Use Questions to Zero In

on Valuable Information

Figure Out Whether Information Is Relevant

Decide Whether Information Is Important
Determine Whether Information Is Reliable

Humans have realized the power of questions for more than

twenty-four hundred years when the Greek philosopher
Socrates (469399 BC), found that instead of simply lecturing,
he could pose a series of carefully directed questions that
enabled the students who answered them to arrive at their
understandings or conclusions themselves.

use your questions to

extract meaning
--

Instead of expecting meaning

to simply pop up magically
like a jack-in-the-box, active
learners take the initiative,
using their own questions
to extract meaning from
readings and lectures.

Keep in mind that what is

important is not always
the same as what is
interesting. A lot of
information (such as the
number of steps in the
Empire State Building)
falls under the general
heading of trivia.

Trivia fascinates some students and bores

others.

Regardless, its rarely important. At best it provides

support for a controlling idea. If you think trivia is
interesting, you may find this motivates you to
remember it. Its still better to focus your
attention on the important ideas though. When
you do, the details that interest you will often remain in
the picture. If, on the other hand, you focus on trivia
instead, the controlling ideas may be pushed out of
frame

The Echo Chamber

The echo chamber describes a situation in
which information is amplified by constant
repetition. If the information is false, it may be
mistaken as true. If the information is true, it may
appear to be more relevant or important than it
actually is. The satirist
H. L. Menckens bathtub hoax offers an
interesting insight into the echo chamber run
amok, whereas urban legends provide more
commonplace examples. And because the echo
chamber isnt just for false information, it helps
sometimes to take a good look at the news that
everyone is buzzing about.

Confirmation bias
In the case of learning a new word, this tendency is
relatively harmless. But the same phenomenon can act
to reinforce your particular viewpoint or bias at the
expense of other information that may actually contradict
or modify your beliefs.

This is known as confirmation bias. In the journal Review

of General Psychology, psychologist Raymond S.
Nickerson defines confirmation bias as the

unwitting selectivity in the acquisition

and use of evidence.
So, although selectivity is an essential tool in
reducing the glut of information youre exposed to, it
can also have a negative effect by shielding you
from vital information or depriving you of the
complete picture.

All of us are susceptible to confirmation bias. Its

important to be aware of this tendency and to
keep your mind open for differing evidence and
information that might change your viewpoint. Also, it
doesnt hurt to have a set of consistent guidelines that
you use to gauge the validity of information.
Many people make a decision whether or not to trust
information based on their gut. And its true that our
hunches and instincts do seem to provide us with clues,
although there is very little scientific data to support this.

Unfortunately, emotional appeals have a way of

short-circuiting common sense. It happens to nearly
all of us

at times. Articulate, charismatic liars can sometimes

trigger a positive response while honest but
awkward writing or speaking can sometimes put us
on guard.

Logical Fallacies
Although your own biases can affect the way you
select and interpret information, there are also
elements embedded in some arguments that can
lead you to unknowingly accept a false conclusion
as fact. Usually there is a flaw in an otherwise
reasonable argument that renders it invalid.
These are commonly known as logical fallacies
and are used by writers and speakers
sometimes accidentally but often on purpose to
lead you to a desired conclusion
.
One of the best-known logical fallacies has to do
with ice cream sales. It suggests that because an
increase in ice cream sales seems to correspond
with an increase in crime, ice cream must cause
crime. Whats tricky about a fallacy is that its
usually made up of a true premise or premises that
reach a false conclusion. Therefore, a person who
isnt listening or reading critically may notice the
true statements but overlook the logical

leap that leads to a false outcome. Its true that ice

cream sales and crime often increase at the same
time. But its not true that one causes the other.
(Its more likely that hot weather is the cause for
the increase in both.)

Another common fallacy is known as the

straw man.
Thats a situation in which the writer or speaker
uses an opposing example that is either weak or
imaginary in
order to make his argument appear to gain
legitimacy or strength. The straw man is often
called some or some people to
present the appearance of a real opposition
without ever naming it.
So, if the authors of a study skills textbook wanted
to appear more courageous and defiant than
they actually are, they might write: Although there
are some who may want to do away with study
skills textbooks altogether, we were determined to
make sure that our book was published. A person
who read

this might feel increased respect and admiration

for these brave authors and might even be
tempted to purchase an additional book or two just
to spite those who want to do away with study
skills textbooks altogether.
But theres only one problem. The enemy is never
specified. Its a phantom. And that is how the
straw man fallacy works.