Reservoir Fluid

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES
INTRODUCTION OF PHASE BEHAVIOR

Phase behavior is a condition of temperature and pressure for which different phases can exist.
PHASE
Phase is any homogeneous and physically distinct part of a system which is separated from other parts
by definite boundary surfaces.
PHASE DIAGRAM
We understand phase behavior by using phase diagram and phase diagram is a graph of pressure
plotted against temperature showing the conditions under which various phases of a substance will be
present.
Q. How we recognize the phase?
A. If the reservoir temperature is greater than critical temperature then it is gas reservoir and if the
reservoir temperature is less than critical temperature then it is oil reservoir. No of wells, perforations
and reserves calculation all based on phase present in reservoir.
PURE SUBSTANCE
Pure substance is a single substance like C1, C2 etc. If we have combination of substances like
combination of propane and heptane then it does not remain pure substance.
PHASE DIAGRAM OF PURE SUBSTANCE
Vapor pressure line

Vapor pressure line is a line separates the pressure, temperature conditions for which the substance is a
liquid from the conditions for which substance is a gas. In simple words, it separates liquid and gas.
PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)
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For example, water in Karachi at room temperature is in liquid state and if we boil it in beaker which is
open to atmosphere (i.e. pressure remains same) then temperature increases and at vapor pressure
line, it converts from liquid to gas.
At constant temperature
As we remove Hg, pressure declines but we let the temperature constant by providing heat by external
means. As we further remove Hg, pressure declines to vapor pressure and liquid starts converting into
gas but as we remove more Hg, pressure does not decline but convert remaining liquid into gas. When
liquid completely converts into gas and we remove Hg then pressure declines.
Bubble point and dew point of a pure substance occurs at same point which is on vapor pressure line.
Bubble point pressure is a pressure at which first bubble of gas escape. For pure substance, bubble point
pressure and vapor pressure are same because complete liquid becomes gas at same pressure. But
when two or more components are present then bubble point pressure and vapor pressure will be
different. Bubble point pressure will be the pressure at which first bubble of gas escapes but vapor
pressure of different components occur at different pressures.
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When we go from 1 to 2 then point on vapor pressure line is called bubble point. If we go from 2 to 1
then point on vapor pressure line is called dew point.
At constant pressure
As we provide heat, temperature increases but we let the pressure constant by providing heat by
removing Hg. As temperature increases further, liquid starts converting into gas but as we provide more
heat, temperature does not increase but convert remaining liquid into gas. When liquid completely
converts into gas and we remove Hg then temperature increases.
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Bubble point and dew point of a pure substance occurs at same point which is on vapor pressure line.
When we go from 1 to 2 then point on vapor pressure line is called bubble point. If we go from 2 to 1
then point on vapor pressure line is called dew point.
Variation of bubble point with temperature
Bubble point pressure increases with temperature. At higher temperature T2, bubble point pressure PB2
is greater as compared to bubble point pressure PB1 at low temperature T1.
How phase diagram is made?

Phase diagram can be made by getting points of different vapor pressures at different constant
temperatures.
At constant temperature 500C, we get point of vapor pressure (we decrease pressure and pressure at
which liquid converts into gas is vapor pressure) and similarly for 600C, 700C etc. and plot the curve from
these points to get the phase diagram.
Vapor pressure can occur at any temperature for which we should know corresponding pressure. That is
the reason at high altitude vapor pressure is less because temperature is less.
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Critical point
The upper limit of vapor pressure line is the critical point and the temperature and pressure represented
by this point is called critical temperature and critical pressure respectively.
Critical temperature for pure substance
Critical temperature may be defined as the temperature above which gas cant be liquefied.
Above critical temperature, no liquid phase and only gas phase is present and it cant be liquefied as
well.
Gas at state 1 can be liquefied as state 2 is liquid and hence, temperature is less than critical
temperature that is why reservoir temperature less than critical temperature are oil reservoir. On the
other hand, gas at state 4 cant be liquefied and hence temperature is greater than critical temperature.
Triple point
The lower limit of vapor pressure line is triple point. The point represents the temperature and pressure
at which solid, liquid and gas co-exist.
Sublimation pressure line
Sublimation pressure line separates the condition for which substance in solid to a substance in a gas.
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Melting point line
Melting point line separates the condition for which substance in solid to a substance in a liquid.
PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM
Considering a pressure starting at point with a substance in liquid phase, temperature is held constant
and volume is increased (slightly)by removal of mercury (because liquid is nearly incompressible). This
caused a reduction in pressure from initial pressure to vapor pressure. When the pressure is reduced to
vapor pressure, gas begins to form and further increases in volume caused vaporization of the liquid so
at constant pressure, all liquid converts to gas (It is similar to the case of constant pressure in which as
temperature reaches to boiling point, the heat we provide is utilized in changing the phase of liquid and
not in increase of temperature, same is here, the expansion after bubble point pressure does not
decrease the pressure but utilized in changing the phase of liquid). Further decrease in pressure only
causes expansion of gas.
Illustration
Initially liquid is incompressible and hence with decrease in pressure due to removal of mercury, volume
slightly increases. When first bubble of gas comes out then it is called bubble point and pressure does
not change until all liquid converts into gas. A point at which all liquid converts into gas or first liquid
drop is formed from gas (if we see from reverse direction) is called dew point. Pressure of both bubble
point and dew point remains same. After all liquid converts into gas, further decline of pressure by
removal of mercury only cause expansion of gas i.e. increase of volume.
If the temperature is above critical temperature then only gas expansion occurs because only gas phase
is present above critical temperature.
The bubble point and dew point of pure substance lie at same point or pressure because for pure
substance there will be a particular pressure at which the liquid transforms into gas (vapor pressure) and
this will be the same pressure (if we move from low pressure to high pressure) at which the gas will
convert into liquid (dew point).
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This diagram is drawn at one temperature but if we draw at higher temperatures then vapor pressure
decreases.
As we go towards higher temperatures, the bubble point pressure increases and the region in which the
liquid and gas both exists decreases and as we move towards higher temperatures then a temperature
comes when there will be no distinction between liquid and gas phase such that the region of liquid +
gas phase is represented by a single point called critical point and the temperature and pressure at this
point are called critical temperatures and pressures, after this point as temperature is increased, only
gas exists and the graph will be curve as shown in the following graph:
The above figure shows more nearly completed pressure volume diagram. The dashed line shows the
locus of all bubble points and dew point. The area within the dashed line indicates condition for which
liquid and gas co-exist, often this area is called saturation envelope.
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DENSITY-TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR PURE SUBSTANCE
How this graph is drawn can be understood by the pressure volume diagram of pure substance, if we
draw the PV diagram at temperatures T1 and T2 such that T2>T1 then as we have already discussed that
at higher temperature, the region in which both liquid and gas exists shortens such that at higher
temperature the saturated liquid (liquid that is about to vaporize) volume increases while saturated
vapor (vapor that is about to condense) decreases, this is because at higher temperature the heat of
vaporization is less (heat that is required to completely convert the liquid phase into vapor phase) as
molecules are already energetic and need less heat to be able to break the bonding forces of liquid and
converts into gaseous phase. Since the mass of sample is constant in the cell so the density of saturated
liquid decreases as temperature increases while that of saturated vapor increases with increase in
temperature. The densities of saturated liquid and saturated vapor becomes identical at critical point (as
at critical point there will be no distinction between the saturated liquid and saturated gas phase and
both are represented by single point having same volume so same density at critical point. If we take
average of densities of liquid and gas phases and plot them against their relevant temperatures then
graph will be a straight line passing through the critical point and this property is known as Law of
Rectilinear Diameter. From this graph we can find the critical temperature of the substance and
moreover the densities of liquid and gas at any given temperature.
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TWO COMPONENT MIXTURES
A petroleum engineer never deals with any mixture containing two pure substances but 100s of
pure substances are present in petroleum obtained from well so first we will discuss the phase behavior
of two component mixture and then amplify the concept for multi component mixture. Moreover, the
petroleum engineer is concerned with only liquid and gaseous form of hydrocarbons so the phase
diagram we study will be for liquid and gas only and not for solids. The solid consideration is important
when we have to avoid the hydrate formation in pipe lines during transportation so we have to maintain
the temperature in transportation line so that it may not reach to hydrate forming temperature at which
the gas molecules form hydrate crystals with water molecules.
PHASE DIAGRAM OF TWO COMPONENT MIXTURES

The behavior of two component mixtures is not as simple as the behavior of pure substance. In
case of pure substance the two phase region is represented by a single line because for pure substance
the bubble point and dew point lie at the same pressure but in case of two component mixtures we
have a broad region in which the two phases co-exists and the bubble point and dew point also do not
lie at same pressure because in case of mixture at bubble point some part of mixture or some molecules
from liquid phase are able to leave the liquid phase but not the whole liquid converts into vapor phase
as occurs in case of pure substance which has a definite vapor pressure but in case of mixture the
fraction of the components of the mixture are vaporized at each step with pressure until dew point
when all become gas. The PT phase diagram for two component mixture is as follows:
Brief explanation:
The phase diagram is bounded by bubble point pressure line and dew point line. At pressure P1,
the mixture is liquid, the liquid expands and pressure drops until the pressure reaches the point at which
a few molecules are able to leave liquid and form a small bubble of gas this is the bubble point, as
pressure is further reduced below bubble point pressure additional gas appears, further expansion will
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lead to a point where the two components in the mixture have completely transformed into vapor that
is the dew point (which can also be defined as the point where first drop of liquid forms), as pressure is
further reduced below due point only gas will appear and no liquid. The dotted line shows how much of
the mixture contains liquid contents such that if our state lies at line of 25% means 25% of the mixture is
in liquid state and 75% is gas or vapor, these dotted lines are called as iso-vols or Quality lines which
shows the temperature and pressure conditions of the same amount of liquid means along the 75% line,
75% liquid will exists at different temperature and pressure conditions. These can be plotted such that
for example if we are performing the experiment at constant temperature then during expansion, when
the liquid volume reaches to 75% of total cell volume (as cell is transparent and can be visualized), the
cell pressure at this point can be determined and can be plotted on the graph.
Illustration:
The diagram is obtained from the same experiment as that for pure substance, the experiment
is called the Flash Vaporization in which we find pressure and volume of the cell at constant
temperature and perform the experiment at different temperatures and form the PV diagram and then
form the phase envelope, the main purpose of the experiment is to find the bubble point pressure. If we
talk about the constant temperature process that takes place from pressure 1 to 2 as shown by the
vertical line in the diagram, then initially at pressure P1 the two components (say methane and ethane)
were liquid, as mercury is removed from the cell, expansion of liquid takes place but to negligible extent
and pressure drops. The pressure continue to drop until bubble point pressure reaches at which the first
bubble of gas will liberate now as further mercury is removed the pressure of the mixture still drops
because in case of mixture, the whole mixture cannot be vaporized at same pressure because of the
variation among the bonding forces of the components as pressure continue to drop up to dew point as
at every step the vapors are produced from liquid but this phase change process is not ordinary as it the
phase change process of mixture and not the pure substance.
So in short ultimately, we will reach finally to a point when both methane and ethane will be
completely transformed into gas or vapor phase this the dew point or we can say that dew point is the
point when the first drop of liquid will form (such that when we talk about from low pressure to high
pressure the heaviest component will first condense into liquid as it has more ability of being in liquid
phase as compared to lighter components so its first drop of liquid when forms, the pressure at this
point is the dew point).
Critical point:
For two component mixture, it is defined as the point where the bubble point pressure line and
dew point line joins. The definition of critical point that is the point above which only gas exists (such
that above temperature and pressure at critical point) is false for two component mixture because
seeing the phase diagram, the maximum pressure of the diagram is above the critical point and also
maximum temperature of the diagram is also not lie at critical point but at point ahead of it so it is not
necessary that always gas will exist at temperature and pressure above critical point but both phases
can co-exist.
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Cricondentherm:
It is the maximum temperature of the mixture above which only gas will exist regardless of
pressure and saturation envelope ends there.
Cricondenbar:
The maximum pressure of phase envelope is cricondenbar and it is the pressure above which no
gas will form regardless of temperature
The phase diagram of two component mixture will always form between the vapor pressure
lines of the components in pure form as shown in the following figure:
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The critical temperature of the mixture is in between the critical temperatures of the two
components in pure form while critical pressure of the mixture will always be at a greater value as
compared to critical pressures of both components in pure form.
The location of the phase diagram of the mixture between the vapor pressure lines of the
components in pure form depends upon the percentage composition of each component. In the
diagram as the % composition of CA is increased, the phase diagram tends to switch towards its (CAs)
vapor pressure line and same is the case when we increase the % composition of CB, the diagram will
switch towards its vapor pressure line, In short at 50% CA and 50% CB composition, the phase diagram
will be at center also the percentage composition affects the size of the envelope. The following figure
shows the phase diagrams of eight mixtures of methane and ethane with different percentage
compositions (shown in small box at left hand side of figure), the figure illustrates the above three
paragraphs including this. The dotted line joins the critical points of all phase diagrams.
Problem:
The densities of methane liquid and gas in equilibrium along vapor pressure line (liquid and
gas both coexist at vapor pressure line) are given below; estimate the density of methane at its critical
point of -116.7oF.
Temperature
-253
-235
-217
-199
-181
Density (lb/ft3)
Saturated liquid
Saturated Vapor
26.17
0.1443
25.25
0.2747
24.25
0.4766
23.18
0.7744
21.89
1.202
Mean Density
13.15715
12.76235
12.3633
11.9772
11.546
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RESULT: the density of methane at its critical point of -116.7oF is 10.15 lb/ft3.
PV DIAGRAM FOR TWO COMPONENT MIXTURE
Explanation:
If the experiment is performed at constant temperature, the phase diagram will be like as
shown in above figure. If we take example of methane and ethane mixture then at high pressure P 1 the
mixture will be liquid, as mixture is made to expand the pressure will reduce until point 2. The expansion
in liquid is negligible as compared to pressure drop as liquids are incompressible. At pressure P 2, bubble
point has reached such that few bubbles of the gas have evolved. After bubble point further expansion
causes the pressure drop of the mixture as at each step the liquid fraction of the mixture converts into
vapor phase up to dew point where all mixture converts into vapor phase. After dew point only gas
exists which expands largely with small pressure drop as gas is highly compressible.
During the flash vaporization experiment, we can also find the composition of the fluid in the
cell. The composition is important in designing the surface plant facility for production and also in
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economics. For example we have made the phase diagram of reservoir fluid now we have compressed
the fluid at initial reservoir pressure and reservoir temperature in the cell and find the composition of
the fluid (say which is in liquid phase) by flowing the fluid to chromatograph, the composition will tell us
that at this reservoir pressure we will have these components in the fluid, decrease pressure and
similarly at each pressure we find the composition which gives the idea about the reservoir fluid
composition that is being produced at each step because at each pressure drop the composition will be
varying as at each step the heavy fractions will continue to vaporize and start converting into gas.
RETROGRADE CONDENSATION:
We know that at constant temperature a decrease in pressure causes a liquid to convert into gas for
pure substance, this same phenomenon occurs for mixture of two or more components but the
restriction is that the temperature should be below critical temperature, which we have already studied.
We also know that for pure substance, it is the critical temperature that above which if temperature is
there then gas cannot be liquefied but for mixture it is the cricondentherm. The region between the
critical temperature and cricondentherm is called retrograde gas condensate as in this region with
expansion and pressure drop, gas is liquefied to liquid such that a reverse phenomenon occurs which
one expects. Retrograde means reverse. These reservoirs are initially gas reservoirs and only gas exists if
pressure is above the first dew point Pd1. If we have a gas at temperature between Tc and
cricondentherm and pressure P1, then as expansion is made at constant temperature, the pressure is
dropped and separation is occurred between the heavy and light components and the molecular
attraction among heavy components increases which causes them to condense to form liquid as
pressure reaches to Pd1 (first dew point pressure or retrograde dew point). As pressure is much
lowered, the concentration of liquid increases and up to pressure P2 25% of the mixture will exist as
liquid and only 75% will be gas. As pressure is much lowered from P2, then the heavy components that
have condensed again convert into vapors as molecular forces tend to be weaker, at this low pressure
and as pressure is dropped up to second dew point Pd2 all liquid become vapor and at pressure P3 only
gas exists. In case of mixture, the gas that exists between critical point and cricondentherm can be
liquefied but not the gas that exists above the cricondentherm.
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Retrograde gas condensate reservoir can be of two types:
Lean gas reservoir

Rich gas reservoir
RICH RETROGRADE GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIR

In these types of reservoirs, heavier component quantity is more (more liquid contents will be there
condensed). Reservoir temperature is near to critical temperature and liquid drop out will be more in
reservoir.
LEAN RETROGRADE GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIR
In these types of reservoirs, heavier component quantity is less (less liquid contents will be there
condensed). Reservoir temperature is near to cricondentherm and liquid drop out will be less in
reservoir.
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
At surface, we can also distinguish between rich and lean retrograde gas condensate reservoir if we
dont have phase diagram because it is too expensive job. Field identification of rich retrograde reservoir
is that quantity of oil at surface is greater than 100bbl/MMscf and for lean retrograde reservoir; quantity
of oil is less than 100 bbl/MMscf.
CONDENSATE
The liquid which drops out after the dew point pressure is called condensate. It causes two main
problems:
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It reduces the gas relative permeability so overall productivity of gas reservoir decreases.
A large amount of valuable condensate is left in the reservoir.
PRESSURE PROFILE
As we move towards perforation, pressure declines. We try to maintain well flowing pressure above
dew point pressure.
Initially say reservoir pressure is 5000psi and well flowing pressure is 3000psi then pressure difference is
2000psi. We have to maintain pressure difference because E&P company sign agreement at particular
flow rate. As the reservoir pressure decline, say to 4700 psi we have to equally drop well flowing
pressure i.e. to 2700 psi so that flow rate remains same. Dew point pressure is say 2500 psi and as we
decrease well flowing pressure due to decrease in reservoir pressure then point come when well flowing
pressure decreases below dew point pressure then liquid drop out occurs in well bore and region of
liquid drop out forms known as condensate banking which results in two main problems. Due to
formation of condensate banking, it reduces relative permeability of gas because it restricts flow of gas.
Condensate is very valuable for us to sell. Before dew point pressure, if condensate gas ratio (CGR) is
150bbl/MMscf then after dew point pressure we get less condensate gas ratio (CGR) say 100bbl/MMscf.
As the reservoir pressure declines more, condensate banking region increases and relative permeability
of gas decreases furthermore and more valuable condensate left in the reservoir.
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We try to maintain well flowing pressure above dew point pressure so that liquid drop out occur either
in the well bore or in surface equipments.
Reservoir engineer main task is to increase net present value (NPV).
TREATMENT METHOD OF CONDENSATE BANKING
Pressure maintenance method

Production optimization method
PRESSURE MAINTENANCE METHOD

Water flooding
Gas recycling
Water flooding
Through injection well, we inject water so that reservoir pressure maintains and initial pressure curve
remains same and hence, well flowing pressure always remains higher than dew point pressure and
liquid drop out will not occur in reservoir.
This method is not feasible for gas reservoir as in case of water drive, water encroaches and the main
mechanism of gas i.e. expansion ends.
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Gas recycling
To maintain condensate gas ratio (CGR), we inject same gas through injection well which we has
produced which maintain pressure fully or partially. We sell condensate to get profit and inject the
recovered gas.
Gas recycling can be done by;
Partial pressure maintenance
Full pressure maintenance
Partial pressure maintenance
If we inject only the gas produce then it partially maintain the pressure. It is because we have not
injected same amount of mass which we produced from reservoir as we separate the condensate and
sell it.
Full pressure maintenance
If we inject same mass which we produced from reservoir then it fully maintain the pressure. When we
separate the condensate and gas, gas recovered will be combined with bought gas equivalent to the
mass of condensate separated and injected through injection well so that pressure can be fully
maintained.
TYPES OF RESERVOIR FLUID
Black oil
Volatile oil
Retrograde reservoir
Dry gas
Wet gas
FIVE SPOT AND SEVEN SPOT
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PRODUCTION OPTIMIZATION
Production optimization can be done in two ways:
Hydraulic fracturing
Solvent injection
Hydraulic fracturing
Hydraulic fracturing is a well stimulation technique in which a fluid is pumped down casing under high
pressure to artificially fracture a reservoir rock.
Condensate banking area is removed by hydraulic fracturing. Well flowing pressure now becomes
greater than dew point pressure but it is not a permanent solution because condensate banking region
starts forming again because reservoir pressure declines with production and we have to
correspondingly decrease well flowing pressure to maintain flow rate and point comes when the well
flowing pressure decreases below dew point pressure.
Solvent injection
Solvent is injected which mobiles the condensate so that it can be recovered.
CLAUSIUS-CLAPEYRON EQUATION
According to Clapeyron equation
(
This equation expresses the relationship between the vapor pressure and temperature where
is the
rate of change of vapor pressure with temperature which is the slope of vapor pressure line.
Where;
LV = heat of vaporization
VMG VML = change in volume of 1 mole as it goes from liquid to gas
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Since, VMG >>> VML

------ (1)
Since,
So, equation (1) becomes
( )
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EXAMPLE 2-1:
Plot the vapor pressure of n-hexane in such a way that it will result in a straight line:
SOLUTION:
For this we use the following formula:
( )
Temperature (T)
(In Fahrenheit)
Temperature (T)
(In Rankine)
Vapor Pressure
(Pv)
(In psia)
1/T
(R-1)
ln(Pv)
155.7
199.4
269.1
331.9
408.9
454.6
615.7
659.4
729.1
791.9
868.9
914.6
14.7
29.4
73.5
147
293.9
435
0.001624168
0.00151653
0.001371554
0.001262786
0.00115088
0.001093374
2.687847494
3.380994674
4.297285406
4.990432587
5.683239573
6.075346031
7
6
l 5
n 4
(
)
P 3
v 2
1
0
0.001
0.0011
0.0012
0.0013
0.0014
0.0015
0.0016
0.0017
1/T
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Problem:
Vapor pressure data of CO2 are given below, Calculate vapor pressure at 40F.
Temperature (Rankine)
420.9
458
482.5
Vapor pressure
(Pv)
147
293.9
440.9
ln (Pv)
1/T
4.990433 0.002376
5.68324 0.002183
6.088818 0.002073
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0.002
0.00205 0.0021 0.00215 0.0022 0.00225 0.0023 0.00235 0.0024
At 40 degree fahrenheit or 500 degree rankine, we have 1/T = 0.002.

So at 1/T = 0.002, lnPv from graph is 6.4
The value of R in field units is 10.73 psia.ft3/lb-mole.oR.

For pure substance if temperature is above Tc then it is gas and if below Tc then it could either be totally
liquid, liquid and gas both or only gas depending on pressure such that for pressure above Pv, liquid; for
pressure equal to Pv, both; and for pressure below Pv, gas only.
NOTE: Exercise and example questions are in assignment
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Problem:
Pure 2-methyl pentane is held in a closed container at 150oF. Both liquid and gas are present,
what is the pressure?
Solution:
The pressure will be equal to the vapor pressure of it at 150oF which is 17.5 psia.
Problem:
A sealed container with volume of 3 cu-ft holds 7 lb of n-butane at 300oF, what is the volume
of gas and liquid in the container?
Solution:
Since the temperature is below critical temperature and pressure is not given, we assume it to
have both liquid and gas as mentioned in the question.
The total mass in the container will be:
From the n-butane density temperature graph see values of densities at given temperature.
(
Density of liquid = 0.31 gm/cc =
(as 1kg=2.2lb and

1ft=30.48 cm)
Density of gas = 0.15 gm/cc =
COMPOSITION DIAGRAM FOR TWO COMPONENT MIXTURE:

The composition diagram shows the composition of mixture at any pressure and temperature
conditions. By composition we mean mole fractions of gas and liquid present in the mixture at that
pressure and temperature and moreover in the gaseous phase we can determine the mole fractions of
each component exists as gas and similarly mole fractions of each component exists as liquid in the
liquid phase of the mixture.
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The composition diagram is shown below:
70%
The diagram is made with the same experiment as the phase diagram was made up of. We will
be taking the example of mixture of methane and ethane. The phase diagram is made with reference to
the composition (in mole %) of one component in the mixture. In two phase mixture, knowing mole % of
one component, the mole % of the other component is simple to evaluate as their sum is 100%.
We are assuming that this diagram is made with reference to methane rather than ethane. If we
have prepared the mixture taking 70% lb-moles of methane (or we can say in mass of 1 lb-mole mixture,
methane will be 0.7 lb-mole and ethane will be 0.3 lb-mole). Now we will take this mixture to PVT cell
and apply pressure of P4 at which all mixture will be liquid. Since the pressure of the cell will remain
constant so the diagram is made for constant temperature and it changes with change in temperature.
As up to bubble point pressure, all mixture remain liquid so no problem is up to here, as bubble point
reaches, we can plot the point on graph at 70% methane composition (as during the whole process, the
composition of methane or mole % of methane will remain same in the mixture, how ever the total
mole % of methane will be divided between liquid and gas in the region between bubble point pressure
and dew point pressure) similarly at pressures below dew point pressure, the whole mixture remain gas
so no problem will be there too (when dew point comes, we can also plot the point), similarly repeating
same experiment for different composition of methane we can note bubble points and dew points and
can obtain the curve. The problem will arise in the region between bubble point and dew point in which
the two phases will exist.
Now if we want to find the composition of mixture (composition of liquid and gas in the mixture)
at a particular pressure and temperature value knowing the mole % of the components in the mixture
(binary mixture). Seeing the mole % of the component in the mixture for which composition diagram is
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given along x-axis and the pressure on y-axis and plot the point in the envelope (envelope at given
temperature) such that point 1. From this point, we draw horizontal line joining bubble point line and
dew point lines at points 2 and 3. Now we can evaluate the following parameters:
(
)
(
Further the composition of gas can be determined by flashing the gas to gas chromatograph.
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IDEAL GAS
The assumptions for ideal gases are:
The volume occupied by the molecules is insignificant.

There are no attractive forces or repulsive forces.
The collisions are perfectly elastic.
For ideal gas we can use equation of state, the equation is called state equation as it includes all
variables such as temperature, pressure and volume, needed to define state of gas. The equation of
state is:
P=pressure in psia
V=volume in cu-ft
N=no. of moles in lb-mole=mass (lb)/molecular mass (lb-mole)
T=temperature in rankine
R= gas constant= 10.73 (psia.cu-ft/lb-mole.oR)
Problem:
Calculate mass of ethane gas at 100 psia and 68oF in a cylinder with volume of 3.2 cu-ft, assume
ethane is an ideal gas.
Solution:
Using equation of state:
(
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF GAS:
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Problem:
Calculate density of ethane at the conditions given in previous example. Assume it as ideal gas.
Solution:
The molecular weight of mixture of gas (such that air or any other) is called apparent molecular
weight.
Problem:
Dry air is a gas mixture consisting of nitrogen, oxygen and small amount of other gases.
Calculate apparent molecular weight of air.
Components
Composition (mole fraction)
Nitrogen
0.78
Oxygen
0.21
Argon
0.01
Solution:
Problem:
Calculate specific gravity of gas with the following data:
Components
Composition (mole fraction)
C1
0.85
C2
0.09
C3
0.04
n-C4
0.02
Page 27

Solution:
( )
(
Page 28

For Water
Specific weight of gas is given by;
GAS DEVIATION FACTOR (Z)
Vactual and Videal are both measured at same temperature and pressure condition.
At low pressure, molecules are very far so, no attraction and repulsion is present between
molecules and Vactual = Videal
At high pressure, molecules are very near so, attraction and repulsion between molecules is
present and Videal > Vactual
At particular pressure, we calculate Videal and Vactual. Videal will also be different at different pressure
which can be understood by the ideal gas equation PV=nRT, V here is ideal volume which is different at
different pressure.
The curve is isotherm i.e. temperature is constant during experiment. At low pressure, molecules are
very far so, no attraction and repulsion is present between molecules and Vactual=Videal and Z is equal
to 1 as shown by point (1). With increase in pressure from point (1) to point (2), molecules come closer
to each other and force of attraction between the molecules starts dominating. Due to attraction,
Vactual decreases from Videal and value of Z decreases from 1 and if we remove attraction between
molecules at same pressure then we obtain Videal. At point (2), repulsion between the molecules starts
and with further increase in repulsion with increase in pressure, Vactual starts increasing and value of Z
increases. At point (3), force of attraction and repulsion counterbalance each other and Vactual
Page 29

becomes equal to Videal and value of Z becomes 1. As pressure is further increased, Vactual increases
from Videal and value of Z increases from 1 due to further increase in repulsion between molecules.
PROBLEM
Calculate the mass of methane contained at 1000psia and 680F in a cylinder with volume of 3.2ft3,
assume methane is a real gas?
SOLUTION
680F > TC so methane will be gas regardless of pressure
From figure 3.2, Z=0.89
FACTORS AFFECTING VALUE OF Z

Z depends upon pressure, temperature and composition.
Page 30
Effect of pressure on value of Z is discussed in Z vs. P curve.

Effect of temperature
At same pressure, when we increase temperature value of Z increases because kinetic energy increases
and molecules go far i.e. Vactual increases.
Effect of composition
Critical temperature of methane is 343.30R and ethane is 5500R. Suppose, temperature is 5000R then
methane will be gas regardless of pressure but ethane can be gas or liquid depending on pressure
whether it is above or below vapor-pressure line and near vapor pressure line attraction is more due to
change of phase hence, behavior of methane and ethane is different so deviation of both will be
different as well. It means we have different graphs for different compositions so, to make it valid for all
we use law of corresponding state.
LAW OF CORRESPONDING STATE
Law of corresponding state says that all pure gases have the same Z factor at the same value of reduced
pressure and reduced temperature.
P and PC both have units of psi and T and TC both have units of 0R. TC and PC are of particular composition
by which it becomes independent of composition.
PROBLEM
Determine specific volume of ethane at 918psi and 1170F when Tc = 549.90R and Pc = 706.5 psi?
SOLUTION
Page 31
From figure 3.6, Z=0.39
Page 32

FOR MIXTURES
Law of corresponding states has been extended to cover mixtures of gases which are closely related.
First pseudo critical temperature and pseudo critical pressure is calculated by Kays mixture rule;
Where, y is mole fraction and Tc is critical temperature of particular component.

After calculating Tpc and Ppc, pseudo-reduced temperature Tpr and pseudo-reduced pressure Ppr is
calculated from;
Using Tpr and Ppr, calculate Z from figure 3.7

PROBLEM
Calculate the pseudo-critical temperature and pseudo-critical pressure of the gas mixture given
below:
Component
C1
C2
C3
n-C4
Mole fraction
0.850
0.090
0.040
0.020
Tc (0R)
343.3
549.9
666.2
765.6
Pc (psia)
666.4
706.5
616.0
550.0
yjTcj
291.81
49.49
26.65
15.31
383.26
yjPcj
566.44
63.59
24.64
11.00
665.67
Tpc = 383.260R
Ppc = 665.67 psia
PSEUDO CRITICAL PROPERTIES OF GAS WHEN COMPOSITION IS UNKNOWN
Chromatograph gives us composition but if composition is unknown then we determine specific gravity
of gas. For finding specific gravity of gas mixture, we have device Schilling Effusionmeter in PVT lab.
From specific gravity, Ppc and Tpc can be obtained from figure 3.11
PROBLEM
Determine Z factor of a natural gas with specific gravity of 1.26 at 2560F and 6025psi?
SOLUTION
Page 33
Ppc = 587 psia and Tpc = 4920R
Now using figure 3.7, Z=1.154
Page 34

HEPTANE PLUS TERM
C7, C8, C9, C10, is written as C7+ because their composition is very less and known as heptane plus. Tc
and Pc of C7+ can be determined using figure 3.10 with the help of molecular weight of C7+ and specific
gravity.
PROBLEM
Determine pseudo critical temperature and pseudo critical pressure for the gas given below:
SOLUTION
Heptane plus
Page 35
component
H2S
CO2
N2
C1
C2
C3
i-C4
n-C5
i-C6
n-C5
C6
C7+
mole
fraction
yj
0.0491
0.1101
0.0051
0.577
0.0722
0.0455
0.0096
0.0195
0.0078
0.0071
0.0145
0.0835
critical
temperature
deg R
Tcj
672
548
235
343
550
651
740
764
833
845
910
1157
yj Tcj
33.0
60.3
1.2
198.1
39.7
29.6
7.1
14.9
6.5
6.0
13.2
96.6
506.2
critical
pressure
psia
Pcj
1300.0
1071.0
493.1
666.4
706.5
616.0
527.9
550.6
490.4
488.6
436.9
367.0
yj Pcj
63.8
117.9
2.5
384.5
51.0
28.0
5.1
10.7
3.8
3.5
6.3
30.6
707.9
Tpc = 506.20R
Ppc = 707.9 psia
Page 36

PROBLEM
Specific gravity of C7+ is 0.807 and molecular weight of C7+ is 142 lb/lb-mol. Calculate Tc and Pc?
Using figure 3.10,
Tc = 11570R
Pc = 367 psia
CONCLUSION
PROBLEM
A cylinder has a volume of 0.5 ft3 and contains a gas ata pressure of 2000 psia and 1200F. The pressure
drops to 1000psi after 0.0923 lb-mol gas is removed, temperature is constant. Z factor was 0.90 at
2000psi. What is the Z factor at 1000 psi?
SOLUTION
PROBLEM
A 20ft3 tank at 1000F is pressured to 200 psi with a pure paraffin gas. 10 lbs of ethane are added and
specific gravity of the gas mixture is measured to be 1.68. Assume that gases exist as ideal gas, what
was the gas original in tank?
Page 37

SOLUTION
Mole fractions
WICHERT AZIZ CORRELATION (Effect of non-hydrocarbon components)

Natural gases commonly contain hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Gases are sour and
sweet as well. Gas which contains one grain of H2S per 100ft3 of gas is called sour gas. When sour gas is
present, value of Z is over-estimated. The remedy to this problem is to adjust the pseudo-critical
properties. If non-hydrocarbon contents are greater than 15% then error increases and correction is
required for which we use Wichert Aziz Correlation.
The equations used for the adjustment of pseudo-critical properties are:
Page 38

Where; = pseudo critical temperature adjustment factor and is calculated from figure 3.12
PARTIAL PRESSURE
Pressure exerted by individual gases in a total gas mixture is called partial pressure.
Where;
Pi = partial pressure of particular gas
yi = mole fraction of particular gas
P = total pressure
It is Daltons law of partial pressure.
PROBLEM
Calculate the volume occupied by 1 lb-mole of natural gas at standard conditions?
SOLUTION
Standard condition
T = 600F + 460 = 5200R
P = 14.7 psi
Molar volume: 1 lb-mole of any gas occupies 379.5 ft3 at surface condition.
FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR OF GAS
It is the amount of gas in reservoir requires to produce 1 SCF of gas at surface.
(
In PVT cell, we simulate reservoir condition. Amount of gas at surface condition remains same which is
same if we reduce the pressure of cell to 14.7 psi. At 3000 psi, to produce 1 SCF of gas reservoir volume
requires less and at 2500 psi, to produce 1 SCF of gas reservoir volume requires more. With decreases in
pressure, volume of gas at reservoir condition increases with constant volume of gas at surface
condition so value of Bg increases with decrease in pressure.
Page 39
At high pressure, molecules are very near so, they behave as liquid and with decrease in pressure
volume of gas at reservoir condition does not increase rapidly so, there is no significant change in the
value of Bg. At low pressure, molecules are far and with decrease in pressure volume of gas at reservoir
condition increases rapidly so, there is significant change in the value of Bg.
DERIVATION
BG= VRESERVOIR / VSURFACE. (1)
From gas law;
For 1 mole of gas
PV = ZRT
At reservoir condition
PRVR = ZRRTR
VR = ZRRTR / PR
Page 40

At surface condition
PSVS = ZSRTS
At surface condition, gas behaves ideally
ZS = 1
PSVS = RTS
VS = RTS / PS
Put the values in (1)
Page 41

Formation volume factor of gas
(
PRESSURE
3000
2500
2000
VRESERVOIR
1 ft3
1 ft3
1 ft3
VSURFACE
100 SCF
80 SCF
60 SCF
As the reservoir pressure decreases, 1 ft3 of reservoir gas volume produces less SCF of gas at surface.
PROBLEM
Calculate the value of formation volume factor of a dry gas with specific gravity of 0.818 at reservoir
temperature of 2400F and reservoir pressure of 2100psi?
SOLUTION
Page 42

Ppc = 647 psia & Tpc = 4050R
Now, from figure 3.7
Z = 0.86
Now,
(
PROBLEM
A vessel contains 100 lb-mol of hydrocarbon gas. Calculate the SCF of gas in vessel?
SOLUTION
Molar volume = 379.5 SCF / lb-mol
1 lb-mol = 379.5 SCF
100 lb-mol = 37950 SCF
Page 43

COEFFICIENT OF ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSIBILITY OF GAS
) (
UNIT: psi- or sip

The relation of gas compressibility and reservoir pressure (or simply the pressure) is given below:
The graph shows that at any particular value of pressure, how much the gas compressible is. As it is seen
from the graph that at a state of low pressure, the gas is highly compressible means with unit change in
pressure V/V (fractional change in volume) will be large as molecules are so far apart. At moderate
pressure, the compressibility is moderate and at high pressure, the compressibility is negligible (gas
behaves as incompressible) i.e. with unit change in pressure V/V (fractional change in volume) will be
small as molecules are very close to each other.
For graphs of Cg and Z, temperature is above critical temperature so, liquid cant be formed
Page 44

PROBLEM
The following table gives volumetric data at 1500F for a natural gas. Determine the coefficient of
isothermal compressibility for this gas at 1500F and 1000psi?
PRESSURE (psia)
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
MOLAR VOLUME (ft3/lb-mol)

8.5
7.4
6.5
5.7
5.0
4.6
Page 45

DERIVATIONS
For ideal gas
For real gas
Page 46
Value of Cg can be greater or smaller than ideal. From 1 to 2, slope is negative so putting negative slope
gives value of Cg higher than ideal. On the contrary from 2 to 3, slope is positive so putting positive
slope gives value of Cg lower than ideal. It can be understand physically by that from 1 to 2, attraction is
dominant so molecules come close and compressibility will be more.
PROBLEM
Estimate the coefficient of isothermal compressibility of gas at 1700 psi; assume that gas behaves like
an ideal gas
SOLUTION
PSEUDO CRITICAL TEMPERATURE ADJUSTMENT FACTOR ( )

Both CO2 and H2S factor is present in fig 3.12 to calculate . For adjustment in pseudo critical pressure,
formula contains only mole fraction of H2S but in factor both CO2 and H2S factor is present. N2 is not
possible to remove because its plant is very expensive so if 5% N2 is present then error in Z is considered
1% and similarly, if 10% N2 is present then error in Z is considered 2%.
Page 47

THE COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF GAS
The coefficient of viscosity is the measure of the resistance to flow offered by the fluid. Its unit
is centipoises. The graph of viscosity of a gas with pressure is shown below:
The graph shows that viscosity of a gas decreases with
decrease in pressure at constant temperature because as
pressure is decreased molecules get far away from each
other and the collision among themselves are reduced
and viscosity is also reduced. The graph also shows the
relationship between gas viscosity and temperature. The
relation of viscosity with temperature can be studied in
two cases:
Low Pressure
High pressure
At higher pressure:
At constant higher pressure, molecules are very near to each other, as temperature is
increased at high pressure molecules tend to go away from each other and viscosity is reduced.
At low pressure:
At low pressure, molecules are already far away from each other, so as temperature is
increased, the collision among the molecules increases and viscosity increases.
Note from the graph, we can see that there is a point at which all curves are meeting, at this pressure
point the viscosity of gas will become independent of temperature means whatever the temperature is
the gas viscosity will be the same at this particular pressure.
METHODS OF FINDING GAS VISCOSITY
Now we will discuss how to find the viscosity of a gas. Basically, the viscosity of gas cannot be
determined by experimental methods in laboratory but we have to use various correlations and charts
to determine gas viscosity. Now the methods of finding gas viscosity will be discussed as per the
following cases:
Pure Gases
Mixture of gases (further divided as)
At atmospheric pressure
At high Pressure
Page 48

FOR PURE HYDROCARBON GASES:
For pure hydrocarbon gases, we will be having the graphs between viscosity and
temperature with various isobars from which we can read the viscosity value at particular pressure,
temperature value. For example the graph of ethane is as follows:
FOR GAS MIXTURE

AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE:
At atmospheric pressure, the viscosity of gas can be determined by the following formula:
Where;
viscosity of each component gas at atmospheric pressure determined by the following graph (6-7)
Mole fraction of each gas.
Molecular mass of each gas component.
Page 49
Problem:
Calculate the viscosity of gas mixture given below at 200oF and pressure of 1 atmosphere.
Given
Component Composition(yj)
gj
Mj
C1
0.85
0.013 16.04
C2
0.09
0.0112 30.07
C3
0.04
0.0098 44.1
n-C4
0.02
0.0091 58.12
Calculated
4.004997
5.483612
6.640783
7.623647
3.404247
0.493525
0.265631
0.152473
0.044255
0.005527
0.002603
0.001388
4.315877
0.053773
Page 50

So, viscosity of the gas will be equal to:
If the gas composition is not known (as the composition of gas is expensive to determine using gas
chromatograph) and the specific gravity of the gas is known to us then we use the following graph to
determine gas viscosity at atmospheric pressure and at any temperature and specific gravity:
Page 51

The above graph can also be used if we know the composition and specific gravity is unknown but still
we are given graph 6-8 (above graph) instead of 6-7 because from composition we can find apparent
molecular weight of the gas and knowing the molecular weight of air we can find the gas specific gravity.
In short, if we are given the composition of gas then first we look for the graph which is given to us, if it
is 6-7 then we will use the formula technique as discussed in the problem but if the given graph is 6-8
then we will use the specific gravity technique. But if the composition is unknown then surely sp.gr of
the gas will be known to us and graph 6-8 will be given which we will use to find gas viscosity.
There are three small graphs made above the graph 6-8, which shows the correction factor. Means if we
have the gas composition in which H2S is 10 mole % (0.1 in composition) and the overall sg.gr of the gas
is 1.5 then in the final gas viscosity value we determine, we will ad the factor 0.0005 to correct it. Same
is the case with N2 and CO2.
AT HIGHER PRESSURE:
Steps that are to be followed for calculating viscosity of gas at some higher pressure value above the
atmospheric pressure are as follows:
Calculate viscosity at atmospheric pressure
Find Tpc and Ppc from any of the following methods:
12- If specific gravity of the gas is known then find it from the graphs discussed earlier in which one
was between sp.gr and Tpc and the other between sp.gr and Ppc.
Calculate Ppr and Tpr using Ppc and Tpc and the given temperature and pressure.
Calculate the ratio
from either of the following graphs such that use the graph
which contains such range of sp.gr values of the gas that contains your calculated value, in that
graph see the value of the ratio at calculated Tpr and Ppr.
From the ratio calculate the gas viscosity at high pressure by multiplying the ration with gas
viscosity calculated at atmospheric pressure in the first step.
HEATING VALUE:
The heating value of a gas is the quantity of heat produced when the gas is burnt completely
to CO2 and water.
The pricing of the gas is done on the basis calorific value or heating value whose unit is
BTU/SCF. When agreement is made, the company providing the gas has to maintain the heating
value of the gas which they have committed in the agreement. H2S, water nitrogen and CO2 are not
removed from the natural gas just because they are hazardous but because they reduce the heating
value of the gas that has to be maintained or improved.
Page 52
GROSS HEATING VALUE:

It is the heat produced in complete combustion under constant pressure with combustion
products cooled to standard conditions and water in the combustion products condensed to the
liquid state. Gas is sold on the basis of gross heat value
NET HEATING VALUE:
It is defined similarly except that water of combustion remains vapor at standard condition.
The difference between net and gross heating values is the heat of vaporization of water.
PRIOR TO COMBUSTION:
Means we have discussed that as a result of gas combustion, water is produced that absorbs
some of the vital amount of heat but this is not the only water that cause problem. The water may
be associated with gas initially when it was produced (such that gas that we have before combustion
may also contain water) so on the basis of quantity of water present with the gas, we have two
types of gases:
o
o
Wet gas: that contains greater than 1.75 volume % of water.

Dry gas: that contains less than 1.75 volume % of water.
Water contents in the gas are to be reduced or minimized by dehydration of the gas. The
dehydration of gas is required because the water molecules in the gas combine with the gas
molecules at low pressure and temperature value to form hydrate crystal (ice like). The formation of
hydrate crystals mostly occur in pipelines particularly where nozzle action is taking place or at joints
because at these points due to sudden expansion of gas like at the choke point the pressure is
greatly reduced and according to Joules Thomson effect whenever expansion occurs cooling takes
place so when pressure and temperature is reduced, formation of hydrate may occur that may
possibly block the line, so at these crucial points we use heaters to maintain temperature.
Moreover, more the water contents are in gas less will be the heating value of the gas.
So, the water in the gas is removed at dehydrating plant using Glycol but when gas is passed
through this plant, not all water is removed some water still remain in gas, if we have threat that
this water may cause problem in the pipelines where the gas travel then we use Condensate Trap
that is operated at different low temperatures to remove further water from the gas, the actual
purpose of this is to remove the heavy contents in the gas by condensing them as liquid because the
sale price of oil is greater than gas. In this we can reduce the temperature to so much extent that
hydrates are formed in this plant, we do this because the hydrates that may form in the pipeline are
produced here because these hydrates can be removed from the plant during servicing but it will be
difficult to locate the place of hydrate formation in the pipeline and then remove those hydrate
crystals.
Page 53
HEATING VALUE FOR DRY GAS MIXTURE:

Heating value of a gas mixture can be given as:
(
Where, Lcj is the heating value of each component (that can be either gross or net heat value), if net
heat value is used then Lc (the total heat value of the mixture) will be the net value too. Y j is the
mole fraction of each component. In above relation Yj is the mole fraction of water.
In above equation, Z is given by:
(
Problems:
Determine the gross calorific value of a separator gas of composition given below:
Component Composition(Yj)
CO2
N2
CH4
C2H6
C3H8
1-butane
2-butane
i-butane
n-pentane
Hexane
Heptanes+
0.0167
0.0032
0.7102
0.1574
0.0751
0.0089
0.0194
0.0034
0.0027
0.0027
0.0003
Lcj
0
0
1010
1769.6
2516.1
3251.9
3262.3
4000.9
4008.9
4755.9
5502.5
0.9943
0.9997
0.998
0.919
0.9805
0.9711
0.9667
0.948
0.942
0.91
0.852
YjLcj
(1-Zj)
Yj(1-Zj)
0
0
717.302
278.535
188.9591
28.94191
63.28862
13.60306
10.82403
12.84093
1.65075
0.075498
0.017321
0.044721
0.284605
0.139642
0.17
0.182483
0.228035
0.240832
0.3
0.384708
0.001261
5.54E-05
0.031761
0.044797
0.010487
0.001513
0.00354
0.000775
0.00065
0.00081
0.000115
1315.945
0.095765
Now for Lc(real):

First calculating value of Z for mixture:
Page 54

(
Now ideal heating value is given by:
The value of calorific value for ideal and real gases are approximately the same because as per the
definition of calorific value, it is the heat liberated at standard temperature and pressure conditions
so the values of Z are taken at standard temperature and pressure conditions for each component
which is approximately equal to one.
HEATING VALUE FOR WET GAS MIXTURE:
For Lc(wet), we calculate first Lc(real) considering the gas to be a dry gas by adopting the same
procedure as discussed above but in the end we use the following relation to calculate calorific
value for wet gas depending whether we need to calculate the net or gross calorific value.
For Net calorific value:
The real calorific value for wet gases (containing water) can be given by:
(
For Gross caloric value:
In case of wet gas there are different formulae for net and gross however in case of dry gas both net
and gross are calculated by the same method or formula.
Page 55
Heating
value
Gross
Net
Wet
dry
wet
dry
Lc(dry)(1-ywater)+0.9
(YjLcj)/Z
Lc(1-ywater)
(YjLcj)/Z
For Lcwet, we multiply the Lcdry by the factor (1-Ywater) because the amount of water present in
the gas will not burn and will not produce any heat. While calculating gross Lcwet, we add a factor
0.9 because in wet gas as heat is produced by burning of the fuel, the water molecules that are
formed as result of chemical reaction not only absorb heat but also the water prior to combustion
absorbs heat so when we condense it then this heat will also liberate that approximately
0.9BTU/SCF, this was not added in the net heat of wet gases because according to definition of net
heat, products are not condensed to STP.
The chart shows how we have to proceed in problems:
1) First whether the heat calculated is net or gross.
2) For example say we have to calculate gross heat then see whether gas is dry or wet.
3) If gas is wet then first we calculate Lcgross dry using
(
and then Lcwet using
Some points:
If we are given mole fraction of each component is a mixture, then we can calculate weight
fraction of each by multiplying the mole fraction of each by its molecular weight. Volume
fraction is same as that mole fraction.
Page 56
Individual volume or partial volume of a component in mixture and partial pressure are
given by:
Formation volume factor of gas is the shrinkage factor and its reciprocal is the expansion
factor.
Formation volume factor of oil is the expansion factor.
The gas compressibility helps in understanding the drive mechanism for gas reservoirs.
We use STP conditions to calculate volume because all the reserves are reported at standard
temperature and pressure conditions.
The importance of this subject is:
o Fluid identification
o Drive mechanism
o Bubble point pressure (suggesting the type of oil reservoir) and dew point pressure
(important in retrograde reservoir).
and
Experiment to find specific gravity of gas:

We can determine the specific gravity of gas in the laboratory using Schilling Effusion meter.
Schilling Effusion meter:
Principle:
Effusion meter works on the principle of Grahams law of effusion, which states that
rate of effusion of gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density.
Methodology:
In effusion meter, first liquid such as water is filled through the glass tube in to the
container such that water reaches up to the mark. Now air is injected by connecting the compressor
pipe to the inlet nozzle valve, the air with high pressure when enter through the orifice above the glass
tube, it displaces the water in the tube and we will continue injecting gas in the tube until the water
level reaches to the bottom mark. Now the inlet valve is closed and the outlet valve is opened and the
air will flow out as water is applying pressure on it, as air start to remove, the water level start rising. We
will continue to note the time such that how much time the gas or air in the tube will take to evacuate
fully. The full evacuation of gas can be identified when the water level reaches to its initial level. We take
three time readings. Similarly we repeat the process for the gas whose specific gravity is to be
determined and take three readings for it.
Page 57
Gas/air
filled
Final water
level
We can use Grahams law of effusion for two gases as:
( )
Putting the above values in equation (A);
Since Vgas=Vair so, above equation becomes:
Page 58
)
(
Page 59

Properties of oil:
SOLUTION GAS OIL RATIO
It is defined as the quantity of gas dissolved in oil at reservoir condition or it can also be
defined as the amount of gas that liberates from the oil (not come with oil as it may include the free
gas too) as the oil is transferred from the reservoir to the surface condition. It is denoted by Rs and its
graph with pressure is as follows:
Rs
Pb
Pressure
When the reservoir pressure is above bubble point pressure then no gas is liberated in the reservoir and
all the gas dissolved, as we remove the Hg from the cell to reduce pressure above bubble point pressure
then no gas will liberate and all gas will remain dissolved and so the Rs will remain same. As pressure is
reduced below bubble point pressure then the gas that was dissolved in oil now start to escape and the
quantity of gas in oil decreases which is equal to the previous volume dissolved minus the free gas cap
now forms. So as dissolved gas quantity decreases so Rs will also decrease below Pb.
P>Pb
P=Pb
oil
P<Pb
gas
oil
oil
Hg
Hg
Hg
The quantity of oil in the cell is constant say 2 STB because at any condition when we take the oil out of
the cell and confine it to STP then it will give the same volume, the only thing that changes is the
quantity of gas dissolved which remain same above bubble point pressure and when pressure is
dropped below Pb, the quantity of gas dissolved decreases as
Page 60

Difference between solution gas oil ration (Rs) and producing gas oil ration (GOR):
GOR is the amount of gas that comes with oil at surface and it has same unit of SCF per STB.
Above bubble point pressure the graph between pressure and GOR repeats the same path as that of Rs
because the gas coming at surface is the gas that is dissolved in oil. Now as pressure declines below Pb,
there will be two cases:
If the free gas cap that is formed is not producing the gas through perforation such that gas
coning has not started yet then again the GOR graph VS pressure repeats the same curve as that of Rs
means the value of GOR start decreasing, but when the free gas start to produce the GOR start to
increase as shown below:
Rp
or
GOR
P
Note: The change is Bo value is the change in reservoir volume as the surface volume is taken to be
1STB.
Method to calculate the solution gas oil ratio:
The laboratory method to calculate the solution gas oil ratio is the differential vaporization.
Before performing the differential vaporization, we first perform the flash vaporization in which confine
the reservoir fluid in the laboratory cell at high pressure and reservoir temperature, we increase the
volume of the cell and the pressure drops, we see when the gas bubbles start forming, that is the bubble
point pressure and similarly we find the dew point pressure. Finding the bubble point and dew point
pressure is main purpose of flash vaporization. In this process we do not take the free gas out of the cell
such that it is a constant mass expansion.
In differential vaporization, we set the initial pressure of the cell at bubble point pressure
(determined through flash vaporization) and only oil is present in the cell, now we drop the pressure to
some value of our interest, the gas from the oil will liberate out and can be seen as free gas, the cell is
agitated so that gas and liquid will come to equilibrium. For example if Pb of the fluid is 2500 psig and
the pressure is dropped to 2300 psig, from the cell we can determine the reservoir volume of the free
gas. Now we will remove the free gas from the cell keeping the cell pressure constant at 2300 psig by
injecting mercury in the cell as the gas is removed. We will analyze the properties of the gas that is taken
Page 61

out such that Z, Bg, composition through gas chromatograph, etc. The purpose of the gas removal from
the cell is that we can determine the gas volume dissolved in oil by subtracting the free gas volume in
SCF from the initial volume of the gas dissolved in SCF. Similarly we drop the pressure to 2100 psig, the
gas that is liberated out is again removed by keeping the cell pressure constant and we will repeat the
same process by decreasing the cell pressure and in the end we will decrease the cell pressure to 0 psig
or 14.7 psia and atmospheric temperature. When the cell reaches to this condition it will give us the STB
of oil present in the cell that was constant throughout the experiment. Summation of gas liberated
volume in SCF will give SCF gas dissolved initially.
Reservoir temperature:________ Bubble point pressure:_________ Volume of oil in cell:___y___STB
Pressure of
the cell (psig)
Gas liberated volume

(SCF)
Dissolved gas
volume(SCF)
2500=Pb
2300
x-k
2100
(x-k)-l
1700
(x-k-l)-m
1200
(x-k-l-m)-n
800
(x-k-l-m-n)-o
(x-k-l-m-n-o)-p
Oil volume
(ft3)
(
(
(
)
)
)
Z obtained is at atmospheric pressure 0 psig or 14.7 psia but not at atmospheric temperature so we
reduce the cell temperature to 600F due to which some gas will liberate and we remove that gas and
find volume of oil which will be the volume of oil at surface condition in SCF. Convert SCF into oil volume
in STB y.
Rs at each pressure is obtained by;
Page 62

PROBLEM
Data from a differential vaporization on a black oil at 220 0F are given below. Prepare a table of
solution gas oil ratio.
PRESSURE
(psig)
2620
2330
2100
1850
1600
1350
1100
850
600
350
159
0
GAS
REMOVED
(cc)
0
4.396
4.292
4.478
4.96
5.705
6.891
8.925
12.814
24.646
50.492
_
GAS
REMOVED
(SCF)
0
0.02265
0.01966
0.01792
0.01693
0.01618
0.01568
0.01543
0.01543
0.01717
0.01643
0.03908
0.21256
OIL
VOLUME
(cc)
63.316
61.496
59.952
58.522
57.182
55.876
54.689
53.462
52.236
50.771
49.228
42.54
CUMMULATIVE
GAS REMOVED
(SCF)
0
0.02265
0.04231
0.06023
0.07716
0.09334
0.10902
0.12445
0.13988
0.15705
0.17348
0.21256
CUMULATIVE
GAS DISSOLVED
(SCF)
0.21256
0.18991
0.17025
0.15233
0.1354
0.11922
0.10354
0.08811
0.07268
0.05551
0.03908
0
Rso (SCF/STB)
854.00 (Rsoi)
763.00
684.01
612.01
543.99
478.99
415.99
354.00
292.00
223.02
157.01
0.00
Oil volume @ 14.7 psia and 600F = 39.572 standard cc
Page 63

FLASH VAPORIZATION OR CONSTANT MASS EXPANSION (CME)
It is used to find
bubble point pressure or dew point pressure

Bo above bubble point pressure (above Pb, Bo is obtained from differential vaporization)
Bubble point pressure is calculated for black oil and volatile oil and dew point pressure is calculated for
retrograde gas condensate reservoir. For wet gas and dry gas, we dont perform flash vaporization and
differential vaporization. Mass remains constant during experiment that divides into liquid and gas.
A sample of reservoir is placed in a lab cell. Pressure is adjusted equal to or greater than Pi. Temperature
is set at reservoir temperature. At each step, pressure is reduced and volumes of all are measured.
Process is repeated till atmospheric pressure.
Some volatile or black oil reservoirs are present at their bubble point and retrograde reservoirs at their
dew point initially when reservoir is discovered. Initial pressure is equal to bubble point or dew point so
to identify this, we use cell pressure greater than initial pressure.
Oil reservoirs are classified as saturated and undersaturated reservoir. Saturated reservoirs can be at
bubble point pressure or below bubble point pressure.
If we take sample from oil reservoir below bubble point pressure then that oil sample will be saturated
and at every pressure decline, gas liberates out from that sample.
Page 64
Similarly if we take sample from retrograde reservoir below dew point then gas will be saturated i.e. at
every pressure decline, oil drops out.
Method to find Pb
From PVT cell it is not easy to find Pb because gas is transparent and we cant find where the gas is
liberated from. It is not possible to measure gas and liquid volume separately initially so, we calculate
total volume and then
Plot pressure VS volume

At Pb, compressibility of the system changes
Small change in pressure below bubble point pressure would occupy higher volume
Incompressible fluids are those which follow following relation
Page 65

PROBLEM
Data from a flash vaporization on black oil at 2200F are given above. Determine the bubble point
pressure?
PRESSURE (psig)
5000
4500
4000
3500
3000
2800
2600
2400
2250
2090
1890
1700
1450
1300
1050
TOTAL CELL VOLUME (cc)

61.03
61.435
61.866
62.341
62.866
63.088
63.455
65.532
67.4
69.901
73.655
78.677
86.224
95.05
112.717
Pb = 63.455 psig
Page 66

PROPERTIES OF OIL
Solution gas oil ratio (gas solubility)

Bubble point pressure
Formation volume factor of oil
Temperature Decrease in Reservoir

Since 1952, temperature of SUI decreases from 2330F to 2170F. Temperature of reservoir slightly
decreases due to expansion because expansion causes cooling. It is Joule Thomson Effect that when gas
molecules pass through a choke/valve, its temperature generally decreases. Scales are formed due to
temperature decrease when it passes through choke/ valve/ perforation/ SSSV. Helium, nitrogen etc.
has inverse phenomenon but we are concerned with petroleum fluids in which temperature decreases
due to expansion.
Effect of temperature on solubility of gas
With temperature increase, solubility of gas decreases because kinetic energy increases and bonding
forces between gas and oil decreases so gas separates out.
It is reverse phenomenon for solid solubility in liquid.
FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR OF OIL Bo
It is the volume of oil at reservoir condition requires to produce 1 SCF of gas at surface.
(
Value of Bo is always greater than 1 because Bo is expansion factor (from surface to reservoir volume
expand). Value of Bg is always less than 1 because Bg is shrinkage factor (from surface to reservoir
volume shrink).
Bo is a strong function of dissolved gas. As dissolved gas decreases, volume of reservoir decreases with
constant surface volume hence Bo decrease. If no gas is dissolved in oil (Rso = 0 SCF/STB) then value of
Bo is 1.
With increase in temperature, Bo decreases as gas dissolved liberates out due to increase in kinetic
energy so, volume of oil at reservoir condition decreases.
With higher viscosity, dissolved gas decreases so Bo value decreases.
Three factors that affect Bo are;
Liberation of gas: Due to decrease in pressure, gas liberates out so volume of oil at reservoir
condition decreases so Bo decreases
Page 67
Decrease in temperature: We do not consider gas liberation effect in that. If only oil is present
without any dissolved gas then due to decrease in temperature, kinetic energy decreases and oil
volume shrink.
Decrease in pressure: Not considering effect of above two, with decrease in pressure oil volume
expand.
All these effects are simultaneously present. Decrease in temperature (shrinkage) and decrease in
pressure (expansion) effect nearly cancel out each other and the main factor that effect Bo is liberation
of gas.
GRAPH OF Bo
Above bubble point pressure, value of Bo increases due to decrease in pressure because of
expansion of gas present in oil.
Below bubble point pressure, value of Bo decreases due to decrease in pressure because of
liberation of gas from oil.
Bo is maximum at bubble point pressure.
When pressure is decreased from initial reservoir pressure to bubble point pressure, the formation
volume factor increases because of the expansion of liquid in the reservoir i.e. dissolved gas which is
present in the oil expands. A reduction in reservoir pressure below bubble point pressure results in the
liberation of gas in the pore spaces of a reservoir to form gas cap. The liquid remaining in the reservoir
has less dissolved gas and smaller FVF as reservoir oil volume decreases. BO = Vreservoir / Vsurface
Page 68

Initially, when the pressure is above bubble point pressure then dissolved gas is contracted and volume
of oil will be less but as the pressure declines, volume of oil increases up to bubble point pressure.
When the pressure increases from bubble point pressure, dissolve gas evolve and form gas cap. Due to
decrease in pressure volume (of oil + gas) increases but volume of oil decreases. V2 is greater than V1 but
volume of oil decreases as free gas is not considered part of oil while dissolved gas is a part of oil.
Bo for volatile oil
Curve indicates that with small pressure decline, large amount of gas liberates out. Bubble point
pressure of volatile oil also comes early which can be seen from phase diagram.
Bo for black oil
Page 69

Bo IDENTIFICATION
Bo
2.0 bbl/STB (Black oil)
Bo > 2.0 bbl/STB (Volatile oil)

It is not field identification because we dont know reservoir volume at field.
Rs FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Rs < 2000 SCF/STB (Black oil)
2000 SCF/STB < Rs < 3300 SCF/STB (Volatile oil)
API GRAVITY IDENTIFICAITION
Condensate oil (45-60)
Volatile oil (40-45)
Black oil (<40)
COLOR IDENTIFICATION
Condensate (light colors white, light green, orange)
Black oil (brown, black, dark green, orange)
Volatile oil (Brownish, orange)
EXPERIMENTS TO FIND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OIL
Pycnometer
Hydrometer
Schilling Effusionmeter is present in lab to find specific gravity of gas.

COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY OF OIL
Page 70
Above bubble point pressure, when pressure declines viscosity decreases because gas expands
and molecules can easily flow
Below bubble point pressure, when pressure declines viscosity increases because gas liberates
so lighter component decreases in oil and due to heavier components viscosity increases.
Maximum viscosity is present at bubble point pressure.
The curve above is for undersaturated reservoir and for saturated reservoir curve is
Curves for volatile oil and black oil are shown below. Since, less gas is liberated with decrease in
pressure in case of black oil so, viscosity does not increase so much as compared to volatile oil.
IMPORTANCE OF VISCOSITY
Viscosity is the main designing factor, whether to do secondary recovery or tertiary recovery.
Flow rate depends upon pressure difference and viscosity. With increase in viscosity, flow rate
decreases. Below bubble point pressure, with decrease in pressure viscosity increases in tens of times so
designing point should be bubble point pressure where we get minimum viscosity.
Page 71

If viscosity is very high then it requires high pressure to move the oil. If pressure required exceeds
fracture pressure then it fractures the rock. In this case, only feasible technique is thermal injection. The
feasible point for injection is at bubble point pressure where viscosity is minimum.
PROPERTIES OF OIL
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Solution gas oil ratio

Formation volume factor of oil
Coefficient of viscosity
Bubble point pressure
Specific gravity of oil
SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF OIL:

Specific gravity of oil can be given as:
The reference fluid in this case is water having density 1 g/cc or 62.4 lb/cu-ft.
Specific gravity of oil is measured in API gravity such that:
We measure and represent oil specific gravity in API because very small change in density appears to be
very large change in API degree. Moreover, the relation between API degree and specific gravity is
inverse such that greater the sp.gr of oil the smaller the API value.
The significance of sp.gr is that from anywhere all over the world, the oil that is being produced has
different specific gravity and the pricing of the oil is done on the basis of sp.gr of the crude oil.
The range of specific gravity for gases is 0.5-6. The API value of the petroleum fluids range from 0-70.
LAB MEASUREMENT
Two apparatus are there to measure sp.gr of oil:
Hydrometer
Pycnometer
MEASUREMENT BY HYDROMETER:
Some information:
Archimedes Principle: Any object completely or partially immersed in a fluid is buoyed by a force equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Page 72

Means, when a solid body is immersed in liquid such that it does not sink (means it remains in
static equilibrium), then weight of the body is balanced by upthrust or buoyant force.
Fb=weight of the fluid displaced
Since the floating object is in static equilibrium, the downward weight is balanced by the upward
buoyant force. Now if the weight of the body that is to be immersed in the liquid is same and we
immerse it first is a liquid with some sp.gr, there will be some liquid displaced, now if we immerse the
body in another liquid with relatively low sp.gr then to balance the same weight more liquid volume has
to be displaced so that the displaced fluid weight can overcome the weight of the immersed solid body.
The weight of the liquid displaced will be the same but the volume of the liquid displaced will be
different such that
, W is same but as decreases, then V the volume displaced should
increase to keep it constant.
Method:
Hydrometer works on the principle of Archimedes

Hydrometer consists of a bulb attached to a stalk of constant area.
The liquid is poured into a container and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the reference
liquid until it floats and then into the liquid whose sp.gr is to be determined
.
A bulb type shape is made at the bottom of the stalk, so that it remains vertical and weight acts
vertically downward otherwise we have to use the concept of angle and resolve the weight into
its components (horizontal and vertical). Hg is added so that the stalk moves smoothly into the
liquid.
We mark the positions on the flask upto which the surface level of liquid reaches in both cases
and determine x such that difference in level which could be ve, +ve or zero.
Page 73

Derivation:
When hydrometer is immersed in water (reference liquid),
When hydrometer is immersed in unknown liquid,
Comparing the above two:
A = cross-sectional area of stalk where marking is done and m=mass of stalk.
Page 74

TOTAL FORMATION VOLUME FACTOR
It is defined as the total volume fo hydrocarbon in reservoir that is required to produce one STB of liquid
at surface.
The graph of total formation volume factor is similar to
graph against pressure at pressure values
above bubble point as there is no free gas in the reservoir but below bubble point pressure values the
value of
rapidly increases as the reservoir volume rapidly increases due to evolution of gas.
In cell 1, the pressure of cell is equal to the reservoir pressure and temperature is equal to the reservoir
temperature, now at constant temperature as pressure is reduced, the oil volume increases due to
expansion of gas in the oil so the value of
increases slightly such as
increases. In cell 2, the pressure
is below bubble point, as pressure is reduced, the gas is liberated forming free gas so the total reservoir
hydrocarbon volume rapidly increases and the value of
rapidly increases.
The oil volume that is being produced at surface involves the dissolved gas removal from oil as it
approaches to surface as pressure drops and the oil volume at surface may also be produced due to
condensation of heavy hydrocarbons in the gas as temperature is decreased as gas approaches to the
surface.
Page 75
The formation volume factor of wet gas is defined as the volume of reservoir gas required to produce
1STB of liquid at surface.
The liquid not only involves oil but also the water that was in vapour form and was present as the
constituent of the gas. This water is not the connate or aquifer water water but water molecules that
were formed during the process of maturation and were formed as water vapours and became the part
of gas. This is the water that we separate at surface by using the dehydration plant.
We can differentiate whether water is of aquifer or condensed water. We differentiate between them
on the basis of their salinity. The salinity of condensed water is zero however salinity of aquifer is up to
200000 ppm. The two types of water come on surface in combined form then how we differentiate
between them?
(
The unit is bbl/STB.
SEPARATOR
A properly designed separator must perform the following functions:
1- Cause the primary phase separation of liquid and gas. This is done by passing the stream of the
liquid through baffle plate and due to gravity difference, the gas and oil separates because by
using baffle pates the surface area increases and the bonding forces decreases.
2- Refine primary separation by removing most of the entrained liquid mist from the gas. This is
done by using mist extractor. Present at the upper portion of the separator so that the gas
liberated by primary separation (that flow upward) can come to this portion.
3- Further refine the separation, by removing the entrained gas from liquid. This is done by using
agitators or vibrators. The vibrators are situated at bottom of the separator so that the liquid
being separated in primary separation can come to this portion due to high gravity.
Page 76

The points 2 and 3 are meant to refine the gas separated in point 1 to give liquid hydrocarbon and refine
the oil separated in point 1 to give lighter components of gas and thus to increase the oil recovery. All
the three points are done in the separator.
Mist extractor:
The principles of mist extractor are as follows:
Change in direction
Change in velocity
Adhesion (heavy molecules stick to the solid surface)
What happens in the mist extractor is that gas that is separated from
oil in the primary separation phase has to pass through very large
restrictions as shown in the figure, so the gas has to flow through
irregular paths, so the gas (lighter components) being lighter can pass
through these restrictions due to inertia but heavy molecules cannot
pass through these restrictions and stick to the solid surface and
condensed to give liquid.
For point 3 we use agitators or vibrators because we know that gas is physically dissolved in oil
therefore we simply give vibration to oil and gas is separated and go upward to mist extractor and the
extra oil separated by mist extractor comes to the agitator so that the lighter components can be
removed from oil.
The cycle continues such that oil and gas separated in primary phase go to vibrator and mist extractor
respectively and then again the oil produced by mist extractor and gas produced by vibration action go
to vibrator and mist extractor respectively for further purification. The gas produced is removed while
the oil produced is allowed to go into the next separator or stock tank (if only one separator is being
used). Separators generally work at pressure values above atmospheric pressure and temperature
usually atmospheric temperature.
Stage separation is a process in which gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons are separated by two or more
equilibrium flashes at consecutively low pressure. The liquid recovery increases as the number of
separator increases such that maximum recovery happens when we use infinite number of separators
Page 77

but at most we use 3 separators. With the use of separator(s), the liquid recovery increases because if
we use no separators then when the reservoir is flashed directly from reservoir pressure to atmospheric
pressure then the gas molecules that will be liberating will carry heavy components of the fluid with
them too but with the use of separator and using stage separation technique such that flashing the fluid
in different stages let us to recover those heavy components that could be removed if the fluid was
directly and these components include C3, C4, C5, C6, C7.
SEPARATOR TEST:
The purpose of this test is that we can set the most appropriate and optimum temperature and
pressure conditions for our separator so that our liquid recovery can be maximize as the liquid recovery
is affected by the separator pressure and temperature. It is performed in the lab.
Procedure:
A sample of reservoir liquid is placed in a lab cell.
Liquid is brought to Pb and reservoir temperature.
Then the liquid is expelled through separator.
Pressure in the cell is held constant by reducing the cell volume.
Procedure is repeated for different separator pressure (generally from 0-500 psig).
During the experiment we measure the gas volume evolved through the separator and the gas evolved
through the stock tank both but in field we do not measure the stock tank gas so error occurs when we
Page 78

use the field data to calculate different properties of the reservoir fluid. We also measure the liquid cell
volume expelled each time and the stock tank liquid produced and after each expel, the pressure in the
cell is kept at Pb by reducing the cell volume. All these parameters are found at particular separator
pressure and then we change the separator pressure and measure these again.
From the data measured in separator test, we calculate the following parameters or oil properties:
The separator volume factor or separator shrinkage factor is calculated through the
separator test. It is the volume of the separator liquid measured at separator conditions
divided by the stock tank liquid at standard condition.
The solution gas oil ratio denoted by Rssb (as it is due to presence of separator and
different from Rso as liquid recovery increases by using separator is calculated as:
The formation volume factor denoted by Bosb (different from Bo as the surface liquid
volume is increasing by using separator) is calculated as:
Stock tank shrinkage factor is calculated as (it is calculated when there are two stock
tanks):
Page 79
Solution:
(
Now calculating Rssb excluding stock tank gas as we do in field:

(
Now formation volume factor is:

Page 80
Now separator volume factor is:
Stock tank shrinkage factor is:
Separator test (continued):

We flash the oil from the cell at constant pressure Pb, calculate the oil volume removed, gas
removed at separator at particular pressure and temperature, gas removed at stock tank and also the
stock tank oil volume and then calculate Rssb, Bosb and API gravity of stock tank oil. This process is
repeated for several separator pressures and at each pressure we calculate the above properties of oil
and draw the graph as shown below:
The graph clearly shows that when we increase the separator pressure then up to certain pressure
value, the concentration of intermediate components (which can either be the part of gas or liquid
depending on the conditions provided to them) such as C3, C4, C5 tend to increase in the stock tank
liquid and the liquid recovery increases such that in the graph at 100 psig separator pressure, Bosb is
minimum showing that surface liquid achieved is maximum here as reservoir or cell volume flashed at
each pressure is constant and Rssb is also minimum showing less gas recovery and more oil recovery,
moreover higher API or lesser Sp.gr also shows that intermediate components that are lighter as
compared to the ones present originally in the oil are now part of stock tank liquid. At points above 100
psig, Bosb and Rssb increasing showing the increasing gas recovery such that the intermediate
components are now becoming the part of gas this is because the intermediate components may be
with oil when flashed from cell to separator and even when expelled out from separator but when they
Page 81

are flashed from separator to stock tank at high differential pressure, they may escape and became the
part of gas.
Since the main purpose of separator test is to evaluate the optimum separator pressure and
temperature conditions such that the conditions at which most stock tank stable oil recovery is achieved
(stable recovery means, once the intermediate components are now part of stock tank, they should not
leave the stock tank liquid), so the optimum separator pressure is one that gives the most oil recovery,
generally separator temperature is kept constant during the experiment at 75oF. Alternatively, we can
say that the optimum separator pressure is one at which API is maximum, Bosb is minimum and Rsb is
minimum.
Adjustment of Stock tank gas data:
Since in lab, we take both the gases such that evolved through the separator and evolved
through the stock tank and the sum of these gases are used to calculate the producing gas oil ratio GOR
but since at field, we do not calculate the amount of gas releasing from the stock tank as it is not sold,
therefore at field the producing gas oil ratio is only calculated from the gas evolved from the separator
which is not the true GOR, so for true GOR we need volume of gas evolved from the stock tank or simple
the stock tank gas oil ratio. The stock tank gas oil ratio can be calculated using the figure on next page at
bubble point pressure, this stock tank GOR is added to the separator gas oil ratio to get the true GOR. AT
points below Pb, the stock tank GOR remains almost same but that of separator changes, so stock tank
GOR calculated at Pb remains same at points below Pb.
Page 82
Page 83
Rs of separator = 676 SCF/STB

Rs of stock tank for figure = 61 SCF/STB
Total gas oil ratio = 676+61 = 737 SCF/STB
Formation Volume factor of black oil:
Since the formation volume factor of oil is defined as the volume of the oil in reservoir that is required
to produce 1 STB of oil at surface. It is found from the differential vaporization which we have already
studied. The Bo calculated from differential vaporization is denoted by BoD and the value of Bo at Pb is
denoted by Bob.
Bo is a strong function of dissolved gas, the greater the gas dissolved, less will be the surface volume
from the constant reservoir volume (if we take same reservoir volume samples with different Rs) and
hence more will Bo.
Page 84

Example:
Calculate the formation volume factor for black oil from the following differential vaporization
data:
Pressure
(psig)
2620
2350
2100
1850
1600
1350
1100
850
600
350
159
0
Gas removed
(cc)
0
4.396
4.292
4.478
4.96
5.705
6.891
8.925
12.814
24.646
50.492
Gas removed
(SCF)
0
0.02265
0.01966
0.01792
0.01693
0.01618
0.01568
0.01543
0.01543
0.01717
0.01643
0.03908
0.21256
Oil Volume
(cc)
63.316
61.496
59.952
58.588
57.182
55.876
54.689
53.462
52.236
50.771
49.228
42.54
Gas dissolved
(SCF)
0.21256
0.18991
0.17025
0.15233
0.1354
0.11922
0.10354
0.08811
0.07268
0.05551
0.03908
0
BoD
1.600020216
1.554028101
1.515010614
1.480541797
1.445011624
1.412008491
1.382012534
1.351005762
1.32002426
1.283003134
1.244010917
1.075002527
Page 85

1.8
1.6
1.4
Bo
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Pressure
RELATIVE OIL VOLUME:

Relative oil volume is the ratio of total cell volume to the cell volume at bubble point.
Relative oil volume < 1 at above bubble point due to expansion of oil in the cell up to
bubble point.
Relative oil volume = 1 at bubble point as Vt = Vb.
Relative oil volume > 1 at below bubble point.
Page 86

COMMERCIAL VALUE OF PETROLEUM OIL
Commercial value means that how much the extracted crude oil of particular composition is
valuable in the market and how much revenue can be generated by it, following are the factors
governing the commercial value,
Specific gravity
Gasoline and kerosene content (octane number)
Sulphur content
Asphalt content
Cloud point
Pour point
SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
The more the specific gravity of the crude the lesser will be API gravity and heavier will be crude more
will be the value of the crude. Diesel and jet fuels have the least API gravity and hence have more
commercial value.
GASOLINE AND KERSOENE CONTENT:
The more the contents of gasoline and kerosene heavier will be the crude oil and greater will be the
crude value because they burn effectively and gasoline (C7 to C8) have best anti knocking ability means
the fuel burns more efficiently and engine makes no noise, that is why we often try to crack higher
hydrocarbons into compounds of C8 to increase their octane number.
SULPHUR CONTENT:
Presence of sulphur content is not desirable in the crude it causes multiple problems. It will form H2SO4
after reaction which is corrosive for engine plus when it will be released to atmosphere then it will cause
acid rain which is hazardous for humans and agriculture. More over the formation of H2S can cause
sudden death to humans. Sulphur contents also decreases the heating value of the crude. However the
small amount of H2S (4 to 10 ppm) is bearable at maximum.
ASPHALT CONTENT:
Asphalts are usually very heavy hydrocarbons in ranges of 20s to 40s in terms of carbon atom. They are
solid contents when separated in refineries is used to form coke and graphite. If there quantity is less
then we sale it out cheaply. But if they are found enormously then they are converted in to lighter
hydrocarbons through thermal cracking.
CLOUD POINT:
Crude oil is mixture of heavier and lighter hydrocarbons which are present at high temperature in
subsurface, but when the temperature decreases they solidify. Cloud point of a fluid is the temperature
at which dissolved solids (paraffin wax) are no longer completely soluble in fluid and start precipitating
as second (solid) phase. Significance of cloud point is that the cloud point of the fluid should be very less
so that if doesnt appear in operating conditions. At cloud point liquid starts solidifying so liquid phase is
still there to flow because not all the liquid solidifies.
Page 87

POUR POINT:
The point at which liquid completely converts into solid and liquid flow ceases is called POUR POINT. So
pour point is lesser than cloud point but for pure substance cloud point and pour point are equal
because all the liquid converts into solid at melting point line.
NOTE
CNG C1, C2
LPG C3, C4
Gasoline C7, C8
Kerosene range of C12
Diesel range of C16
Jet fuel higher than C16
Page 88

CONSTANT VOLUME DEPLETION TEST:
This test is performed for retrograde reservoirs in place of differential vaporization. This test is basically
differential vaporization at constant volume. We perform flash vaporization and separator test for both
retrograde and oil fluid but for retrograde we perform constant volume depletion rather than
differential vaporization. Before test is performed, we perform flash vaporization to find Pd.
The test is performed to see how much liquid is condensed in the cell at each pressure drop below Pd
such that whether reservoir can give us valuable amount of liquid condensate or not. This is necessary to
find because in condensate reservoirs we apply pressure maintenance techniques such that gas
recycling or hydraulic fracturing to maintain the pressure to increase the oil and gas recovery (otherwise
if condensate is formed in reservoir cannot be produced until hydraulic fracturing and decrease the
relative permeability of the gas also so it should condense in the wellbore or at surface), so we have to
see if we are applying pressure maintenance technique then whether this reservoir can give us such
amount of condensate that will help to repay our revenue and we will be in profit.
PROCEDURE:
The test is used for retrograde reservoirs.

The sample of reservoir gas is brought to dew point pressure and reservoir temperature in the
lab cell.
Volume of cell at Pd is noted.
Pressure is reduced in steps by increasing the volume.
Remove the excess gas in each step and note he composition and other properties.
At the end of each pressure step, volume of the cell is same as the volume at Pd.
Page 89
We continue to perform the experiment until maximum amount of liquid is formed and then we flash
that liquid and find its properties.
Page 90

RESERVOIR FLUIDS
WHY WE NEED TO IDENTIFY THE FLUID TYPE:
Fluid identification is the decision making factor in many of the decisions. The fluid type affects the
following:
METHOD OF SAMPLING:
The main thing that is to be kept in mind while collecting the sample is that when we take the sample,
the fluid we have collected should be in the original form as it was in the reservoir means while
collecting the sample of oil, the collecting pressure should be above bubble point pressure and for
retrograde, it should be above Pd.
There are two methods of fluid sampling:
SURFACE SAMPLING
It is done if the fluid type is dry gas or wet gas and is less expensive. In this the fluid comes to
the surface and the sample is collected on the surface.
Sub-surface sampling
It is done if the fluid type is oil or retrograde and is more expensive, in this the sample is
collected at he sub-surface. It is more expensive.
Now for example, if we have assumed that the sub-surface fluid is the wet gas and we prepared to take
the surface sample and the reservoir fluid came to be retrograde then at surface the pressure will drop
below Pd and the original sample cannot be achieved so fluid identification is necessary before
collecting the sample.
SIZE OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT AND COMPLETION EQUIPMENT:
If the reservoir fluid is condensate, then we know that we place maximum separators such that
three.
Completion equipments also depend on fluid type. For example, in case of oil reservoir, we
know that its pressure will drop early and we will need artificial lift methods such that we place
side pocket mandrel for gas lift and more over tubing dia is also suggested on the basis of fluid
type.
If we have two wells such that gas well and oil well both volumetric then in both cases the
design of perforation interval will be different. In case of oil well, we know that after some time
gas cap will form which will come to the top so we do not perforate at the top of reservoir but
either at bottom or middle of the reservoir. While in case of gas well, we perforate the whole
zone.
Separator design is also affected by fluid type such that for high GOR we use horizontal, for low
GOR we use vertical and for moderate GOR we use spherical separator.
Page 91

In case of gas wells, we use large diameter tubing, but in case of oil wells, we use small diameter
tubing as liquid hold up case can be there.
Mud type is also affected by the fluid type, in gas wells more care should be taken as gas can
readily mix with water so we keep hydrostatic pressure far greater than formation pressure. If
gas mixes with mud, the mud density decreases and kick may come but in case of oil well, not
too much care is required.
Gases are more compressible and exist at high pressure, so we use BOP of high pressure rating
as kick may readily comes.
The calculation procedure for determining oil and gas in place:

We know there are different formulae and methods to determine the oil and gas initial in place
so in place hydrocarbon calculations are also dependent on the fluid type. We use material balance for
black oil and gases but no material balance for condensate and volatile oil.
The selection of enhanced recovery
In EOR methods, not all methods are for all for example;
If fluid type is light then we use water injection or gas cap.
If fluid type is heavy then we use chemical injection.
If fluid type is very heavy then we use thermal injection.
The plan of depletion

It means how you drill and complete a well. As shown in figure, we do not drill at point A as gas
cap will form but we try to drill at B.
Gas wells have large drainage radius as compared to oil
wells so in two fields of same sizes, one of gas field and the
other of oil then in gas field the number of wells drilled be
less (large spacing among wells due to large drainage
radius) and vice versa for oil field.
Page 92

The different types of reservoir fluids are:
Black oil
Volatile oil
Retrograde
Dry gas
Wet gas
IDENTIFICATION OF FLUID TYPE

The fluid type can be confirmed only by observation of the sample in the laboratory yet available
production information on the field can also help to identify the fluid type.
The production or field data are:
Initial production GOR

Stock tank oil gravity
Color of stock tank liquid
Lab data involves:
Initial formation volume factor

Weight fraction of C7+ component
DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN BLACK OIL AND VOLATILE OIL:
BLACK OIL
Phase envelope is extremely large such
that temperature range is large.
Contains much heavier components
Isovals are equally spaced
Much larger amount of liquid arises at the
stock tank.
Reservoir temperature is far below Tc
VOLATILE OIL
Phase envelope is small as temperature
range is small.
Contains fewer heavier components
Isovals are not equally spaced
Relatively smaller amount of liquid reaches
the stock tank.
Tc is much lower than Tc f black oil and
moreover reservoir temperature is near Tc
LAB ANALYSIS
Bo<=2
Bo>2
Molecular weight of C7+ >=20%
Molecular weight of C7+ is between
12.5%-20%
FIELD IDENTIFICATION
Initial producing GOR is 2000 SCF/STB
Initial producing GOR is between 2000 and
3300 SCF/STB
API is below 45
API is greater than 40
Stock tank liquid is dark colored
Stock tank liquid is light colored
Page 93
Explanation of above points:

In reservoir fluid, there are three types of components:
Lights (C1, C2)

Intermediate (C3-C6)
Heavy (C7+)
In black oil, heavy components are larger in amount so the two phase region is larger and the
temperature range is larger therefore phase diagram is widely spread while in volatile oil,
intermediate and light components are greater in quantity so phase envelope is small as
temperature range is small therefore we use large number of separators in case of volatile oil to
increase the liquid recovery by making the most intermediate components, the part of liquid.
If we take production from the two reservoirs at same temperature and pressure, then due to
large heavy components in black oil more liquid recovery occurs but incase of volatile oil less
liquid recovery as heavy components are small in amount.
Black oil is low shrinkage crude oil as it has less gas dissolved in it and reservoir temperature is
far below Tc but volatile oil is high shrinkage crude oil as it has large gas dissolved in it and
reservoir temperature is near to Tc.
The API value of volatile oil is above 40 and decreases dominantly below Pb as lighter
components are rapidly removed in reservoir on small pressure reduction below Pb so density
of oil increases and API decreases The API of volatile oil also decreases below Pb but decrease is
not dominant.
The isovals are near to each other and near to bubble point line in case of volatile oil so small
pressure dropped below Pb causes larger gas evolution from oil bt in case of black oil, the isovals
are moderately spaced and heavy components are greater in amount (which are less energetic)
so large pressure drop is required below Pb to evolve the same amount of gas as evolved from
volatile oil on small pressure drop.
At abandonment pressure, more liquid remained in black oil as compared to volatile so for EOR
black oil is more suitable for black oil reservoir.
Page 94
We should not rely on single property for differentiation but all properties should be checked.
Liquid shrinkage curves:
The vertical line indicates the bubble point pressure where liquid is 100%. As pressure is decreased
below Pb, gas evolves with equal amounts as isovals are equally spaced so almost a straight line is
formed showing constant decrease in the liquid volume. In case of volatile oil as pressure is dropped
below Pb then initially with small pressure dropped large gas is produced as isovals are not equally
spaced and concentrated near Pb so a decreasing curve will form showing large decrease in liquid
volume which will not be a constant decrease due to irregular amount of gas liberation. Then after some
time, the decrease in liquid volume becomes small.
Some points:
Secondary recovery is the pressure maintenance recovery
In tertiary recovery, we change the fluid properties (EOR is tertiary recovery)
In primary recovery, operations are done on existing wells to produce oil, fluid comes from reservoir to
well bore.
Problem:
The average GOR produced from a field is 275 SCF/STB. The gravity of produced oil is 26 API. The color
of the stock tank liquid is black. What type of reservoir fluid is in formation?
Answer:
Black oil
Problem:
Page 95

A field had an initial producing GOR of 2000 SCF/STB, the stock tank liquid was medium orange and
had gravity 51.2 API. Classify this reservoir fluid?
Answer:
Volatile oil
Problem:
The field yielded an absolute open flow of 76 MMMSCF/day with 60 bbls of stock tank liquid per
MMSCF of gas. Classify the fluid type, what other information you would like to have to confirm your
result.
Answer:
Since GOR is above 3300 so it is gas reservoir. Now gas reservoirs are dry gas, wet gas or retrograde. This
is not a dry gas as GOR is given. Now for retrograde GOR is between 3300 and 50000 and wet gas it is
greater than 50000. The fluid type may be a wet gas but other properties like color and API are also
required to confirm the result.
WET GAS
Wet gas exists solely as a gas in reservoir
throughout the reservoir life.
Thus no liquid is formed in the reservoir.
Separator condition lies within the phase
envelope, causing some liquid to be
formed at surface due to presence of
intermediate components.
Producing GOR is above 50000 SCF/STB
and will remain constant.
Liquid is above 60 API and is water white.
DRY GAS
Dry gas is primarily methane.
Hydrocarbon is solely gas in the reservoir
and in the separator condition.
Dry means gas does not contain enough of
the heavy components to form liquid at
surface.
Page 96
Some points:
Flash calculation is a technique by which we can make phase diagram of a fluid such that wet gas or dry
gas or any oil type mathematically.
In dry gas we also use separator to remove water is produce. Dehydration plant separates the water
that is part of gas (saturated water) but aquifer water is separated by separator. Three phase separator
is used to separate all oil, water and gas.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOLATILE OIL AND RETROGRADE GAS CONDENSATE:
VOLATILE OIL
Initial oil in reservoir
TR<Tc
Rsi<3300
Molecular wt of C7+ is 12.5 to 20%
RETROGRADE GAS CONDENSATE

Initially gas in reservoir
TR>Tc
Rsi>3300
Molecular wt of C7+ is less 12.5%
RETROGRADE GAS:
The phase diagram of retrograde gas is

some what like as shown in the figure
(smaller than that of oils).
It contains fewer of the heavy
components.
Reservoir temperature is less than
cricondentherm but greater than critical
temperature.
Page 97

Field identification:
Producing GOR is between 3300 and 150,000.

Producing GOR will increase when pressure falls below dew point as liquid start to condense in
the reservoir such that heavy components remained in the reservoir and lighter components
come to the surface forming gas only with small liquid so GOR will increase.
API gravity is between 40 and 60 and increases as pressure falls below Pd as specific gravity of
the oil or condensate coming to the surface will decrease because the heavy components had
already been condensed in the reservoir so comparatively lighter components will now be the
part of liquid at surface.
Temperature range in the phase diagram is smaller as compared to volatile and black oils and critical
temperature is also less than both of these (the larger the heavy components in the fluid the greater the
temperature range and larger the critical temperature and more widely spread is the phase envelope.
Molecular wt of C7+ is less than 12.5% for retrograde gas, Rich retrograde has near to 12.5% and lean
has near to 1%. Therefore in lean, we do not appreciate any pressure maintenance technique as small
liquid will drop out in reservoir that will cause no significant problem but in rich as pay back (means in
how much time the investment is recovered) is good so we appreciate pressure maintenance technique.
(
For retrograde Rs= 3300 to 50000 but generally we take range of 3300 to 150,000. If Rs is near to
150000 then it is lean more near to wet gas (in wet gas no liquid drop out in reservoir but in retrograde
whether lean or rich, liquid drops out in reservoir during any period of reservoir life.
In any field breakeven point may come when expenses are equal to reserves.
Page 98

COMPONENTS OF NATURALLY OCCURRING PETROLEUM FLUIDS
HYDROCARBONS:
1- Paraffins (Alkanes):
Paraffins are straight chain saturated hydrocarbons. The chain may be straight or branched. Valency of
carbon atom is filled by 4 atoms.
2- Olefins:
Olefins are unsaturated hydrocarbons such as Alkenes and Alkynes.
3- Naphthenes (cyclo-alkanes):
They are saturated hydrocarbons but present as ring structure.
Aromatics: They are cyclic compounds that contain the benzene ring.
4- Resins and Asphaltenes:
They are hydrocarbons with sulfur, oxygen or nitrogen atom.
Note: Learn IUPAC names for exams.
NON HYDROCARBONS:
Nitrogen, Carbondioxide, Helium, Sulphur, etc.
Page 99

In refinery, the crude is first heated in more than one furnace so that all components in crude are
vaporized such that we heat the crude in furnaces to such temperature that all crude becomes vapor.
The heating is not done in one furnace because we do heating in steps so that thermal cracking may not
have occurred otherwise the coke being produced can block the passage towards CDU. If the crude
contains heavy fractions then we heat them in vacuum so that boiling temperature lowers due to
lowering of the surrounding pressures and all heavy components could be vaporized in furnace.
When crude has been heated to desire
temperature and it becomes in vapor phase
then it is injected into the Crude Distillation
Unit (CDU) from some distance above the
bottom of the unit. In this unit the
separation of different components in the
crude oil occurs on the basis of difference in
their boiling points. When crude in vapor
phase enters into the unit then at first the
heaviest components are condensed and
settle at bottom which we call as residuum,
the remaining mixture in vapor phase tends
to flow up towards the low temperature
region. The trays are set in unit at different temperatures where fractions of the crude oil after being
condensed from vapor to liquid phase at their melting points are achieved at their respective trays. For
o
example among the various trays in the unit, one tray is set at 450 oC and the other is set at 350 C. At
tray of 450, the kerosene components will be condensing mostly that has boiling point range of 350-450
and at try of 350 the components of B.P. range of 100-350 will achieved, however impurities will be
there as during separation from mixture other components beside the kerosene components may also
condense at this tray, so for further purification we again heat the mixture and re-inject it again into the
CDU, the process is continued for many times then the components from each tray or the two are
carried to separate refinery units where temperature difference between the successive trays will be
much smaller so that more pure substances can be achieved.
If heavy components are in large amount in crude oil that are separated as residuum at bottom of CDU,
then we will use VDU (vacuum distillation unit), which will be operating at vacuum so that boiling
temperatures of the components could be lowered and maximum separation of relatively light
components in the residuum can be achieved.
Page 100

In order to decide, which components should be more is dependent on demand and heating value for
example if demand of gasoline is more then we can use techniques to convert heavy hydrocarbons into
gasoline.
CNG is C1 and C2 compressed under high pressure. LPG is C3 and C4 that remains liquid under ordinary
conditions. LNG is liquefied natural gas such that C1 and C2 are compressed at high pressure and low
temperature. This is because the transportation through pipelines could be easy.
Homologous Series:
A family of organic chemical is known as homologous series. Members of homologous series have
similar molecular structure, same chemical properties, physical properties are different.
Page 101

VAPOR LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM
The area bounded by the Pb and Pd curves on the phase diagram of a multicomponent mixtures define
the condition for the gas and liquid to exist in equilibrium.
Quantities and composition of the two phases vary at different points.
The purpose of flash calculation (vapor liquid equilibria) is:
1) Calculation of bubble point of the mixture
2) Calculation of dew point of the mixture
3) Calculation of quantities and composition of the gas and liquid at different points.
In order to make phase diagram experimentally, it takes months and years to be completed but we
need a phase diagram at initial phases so this technique is used (vapor liquid equilibria or flash
calculation).
For flash calculation, the initial composition of liquid mixture should be known (by gas
chromatograph or anything else).
Some symbols to remember:
Symbol
(
(
( )
)
)
meaning
Total number of moles in the mixture
Total number of moles in liquid
Total number of moles in gas
Represents the mole fraction of jth component in total mixture
Represents the mole fraction of jth component in liquid
Represents the mole fraction of jth component in gas
Total moles of the jth component in the total mixture
Moles of the jth component of liquid
Moles of the jth component of gas
Page 102
We knew initially Z3 and Z4 and n only, now we have to find

and pressures to draw the phase diagram.
at different temperatures
A material balance on the jth component results in:

( )
we have
To eliminate
, By comparing Daltons law and Roults law.
So,
( )
( )
The calculation is simplified if n=1 therefore:
Page 103
Phase diagram depends on the composition of liquid initially as we had seen in previous chapters
that phase diagram for C1 50% and C2 50% is different from C1 70% and C2 30% therefore we are
taking in this constant composition of mixture means the liquid mixture that we had initially will
have same composition and on this mixture we will see the effect of change in temperature and
pressure. During production or injection, the fluid properties in the reservoir never remain same so
the phase diagram changes at every period of production (question: if phase diagram changes at
each step of production then the bubble point will also change then how we will predict that what
will be the bubble point as bubble point calculated from sample will be at that particular
composition which will change).
In order to calculate
and
, we need to know
and
for which we have:
between 0 and 1 as n is taken as 1, if answer

of summation comes less than 1 then we will put another value for which sum should be
greater than one, then we will interpolate among the two values to get required value
that will give us sum as 1. For we have
and then we can find and .
In above equation, we will assume one value of
Problem:
Calculate the composition and quantities of the gas and liquid when 1 lb-mole of the
following mixture is brought to be in equilibrium at 150 oF and 200 psia. Assume ideal
solution.
Component
C3
n-C4
n-C5
Composition
0.61
0.28
0.11
350
105
37
Page 104

Solution:
First finding
assume it to be 0.2 so,

(
)
(
Now assume
)(
)(
)(
)(
)(
)(
to be 0.6 so
(
)
(
Interpolating between the two values we get:
Page 105
Problem:
Perform flash calculation at 50 psia and 100oF
Component
C3
i-C4
n-C4
i-C5
n-C5
C6
First finding
at 100oF
190
72.3
51.6
20.44
15.57
4.956
Zj
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
assume it to be 0.2 so,
)
(
(
)(
)(
)(
(
)
)(
)(
(
)
)
)(
Page 106

Now assume
to be 0.95 so
)
(
(
)(
)(
)(
(
)
)(
)(
(
)
)
)(
Interpolating between the two values we get:
Page 107
Page 108

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RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

INTRODUCTION OF PHASE BEHAVIOR

Vapor pressure line

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

How phase diagram is made?

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

DENSITY-TEMPERATURE DIAGRAM FOR PURE SUBSTANCE

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PHASE DIAGRAM OF TWO COMPONENT MIXTURES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

Lean gas reservoir

RICH RETROGRADE GAS CONDENSATE RESERVOIR

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

Pressure maintenance method

PRESSURE MAINTENANCE METHOD

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

FIVE SPOT AND SEVEN SPOT

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

Since, VMG >>> VML

So, equation (1) becomes

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

0.00205 0.0021 0.00215 0.0022 0.00225 0.0023 0.00235 0.0024

At 40 degree fahrenheit or 500 degree rankine, we have 1/T = 0.002.

The value of R in field units is 10.73 psia.ft3/lb-mole.oR.

PREPARED BY: SHOAIB (PE-O22) AND BILAL (PE-004)

RESERVOIR FLUID NOTES

Density of liquid = 0.31 gm/cc =

(as 1kg=2.2lb and

Density of gas = 0.15 gm/cc =

COMPOSITION DIAGRAM FOR TWO COMPONENT MIXTURE: