Muyargas, Ma. Keanna V.

BASS History-Psychology
Catholic Practices in Transition: The Case of Mangaldan after the Postwar
Review of Related Literature
Philippines is a product of different colonial experiences. Part of which are the
colonizers influences and contributions that make up the Philippine society in
contemporary. Spanish colonization is the longest period where the Philippines became a
colony and was under its governance which took more than three hundred (300) years
before the Philippines freed form the grasp of the Spanish rule. The three centuries of
Spains control to the Philippine islands brought modifications and changes to the native
life of Filipinos with their aim of Gospel, Gold and Glory. The Spanish program in the
Philippines envisaged a radical transformation of native Philippine society the
Spaniards launched a sweeping social reform in the islands, a reform which was
religious, political and economic in scope. 1
Christianity became the biggest influence of the Spanish regime that even in
contemporary, Philippines have the most number of Christians in Asia as presented by
Kevin Fogg in his Demographics on Religion in Maritime Southeast Asia with more
than eighty five (85) million Catholic Filipinos. The waning years of Spanish rule was
followed by years of American and Japanese occupation. Along with the conquest of
these foreign countries were the reforms in the Christian beliefs that paved way for the
1 Phelan, John Leddy, Prebaptismal Instruction and the Administration of
Baptism in the Philippines during Sixteenth Century in Studies in Philippine
Church History ed. Gerald H. Anderson. (Ithaca and London: Cornell University
Press, 1969), viii.
1 | Page

establishment of new Christian religion. Many of the new organizations were antiCatholic bias which derives from their distant memory of the oppressive rule by the
Spanish friars.2
According to Professor Chester Hunt, in his Sociology in the Philippine Setting,
suggested that in other countries religious divisions have made tolerance by a necessity,
but here (Philippines) it can only be based on a type of brotherhood which combines
loyalty to ones own church with a tolerance of those who are outside the fold of the
major religious organization.3 The American Protestants did not encounter great
difficulties to reconvert some Filipinos from Catholicism to Protestantism and then
pursue untouched indigenous peoples for their first generation dose of Christianity.4
With the varieties of Christianity that have been established by Filipinos themselves like
the Aglipayan Church which is founded by Gregorio Aglipay, Iglesia ni Cristo that was
founded by Felix Manalo were small in number compared to the still growing population
of the Catholics in the Philippines. The factor that facilitates the growth of the
independent protestant movements according to Elwood is the newly found freedom at
religious expression which is guaranteed by the Philippine constitution. Another factor
was nationalism against which Christianity is sometimes to be a Western import
superimposed on Philippine cultural patterns. An important indigenous factor according
2 Elwood, Douglas J. Varieties of Christianity in the Philippines in Studies in
Philippine Church History ed. Gerald H. Anderson. (Ithaca and London: Cornell
University Press, 1969), 372.
3 Ibid., 366.
4 Lapiz, Ed. Paano Maging Pilipininong Kristiyano: Becoming a Filipino Christian.
(Makati City: Kaloob, 1997), 98.

2 | Page

to Elwood is regionalism and the consequent development of churches in relative

isolation (geographical, linguistic, and other cultural barriers). The social condition of
poverty is also a factor in which the new members of the new Christian religion were
attracted to some promise of other-worldly rewards compensates for their fate in this
world.5
The psychologist George Guthrie, he has observed that one of the dominant traits of the
Filipinos is imitation; that explained the tendency of the Filipinos of being easily
receptive uncritically of the American pattern of theology.6 It is also important to note
that Filipino kinship has strong family ties and religion or a collective faith is a big factor
in strengthening this unity among families in which it satisfies the psychological needs of
an individual such as having a sense of belongingness and a support system.
To understand Filipino people, it is important to understand the
cultural values in Philippine society. Filipinos are very familyoriented; a person find security and fulfillment by keeping close
family ties the basic trait of the Filipino is his orientation and
identification with the sakop, an interpersonal, collective group
that prevails over the individual, making loyalty to it a top
priority. 7

Added to this statement are a Christian concept of family and its mission of church to
strengthen the family ties. The church, attempts to maintain a number of loyal Christians,
by targeting the importance of family given a fact that Philippine society specifically the
family sector is very much influential. The Christian family is seen not only as the core
of society but also as the model or society in general. This model Christian family is
5 Ibid., 371.
6 Ibid.
7 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic Church
1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 6.
3 | Page

based on Christian morals, firmly grounded in faith and ideally integrated into a
charismatic community that supports its members in their endeavor to live up to the
standards of Christian morals.8

Catholic Action must concern itself with the restoration of the

family, source of natural life and divinely ordained institution, as
the home where supernatural life of the children of God has its
first growth.9

Part of the social doctrine of the church is its role in helping the welfare of the families in
terms of education and other aids its relation to common good. This could also be a factor
in looking at how Catholicism still gain numerous of believers despite of the birth of the
new varieties of Christian faith in which Catholics have the most number of population in
the country.
In reviewing materials in this topic, I have divided this into several themes that
would support the substantive content in this study. The first theme is illustration of the
pre-Hispanic religion and the practices along with it, capturing the traditional way of the
Filipinos practice of religion and beliefs which can be said as animists/pagans way of
expressing faith to numerous gods and deities of native Filipinos. In line with this, we
could see the patterns in religion that were inculturated in the modern Christianity or
Catholicism which is a product of a long transition of religious aspect of the Filipino
Christians that would understand the Folk Catholicism in the Philippines. The second
theme is mainly about the Christianization in the Philippines by Western colonizer; the
8 Cornelio, Jayeel. Institutional Religion and Modernity-in-Transition:
Christianitys Innovations in the Philippines and Latin America.
9 De Torre, Joseph M. Social Morals: the Church Speaks on Society. Second
Edition. (Manila: Southeast Asian Science Foundation, Inc. 1987), 67.
4 | Page

Spain in particular. This would entail the process of conversion of the natives and the
efforts of the missionaries in converting the Filipino non-Christians into a new way of
religious belief which could be a help of understanding the cultural changes in Filipino
religion. Under this theme, is the case of Pangasinan and Mangaldan in their experience
of the missionaries attempts in introducing innovative way of religious practice and faith
and how they respond to it? The third theme the theme that talked about the situation of
the church after the Spanish regime (American period, Japanese Occupation and Postwar)
in which it brought again waves of changes and birth of other Christian religion, and the
role of the church during these period, how the people respond to it. The fourth theme is
the nature of the Philippine church and development of the native clergy in which it
talked about the situations in Philippine Christian or Catholic clergy in respect to the new
religious groups and the participation of the people as catalyst of change in the way of
catholic practices in the Philippines in which it is also a social development. Lastly, is the
illustration of the changes in cultural way of expressing faith in Philippine context in
contrast to the conservative Christianity that was brought by the Spanish colonizers and
the inculturated culture of the Western into the native way of expressing religious belief
that resulted to Folk Catholicism among the people and the changes in the culture of
Catholic religion that goes along with it.

I.

Pre-Hispanic Philippine Religion

Before the arrival of the gospel in the Philippines during the 16th century, Filipinos

were believed to be animists and pagan, wherein they have already the notion of supreme
being which for the Tagalogs called it Bathala Maykapal (God the Creator), Laon for
5 | Page

Visayans (Old Man or the Ancient) and the Ilocanos Cabunian.10It was said that the Gods
of the natives were neglectful of his creatures and therefore the Filipinos turned to their
secondary deities just like in Rome and Greece mythologies. These deities could be god
of the rocks, mountain, rainbow, reefs and other natural objects.11
The colonizers perceived the native Filipinos as barbaric and uncivilized as they do not
possess the Western culture and much seen as brutal and practitioners of immoral acts,
however, to oppose that, even before the intervention of the Westerners, Filipinos have
already the notion of what is moral and not according to their belief and it is being
sanctioned by a god. The Palawan people believed that people who commit unethical
behavior like incest, and other major crimes were punished by the gods through natural
destruction like flood, storm etc. A ceremony called panggaris, intended to cleanse the
earth, is performed annually in a section of this ethnic group. 12 The pre-hispanic religious
belief of the natives are not concerned mostly for the ethics but more on maintaining
life, prosperity, avoiding sickness through an exchange system with supernatural beings
and these goals are achieved through various symbolic means, through rituals and
ceremonies, offerings, sacrifices etc. rather than displaying a good behavior.13

10 Fernandez, Pablo. History of the Church in the Philippines (1521-1898). (Manila:

Navotas Press, 1979.)

11 Colin, 64, col.1 (cited by Pablo Fernandez)

12 MacDonald Charles J-H. Folk Christianity and Pre-Spanish Religions in the
Philippines in Philippine Studies Vol. 52, No.1 Global/Local (Ateneo de Manila Univ.
Press, 2004), 80.

13 Ibid.,82.
6 | Page

The ancient religious practice of Pangasinanes was not different form the majority of
Filipinos which the gods and deities were worshiped for different purposes; AmaGaoley, the highest god or Apolaqui to whom they prayed to during their voyage,
journey or any business were the main gods of Pangasinanes in which they also believe
of the good spirit or the anitos.14
The description of Loarca to the Tagal people resembles to the present say Folk
Christianity in which these people believe in a higher being like their supreme God or
creator named Bathala and could only petitioned by intermediaries by lesser gods or
spirits called anito or ancestors which are worshipped through forms of idol.15

II. Christianization in the Philippines

Mission was defined by Gutstav Warneck, a Protestant of Muenster as all the activities
of Christianity aimed at the planting and organization of the Christian Church among
non-Christian.16 Europe which the population is largely Christians thought that outside
its territories, there are small numbers of pagans. But this assumption was disturbed when
theologians realized that Christians are only minority of the worlds population and in
effect, the Council of Trent came up with the baptism of desire wherein the millions

14 Cortes, Rosario. Pangasinan: 1500-1801 (Quezon City: New Day

Publishers. 1974)
15MacDonald Charles J-H. Folk Christianity and Pre-Spanish Religions in the
Philippines in Philippine Studies Vol. 52, No.1 Global/Local (Ateneo de Manila Univ.
Press, 2004), 84.

16 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine

World Publications, 1992), 4.
7 | Page

who never have heard of Christ through no fault of their own could be saved. 17Magellans
was regarded as the first missionary at his arrival in Cebu that commenced the Catholic
faith in the Philippines. Magellan, the navigator and merchant threw himself fervently
into his new role as an apostle of gospel until he reached a state of spiritual intoxication
which undermined his sound judgement of things mundane. 18 Phelan also mentioned
that it was Magellan who explained to the natives the principal beliefs of the Christian
religion and not Friar Pedro de Valderrama. The language barrier affected the natives
impression to the Christian religion which Enrique, who was Magellans slave-interpreter
know Malay which the natives understood but was still inadequate to capture the totality
of the Christian doctrine and the Spaniards sought to transcend the linguistic barrier in
which the aim was to capture the imagination of the natives through the splendor of the
new religions ritual.19 The prebaptismal instruction for adults were defined and the
neophytes of the Christian religion were expected to leave and repent for their sins in
their pagan practices such as the polygamy of marriage in which the marriage must be
monogamous, natural and legitimate marriage according to the church doctrine, while the
adult neophytes were expected to memorize different prayers and church doctrines such
as the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, the Credo and the Ten Commandments, subsequently they
imposed the principal obligation of Christian (i.e attendance at Mass every Sunday and
17 Ibid.
18 Phelan, John Leddy, Prebaptismal Instruction and the Administration of
Baptism in the Philippines during Sixteenth Century in Studies in Philippine
Church History ed. Gerald H. Anderson. (Ithaca and London: Cornell University
Press, 1969), 23.
19 Ibid, 24.
8 | Page

feasts days, mandatory annual confession) were considered as desirable prebaptismal

conditions.20
It was a relationship between the mission-sending countries and missionary countries.
And as observed by Leonardo Mercado, the First World countries were the missionsending countries and the Third World such as the Philippines the mission countries or
the pagans. The local church was established when it was viewed that the Church was
also a communion of different, unique communities. The people of God, as communion
of local churches need the faith witness of missionaries from different local churches.21
A. Pangasinan
The conquest and colonization of Luzon and pacification of Pangasinan was first
attributed by Morga to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi but a later writer mentioned that it was
Martin de Goiti. The first definite description of the conquest of Pangasinan cites Juan de
Salcedo as the leader of the expedition. Salcedo was ordered by his grandfather to,
Miguel de Legazpi to see northern Luzon, to explore that country and to pacify the
people in it.22 Salcedo took risk in conquering Ilocos, Cagayan Valley and Pangasinan
with only forty five soldiers with him and sailed northwards along the Cape Bolinao and
entered Lingayen. Salcedo together with his small band saw the Chinese vessel along
with the captives of the chief and natives of Pangasinan, and therefore their troop
attacked the Chinese and set the natives free, in result of this, he gained friendship and
20 Ibid, 25.
21 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine
World Publications, 1992), 11.
22 Cortes, Rosario. Pangasinan: 1500-1801 (Quezon City: New Day
Publishers. 1974)
9 | Page

submission.23 In 1575, the Augustinian missionaries started the work of evangelization

which they accompanied Salcedo. The mission started at Tobang in the vicinity of the
present town of Labrador. The Pangasinanes as described by the missionaries were hostile
and that their efforts in pacification were futile and therefore they moved to Lingayen.
In 1576, Franciscan friars started their mission of pacification but they did not stayed
long in the province, they withdrew in 1591. The hostility of the Pangasinanes according
to towards the missionaries according to Cortes could be developed from the frequent
forays upon them for tribute, particularly for gold. This unpleasant behavior of the
soldiers discouraged the Pangasinanes to embrace and welcome the missionaries since
they are all white and Spanish, and therefore distinction may be likely to be vague
between the soldiers and the missionaries. Subsequently, the spreading of the rumor of
the pagan priests that Fr. Bernardo was the father of the child of a native woman. Thus,
such smart move of the pagan priests perceived the paralysis of the efforts of the
Dominicans by indicting one of their numbers for an act which in Christian terms but
not only by pagan standards was a violation of the moral order. 24 The mutual efforts of
the anacbanuas or the elites of Pangasinan successfully thwarted the missionaries that
lead to the failures of the mission of pacification by the different wave of friars. However,
this did not discourage the missionaries to pursue the pacification because it was

23 S.J. Bernad, Miguel. The Christianization of the Philippines: Problems and

Perspectives (Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 1972.)
24 Phelan, John Leddy, Prebaptismal Instruction and the Administration of
Baptism in the Philippines during Sixteenth Century in Studies in Philippine
Church History ed. Gerald H. Anderson. (Ithaca and London: Cornell University
Press, 1969), 34.
10 | P a g e

impossible to neglect the size of the province and the large number of population, as well
as the fact that Pangasinan was rich in gold.25
Bishop Domingo Salazar sent another new missionary to the area with the arrival of the
Dominican friars in July 1587, the main direction of their missionary work was towards
the north, in province of Pangasinan and the Cagayan Valley.26 Binalatongan was the
headquarters of the friars and the Dominicans spread out to other settlements, particularly
to Gabon (Calasiao) and in Mangaldan.27 The efforts of the friars took three years to
finally convert the Pangasinanes in Central Pangasinan with the new religion. There were
statement that the natives of Pangasinan took actions of protest in thwarting the friars,
they did not gave them food or refuse to sell them any goods. In September 1587, five
Dominicans led by Friar Bernardo de Santo Catalina arrived, local encomendero built
them a house, as the law required. The natives refuse to supply them with food, water,
fish or rice, and after the three years of residence, the only result was the baptism of a few
children. 28

25 To the Spaniards, it was astonishing to see the amount of gold available

to the natives the natives in general acquire, possess and trade great
quantities of goldThere was gold in Mindanao, in many of the Visayan
islands, in Mindoro, and in many areas of Luzon (Paracale, Pangasinan, and
the Ilocos among others)( S.J. Bernad, Miguel, p.146)
26 S.J., Bernad Miguel A. The Christianization of the Philippines: Problems and
Perspectives. (Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 1972.)

27 In 1750, there were at least nineteen Dominican establishments in

Pangasinan which included also the territory now comprised in the province
of Tarlac. They were: Anguio, Baruc,Binalatongan, Binmaley, Calasiao,
Camiling, Cavili, Dagupan, Ipantol, Lingayen, Malanguey, Malasiqui,
Mangaladan, Manaoag, Panglanguit, Paniqui, Salasa, Sinapog and Telban.
(S.J. Bernad, Miguel, p.235)
11 | P a g e

According to Cortes, the reasons that drew the natives to missionaries were their effort in
learning the language29, their knowledge of medicine since the Pangasinanes were
associated with Pagan practice and therefore their cure to the illness was to send the evil
spirits away, and was greatly impressed at how the friars possessed the healing power.
Another said reason to the overcoming of the distrust of the natives reflected to the
statement of the chieftain in the province when he asked to be baptized since he saw the
efforts of the Dominican friars for three years and the unity that they follow one rule or
path and do not procure gold or silver, thus, this chieftain was well-convinced to the
genuine motives of the friars to do them good and was persuaded that men of that
manner do not lie and therefore his followers became Christian as well.30
B. Mangaldan
The town Mangaldan lies on a plain terrain in the northern part of Pangasinan, about two
miles from the Lingayen Gulf, it is bounded on the north of the said Gulf and the town of
San Fabian, on the South by Mapandan and Santa Barbara, on the east by San Jacinto and
28 Phelan, John Leddy, Prebaptismal Instruction and the Administration of
Baptism in the Philippines during Sixteenth Century in Studies in Philippine
Church History ed. Gerald H. Anderson. (Ithaca and London: Cornell University
Press, 1969), 34.
29 Not only the literary forms, but the native languages themselves manifested a
considerable degree of mental development and sophistication. In this matter of
languages, the missionaries had their various preferences depending on which native
language they come to know best The Dominicansin particular Lorenzo Fernandez
Cosgaya, Pedro Villanueva and Mariano Pellicerwould have chosen Pangasinan.
S.J. Bernad, Miguel (The Christianization of the Philippines: Problems and
Perspectives. (Manila: The Filipiniana Book Guild, 1972.), p.152

30 Cortes, Rosario. Pangasinan: 1500-1801 (Quezon City: New Day

Publishers. 1974), 73.
12 | P a g e

on the West by Dagupan. The people of Mangaldan speak mainly the Pangasinan
language.31 There are three versions of how the name of town got his its name. The first
version narrates that one day a Spanish missionary asked one of the inhabitants the name
of the place and the inhabitant thought the missionary was asking ofr water and therefore
he replied Manga-alay Adan which means Adan is fetching. The second version
stated that it got its town name form the first native chief of Mangaldan which is
Babaldan. The third version says that in the middle of the plaza stood a big mango tree
laden with fruits and it was customary that anyone of the towns inhabitants was free to
gather the fruits but it resulted to quarreling among themselves. And the meaning of
quarrel in the Pangasinan language is Man-nga-ngal-ngalan.32
For Magno, this is quite unreliable, in Fr. Raymundo Suarez, O.P in his 108-year old
manuscript entitled Apuntos Curiosos Sobre Las Pueblos de Pangasinn stated that the
etymology of the town is from the root word Alar or in other Pangasinanes would
pronounce this as Alad, the meaning of Alar or Alad in Pangasinan is palisade or
simply a fence made of bamboo or any similar material which is interposed between
Mang and An therefore it is Mangaladan. However, it was syncopated

by

suppressing the penultimate A and therefore it remained alone as Mangaldan.33

31 Magno, Rafael. Mangaldan 1600-1898 (Dagupan: Maramba Press), 2.
32 Cfr. Quinto, Juan A. A Brief History of Mangaldan and the Central Life of its
People Published in the provincial Elementray Schools Meet Program,
December 9-10, 1955. Cited by Rafael Magno in Mangaldan 1600-1898
(Dagupan: Maramba Press), 2.
33 Archivo de los Padres Dominicos. MSS Seccin PANGASINAN. Tomo VII,
Documento 15a. Apuntos Curiosos Sobre los Pueblos de Pangasinn, Pueblo
de Magaldan. por el P. Raymundo Suarez OP (1860). Cited by Magno,
Rafael. Mangaldan 1600-1898 (Dagupan: Maramba Press), 5.
13 | P a g e

Mangaldan as a small village before it became a parish was no different from other
provinces in opposing the new religion being presented by the missionaries with the aim
of spreading the gospel. As Fr. Pedro tercer Soto 34 described the Mangaldanes during
his first year of activity in Mangaldanes as the early inhabitants of Mangaldan were the
most difficult to convert.35 At the time of Fr. Soto, the apostle of Mangaldan, first arrived
in 1590, described the settlement a being without polity, nor order or regularity of life.

36

It was further described as the village being the most obstinate of all the villages in their
errors, refused to admit fathers of Augustinians, listen to secular priest who was assigned
to them and yet these were the Indians that Fr. Soto came to conquer with patience and
Christian charity.37 Casipit, who is a haciendero and a leader to the town wherein his
house served as the temple of the natives where they perform their cult, strongly opposed
to the new religion that he even had a record of killing a Franciscan friar that he
happened to meet. In addition to his strong opposition, he negotiated to the authorities in
Manila to send away the Dominican friars and even offered half of his big hacienda to the
34 An accomplished missionary, he excelled especially in Theology and
letters and was once a student of the great Archbishop Miguel de Benavides.
He was a native of the Burgos Spain, studied on the Dominican convent of
San Pablo de Vallodolid. Arriving with first group of Dominicans in 1587, he
was among the six pioneer Dominicans sent to Pangasinan by Fr. Juan de
Castro. Assigned first as an assistant in Calasiao, he later became the vicar in
the same parish in 1592. Magno, Rafael. Mangaldan 1600-1898 (Dagupan:
Maramba Press), 14-15
35 Cfr. Gonzales, Jose Ma., O.P., op. cit.,p.53 (cited by Magno, Rafael)
36 B. and R., op. cit. (cited by Rosario Cortes)
37 Account of the Encomiendas in the Philippines, May 31, 1591. Appended
to Letter of Dasmarias to the King, Manila, June 20, 1591, B and R., VIII
104-05. (cited by Rosario Cortes).
14 | P a g e

encomendero.38 The Dominican Bishop and Historian Fr. Diego Aduarte declared that
Mangaldanes more than any people in Pangasinan were slaves of superstitious beliefs.
Casipit, who was mentioned earlier of his strong opposition paved way to the number of
converts in Mangaldan in which it was accredited to Fr. Soto that Casipit became a
devout Christian that "propagated the faith in which he once tried to destroy39. Mangaldan
was before a visita to Gabon (the present Calasiao) and the third missionary site town in
Pangasinan after the Binalatongan and Calasiao to finally embrace Christianity from the
hands of the Dominican missionaries. Mangaldan was established as a parish on June 2,
1600 under the patronage of St. Thomas Aquinas, with their first parish priest Fr. Pedro
de Ledesma with his assistant Fr. Thomas Castellar40.
With the collective effort of the Dominicans in introducing the new religion, the
Mangaldanes became receptive of the new faith that brought changes in the social aspect
of the lives of the Mangaldanes after it became a parish. More than the spiritual
contribution of the missionaries, they also helped the people in every area of human life.
The activities they are tasked to do were not confined in catechism alone, but it includes
the building of the town and reorganization of the native society. They erected and
repaired its church and convent, built tribunal and schools, constructed and improved
roads and streets, and provided irrigation system which helped enormously on the

38 Magno, Rafael. A Historical Retrsopect to the Town of Magaldan,

Pangasinan (1600-1898.)
39 Ibid.
40 De la Torre, Visitacion. Faith Enshrined: Churches of Pangasinan. (Manila,
1997.)
15 | P a g e

economic life of Mangaldan.41 In the year 1600 was a historic year for the Mangaldanes
for it marks the birth of the town as a new vicariate in the province. The increase of the
number of the converts in Mangaldan and population reflected the growth of the town.
Christian religion indeed played a vital role in modifying the pre-Hispanic cultural aspect
of Pangasinan and Mangaldan especially in the religious/ ritual practices.

III.

Philippine Church in transition after Spanish period

A. Situation of the Church during American Period
The religious of these islands can be divided into two classes, namely: the
religious of Spanish origin, and all others. The latter, though they take their origin
from various nations, for the most part speak English. These two classes however
are separated, not only by language but by customs, traditions, culture, political
views, missionary methods 42

The anti-clerical sentiment grew in the Philippines after the Revolution in 1898. In the
early 20th century, the Catholic Church was characterized by defensiveness and alienation
and albeit it is still Spanish-oriented, it was gradually moving towards Americanorientation. The Masonic movement, with its strong anti-Catholic bias, influenced many
political leaders as well as educators in the University of the Philippines. 43 Mirroring the
efforts of the wave of missionaries that propagated the Christian religion, the American
Jesuits from the province of Maryland-New York came to Philippines to replace the
Spanish Jesuits who were sent to India. The general thinking of missionaries was the
41 Magno, Rafael. Mangaldan 1600-1898 (Dagupan: Maramba Press), 94.
42 Schumacher, John N. A Hispanized Clergy in Americanized Country
(1910-70) in Chapters in Philippine Church History. Edited by Kwantes, Anne
C. (Manila: OMF Literature Inc., 2001), 254.

43 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic

Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 17.
16 | P a g e

mission must follow conquest in order to promote the welfare of the colonized. Arthur
Brown reasoned that, since the Roman Catholic Church failed to produce character in the
Filipino and that neither civil law nor public school could build such character, the only
ones that could do so were Protestant missionaries.44
There were also sources that mentioned the opposition of the American government to
the rampant Filipino folk Catholicism that are obviously displayed. Even during the early
1900s, some places in Visayas like in Panay continue to practice the native ways in
religion like the sacrifice of pigs, frothing spasms of the babailanes (primitive
soothsayers and witch doctors both men and women) have never entirely ceased, the
belief of charms called anting-anting, and consisting perhaps of a breastplate cotton cloth
painted with fantastic designs (in which the cross, the name of Virgin etc. may be
mingled with hieroglyphics with no meaning at all), has always survived, was fully
exploited during the late wars and plays its part today in inspiring terror and respect for
bandit-chiefs said to be invulnerable to the bullets of the Government soldiers. 45 There
when personages were made to pose as God or Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary were
herded by the American police and confine in a American military prison, also the
Filipinos who are expressing their religious faith over the relics and giving their savings
for miracle-working objects to the impostors who exploited this character had to be
broken up by the police.46

44 Bautista, Lorenzo. Perceptions of Early Protestant Missionaries in

Chapters in Philippine Church History. Edited by Kwantes, Anne C. (Manila:
OMF Literature Inc., 2001),143.
45 Le Roy, James. Philippine Circa 1900: Philippine Life in Town and Country.
(Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1968), 74.
17 | P a g e

By then, the American Jesuits transformed the Church from a Hispanized culture of the
church to a more Americanized orientation in which it was greatly influenced by
American language and culture. The efforts of the Jesuits in education, research, ad
scholarship, retreats, social involvement, and mission work gave vitality to the churchs
apostolic activity and helped move her (church) out of alienated situation. 47 These
changes in the church were revealed during the 1925 first National Congress of Catholic
Action which was held in Manila.
The American Episcopalian Church missionaries played a role in the aspect of
Christianity among the Filipinos whereby, the Americans had the initiative to put up a
native clergy that became part of the imperialist rule of the Americans and the
contribution of the people to the missionary endeavor and to the development of the
Filipino Christianity.
the Philippines has become the only Asian nation, a majority of whose people
are Christian. It concentrates on two styles of missionary work that of
translating Christian belief for the indigenous people, both literally through work
on local languages and the translation of parts of the Bible, and culturally through
close interaction with local people; and that of civilising indigenous people
according to the assumptions of Americans who believed that Christianity was
part of a cultural, economic and political package which they had a duty to share
in the context of imperial rule.48

B. Japanese Occupation

46 Ibid.,73
47 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic
Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 17.
48Arun W. Jones. Christian missions in the American empire. Episcopalians in
northern Luzon, the Philippines,19021946(Studies in the Intercultural History of
Christianity, 132.) in Journal of Ecclesiastical History, Vol. 55, No. 3, July 2004. (United
Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2004)

18 | P a g e

The occupation army took advantage of the church as a social institution in order to make
the occupation effective and efficient, there were twelve protestant ministers and fourteen
Japanese

Roman

Catholics

that

were

sent

in

the

Philippines

beginning

December1941under the auspices of Japanese Imperial Army, and they were part in
propaganda acivities with the support of Japanese protestant church. 49
The involvement of the church in social arena was not that active compared to the
American period prior to WWII in which it was not involved in the labor and rural
problems. However, after the World War, Fr. Walter Hogan, S.J., started the Institution of
Social Order (ISO) in which it is an effort to apply the social doctrine of the church to the
social order which in turn, the church personnel became active in social action field. In
the succeeding years, there were different unions that were established which are agent
for the higlight of the role of church in social field and which are based on social
teachings of the church.
The Apostolic Delegate established the Catholic Welfare Organization (CWO) in
February 1945 to coordinate to reach out and relief efforts in war-stricken areas. This was
passed to Bishops of the Philippines who adpoted the CWO as their official organization.
This organization became permanent and its purpose was to promote the apostolate of the
Church in the Philippines and participate to the different activities of the Catholics to the
needs of the times.50
49 Kazuo Wakai. Protestants in the Japanese Imperial Army in the Philippines
(Decemeber 1941-1942) in Chapters in Philippine Church History. Edited by
Kwantes, Anne C. (Manila: OMF Literature Inc., 2001), 291.

50 Catholic Welfare Organization The Catholic Directory (Manila: Catholic

Trade School), 643. Cited by Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The
Philippine Catholic Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers.
1988), 20.
19 | P a g e

The military government during this period could not deny the great influence of religion
and church in the people, an they see this as enemy religion and therefore for the sake
of winning the Christian Filipinos over to Japans side, they established the Religious
Section in which it was headed by Lt. Col. Narusawa Tomonori whose wife is a Roman
Catholic believer .51 The fruit of labor of the people behind the Religious Section was the
good impression by the Filipinos. They protected the lives of the people, secured
freedom of religion, helped in the release of some missionaries, assisted in the
rehabilitation work and simply served the people.52
C. Postwar
It was stated earlier that the church became active for social works by establishing
different union which promotes the common good just like in 1953, Atty. Jeremias
Montemayor and Fernando Esguerra organized the Federation of Free Farmers (FFF),
which is a farmers organization inspired by the social teachings of the church. In 1965,
the involvement of the church in the social mission became intensified by the arrival of
the 32 priests from the Priestss Institute for Social Action (PISA) which was held in
Hong Kong. They resolved to promote the social action in the form of self-help projects,
community development and cooperatives. if they are selfish, their faith weakens, this is
the law of charity. Generosity makes the local church stronger and more authentically
Christian.53
In the period before martial law, however, there many different movements and
activities in the Philippines and many Church personnel were involved especially in the
51 Kazuo Wakai. Protestants in the Japanese Imperial Army in the Philippines
(Decemeber 1941-1942) in Chapters in Philippine Church History. Edited by
Kwantes, Anne C. (Manila: OMF Literature Inc., 2001), 295.
52 Kazuo Wakai. Protestants in the Japanese Imperial Army in the Philippines
(Decemeber 1941-1942) in Chapters in Philippine Church History. Edited by
Kwantes, Anne C. (Manila: OMF Literature Inc., 2001), 331.
20 | P a g e

efforts to organize and empower the people.54 The integral evangelization was promoted
which it include the promotion of human development and liberation as an integral part.
This gave emphasis to the efforts of the church in forming peoples organization (which
could be by community or sectorally e.g farmers, urban, poor, etc.) to counter-balance the
established power who are favored socio-economically and politically speaking.
to labor vigorously so that by human labor, technical skill and civic
culture created goods may be perfected for the benefit of ever last man.
And to work, to see that created goods are more fittingly distributed
among men, and such goods in their own way lead to general progress in
human and Christian liberty.55
Catholicism brought many ideas like the sacraments, confessions, penance, the idea of
original sin, and the idea of salvation. Christianity brought religious codes of ethics.56
IV.

The Philippine church and the development of the Filipino clergy

We must acknowledge that for not a few of our countrymen Christianity has been and
perhaps still is a social fact more than a personal conviction, and the Church institution
only rather community.57 Rev. Giordano stated that even the church has been established
53 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine
World Publications, 1992), 11.
54 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic
Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 24.
55 De Torre, Joseph M. Social Morals: the Church Speaks on Society. Second
Edition. (Manila: Southeast Asian Science Foundation, Inc. 1987), 2.
56 Ibid.
57 CBCP, Evangelization and Development, Boletin Eclesiastico de Filipinas.
September 1973, 527. cited by Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission:
The Philippine Catholic Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers.
1988), 12.
21 | P a g e

in the Philippines for more than 400 years, it still can be perceived as a missionary
church because of the inadequate number of the Filipino priests and others were
foreigners in filling the inadequate population of the priests and other religious leaders in
spreading the good news in ratio to the Filipino Catholics. In rural and urban area, it is
uncommon to have a one or two priests that facilitate the evangelization of more than
fifty thousand (50,000) populations of Catholics. In result, he asserted that the
evangelization becomes superficial. According to Rev. Giordano, the reason why the
church has failed to evangelize more effectively has been because of the lack of the
native clergy and thus could be traced to history of evangelization of the country wherein
the Spaniards discouraged the development of the native clergy in the Philippines, mostly
for political reasons. Being part of the leaders in church held a big responsibility and
power at hand and Spaniards do not want the natives to relinquish that authoritative
control from them. The dispositions of the religious orders to hold firmly to the control
of the territory to which they regarded themselves as having won for Spain, and in the
virtual possession of which they displayed considerable rivalry of pride, was always
manifested whenever they thought this control was threatened in any way. 58 In fact, in
the revolution of 1898, one of its targets is the church with the issue its accumulation of
vast lands, corruption and other abuses and injustices that resulted to anti-clerical of the
Propaganda Movement.
One of the factor that lead to superficial evangelization of the church is the period where
many Filipino priests were hastily ordained with little or no preparation, other with poor
moral, spiritual and intellectual qualities and it was Archbishop Basilio Sancho de Sta.
58 Le Roy, James. Philippine Circa 1900: Philippine Life in Town and Country.
(Manila: Filipiniana Book Guild, 1968), 68.
22 | P a g e

Justa y Rufina (1767-1787) who took parishes away from the religious friars and
ordained the Filipino priests after he became an Archbishop of Manila. 59 This was
characterized by John Schumacher, S.J., and Horatio de la Costa, S.J., Philippine Church
Historians as one of sheer disaster for the secular clergy which lasted from 1768 to
1850s and according to Fr. Schumacher; this was until the coming of the Paules Fathers
(The Vincentians) to take over the missionaries. 60
The Filipino clergy were not given their own parishes but they served as assistant for the
Spanish friars. A well-educated priest like Fr. Pedro Pelaez who obtained a doctorate in
theology from University of Santo Tomas became only the assistant of the Spanish friars
and later on became the leader of the Filipino secular clergy 61. This is one of the reasons
to the uprising of Filipino priests during the Philippine revolution like Aglipay who acted
as chaplains of the revolutionary army. After the war, Fr. Aglipay formed the Iglesia
Filipina Independiente when the Vatican wont recognize the petition of the nationalist
priests that the Church positions must be occupied by Filipino priests. However, this did
not still outnumber the population of the Catholics in which Aglipayan Church only
consist 4 percent of the population. 62

59 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic

Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 15.
60 Horacio de la Costa, S.J., The Development of the Native Clergy, pp. 4756; and John Schumacher, S.J., The Filipino Secular Clergy: Yesterday and
Tomorrow, pp.87-91, in de la Costa and Schumacher, The Filipino Clergy.
Ibid., 14.
61 Ibid., 15.
62 Ibid., 15.
23 | P a g e

The church as an institution can be seen as a community that attempts to unite all
the followers of the Christian faith through the religious practices and divine teachings of
God.
God who has fatherly concern for everyone, has willed that all men should
constitute one family and treat one another in a spirit of brotherhood. For having
been created in the image of God, who from one man who has created the whole
human race and made them live all over the face of the earth(Acts 17:26), all
men are called to one and the same goal, namely, God Himself. 63

During the visit Pope John Paul II in February 1981, he also emphasized the importance
of the bond and love among members and conscious participation of all members. The
Puebla Conference asserted that Church must be a sign of communion.64
The Philippine church can be seen as changing in a context of a developing society. The
changes in the practices in the church are brought by response to the ever-changing
society.
V.

Culture and Church Customs in Philippine Setting

A typical evangelical Christian worship service with its rigid structure, formality
and stiffness is culturally very unFilipino in order to be more appealing and
more responsive to Filipino soul, the Christian church should be more Filipino in
flavor and form.65

Given the fact that majority of the Filipinos are Christian Roman Catholic, it could
apparently be observed that the culture and customs of this religion is infiltrating the lives
of the people in everyday lives. The folk Christianity surfaced in the doctrine rules of
63 De Torre, Joseph M. Social Morals: the Church Speaks on Society. Second
Edition. (Manila: Southeast Asian Science Foundation, Inc. 1987), 34.
64 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic
Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 8.
65 Lapiz, Ed. Paano Maging Pilipininong Kristiyano: Becoming a Filipino
Christian. (Makati City: Kaloob, 1997), 122.
24 | P a g e

Catholicism and Christianity among the Pangasinanes even in contemporary which a

concrete example is the veneration of local patron saint. It is generally accepted that
what was practiced by Christian natives was a kind of folk Christianity that has blended
significant elements of their ancient practices into the new religion. 66 Part of
evangelization is building up of a truly local church according to the statement of Asian
Bishops Conference (FABC) in Taipei in 1974 and it is important to note its emphasis on
the churchs connection to the locals culture, dialogue with local culture means that
Christianity has to respect the local culture.67 In fact, the Western missionaries have
failed to taken account the local culture and practices and imposed a Westernized form of
Christianity. As Pope Joh Paul II said:
the synthesis between culture and faith is not just a demand of culture but also
faith. A faith which does not become culture is a faith which has not yet been
fully received, not thouroughly thought through, not fully lived outTherefore
unremitting effort of inculturation must be pursued in order that faith may not
remain superficial.68

A noted psychologist and also a religious leader by the name of Rev. Jaime Bulatao
characterized this situation as split-level Christianity in which he explained this as two
value systems present in the individual at the same time: one Christian and the other is
his own way of believing, which was passed from generations after generations. There
can also be a permeating popular religiosity in the country in which in a Catholics
66 Cortes, Rosario. Pangasinan: 1500-1801 (Quezon City: New Day
Publishers. 1974), 75.
67 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine
World Publications, 1992), 14.
68 LOsservatore Romano, 9 September 1985. Cited by Mercado, Leonardo,
N. in Inculturation and Filipino Theology.(Manila: Divine World Publications,
1992), 14.
25 | P a g e

Bishop Conference, they admitted that these religious rituals which are unrelated to
everyday life added to the invitation and deepening of a more authentic religious
consciousness, needing to be purified, interiorized, made more mature and brought to
bear on everyday life.69
Inculturation may be defined as the process by which there comes about an ongoing
integration of the Christian experience of a local church into the culture of its people in
which the church becomes part of the culture of the people. 70 According to Pieris, the
term inculturation is based on the culture-religion dichotomy of the Latins (which often
means) the insertion of the non-Christian religion minus the European culture into an
Asian culture minus non-Christian religion.71 According to Leonardo Mercado, there
are different phases of inculturation; one is personnel and another level is the exterior or
dress, example is that church or chapel may use a nipa hut theme and other indigenous
materials, another foreign element of Christianity is American-style formality in which
churchgoers are expected to come in their Sunday best attire which it is a type of
clothing wearing closed necks, cuffed long sleeves, billowing skirts, shoes etc. 72 But
according to him, the most significant is the inculturation of thinking in which it includes
the inculturating philosophy, using of native language which in turn, the philosophizing
69 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic
Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 13.
70 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine World
Publications, 1992), 23.

71 Pieris, Aloysius. An Asian Theology of Liberation. (Quezon City: Claretian

Publications, 1988), 52., Ibid., 23.

72 Lapiz, Ed. Paano Maging Pilipinong Kristiyano: Becoming a Filipino Christian.

(Makati City: Kaloob, 1997), 128.

26 | P a g e

the ideas in native language can lead to new interpretation. Pope John Paul II defines
inculturation as the intimate transformation of authentic cultural values through their
integration in Christianity and insertion of Christianity in various human cultures.73
A British observer of conditions in the East Indies expressed the opinion that in spite of
all the disadvantages of tolerance, bigotry, and oppression in the Philippines, the
Christian religion may yet have exercised some advantageous influence upon its converts.
The natives of the Philippines, he claimed possessed a share of energy and intelligence
not only superior to their pagan and Mohamedan brethren but also to all the inhabitants of
the West of the archipelago.74 As Christianity left a deep imprint in the cultural aspect of
Filipinos, it nevertheless totally replaced the ancient practices, the indigenous culture are
deeply rooted that natives still have the mechanism to accept and reject whatever they
seem is appropriate in injecting the new influence in their current society. These type of
defense mechanism as Cortes referred to Phelan, it enabled Filipinos to absorb new
cultural influences without losing his own identity and these characteristics enabled to
survive the shock of the conquest with far less psychological and material damage to
himself than other native races similarly conquered.75
The notion of inculturation could be attributed to the state of culture in the church in
Philippine setting. There were two types of inculturation according to Mercado, the
official and non-official inculturation. By official inculturation, it means that the custom,
73 Redemptoris, Missio no. 63. Cited by Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and
Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine World Publications, 1992), 24

74 Cortes, Rosario. Pangasinan: 1500-1801 (Quezon City: New Day

Publishers. 1974), 75.
75 Phelan op.cit., 26. Cf Corpuz, op.cit., 5-6 (cited by Rosario Cortes)
27 | P a g e

tradition or the belief was approved by Rome, while the unofficial inculturation is what
the people do without the mandate of the Rome such as popular devotion. 76 The people
itself are the inculturators in which inculturation is the result of the interaction between
the experts and the people. Church leaders could also be agents of inculturation in which
they are exposed to foreign or western type of Christianity and at the same time their own
native culture.
The native way of feasting was modified in such a way that these social practices were
turned into milder form of entertainment and expression of faith through celebration
and feasts as Filipinos were fond of celebrations and feasts. For many of the faithful,
their involvement in the church is limited to participation in fiestas, processions, liturgical
celebrations, novenas and popular devotions.77 The transition of Christian way of
expressing faith in Philippines can be said as non-official form of inculturation. This
non-official inculturation of the church is a form of culture change wherein when there is
something foreign is introduced, the item is either rejected or modified before it becomes
part of the culture.78 The culture of Catholicism in Philippine context can be seen as
bizarre for the Western way of Catholicism. The funeral in the Philippines are said to
be more of a social way of grieving wherein there will be gambling, and drink during the
wake as they keep vigil. These activities are meant for the people to be awake to take
76 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.(Manila: Divine
World Publications, 1992), 26.
77 Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic
Church 1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 13.
78 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.(Manila: Divine
World Publications, 1992), 26.
28 | P a g e

turns in watching for the coffin and the money goes to the bereaved family. The belief
was, the corpse must not be left alone for fear that the witches and creatures of the
underworld will steal and eat the entrails of the corpse. 79 Feasts were held in honor of the
town or parish patron saint. Filipinos were fond of saints especially in domestic setting
wherein there were majorities who own numerous saints in their altar. These saints served
like as the other gods in the pre-hispanic religion of the Filipino.
A person may pray to the Almighty directly but his chances of getting what he
wants are slim. Thus saints are called upon or asked to intercede for the people
with the Higher Divinity for the recovery of lost things, good health, safe voyage,
good harvest, long life, and so on. There are images of different saints in almost
all Catholic houses in the rural areas. Most of these imagell are made of wood.
This preference for wood is borne by the belief that, according to old folks in
Panay, Central Philippines, wooden saints can hear better than those made of
stone, marble, or plaster of Paris. The images, it must be remembered, can only
have power to intercede for the people with God after these have been blessed
with Holy Water by the parish priest.80

Processions were still practiced in which Flores de Mayo is annually celebrated every
May is a popular procession for the devotees of Blessed Virgin Mary. The feast of Black
Nazarene in Quiapo is one of the most anticipated processions every year for it is
believed that the relic of Black Nazarene is miraculous that in result, thousands of people
participate in this procession that lasts for a day. There are also celebrated based on the
liturgical calendar of the church for example Christmas starts early in Philippines and one
of the awaited practice every Christmas is the nine-day mass of Misa de Gallo before the
25th of December, the Advent supposed to be a somber preparation for Christmas but for
Filipinos, the whole Advent is already Christmas and the decorations were still retained
79 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.(Manila: Divine
World Publications, 1992), 21.
80 Jocano, Landa F. Filipino Catholicism: A Case Study in Religious Change, 47.

29 | P a g e

until the Feast of the Epiphany but after the 25th of December the ordinary greeting
could be heard is more of Happy New Year than Merry Christmas. 81 Holy Week
commemorates the sufferings or the Passion of Christ in redeeming the sinners, part of
this practice is the Visita Iglesia or the visiting of different churches in completion of the
Station of the Cross (which shortly narrates the chronological events in the sufferings of
Christ). During holy week, a Filipino may carry a large wooden cross or whip his back in
penance for sin. "These are harmless forms of expressing an individual's religious
convictions, of doing his penance, and are therefore permitted." 82On the ninth day of
January, crowds in Manila jostle with one another, and get hurt in the process - just to see
and touch the image of the Nazarene. On Good Friday, cities and towns have huge
processions. Statues of Christ, the Virgin Mary, the apostles, scenes of the crucifixion,
and a glass coffin with the Christ are paraded through the streets. 83 A spiritual ritual still
on Holy Week, is the reading of the Passion, Pabasa ng Pasiyon which is either chanted
or sung. The Eater Sunday which commemorates the resurrection of Christ was
celebrated after Holy Week, in which the Salubong; the encounter of Mary to his risen
son has been reenacted, albeit in contemporary, Easter Sunday was much of a Western
concept and the solemnity were diminishing. The visiting of tombs of the loved ones
where families were gathered in cemeteries to remember the departed ones every 1 st of
November in All Saints Day is very much practice in contemporary. There are three

81 Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.(Manila: Divine

World Publications, 1992), 26.
82 Jocano, Landa F. Filipino Catholicism: A Case Study in Religious Change, 60.
83 Rev. Tangelder. The Winds of Change in Roman Catholic Church.
30 | P a g e

popular novenas in Manila such as the novena for Black Nazarene in Quiapo church,
the novena to St. Jude and Our Lady of Perpetual Help in Baclaran Church where the
devotees asks for special favor. These practices are for many of the Catholics are
beautiful and meaningful but for some, it is an extension of their involvement in the life
of the church.84
These could be a manifestation of syncretized culture of the Western and Filipino way of
expressing religion. The active involvement of the people and usage of things that would
highlight their belief intensified the interest of the Filipinos in being part of Catholic
believers including the usage of the ointments, rituals using (holy) water, elicits much
interest to the Filipinos.85 Religious transformation and mixing of various elements in
Philippine folk Catholicism, in essence did fit the pattern of transformative continuity 86
and the elements that were pre-Christian and similar in the structure to the new religion
were the basis for a Filipinization of Catholicism, as much or even more than a simple
survival of peripheral and heretical elements.87

84Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic Church

1965-1981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988), 13.
85 MacDonald Charles J-H. Folk Christianity and Pre-Spanish Religions in the
Philippines in Philippine Studies Vol. 52, No.1 Global/Local (Ateneo de Manila Univ.
Press, 2004), 82.

86 It refers to using the same belief structure within a new framework or by

simply transposing a preexisting structure into a new idiom. (MacDonald,
2004, 83)
87MacDonald Charles J-H. Folk Christianity and Pre-Spanish Religions in the
Philippines in Philippine Studies Vol. 52, No.1 Global/Local (Ateneo de Manila Univ.
Press, 2004), 84.

31 | P a g e

VI.

Conclusion

In conclusion, it is inevitable for a culture to be moving towards change and

modification, for in every culture it never remains static. Culture is ever changing as a
response to the alterations in the peoples way of life and behavior that are products of the
long history, and these changes manifest in the religious practices of Christian believers.
The question of why the catholic believers were still among the majority of the
population despite of the nationalist attempts of the Filipino founders of different
Christian religion and the waves of modifications brought by the pacification of different
Western and Asian colonizers is a gap to be considered. It is also interesting to note that
among all the Southeast Asian nations, the Philippines was the most Western in terms
of religion; why the Philippines did not became followers of Islam, Hinduism, or
Buddhism that is more of an Asian religion in the Southeast Asia? Is the catholic
doctrines were the reason for the loyalty of the people in the church? Or the cultural
practices that comes with it? I would like to study the transformation of the religious
practices and culture of the church in the case of Mangaldan and how it was changed.
What are the factors that come along with these cultural changes? It is also a gap to
consider the situation of the clergy of Mangaldan during the succeeding years after the
1989, since Fr. Magno only talked about the transition of the evangelization of
Mangaldan only in the year 1600-1898. I would like to see the practices that are still
being practices and what are not? And the reasons behind the vanished cultural practice in
the Catholic religion or why did it remain?

32 | P a g e

Religious practices may be a manifestation of how people think and behave that
would seemingly mirror their way of strengthening their faith. In an attempt to
understand further the hows and whys of Catholic practices, it is important to consider
the aid of the other disciplines in social sciences like Anthropolgy, Sociology and
Psychology to further grasp the condition of the peoples response and their adapting
nature to these cultural changes and how it transform their cognition and behavior in the
context of the ever changing society in Philippine context, and expressing Christian faith.

Operationalization

Apostolate- an association of persons dedicated to the propagation of a religion or a

doctrine.
Bandit - a criminal who attacks and steals from travelers and who is often a member of a
group of criminals.
Bereave- to take away (a valued or necessary possession) especially by force; to deprive
of something
Catalyst- an agent that provokes or speeds significant change or action.
Chaplain- a priest or other Christian religious leader who performs religious services for
a military group (such as the army) or for a prison, hospital, etc.
Clergy- people (such as priests) who are the leaders of a religion and who perform
religious services.
Colonize- to create a colony in or on (a place) : to take control of (an area) and send
people to live there.
Doctrine - a principle or position or the body of principles in a branch of knowledge or
system of belief; a set of ideas or beliefs that are taught or believed to be true
Evangelize- to try to convert (a group or area) to a different religion (especially
Christianity).

33 | P a g e

Fervent- felt very strongly ; having or showing very strong feelings.

Hostile- of or relating to an enemy; not friendly; having or showing unfriendly feelings;
unpleasant or harsh.
Missionary- a person who is sent to a foreign country to do religious work (such as to
convince people to join a religion or to help people who are sick, poor, etc.)
Pacify- to cause (someone who is angry or upset) to become calm or quiet; to cause or
force (a country, a violent group of people, etc.) to become peaceful.
Penance- something that you do or are given to do in order to show that you are sad or
sorry about doing something wrong.
Relinquish- to give up (something) : to give (something, such as power, control, or
possession) to another person or group.
Superficial-concerned only with what is obvious or apparent : not thorough or complete;
affecting only the outer part or surface of something ;not deep or serious; lying close to
the surface.
Superimpose- to place or lay (something) over something else.
Syncretism - the combination of different forms of belief or practice; the fusion of two or
more originally different inflectional forms.
Theology - the study of religious faith, practice, and experience; the study of God and
God's relation to the world; a system of religious beliefs or ideas.
Tribunal- a kind of court that has authority in a specific area.

34 | P a g e

References:
Anderson, Gerald H. Studies in Philippine Church History. (Cornell Univ. Press, 1969).
Bernard, Miguel. The Christianization of the Philippines: Problems and Perspectives.
(Manila: The Fil. Book Guild, 1972)
Cornelio, Jayeel. Institutional Religion and Modernity-in-Transition: Christianitys
Innovations in the Philippines and Latin America. (
https://www.academia.edu/152205/Institutional_Religion_and_Modernity-inTransition_Christianity_s_Innovations_in_the_Philippines_and_Latin_America)
Accessed March 30, 2015.
Cortes, Rosario. Pangasinan 1572-1800. (Q.C: Ney Day Publishers, 1974)
_____________, Pangasinan 1800-1901. (Q.C: Ney Day Publishers, 1990)
De Torre, Joseph M. Social Morals: the Church Speaks on Society. Second Edition.
(Manila: Southeast Asian Science Foundation, Inc. 1987), 67.
De la Torre, Visitacion. Faith Enshrined: Churches of Pangasinan. (Manila, 1997.)
Fernandez, Pablo. History of the Church in the Philippines (1521-1898). (Manila:
Navotas Press, 1979)
Fogg, Kevin. Demographics on Religion in Maritime Southeast Asia. (
http://www.academia.edu/5966531/Demographics_on_Religion_in_Maritime_South
east_Asia) Accessed March 16, 2015.
Giordano, Pasquale T. Awakening to Mission: The Philippine Catholic Church 19651981. (Quezon City: New Day Publishers. 1988)
Jocano, Landa F. Filipino Catholicism: A Case Study of Religious Change
35 | P a g e

(http://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-05-01-1967/jocano-filipino-catholicismcase-study-religious-change.pdf) Accessed March 29, 2015.

Jones, Arun W. Christian missions in the American empire. Episcopalians in northern
Luzon, the Philippines,19021946 (Studies in the Intercultural History of
Christianity, 132.) in Jnl of Ecclesiastical History, Vol. 55, No. 3, July 2004.
(United Kingdom Cambridge University Press,2004)
Kwantes, Anne C. Chapters in Philippine Church History. (Manila: OMF Literature Inc.,
2001),
Lapiz, Ed. Paano Maging Pilipininong Kristiyano: Becoming a Filipino Christian.
(Makati City: Kaloob, 1997),
Le Roy, James. Philippine Circa 1900: Philippine Life in Town and Country. (Manila:
Filipiniana Book Guild, 1968)
MacDonald Charles J-H. Folk Christianity and Pre-Spanish Religions in the
Philippines in Philippine Studies Vol. 52, No.1 Global/Local (Ateneo de Manila
Univ. Press, 2004), 80.
(http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/42633685?
uid=2477664693&uid=2&uid=
60&uid=3738824&uid=3&uid=2134&uid=70&uid=2477664683&purchasetype=none&accessType=none&sid=21105824252791&showMyJstorPss=false&s
eq=4&showAccess=false) Accessed on March 30, 2015
Magno, Rafael. Mangaldan (1600-1898). (Dagupan: Maramba Press, 1981)
Mercado, Leonardo, N. Inculturation and Filipino Theology.( Manila: Divine World
Publications, 1992)
Phelan, John Leddy. The Hispanization of the Philippines: Spanish Aims and Filipino
Responses. 1565-1700. (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1959)
Rev. Tangelder. Reformed Reflections: The Winds of Change in the Roman Catholic
Church 1977 - 1979 . Bacolod City. (http://www.reformedreflections.ca/otherreligions/rc-winds-of-change.html) Accessed on March 29, 2015

36 | P a g e