small change in input current ( I b ) produces a large change in
ed
uc
at
io
n.
the output current ( I c ). This happens when emitter junction is forward biased
and collector junction is reverse biased. The transistor works an amplifier when
operated in the active region.
13. C-E configuration transistors are widely used as amplifiers because of its higher
iC
iB
Vi
Vi
t
iB
EB VBE
VCE
iE
RL
EC
Vo
hi
efficiency over the other configurations.
ks
14. The process of raising the strength of weak signal is known as amplification and
the device which accomplishes this job is called amplifier. The phenomenon of
.s
a
amplification is necessary in radio communication systems.

15. Figure shows an amplifier circuit using n-p-n transistor in common emitter mode.
The battery EB provides the biasing voltage (forwar4) VBE for the base-emitter
w
w
junction. The potential difference VCE (reverse bias) is maintained between collector
and the emitter by the battery EC. The base - emitter junction is forward biased and
so the electrons of the emitter flow towards the base. As the base region is very thin
(of the order of micrometer) and the collector is also maintained at a positive
potential, most of the electrons cross the base region and move into the collector.
The current iC is about 0.95iE to 0.99iE. A small change in the current iB in the base
circuit controls the larger current iC in the collector circuit. This is the basis of
amplification with the help of a transistor.
16. The input signal, to be amplified, is connected in series with the biasing battery
EB in the base circuit and output is taken across load resistor (RL).
17. Current gain
Current gain
i C
iB
lies between 20 to 500.
co
m
18. Voltage gain AV: The voltage gain is the ratio of change in output voltage
Voltage gain AV =
VCE
VBE
ed
uc
at
io
n.
( VCE) to the change in input voltage ( VBE).
19. Power gain AP: Power gain is the ratio of output signal power to the input signal
power.
AP = current gain x voltage gain.
20. Amplification factor A = eo where ei = input voltage, eo = output voltage

ei
21. The performance of a transistor amplifier depends upon input resistance, output
w
w
.s
a
ks
hi
resistance, collector load, current gain, voltage gain and power gain.

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between them, for any fixed distance.

Weak Nuclear Force

small, of the order of 1016 m.

Nature of Physics Laws

include the laws of

Sir C.V. Raman (1888-1970)

Satyendra Nath Bose (1894 - 1974)

employing new statistical methods of counting of photon states. An important

populate the same lowest energy state.

Units and Measurements

units of these derived quantities are called derived units.

4. The basic systems of units :

5. Fundamental quantities in SI system :

light in vacuum during a time interval of 1/299, 792, 458 of a second.

of area 1/600000 m2 at the temperature of solidifying platinum under a pressure of

a) Dimensionless quantities without units. Eg: numbers,

, sin , tan .etc.,

b) Dimensionless quantities with units. Eg : Angular displacement radian, Joules constant

Eg: Velocities, acceleration, force, work, etc.

refractive index, coefficient of friction, etc.

physical quantity from one system to another system.

Quantities having same dimensions can only be added or subtracted or equated.

30. Limitations of dimensional analysis

Dimensionless quantities and proportionality Constants cannot be determined by this

This method is not applicable to trigonometric, logarithmic and exponential functions.

Coefficient of linear or areal or volume

Electric charge or quantity of electric charge

Electric dipole moment

Intensity of electric field

Emf (or) electric potential

coefficient of self induction

Magnetic dipole moment

Magnetic pole strength

Permittivity of free space

Pressure coefficient or volume coefficient

Joules constant or mechanical equivalent of

Intensity of gravitational field

Universal gravitational constant

Specific conductance or conductivity

e) Angular velocity, frequency, velocity gradient

Measurements and Errors

Type of errors: 1) Systematic Errors 2) Random Errors

1) Systematic Errors: These may be either positive or negative.

b) Imperfection in experimental arrangement: In the calorimeter experiment, the loss of heat

carelessness in taking observations

of all the readings.

Absolute error = True value - measured value

Mean absolute Error ( mean

: The arithmetic mean of all the absolute errors is called mean

absolute error (or) final absolute error

Relative error has no units.

Error of a sum or a difference

Maximum possible value of x = a + b

Maximum possible value of x = a + b

Errors of multiplication or Division

Maximum relative error

Errors of a measured quantity that involves product of powers of observed quantities:

Maximum relative error,

Maximum relative error,

known reliably plus the uncertain digit

Rules for determining the number of significant figures

Physics Forces Laws Units Dimensionsn.Gravitational constantcomMagnetization––ΩmML3T–3I–2www.sakshieducation.comwww.sakshieducation.com

Physics Forces Laws Units Dimensionsn.Gravitational constantcomMagnetization––ΩmML3T–3I–2www.sakshieducation.comwww.sakshieducation.com