Cervical Cancer: Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapeutics

Cervical Cancer
Cervical Cancer: Prevention,

Diagnosis, and Therapeutics
Mike F. Janicek, MD; Hervy E. Averette, MD
Dr. Janicek is a recipient of an

American Cancer Society Career
Development Award and served as
Assistant Professor of Obstetrics &
Gynecology and Assistant Professor
of Microbiology & Immunology at
the University of Miami School of
Medicine. He is currently President
of OncoGyne, PC in Phoenix, AZ.
Dr. Averette is Sylvester Professor
and American Cancer Society Professor, and Director of Gynecologic
Oncology at the University of Miami
School of Medicine, Miami, FL.
This article is also available online at
www.cancer.org.
92
ABSTRACT
Cervical cancer is a leading cause of cancer deaths in women worldwide.
Because of its association with human papilloma virus infection, as well as the ability to screen
for premalignant stages of the disease, it is now largely a preventable disease. This article
describes the molecular basis for cervical cancer, and presents a clinical overview of current
treatment approaches and technological advances, emphasizing the unique aspects of this
viral disease as it relates to the immune system and vaccination or other immunotherapeutic
strategies. (CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114.)
INTRODUCTION
Cervical cancer was the most common cause of cancer deaths in US women in
the 1930s. With the introduction of the Papanicolaou (Pap) smear, however, early
detection and treatment of preinvasive disease became possible. Incidence and
mortality rates for cervical cancer in the US have declined dramatically during the
remainder of the 20th century, with 12,900 new cases and 4,400 deaths estimated
for 2001.1
Worldwide, however, both incidence and mortality from cervical cancer are
second only to breast cancer, and in parts of the developing world, cervical cancer
is the major cause of death in women of reproductive age.2 This geographical
disparity is related to the absence of effective screening programs, as epidemiologic and biological studies have not shown significant differences in tumor
biology in countries with high rates of cervical cancer.
Few other solid tumors are as well understood from the epidemiologic and
molecular biologic perspective as cervical carcinoma. Cervical cancer is largely a
preventable disease with a known causative agent: Human papilloma virus (HPV).
Although approximately 5% of cervical carcinomas may be unrelated to HPV, this
ubiquitous virus is the key to understanding the natural history of this disease
process and its relationship to the immune system.3,4,5 This known viral trigger (at
the molecular level) and the well-described stages of disease progression make
cervical carcinoma an ideal model for investigating potential immune therapies or
adjuvant treatments.
From a clinical perspective, cervical cancer is readily managed in its early stages
by surgery, with radiation or chemoradiation therapy reserved for high-risk early
or advanced stages. Chemotherapy alone is generally ineffective against this
relatively slow-growing disease. Vaccines and immunotherapy may be the most
CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians
CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114
FIGURE 1
Mortality Rates By Geographic Region (White Women)
From Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, 1970-1989.23
promising additions to our current therapeutic

inventory. Substantially more progress in our
understanding of the basic disease process,
however, must occur before these new
modalities become standard treatment options.
RISK FACTORS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

Classic Risk Factors
Young age at first intercourse, high number

of sexual partners, high parity, cigarette
smoking, race, and low socioeconomic status
have consistently emerged as significant risk
factors for cervical cancer.6,7,8 These, however,
are linked to sexual behavior and the
acquisition of HPV, and, except for smoking,
none have consistently been shown to be

significant independent risk factors.
There has been considerable controversy
regarding the association between oral
contraceptives and cervical cancer.9,10,11 While
E6 and E7 HPV oncogene expression can be
potentiated by estrogen in laboratory
experiments,12-15 few epidemiologic studies of
oral contraceptive use and cervical cancer have
been able to control for the fact that women
using oral contraceptives tend not to use
barrier contraceptives and may have more
sexual contacts.
A common practice pattern among some
clinicians has been to stop oral contraceptives
when an abnormal Pap result is reported. This
practice can result in unplanned pregnancy just
as the patient presents for diagnostic evaluation
Volume 51 Number 2 March/April 2001
93
Cervical Cancer
and management. The instruction to discontinue oral contraceptives also ignores the
current understanding of the epidemiology
and natural history of the disease.
Cigarette smoking (even passive smoke) has
been linked to an increased risk of cervical
cancer.16-19 Interestingly, any observed effect
appears to be linked to squamous carcinomas
and not adenocarcinomas or adenosquamous
carcinomas.16 The presence of cigarette
carcinogens in cervical mucus has been
described as a possible biological explanation
for the epidemiologic association.20-22
that this is not simply attributable to a relative

decrease in squamous carcinomas prevented by
good screening practices, but that there is a
trend towards an absolute increase in
adenocarcinomas and adenocarcinomas in situ
(AIS) in younger womenwhich may
account for the recent reversal in declining
cervical cancer rates in the US. The cause of
this trend is not known, and, as mentioned
previously, studies suggesting the use of oral
contraceptives as a contributing factor failed to
control for the obvious confounding variables
of barrier contraceptive use and number of
sexual partners.20
US Epidemiology
Although the incidence of cervical cancer

has fallen dramatically in the US, the trend has
reversed since the mid-1990s. AfricanAmerican women have also experienced a
decline in incidence, but still suffer a 72%
excess in incidence and 13% lower five-year
survival rate compared with Caucasians.23
Another striking difference between racial
groups is the continued rise in age-specific
incidence for cervical cancer in AfricanAmericans. While Caucasian women demonstrate an incidence that plateaus around 15 per
100,000 starting at age 45, the incidence in
African-American women steadily rises to
about 50 per 100,000 by age 85.23
There are marked geographical variations in
US mortality rates for cervical cancer. The
Midwest, South, and particularly Appalachia,
have the highest mortality rates, which may be
attributed, in part, to rural and socioeconomic
factors related to access to health care (Fig. 1).23
Rising Incidence of Adenocarcinoma
The incidence of adenocarcinoma has more

than doubled between the early 1970s and the
mid-1980s among women younger than 35
years of age and currently accounts for more
than 10% of all cervical cancers.24-26 It appears
94
ROLE OF HPV
HPV is a double-strand DNA tumor virus

that belongs to the papovavirus family
(papilloma, polyoma, and simian vacuolating
viruses).27 Papilloma viruses are ubiquitous in
higher vertebrates, infecting, for example,
parrots, rabbits, dogs, horses, cows, elk, deer, and
even whales and manatees. The more than 80
human types are specific for epithelial cells
including skin, respiratory mucosa, or the genital
tract. Genital tract HPV types are classified by
their relative malignant potential as low-,
intermediate-, and high-risk types (Fig. 2).
Although the HPV is a central causative
agent in cervical carcinogenesis, many other
molecular alterations have been characterized
that may not directly involve HPV. Alterations
in the epidermal growth factor receptor and
HER-2/neu (overexpression), H-ras and K-ras
(mutation), and c-myc (amplification/overexpression) in squamous cervical cancers have
been described with varying frequency.28-30
Whether these alterations are secondary to
HPV-induced cell transformation or are part of
the primary transforming events is uncertain.
Nonetheless, the common, unifying oncogenic
feature of the vast majority of cervical cancers
is the presence of HPV.
Molecular Basis of Oncogenesis
The molecular basis for oncogenesis in

cervical carcinoma can be explained to a great
degree by the regulation and function of the
two viral oncogenes E6 and E7. These two
genes have been shown to possess transforming
ability when transfected into cell lines.31,32
Furthermore, their constitutive expression is
necessary for the maintenance of the malignant
phenotype. Targeting the expression of E6/E7
has been shown to reduce the growth
properties of cervical cancer cell lines and
primary tumor explants,33 and represents a
promising new approach for anticancer
therapy.
The E6 and E7 genes are under the
regulation of the E2 gene product. A characteristic, but not necessary, event in malignant
transformation is the integration of the circular
viral genome into the patients genome.The E2
gene is often the site for integration, resulting
in disruption of the E2 gene and subsequent
derepression of E6 and E7.34
The E6 gene product binds to the resident
p53 tumor suppressor gene and induces p53
degradation. E7 targets another tumor
suppressor, the retinoblastoma gene product
(pRb).27,35,36 By binding to it and altering
its phosphorylation state, it functionally
inactivates this protein, which, like p53,
functions in cell cycle control. Specifically, pRb
normally binds the transcription factor E2F,
which functions in cell cycle progression from
G1 to the S phase following interaction with
cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. The
presence of E7 results in an inactive E7-pRb
complex and disrupted binding of E2F to pRb,
allowing E2F to bind DNA and induce cell
growth and proliferation.37-39
The ability of HPV E6/E7 to target the
function of the p53 and pRb suppressors is not
a unique phenomenon. Gene products of other
DNA tumor viruses such as SV40 (large T
antigen) and Adenovirus (E1A and E1B) have
FIGURE 2 HPV Virions
Genital tract HPV types: LOW RISK: 6, 11, 40, 42, 43, 44; INTERMEDIATE
RISK: 31, 33, 35, 51, 52; HIGH RISK: 16, 18, 45, 56
similar binding and inactivation activity against

p53 and pRb.36,40 This fundamental pathway for
inducing oncogenic transformation is depicted
in Figures 3A and 3B.
HPV types
There are more than 80 types of HPV, of

which about 25 infect the genital tract. HPV
types are stratified into low-, intermediate-,
and high-risk categories based on the strength
of their association with high-grade and
invasive lesions. The higher risk HPV types
exhibit greater inactivation of p53 and pRb,
and a single amino acid difference (aspartic
acid in high-risk, glycine in low-risk viruses)
accounts for the different binding affinities to
pRb.41 The absence of HPV in about 5% of
cervical carcinomas has been described as a
negative prognostic factor.42
Compared to the diverse pattern of
mortality rates from cervical cancer seen
around the world and within the US, there is
relatively little variation in HPV types
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Cervical Cancer
FIGURE 3A HPV-Induced Oncogenesis: Viral Events
Integration at the E2 site leads to its deactivation and release of E6 and E7

gene inhibition, resulting in the events depicted in Fig 3B.
however, interesting associations between HLA

and HPV are being described. One HLA class
II locus (DR 1501) has been linked to a higher
risk of HPV16 cervical cancer,45 while the
DRB1 locus has been associated with HPV18
infections.46 Loss of an HLA class I locus B44
in precancerous lesions of the cervix has been
associated with disease progression in HPV16
positive cases, and an HPV16 variant that may
result in altered antigen presentation by HLA
B7 has been described.47 Interactions of HPV
with histocompatibility antigens may thus help
explain why the same HPV type leads to
invasive cancer in one patient but not in
another. As more is understood regarding the
interaction of the immune system and HPV,
these associations will be delineated further
and may lead to new screening or intervention
strategies.
HIV AND CERVICAL CANCER
geographically. However,
Interactions of HPV with there are some specific
in
the
histocompatibility anti- discrepancies
prevalence
of
oncogenic
gens may help explain
viral types. In Spain and
why the same HPV type Columbia, the prevalence of
leads to invasive cancer in HPV18 is relatively low
(about 5%), compared with
one patient but not in
that in the US, where it
another.
comprises about 20% of
invasive cancer HPV types.43
HPV16 comprises a greater proportion of
squamous cervical carcinomas than does
HPV18, while the converse is true for
adenocarcinomas.44
Role of Histocompatibility Antigens
The link between human leukocyte

antigens (HLA) or major histocompatibility
antigens and HPV will be discussed later in
terms of antigen presentation of HPV peptides
to the immune system. Epidemiologically,
96
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

seropositivity in women with cervical cancer
before the age of 35 is considered an acquired
immune deficiency (AIDS)-defining illness by
the Centers for Disease Control.48 It has been
well established that cervical dysplasia in HIVinfected women is associated with more
multifocal lesions and higher incidence, more
rapid progression, and higher recurrence
rates when compared with HIV-negative
women.49,50 Furthermore, it is well known that
HIV-positive women with invasive cervical
cancer tend to have advanced stage disease,
resistance to therapy, and shortened survival.51,52
Paradoxically, however, there is a missing
link between the high prevalence/rapid
progression of preinvasive cervical lesions and
the actual development of invasive cervical
cancer in HIV-infected women. There has
been no consistently documented rise in the
incidence of invasive cervical carcinomas in
HIV-infected women. It is possible that many
FIGURE 3B HPV-Induced Oncogenesis: Cellular Events
E6 binds to p53 and induces its degradation. E7 binds the Rb gene product, causing the transcription factor E2F-1 to
become unbound and free to induce cell cycle activation/growth.
of these women die of other causes before

developing invasive cancers.
NEW SCREENING AND DETECTION MODALITIES
Screening for cervical neoplasia with the

Pap smear is the most cost-effective cancer
reduction program yet devised. In all
populations in which it has been studied
adequately, there is a direct relationship
between the proportion of the population
screened and declining incidence of cervical
cancer and deaths from cervical cancer. While
the Pap smear has been a tremendous cancer
prevention success story, it is nonetheless a
screeningnot diagnostictool with a 15% to

25% false-negative rate for detecting cervical
dysplasia.53
The Bethesda System
The Bethesda System was originally

proposed in 1988 and is now the most widely
accepted nomenclature for Pap smears.54,55
Three major changes were introduced with
this system:
1. HPV changes (koilocytosis) and mild
dysplasias (CIN 1: cervical intraepithelial
neoplasia 1) were combined into an LGSIL
(low-grade intraepithelial neoplasia) category;
2. Moderate dysplasia, severe dysplasia, and
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Cervical Cancer
carcinoma in situ were combined into the

HGSIL (high-grade squamous intraepithelial neoplasia) category;
3. A new termASCUS (atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance)was
introduced.
While the first two changes have had little
clinical impact, the term ASCUS has led to an
ongoing controversy about its exact meaning
and implications. A 1993 College of American
Pathologists survey of 900 laboratories found a
median ASCUS rate of 2.8%, with 10% of labs
reporting rates in excess of 9%.56 This has
shifted a large burden of further diagnostic
evaluation of Pap smears with some atypicality
but no obvious dysplasia to the clinician, who
must either repeat the Pap smear, or perform
colposcopic evaluation.
In 12 studies published between 1994 and
1997, the median SIL rate based on biopsies
performed after a cytologic diagnosis of
ASCUS was 37%, with a range of 30% to 61%.
The corresponding rate for HGSIL was 12%,
with a range of 3% to 25%.56 Up to 50% of
patients with invasive cancer or high-grade
lesions are found to have ASCUS-only smears
in the three years preceding their diagnoses,
when reviewed retrospectively.57
Frustrated physicians who are exposed to
the overuse of ASCUS have derided this
terminology as another acronym for Dont ask
us, or as a wastebasket term. In the literature,
there has been frank discussion about the
ASCUS swamp58 and the Litigation Cell.59
An alternative view is that ASCUS cells have
always been present, but in the past were
inconsistently reported as negative, reactive, or
dysplasia, or with a hodgepodge of preBethesda System terms as inflammatory atypia,
minor atypia, squamous atypia, kiolocytotic
atypia, etc. Consequently, these lesions were
often inconsistently ignored or overtreated.
Although there is very significant interobserver variability, even among experts, in the
diagnosis of ASCUS, creation of morphologic
98
criteria and standardized nomenclature for this

category represents an important step toward
improving consistency of cervical cytopathology and recognizing the limitations of
the conventional Pap test. A key solution to
this diagnostic and management problem is for
clinicians to have good understanding of the
diagnostic trends in their cytopathology
laboratories, as well as the risk profile of their
patient population.
Role of HPV Typing
Given the disparity between the prevalence of

low-risk HPV subtypes in cervical carcinomas
compared with low-grade lesions, it would seem
logical that HPV typing could identify those
atypical or dysplastic Pap smears that warrant
aggressive treatment and those that can be
followed conservatively. As shown by Borst et
al., however, the relatively high prevalence of
high-risk HPV subtypes in atypical and lowgrade lesions (at least 50%) reduces the positive
predictive value and makes sole reliance on HPV
typing impractical.60 Syrjanen et al. observed
that progression rates from HPV-detection to
dysplasias ranged from 15% to 30% for HPV
types 18 and 16, compared with 5% to 25% for
types 6 and 11. Regression rates were about 30%
for all viral types.61
Although HPV typing cannot be
recommended as a standard clinical practice, it
may be clinically appealing for some clinicians
when deciding between treatment or observation of mild dysplasia, psychologically
reassuring both patient and physician that the
right decision was made. In the presence of
equivocal or atypical smears, a negative HPV
test confers a negative predictive value greater
than 98%.62 Thus, testing for the presence of
HPV may, in some lower-risk populations,
serve as a useful triage for ASCUS Pap
smears by eliminating the need to further
evaluate HPV-negative cases, as illustrated in
Figure 4A.63
FIGURE 4A Pap Triage Incorporating Newer Technologies
(on same specimen;

e.g. Thin-Prep)
Colposcopy
(see 4B)
AGCUS
Using liquid-based sampling, HPV typing could selectively be performed only on specimens found to have atypical cells
(ASCUS) or low-grade lesions (LGSIL), thus saving on unnecessary testing of negative or high-grade smears. The negative
or low-risk finding on HPV typing could then identify a low-risk population and reduce the need for colposcopy (with potential cost-savings). Negative smears re-screened with computerized systems can be re-triaged if abnormalities are found,
thus potentially reducing false negative Pap smears. Adapted from Pap Smear II, Dianon Systems, Inc., Stratford, CT, with
permission.
HGSIL = high-grade lesions
AGCUS = atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance
ECC = endocervical curettage
Computerized Screening
Because human fatigue and error may be

major contributors to false-negative readings of
Pap smears, computer-assisted image analysis
and artificial intelligence have been introduced
as a means of improving the sensitivity of the
Pap smear.
Two automated screening systems have been
FDA-approved for use: AutoPap System
(Neopath, Inc. Redmond, VA) and PapNet
(PapNet, NetMed Inc., Columbus, OH).

AutoPap, which reviews negative smears and
selects a population at increased risk for
abnormalities, was initially approved for quality
control re-screening and most recently for
primary screening.64 PapNet, on the other
hand, is designed as an adjunct to manual
screening by selecting the most abnormal 128
images on a slide for review.65
The cost-effectiveness of these technologies
is being studied and intensely debated. The
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Cervical Cancer
FIGURE 4B Conventional Pap/Colposcopy Triage
This algorithm generally depicts standard management options for abnormal Pap smears. Options include management of
the first ASCUS smear and management of low-grade lesions (LGSIL). Atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance
(AGCUS) should lead to consideration of colposcopy, endocervical curettage (ECC), and possibly cone biopsy (Bx).
costs of finding an additional case of LGSIL or

higher with these technologies has been
estimated to be in the range of $2,000$4,000.66
Liquid-Based Sampling Techniques
Only about 20% of exfoliated cells obtained

by a wooden spatula end up on a Pap smear
slide. Interpretation is often confounded by
the presence of inflammatory cells and debris.
A recent low tech innovation that may
significantly improve the detection of
abnormal cells is the Thin-Prep, which allows
liquid elution of exfoliated cells from a plastic
100
sampling instrument, followed by filtering of

cells to prepare a clean, representative
distribution of cells for screening.
A similar technique is used by the AutoCyte
PREP system (AutoCyte, Inc., Elon College,
NC). In a split sample design, where the
residual cells after standard smearing on glass
slides were collected and processed by liquid
techniques, the detection of dysplasia and
invasive cancer was improved 31%, a
statistically significant result.67 There was also a
39% reduction in unsatisfactory slides and
44% fewer satisfactory but limited by reports.
While the enhanced detection of Pap smear
abnormalities may not yet be justified by the
additional costs of the cell preparation, this

kind of innovation deserves further attention
by the medical community, health insurers, and
regulators. The PapNet, AutoPap, and ThinPrep innovations are examples of refinements
to the time-honored Pap smear technique.
HPV typing, on the other hand, offers a
discrete adjunct to the Pap smear screening
system, and can readily be incorporated with
the new liquid-based sampling techniques.68
Figure 4A presents an example of how these
technologies (HPV typing and computerized
re-screening) could be incorporated into an
efficient and logical triage system.This kind of
pre-colposcopy triage could potentially reduce
the number of false-negative Pap smears, as
well as the number of false-positive cases
referred for colposcopy.
The cost-effectiveness of this type of
algorithm for screening the general population
has not been well established. It is possible that
extending basic screening (using low tech
technologies) to high-risk/underserved populations might prevent more cancers than
screening or re-screening existing populations
with high tech methods.
CONVENTIONAL TRIAGE OF ABNORMAL

PAP SMEARS
The conventional management of abnormal

Pap smears has changed little in the past 10
years, and the fundamental treatment
algorithm (Fig. 4B) has not significantly
changed from the pre-Bethesda System era
(pre-1988). An ASCUS reading on a Pap
smear does not mandate specific actions by the
clinicianthe decision to proceed directly
with colposcopy or to repeat the Pap smear is
left to the practitioner.
Cost-benefit analyses have not established a
superior choice, and most clinicians base their
decisions on the risk profile of the individual
patient. An indigent, HIV-positive patient with
a history of dysplasia presenting to a teaching

program colposcopy clinic with an ASCUS
smear may not be an ideal candidate for a
repeat Pap in three or four months; in contrast,
it may be reasonable to instruct a compliant
woman in a mutually monogamous relationship presenting with her first abnormal
It is possible that extending basic screening (using low

tech technologies) to high-risk/underserved populations might prevent more cancers than screening or rescreening existing populations with high tech methods.
(ASCUS) smear to follow up with her

physician in three or four months for a repeat
Pap. In the former case, the chance of missing
a significant lesion or losing the patient to
follow-up is significant, while in the latter case,
the risks of conservative management are
substantially less.
The management of atypical glandular cells
of undetermined significance (AGCUS)
involves a higher index of suspicion and greater
attention to possible endocervical or
endometrial origins. Endocervical curettage is
important in ruling out AIS or invasive
adenocarcinoma, and cone biopsy may become
necessary if no other explanation for AGCUS
can be found. The adenocarcinoma
exception will be discussed later as well.
The decision to treat mild dysplasia or
CIN1 (LGSIL) again rests on the clinicians
index of suspicion. The two case scenarios
described above can be applied to argue for
treatment versus no treatment of LGSIL. HPV
typing may aid in this decision-making
process, although its general clinical utility
remains debatable.
Moderate-severe dysplasia, or CIN2-3
(HGSILs) are still managed by excision or
ablation (e.g., cryotherapy, Loop Electrosurgical Excision Procedures/LEEP, or laser
101
Cervical Cancer
vaporization). Carcinoma in situ may be

managed by ablative methods if an expert
colposcopist has ruled out a more
extensive/invasive lesion, although LEEP
excision is now commonly used for both
diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. Cervical
conization is usually reserved for suspected
endocervical disease or microinvasion. While
LEEP or laser instruments can accomplish a
cone-shaped excision as well, cold-knife
conization remains an important classic
technique for obtaining an excellent diagnostic
and therapeutic specimen.
Cure rates for standard ablative procedures
range from 90% to 94%, and follow-up Pap
smears every three to four months monitor for
recurrences of dysplasia.
PRETREATMENT EVALUATION FOR
logically by either surgical excision or fineneedle aspiration because of the 5% to 10%

false-positive rate of CT.71
More recently, magnetic resonance imaging
has emerged as a radiologic modality capable of
detecting early parametrial and nodal disease.
Likewise, positron emission tomography
scanning has been reported as a novel and
useful way to predict para-aortic disease in
locally advanced cervical carcinomas, with a
sensitivity and positive predictive value of 75%,
and a specificity and negative predictive value
of 92%.72 Further experience is needed to
establish the utility and cost-effectiveness of
these technologies.
Because of infrequent colon involvement,
the use of barium enema should be restricted
to symptomatic patients. Routine bone scan is
unproductive unless the patient complains of
bone pain.
INVASIVE CARCINOMA
The initial workup and clinical staging of

patients with invasive cervical cancer includes
history and physical examination, chest
radiography, intravenous pyelogram (IVP) or
computed tomography (CT) scan, cystoscopy/proctosigmoidoscopy, and HIV testing
(especially for the younger, at-risk patient).69 In
small-volume disease, IVP or CT scan are done
selectively, and some centers do not routinely
use IVP/CT or cystoscopy/proctosigmoidoscopy for early stage I disease because of
relatively low yield.
The CT scan has become increasingly
popular in the workup and management of
cervical cancer. Several authors have suggested
its use in clinical staging; however, there are
important limitations with its use. CT scans are
unreliable in detecting subclinical parametrial
disease and nodal metastasis less than 2 cm in
diameter.69 In patients who are not candidates
for surgical staging, however, a CT scan can be
helpful in assessing nodal disease.70 Enlarged
lymph nodes should be studied histo/cyto-
102
CLINICAL VERSUS SURGICAL STAGING
Cervical cancer remains a clinically staged

malignancy according to the International
Federation of Gynecology & Obstetrics
Staging System (FIGO; Table 1). Surgicalpathologic staging would not be feasible for
advanced-stage disease or in early-stage
patients treated primarily with radiation,
especially in nations that do not routinely offer
surgical extirpation due to limited health care
resources.
The definition of microinvasive (Stage IA)
cervical cancer proposed in 1973 by the Society
of Gynecologic Oncologists (SGO) has now
been partially incorporated into the new FIGO
staging system.73 Stage IA1 now represents
stromal invasion up to 3 mm deep and no
wider than 7 mm. Stage IA2 is still defined by
an upper limit of stromal invasion of 5.0 mm or
less and horizontal spread of 7.0 mm or less.
Lymph-vascular space invasion is not taken into
consideration in the FIGO staging system.
TABLE 1
Staging of Cervical Cancer (FIGO 1995, Montreal)
Stage I
The carcinoma is strictly confined to the cervix (extension to the corpus should be disregarded).
Stage IA: Invasive cancer identified only microscopically. All gross lesions even with superficial invasion are Stage IB cancers.
Invasion is limited to measured stromal invasion with maximum depth of 5.0 mm and no wider than 7.0 mm.
Stage IA1: Measured invasion of stroma no greater than 3.0 mm in depth and no wider than 7.0 mm.
Stage IA2: Measured invasion of stroma greater than 3.0 mm and no greater than 5.0 mm and no wider than 7.0 mm. The depth
of invasion should not be more than 5.0 mm taken from the base of the epithelium, either surface or glandular, from which it originates. Preformed space involvement (vascular or lymphatic) should not alter the staging but should be specifically recorded so as
to determine whether it should affect treatment decisions in the future.
Stage IB: Clinical lesions confined to the cervix or preclinical lesions greater than IA.
Stage IB1: Clinical lesions no greater than 4.0 cm in size.
Stage IB2: Clinical lesions greater than 4.0 cm in size.
Stage II
The carcinoma extends beyond the cervix but has not extended to the pelvic wall. The carcinoma involves the vagina but not as far
as the lower third.
Stage IIA: No obvious parametrial involvement.
Stage IIB: Obvious parametrial involvement.
Stage III
The carcinoma has extended to the pelvic wall. On rectal examination, there is no cancer-free space between the tumor and the
pelvic wall. The tumor involves the lower third of the vagina. All cases with a hydronephrosis or nonfunctioning kidney are included
unless they are known to be due to other causes.
Stage IIIA: No extension to the pelvic wall.
Stage IIIB: Extension to the pelvic wall and/or hydronephrosis or nonfunctioning kidney.
Stage IV
The carcinoma has extended beyond the true pelvis or has clinically involved the mucosa of the bladder or rectum. A bullous
edema as such does not permit a case to be allotted to Stage IV.
Stage IVA: Spread of the growth to adjacent organs.
Stage IVB: Spread to distant organs.
Stage IB carcinomas are now divided into

IB1 (less than 4 cm diameter) and IB2 (greater
than 4 cm). The remainder of the staging
classification is unchanged from the previous
system.
Studies comparing clinical with surgicalpathologic staging (which includes status of
lymph nodes) consistently have shown

underestimation of disease extent by clinical
staging.74,75 The FIGO staging system is based
on the belief that cervical cancer is primarily a
local disease in the pelvis, and that a surgical
staging system cannot be widely employed
worldwide, especially in developing countries
103
Cervical Cancer
or in parts of developed countries where

surgical staging expertise is not readily available.
Surgical staging of cervical cancer, which
includes pelvic and para-aortic lymphadenectomy, can provide potentially useful
information for the radiation oncologist, who
may be consulted postoperatively for administration of radiotherapy. Extraperitoneal
approaches limit intraperitoneal adhesion
formation and morbidity from radiation.
Furthermore, surgical and pathologic data from
staging laparotomies are important for precise
analysis of survival and prognostic risk factors.
Some clinicians feel, however, that surgical
staging should be confined to investigational
settings because proven benefits to patients in
terms of survival and pelvic control have been
modest, at best. It is uncertain whether future
staging systems will incorporate surgical and
histopathologic variables to further refine the
utility of surgical staging in clinical decisionmaking.
MANAGEMENT OF INVASIVE DISEASE

Microinvasive, Stage IA1 Disease
According to the SGO, microinvasion is

defined as squamous cell carcinoma invading
the cervical stoma to a depth of 3 mm or less
and in which there is no evidence of lymphatic
or vascular space invasion and no confluence of
invasive tongues.76 In the absence of lymphvascular invasion, carcinomas invading to less
than 3 mm (Stage IA1) have no more than a
1% chance of lymph node spread, thus
allowing for conservative surgical resection of
the primary tumor by simple extrafascial
hysterectomy.77 Patients desiring to preserve
fertility may be treated by cervical conization
alone, provided that all conization margins are
free of disease.78,79 The decision to proceed with
conization versus extrafascial hysterectomy is
based on the reproductive desires of the
104
patient. In either case, nearly 100% cure rates

are obtainable.80
Currently, the presence of lymph-vascular
invasion with less than 3 mm invasion does
not alter the FIGO clinical staging, and its
significance is debated. Most practitioners,
however, favor radical surgery or radiation
when faced with invasion of the lymphvascular spaces.
The Adenocarcinoma Exception
The management of adenocarcinomas is
fundamentally different for the preinvasive and
early stages (I-IIA) of disease. AGCUS on Pap
smear, unlike the ASCUS cells discussed
previously, are often treated with a much higher
index of suspicion, prompting consideration of
cone biopsy and/or endocervical/endometrial
sampling in addition to repeat Pap smear or
colposcopy only.81,82 Similarly, AIS (versus
squamous carcinoma in situ) should be treated
more aggressively because of the possibility of
skip lesions. Invasive adenocarcinoma has
been found in 13% to 20% of hysterectomy
specimens following cone biopsy for AIS, with
30% to 50% residual AIS in the hysterectomy
specimens. Thus cone biopsy alone may be
inadequate therapy for AIS, and hysterectomy
should be considered in women who have
completed childbearing.83 For women who do
not undergo hysterectomy, even if cone margins were negative for AIS, close follow-up is
warranted.84
Management of Stage IA2-IIA
Stage IA2
About 7% of all patients with cervical
cancer invading the stroma to a depth of 3 to
5 mm (Stage IA2) have lymph node metastasis.
Patients whose tumors invade the stroma more
than 3 mm or have any lymph-vascular space
involvement should be treated with radical
hysterectomy and lymphadenectomy or with

radiation therapy.78-80
Stage IB
Patients with Stage IB1 (less than 4 cm)
cervical cancer can be treated effectively by
either radical hysterectomy with lymphadenectomy (pelvic para-aortic) or with
radiation therapy. Although surgery and
radiation therapy produce similar survival rates,
radical hysterectomy is considered by many to
be the treatment of choice for young, healthy
patients with IB1 lesions.69,85 Excellent survival
rates can be achieved in these patients along
with preservation of ovarian function.
Radiotherapy consisting of external and
intracavitary radiation is indicated in those
patients who have medical contraindications to
radical surgery.
Stage IB2, or barrel-shaped cervical cancers,
can be treated by radiation therapy alone or by
radical hysterectomy and lymphadenectomy
(pelvic para-aortic). However, many of these
tumors extend anatomically beyond the
curative isodose curve of radiation, and contain
central hypoxic areas that are resistant to
ionizing radiation.86 As a result, central
recurrence rates for patients with Stage IB2
tumors treated with radiation therapy alone
have been significant.87 Therefore, preoperative
radiation therapy followed by extrafascial
hysterectomy has been recommended by
several groups.88 Since pelvic lymph node
metastases are present in 20% to 25% of
patients with Stage IB2 cervical cancers,89,90
para-aortic lymph node dissection should
be considered at the time of extrafascial
hysterectomy, especially if the para-aortic
nodes were not included in the preoperative
radiation fields.91
In the first large prospective randomized
trial since 1975 examining primary surgery
versus primary radiotherapy for Stage IB-IIA
disease, Landoni et al.92 concluded that overall
survival (83%) and five-year disease-free

survival (74%) for the two groups were the
same. Those receiving radiation after radical
hysterectomy, however, had the highest
complication rates. There was significantly
higher severe morbidity in the surgery (28%)
compared with the radiotherapy (12%) group,
but women with adenocarcinomas tended to
do better with surgical approaches compared
with those with squamous carcinomas.
Approximately 54% of surgical patients with
tumors 4 cm or less and 84% with tumors
larger than 4 cm ultimately required adjuvant
radiotherapy. Given the significantly higher
morbidity of combined modality therapy, some
have questioned whether stricter surgical
selection criteria would eliminate much of the
morbidity without compromising survival.
With the improvements in disease control
offered by combined chemoradiation therapy,
to be discussed below, the debate over surgery
versus radiation is being completely redefined
to consider the relative merits of surgery,
radiation, and chemotherapy in various
combinations.
Chemotherapy alone is generally ineffective
for cervical cancer, but Curtin et al.93 reported
on a randomized multicenter trial of adjuvant
chemotherapy (cisplatin and bleomycin) versus
chemotherapy plus pelvic irradiation for
high-risk patients who underwent radical
hysterectomy for Stage IB-IIA disease. The
addition of radiotherapy did not influence
recurrence rates or patterns of recurrence
(local, regional, or distant), suggesting that
adjuvant chemotherapy played an important
role. There was, however, no comparison with
a radiation-only or no treatment group, leaving
many questions unanswered.
A role for adjuvant radiotherapy in high-risk
surgical patients is supported by the results of a
randomized trial by the Gynecologic Oncology
Group (GOG) Study 92. In evaluating 277
women with Stage IB disease who had at
least two risk factorslarge tumor size, deep
105
Cervical Cancer
TABLE 2
NCI Clinical Announcement: Concurrent Chemoradiation for Cervical Cancer (1999)
Study
FIGO Stages
Patients in Arm
Radiation
Regimen
Chemo Regimen
Overall
Survival
Whitney et al,
1999 [95]
GOG 85/SWOG 8695
IIB-IVA
177
191
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Cisplatin/5-FU
(Hydroxyurea)
67%
57%
Morris et al,
1999 [96]
RTOG 9001
IB2-IVA*
195
193
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Pelvic & PA EBRT/IC
Cisplatin/5-FU
None
75%
63%
Rose et al,
1999 [97]
GOG 120
IIB-IVA
177
173
176
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Weekly Cisplatin
Cisplatin/5-FU/Hydroxyurea
None
65%
65%
47%
Peters et al,
1999 [98]
GOG 109/SWOG 8797

/RTOG 9112
IA2-IIA,
select
127
116
Pelvic EBRT
Pelvic EBRT
Cisplatin/5-FU
None
87%
77%
Keys et al,
1999 [99]
GOG 123
IB2
183
186
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Pelvic EBRT/IC
Weekly Cisplatin
None
83%
74%
Reference
EBRT = External beam radiotherapy; IC = intracavitary radiation; PA = para-aortic

* Stages IB and IIA required positive pelvic nodes or tumor size > 5 cm
Required pelvic node positive, parametrial disease, or positive surgical margins
Extrafascial hysterectomy followed by chemoradiation or radiation
stromal invasion, or lymph-vascular space

involvementadjuvant radiotherapy after
radical hysterectomy reduced the recurrence
rate by 47%.94 With 87% surviving in the
radiotherapy group compared with 79% in the
no further therapy group, it can be inferred
that about one in 12 irradiated patients obtained
a survival benefit. On the other hand, there
was a trade-off: About one in 15 patients who
received radiation therapy experienced severe or
life-threatening radiation-related toxicities.
The unreported effects of adjuvant
radiotherapy in this setting include vaginal
stenosis or sexual dysfunction and must be
considered when counseling patients. Thus,
despite the positive finding in GOG 92,
options regarding adjuvant radiotherapy for
surgical patients with selected risk factors
106
remain debatable. Furthermore, the emerging

role of chemoradiation will force a reevaluation of this debate, as adjuvant radiotherapy is, de facto, being converted to
adjuvant chemoradiation in light of the latters
success in clinical trials of locally advanced
cervical cancer.
Stage IIA
The optimal treatment for most patients with
Stage IIA cervical cancer is radiation therapy
consisting of a combination of external and
intracavitary therapy. However, patients can also
be treated effectively by radical hysterectomy
with pelvic and para-aortic lymphadenectomy
and upper vaginectomy, provided that adequate
surgical margins can be obtained.
Chemoradiation for Locally Advanced (Stage IIBIVA) and High-Risk Early-Stage Disease
In February 1999, the National Cancer

Institute mailed all US physicians a national
clinical advisory announcing the results of five
clinical trials that demonstrated superiority of
combined platinum-based chemoradiation
compared with radiation alone for locally
advanced (Stage IIB-IVA),95-97 high-risk earlystage (IA2-IIA),98 or bulky Stage IB299 cervical
carcinomas (Table 2).This NCI announcement
represents a major paradigm shift in cervical
cancer radiotherapy, and pre-publication
versions of some manuscripts were posted on
the Internet due to their possible implications
for the public health.
All of these clinical trials incorporated
cisplatin as a component of chemoradiation,
but despite strong consensus that chemoradiation is superior to radiation alone, there is
no consensus about what constitutes the best
chemotherapy regimen. In GOG 120, a phase
III trial of women with FIGO Stages IIB-IVA
cervical cancer, Rose et al.97 reported equivalent
65% 35-month survivals for the concurrent
weekly cisplatin and 5-fluorouracil/cisplatin/hydroxyurea arms, compared with the 47%
survival rate in the radiation-only arm.
Although the concurrent weekly cisplatin
therapy was a superioras well as the besttoleratedchemoradiation regimen in that
study, the hydroxyurea contributed to the
increased toxicity of the three-drug regimen
and confounded attempts to determine the
efficacy of 5-FU in combination with cisplatin.
As a result of the NCI clinical advisory, the
GOG replacement protocol 165 subsequently
dropped the radiation-only arm of its
concurrent weekly cisplatin versus concurrent
protracted 5-FU infusion versus radiotherapy
alone phase III trial. Unfortunately, this
study, too, does not address the question of
5-FU/cisplatin efficacy.
Doses for cisplatin in RTOG 9001 were 75
mg/m2 on days 1 and 22 of external beam

irradiation, followed by a 96-hour continuous
infusion of 5-FU.96 In contrast, the GOG 120
study used cisplatin at 50 mg/m2 on days 1 and
29 followed by the same 5-FU infusion,
except that hydroxyurea was included with
the 5-FU arm.97 Thus, it is not possible to
compare regimens among the different
studies, and the optimal cisplatin-containing
chemoradiation regimen is still being debated
and investigated.
Stage IVA Surgical Options
Stage IVA disease is rare, particularly with
extension to the rectal mucosa.Treatment aimed
at pelvic control usually consists of radical
chemoradiation. In a rare patient with central
pelvic disease only extending into the bladder
mucosa, exenterative surgery may be chosen
instead of primary irradiation. For patients who
have persistent central disease after definitive
chemoradiation or who have significant tumor
or radiation-induced vesicovaginal or rectovaginal fistulae, exenteration may serve a
curative or palliative role.
MANAGEMENT OF RECURRENT DISEASE
Overall, fewer than 5% of patients who

develop recurrent carcinoma of the cervix are
alive five years later.100,101 Patients who develop
a pelvic recurrence after a radical hysterectomy,
however, have up to a 40% five-year survival
when treated with radiation therapy. Even
patients with isolated late lung metastasis have
a 25% five-year survival rate with surgical
resection.69
Patients with central pelvic recurrences
after primary treatment with radiation
therapy may be salvaged with surgery. Those
with small recurrences limited to the cervix
or upper vagina can occasionally be treated
with radical hysterectomy and partial
107
Cervical Cancer
vaginectomy, with excellent results.102 Patients

with larger central recurrences or who
received previous very high doses of radiation
therapy frequently have marked fibrosis
between the bladder and/or rectum and the
uterus that requires a pelvic exenteration for
surgical salvage.
One-third of patients with negative
pelvic lymph nodes and free surgical margins
survive five years after pelvic exenterations.103
Recently, more attention has been directed to
reconstructive procedures performed at the
time of pelvic exenteration to improve quality
of life. These include performing continent
urinary conduits, primary colon reanastomosis, and vaginal reconstruction.104
The relatively long preWhen
radiation
or
malignant phase of cervi- surgery is unable to cure
cal carcinogenesis (five to recurrent disease, chemotherapy remains an option
10 years) allows great
with
limited
efficacy.
opportunities for inter- Cervical cancer, in general, is
vention with conservative a slow-growing neoplasm
measures and represents a with poor response to
chemotherapy.
Platinum
large window for chemoremains the conventional
prevention or vaccination
choice
for
treating
recurrences, although phase
to impact upon disease
II trials are currently
progression.
examining the efficacies of a
broad range of compounds
including, for example, unconventional agents
(tamoxifen) and naturally derived agents
(topotecan, paclitaxel, and bryostatin).
Combination therapy with agents such as
paclitaxel and cisplatin, has been studied in
phase II trials of recurrent or advanced
squamous cell cancer of the cervix, with 12%
complete responses and 34% partial response
rates, although 61% of patients experienced
grade 4 neutropenias and two patients (4.5%)
died from neutropenic sepsis.105 Given the
palliative nature of chemotherapy in the setting
of recurrent disease, however, quality of life and
108
toxicity profiles must be factored into the

choice of agents.
MONITORING FOR RECURRENT DISEASE
As the majority of treated patients who

develop recurrences do so in the first two
years following primary therapy, physical
examination including nodal assessment
(especially supraclavicular), rectovaginal examination, and Pap smears should be
performed at three-to-four-month intervals
during this time.69 Thereafter, semiannual
examinations are appropriate and beyond five
years, annual examinations.
Symptoms of pain, vaginal bleeding, and
gastrointestinal or genitourinary dysfunction
must be promptly investigated. Interval
abdominal-pelvic CT scans should be considered in those considered at high risk of
recurrence, especially in the first two years. CT
scans or IVPs post-treatment may also diagnose
ureteral obstruction (pathologic or treatmentrelated) at potentially early stages. Interval chest
X-ray or bone scans, however, are unlikely to
benefit the patient because in most cases, they
would be detecting incurable disease in the
asymptomatic patient.
CHEMOPREVENTION, VACCINATION, AND

IMMUNOTHERAPY
Chemoprevention
The relatively long premalignant phase of

cervical carcinogenesis (five to 10 years) allows
great opportunities for intervention with
conservative measures and represents a large
window for chemoprevention or vaccination
to impact upon disease progression.
Cervical dysplasia is traditionally treated by
ablative procedures, but biologic response
modifiers have been investigated as
conservative patient-applied therapeutic

options. Although external warts of nonmucosal epithelia can now be treated by
patient-applied podophyllotoxins (Condylox)
or the novel immune stimulator imiquimod
(Aldara), these agents are not currently suitable
for application into the mucosal vaginal vault.
Instead, investigators have focused on the
retinoids as chemotherapeutic agents for
cervical dysplasia based on their cell
differentiating properties.106
Topical all-trans-retinoic acid has been
shown to induce regression of mild and
moderate dysplasias, but not advanced
dysplasias, in a randomized phase III clinical
trial.107 Other suitable agents for chemoprevention may include difluoromethylornithine and beta-carotene.
The cervix is an ideal, accessible organ not
only for chemoprevention studies, but also for
the study of squamous carcinogenesis. Cervical
lesions are accessible and can be safely followed
with Pap smears and colposcopy, perhaps
supplemented by appropriate biomarkers.
Cervical biomarkers currently under study
include proliferation markers (PCNA),
regulation markers (growth factor receptors,
ras, myc, p53, retinoic acid receptors,
spermidine/spermine ratios), differentiation
markers (involucrin, cornifin, keratins), and
markers of genetic instability (chromosome
polysomy).108
Vaccination
Given the viral nature of the vast majority of

cervical cancers, it would seem that a vaccine
would be the ideal cancer preventive. In mouse
studies, HPV vaccines have been shown to
produce cytotoxic T-cell responses that not
only eradicate HPV-bearing tumors, but also
protect against subsequent challenge by
tumor.109
Vaccines targeting the outer surface of the
virus might offer protection against infection,
but would be ineffective against established

HPV-bearing lesions.The L1 capsid protein has
been targeted for neutralizing-antibody
formation using a DNA or polynucleotide
vaccine in the Cottontailed Rabbit Papilloma
Virus model.110
An oral vaccine using virus-like particles
(VLPs) induced IgG and IgA antibodies in
mice, demonstrating the potential antigenic
stability of VLPs in the gastrointestinal tract
and the possibility of developing this approach
for large-scale vaccination of human populations.111 Human clinical vaccine trials with
HPV VLPs have begun; complete regression of
genital warts was observed in 25 of 33 patients
who were vaccinated with an HPV6b VLP that
stimulated a potent immune response to the L1
capsid protein.112
Other HPV vaccine efforts are focused on
targeting the oncogenic E6/E7 proteins as
therapeutic vaccines.The NCI and the Leiden
University Medical Center have embarked on
an E6- or E7-based vaccine strategy designed
to stimulate T-cell immunity.113 These peptide
vaccines are designed to stimulate cytotoxic Tlymphocytes against specific E7 epitopes that
have been shown to be conserved and
constitutively expressed in cervical cancers.
The NCI trial was based on a lipidated E7
peptide, while the Leiden group used peptides
with immune adjuvants. Both groups are
focusing on HPV16 in HLA-A2 positive
patients. Thus, this HPV type and HLA
restriction limits the immediate applicability to
all cervical cancer patients.
Vaccinia virus constructs carrying mutated
E6 or E7 may vaccinate without HLA
restriction. At the University of Wales, eight
patients with advanced cervical cancer received
a vaccinia virus with a mutant HPV18 E6/E7
fusion gene with no toxic side effects. Three
of eight developed an HPV-specific antibody response, and one of three evaluable
patients developed HPV-specific cytotoxic T
lymphocytes.114
109
Cervical Cancer
An alternative strategy that circumvents

HLA restriction by peptides involves heat
shock protein (HSP) vaccines.115,116 HSP can
chaperone multiple peptides into the patients
antigen-presenting cells for potent immune representation in the context of the proper HLA
type, which makes them potentially useful
T-cells inherently undergo apoptosis after a certain

amount of stimulation, and genetic engineering of CTLs
may be required to circumvent the immune systems natural regulatory mechanisms. In this sense, CTL therapy
seeks to create an autoimmune disease that targets
only HPV-infected cells in the body.
messenger vaccines.117 Another advantage for

HSP vaccines is that multiple epitopes of HPV
can be bound to the HSP. Since immune
evasion by tumors often involves antigen
escape by mutation, a vaccine based on
multiple epitopes should be more effective for
large-scale use and for preventing individual
antigen escape.
Immunotherapy
The T-cell vaccine approach serves both

protective and therapeutic functions. These
vaccines are designed to stimulate HPVspecific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs)
within the patient. An alternative approach
called adoptive immunotherapy reconstitutes
the vaccination process in the laboratory to
stimulate and grow CTLs in large quantities.
The induction and proliferation of CTLs in
the laboratory can be controlled by addition of
cytokines, and the ability to remove these T
cells from the host, who may be harboring
immune-suppressive factors produced by
110
cervical cancer, represents another advantage

over the vaccine approach.118,119 The CTLs
produced can be re-infused into the patient in
massive amounts to overwhelm the tumor with
tumor-specific killer cells. It is estimated that
this approach can result in a more than 10-fold
greater induction of T-cells than can be
obtained by vaccinating the patient.120 The
exogenous infusion of T cells would allow
this natural limit to be exceeded in hopes of
obtaining more effective tumor control.
A number of investigators have been able to
produce HPV-specific human CTLs in the
laboratory,118,119,121-123 but technical limitations
must be overcome to enable the survival,
cloning, and expansion of these CTLs on a
scale that is required for adoptive
immunotherapy. T-cells inherently undergo
apoptosis after a certain amount of stimulation,
and genetic engineering of CTLs may be
required to circumvent the immune systems
natural regulatory mechanisms. In this sense,
CTL therapy seeks to create an autoimmune
disease that targets only HPV-infected cells in
the body.
If T-cell deficiency in AIDS accounts for
rapid progression of cervical cancer, T-cell
enhancement by vaccination or adoptive
immunotherapy may lead to better disease
control in otherwise healthy patients with
cervical cancer. Although in vitro vaccination
shares the same fundamental immunologic
basis as in vivo vaccination, modern laboratory
immunology techniques and conditions may
overcome barriers to vaccination that occur
within the affected host.
CONCLUSION
Cervical cancer is a disease of significant

worldwide morbidity and mortality. From an
epidemiologic and cancer prevention
perspective, great strides have been made in

the developed world towards dramatically
reducing the incidence and mortality from this
disease.
Surgical, radiotherapeutic, and more recently, chemoradiotherapy approaches comprise the successful treatment modalities for
invasive cervical carcinoma. Further efforts at
early detection and prevention, however, are
likely to produce even more significant gains.
Computers, artificial intelligence, and molecular biology are beginning to merge at the
clinical level to refine and enhance the cervical
cytologic assessment developed by George
Papanicolaou in the middle of the 20th

century.
The well-characterized viral mechanisms
for cervical carcinogenesis have established
the basis for future development of HPVspecific therapies. The new century may
bring prevention in an entirely different
form: Vaccination. Benign genital warts are
already being effectively treated with immune
modulators (interferons, imiquimod), and
further developments in tumor immunobiology may yield immunotherapies that can
affect the malignant end of the HPV life
CA
cycle.
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Cervical Cancer

Cervical Cancer: Prevention,

Dr. Janicek is a recipient of an

Cervical cancer is a leading cause of cancer deaths in women worldwide.

CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians

CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114

From Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results Program, 1970-1989.23

promising additions to our current therapeutic

RISK FACTORS AND EPIDEMIOLOGY

Young age at first intercourse, high number

none have consistently been shown to be

Volume 51 Number 2 March/April 2001

that this is not simply attributable to a relative

Although the incidence of cervical cancer

The incidence of adenocarcinoma has more

CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians

HPV is a double-strand DNA tumor virus

CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114

Molecular Basis of Oncogenesis

The molecular basis for oncogenesis in

FIGURE 2 HPV Virions

similar binding and inactivation activity against

There are more than 80 types of HPV, of

Volume 51 Number 2 March/April 2001

FIGURE 3A HPV-Induced Oncogenesis: Viral Events

Integration at the E2 site leads to its deactivation and release of E6 and E7

however, interesting associations between HLA

HIV AND CERVICAL CANCER

The link between human leukocyte

CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114

FIGURE 3B HPV-Induced Oncogenesis: Cellular Events

of these women die of other causes before

NEW SCREENING AND DETECTION MODALITIES

Screening for cervical neoplasia with the

screeningnot diagnostictool with a 15% to

The Bethesda System was originally

Volume 51 Number 2 March/April 2001

carcinoma in situ were combined into the

CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians

criteria and standardized nomenclature for this

Given the disparity between the prevalence of

CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114

FIGURE 4A Pap Triage Incorporating Newer Technologies

(on same specimen;

Because human fatigue and error may be

(PapNet, NetMed Inc., Columbus, OH).

Volume 51 Number 2 March/April 2001

FIGURE 4B Conventional Pap/Colposcopy Triage

costs of finding an additional case of LGSIL or

Only about 20% of exfoliated cells obtained

CA A Cancer Journal for Clinicians

sampling instrument, followed by filtering of

CA Cancer J Clin 2001;51:92-114

additional costs of the cell preparation, this

CONVENTIONAL TRIAGE OF ABNORMAL

The conventional management of abnormal

a history of dysplasia presenting to a teaching

It is possible that extending basic screening (using low

(ASCUS) smear to follow up with her

Volume 51 Number 2 March/April 2001