1.world Communicates

Parramatta High School SL#606247
Preliminary Physics Topic 1
THE WORLD COMMUNICATES

What is this topic about?
To keep it as simple as possible, (K.I.S.S.) this topic involves the study of:
1. THE NATURE OF WAVES
2. THE PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
4. REFLECTION & REFRACTION
5. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION & DATA STORAGE
...in the context of communications
but first, lets revise...

ENERGY
TYPES of WAVES
Energy is what causes changes and does work.

The familiar forms of energy include
HEAT
ELECTRICITY
KINETIC (energy in a moving object)
POTENTIAL (energy stored such as the
chemical energy in petrol).
Examples of energy which moves around as waves include

Photo
Helen Lee
SOUND
LIGHT
RADIO SIGNALS
WATER WAVES
X-RAYS
Some forms of energy move around as WAVES . A

wave is a carrier of energy. In a wave, energy moves,
but matter does not. For example, compare these 2
situations:
MICROWAVES
... and many more
ENERGY CONVERSIONS
When the wind blows, both matter

(the air) and energy move....
THIS IS NOT A WAVE!
Energy can be converted from one form to another. In

your mobile phone the SOUND of your voice is converted
to ELECTRICAL signals then transmitted as RADIO
waves to your friend, whose phone converts it back again.
In this case, only the energy moves.

The air only vibrates as the SOUND WAVES move.
SOUND
Waves Carry Energy

Without the Transfer of Matter
ELECTRICAL
RADIO
In this topic you will learn about waves and their

properties and features, and how they are used for
communication.
1
copyright 2005-2006
keep it simple science
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic helps them learn and remember the concepts and
important facts. As you proceed through the topic, come back to this page regularly to see how each bit fits the
whole. At the end of the notes you will find a blank version of this Mind Map to practise on.
mechanical
EM waves
transverse
longitudinal
General
Types
of Waves
Velocity
Wave
Equation
Frequency & Pitch

Amplitude & Loudness
V = f
wavelength
amplitude
frequency
period
Nature
of Sound
Waves
Wave
Measurements
Principle
of
Superposition
Graphing
Waves
(displacement-ttime)
Properties
of
Sound
Waves
The Nature
of
Waves
The
EMR
Spectrum
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
Electromagnetic
Waves
(EMR)
Reflection
&
Refraction
Digital
Communication
&
Data Storage
EMR
in
Communication
Refraction
Snells Law
Law
of
Reflection
Sin i = v1 = n
Sin r v2
Total Internal
Reflection
& Critical Angle
Production
&
Detection
of EMR
Dangers of
EMR
Inverse Square
Law
I 1
d2
Reflection in
Communication
Light & Mirrors
copyright 2005-2006
1. THE NATURE OF WAVES

Waves Carry Energy
Describing Waves
Waves carry energy, without the transfer of matter.
A wave is a vibration. In a mechanical wave, the particles

(atoms & molecules) in the medium vibrate to transmit the
wave energy. In EM waves the vibration occurs in electric
and magnetic fields.
This can occur in 1 dimension:
Pulses moving along a slinky spring
Consider a wave in a rope which has been given a single upand-down twitch:
compression
A PULSE WAVE
CREST
... or in 2 dimensions:
vibration of medium
rope
Energy moves
Ripples spreading on the

surface of a pond.
TROUGH
Energy moves along the rope, but the rope itself doesnt go
anywhere. Particles of the medium (the rope fibres)
vibrate up-and-down as the energy moves across.
Photo
Philipp
Pilz
This form of a wave, where the medium vibrates at right

angles to the direction that the energy moves, is called a
Transverse wave.
...or in 3 dimensions,
such as when light radiates in all directions from a glowing
object.
If the rope is wiggled constantly up-and-down, you get not

just one pulse, but a periodic wave with one pulse following
another.
A PERIODIC, TRANSVERSE WAVE
CREST
WAVELENGTH
Energy moves
AMPLITUDE
TROUGH
AMPLITUDE
TRANSVERSE
Waves & Mediums
WAVES
Mechanical waves are those which need a medium to

travel through. For example, a water wave must have water
to travel in. Sound waves need air, or water, or some
substance to move in. They CANNOT travel in a vacuum.
Vibration in medium
TRANSVERSE WAVES
THE VIBRATION OF THE WAVE
IS AT RIGHT ANGLES
TO THE DIRECTION OF ENERGY FLOW
Electromagnetic (EM) waves do NOT need a medium...

they can travel through a vacuum, and in fact travel fastest
in a vacuum. EM waves include light, radio waves, ultraviolet and other types, and are studied in detail in a later
section.
Energy flow
copyright 2005-2006
Longitudinal waves are when the particles of the medium

vibrate back-and-forth in the same line as the energy
moves. For example, when a series of compressions and
rarefactions are sent along a slinky spring.
LONGITUDINAL WAVES
THE VIBRATION OF THE WAVE
IS IN THE SAME LINE
AS THE DIRECTION OF ENERGY FLOW
LONGITUDINAL WAVE IN A SPRING

Spring vibrates
Energy moves
rarefaction
compression
Wave Measurements
All periodic waves,
whether Longitudinal or Transverse, Mechanical or Electromagnetic,
can be described and measured by their:Period (T) = the time (in seconds) for one complete
vibration to occur.
Wavelength = the distance from one crest to the next. (or

from one trough to the next, or from one compression to
the next) The S.I. unit is the metre (m).
Note that there is a simple relationship between Frequency

and Period... they are reciprocals.
The Greek letter lambda
is used as a symbol for wavelength.
T= 1
f
Amplitude (a or A) = the distance that a particle in the

medium is displaced from its rest position at a crest or
trough. i.e. the maximum displacement distance.
Velocity (v) = the speed of the wave, in metres/sec.(ms-1)

There is a simple relationship between Velocity, Wavelength
and Frequency:
Frequency (f) = the rate at which the wave is vibrating.

The number of waves that pass a given point in 1 second,
or the number of complete vibrations per second.
S.I. unit is the hertz (Hz)
and f = 1
T
THE WAVE EQUATION

Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength
1 Hz = 1 wave/sec.
V = f
WAVELENGTH
TRY THE WORKSHEET, at the end of this section.
Energy moves
AMPLITUDE
copyright 2005-2006
Graphing Waves
Graphing a Longitudinal Wave

You might think these Displacement-Time graphs wouldnt
work for a Longitudinal wave where the particles vibrate
back-and-forth rather than up-and-down.
However, the graph of a longitudinal wave can be exactly
the same... you just have to realise that the displacement
is sideways displacement from the equilibrium position,
instead of up-down.
Amplitude, Period and Frequency can all be determined in
exactly the same way.
A good way to represent a wave is by using a graph.

Imagine a floating cork bobbing up and down as a series of
ripples move across the water surface (i.e. a periodic wave).
Ripples
Cork bobs up and down
One period
= 0.8 s
+3
Relationship Between
Wavelength & Frequency
0.5
1.0
You may have carried out a First Hand Investigation in

class to see how a change in Frequency (at constant
velocity) affects the wavelength. Maybe you used a slinky
spring, or watched the water waves in a ripple tank.
Time (s)
-3
Displacement (cm)
If you graph the (up-down) displacement of the cork

against time, the graph will look something like this:
You would have found...
Be careful! The graph looks like a wave, so its tempting to

try to read the wavelength from the horizontal scale... but
it wont work! The horizontal scale is TIME, not length.
INCREASING
the FREQUENCY
DECREASE in
WAVELENGTH
What you CAN read from a Displacement-Time graph:

and
Amplitude. The vertical scale measures the displacement of
the cork from the equilibrium position (i.e. the flat water
surface).
So,
at 0 sec, the cork was in the equilibrium position.
at 0.1 sec, it was approx. 2cm upwards.
at 0.2 sec, it was 3cm upwards... and so on.
Its maximum displacement was 3cm either above or below
(d= -3cm) equilibrium, so the Amplitude = 3cm (0.03m)
DECREASING
the FREQUENCY
INCREASE in
WAVELENGTH
(If VELOCITY is the same)

Longer
Wavelength
Lower
Frequency
Period. Since the horizontal scale is time, you can easily

read from the graph how long it takes for one complete upand-down cycle. On this graph T = 0.8s
From Period, calculate Frequency:
f =1/T
= 1 / 0.8
= 1.25Hz
If the speed of the wave was known, then you could
calculate the wavelength, or vice versa.
Shorter
Wavelength
e.g. if the ripples are 0.45m apart: (i.e. = 0.45m)

V = freq. x wavelength
= 1.25 x 0.45
So, velocity
= 0.56 ms-1
TRY THE WORKSHEET (next page)
Higher
Frequency
To have the same speed,

the shorter waves
must vibrate faster
copyright 2005-2006
Part B
Worksheet 1
Part A
Practice Problems
Wave Measurements and the Wave Equation
Fill in the blank spaces
Example Problem 1
A water wave in the ocean has a wavelength of 85m, and
a velocity of 4.5ms-1.
a) Find the frequency.
b) What is the period?
Solution
a)
V= f
4.5 = f x 85
f = 4.5 / 85
= 0.053 Hz (5.3 x 10-2 Hz)
(i.e. only a fraction of a wave passes by each second.)
Waves carry a)...................................... without the

transfer of b)................................
Mechanical
waves require a c)............................. to travel in.
Examples are d)...................... and ............................
Electromagnetic waves do not need a medium
and can travel in a e).........................................
Examples include f)............................... and
...................................
A g)................................... wave is when the
vibration and the movement of energy are
h)........................................................
In a Longitudinal Wave, the vibration and the
energy movement are i)..............................................
b)
T=1/f
= 1 / 0.053
= 19 s
(i.e. it takes 19 seconds for 1 complete wave, crest to crest,
to pass by)
j)........................................ is the distance from

crest to crest.
Example Problem 2
A sound wave has a period of 2.00x10-3s. (= 0.002s)
Sound travels in air at a velocity of 330ms-1.
a) What is the frequency of the wave?
b) Find the wavelength.
Solution
a)
f =1/T
= 1 / 0.002
= 500Hz (i.e. 500 vibrations per sec.)
b)
V=f
330 = 500 x
= 330 / 500
= 0.66m (i.e. 66cm from crest to crest)
Amplitude is the k)...................................................

Frequency is the number of l)................................
per second. The SI unit is the m)................. (........)
n)............................................ is the time for one
complete
vibration.
This
is
the
o).................................... of frequency.
Velocity is the speed of the wave and is equal to
p).......................... multiplied by q).............................
On the graph of a wave, showing Displacement v
Time, the vertical scale shows the
r)..................................... of the wave, while the
horizontal allows you to read the value of the
s)........................................ and then easily calculate
the t)......................................................
TRY THESE
1. a) Find the velocity of a sound wave in water if it
vibrates 280 times per second and has a wavelength of
5.20m.
b)What is the period of this wave?
For waves travelling at the same velocity,

increasing
the
frequency
would
u).................................... (increase/decrease) the
v)................................................, and vice-versa.
2. An earthquake shockwave travels through rock at a

velocity of 2,500 ms-1. Its frequency is 0.400 Hz.
What is the wavelength?
3. What is the wavelength of a sound wave with
frequency 1200Hz? Sound travels in air at 330ms-1.
4. An ocean water wave in deep water travels at a velocity
of 6.50ms-1. Its period is 16.0s.
a) What is the frequency?
b) Wavelength?
c) As the wave enters shallower water it keeps the same
frequency but slows down to only 2.20 ms-1. What
happens to the wavelength?
continued...
COMPLETED WORKSHEETS
BECOME SECTION SUMMARIES
Copyright 2005-2006 keep it simple science
Worksheet 1
5.
a) Red light has a wavelength of 7.00x10-7m, and travels at
3.00x108ms-1. What is the frequency?
b) Blue light has a wavelength of 3.00x10-7m and travels
at the same speed. What is the frequency?
8.
When a guitar string is plucked, a wave vibration runs
back and forth through the string. The string is 0.96m
long and it is found that exactly 8 complete wavelengths
fit along the string at a time. The vibration frequency is
384Hz.
How fast do the waves travel through the string?
6.
Radio signals travel at the speed of light.
(3.00x108ms-1) A radio station has a frequency of
530 kHz (=530,000Hz).
a) What is the period of the waves?
b) What is the wavelength?
9.
X-rays are very short wavelength EM waves which travel
at the speed of light. If the wavelength is
1.50x10-11 metre,
a) find the frequency.
b What is the period of the X-rays?
continued
7.
In World War II, one major technological advance was the
development of centimetric RADAR... Radar that
worked on radio waves of only a few centimetres in
wavelength. (Previous radars worked at wavelengths of a
metre or longer)
Compare the frequency of a radio wave 2.50m long, with
one 2.50cm long.
(Assume they both travel at the speed of light)
Part C
Remember that for full marks

in calculations, you need to show
FORMULA, NUMERICAL SUBSTITUTION,
APPROPRIATE PRECISION and UNITS
Wave Graph Exercise
The following sketch graph shows 3 different waves P,

Q and R. For each wave;
i) What is the Amplitude?
ii) State the (approx) displacement at time t=0.3s
iii) What is the Period of each wave?
iv) What is the Frequency of each wave?
v) Given that wave P has a wavelength of
0.50m, calculate its velocity.
vi) Waves Q & R both travel with a velocity
of 9.5ms-1. Find their wavelengths.
Time (s)
0.05
0.1
-0
0.1
Displacement
(m)
0.1
2. THE PROPERTIES OF SOUND WAVES

Velocity of Sound
Sound Waves
Sound travels at different speeds in different mediums.

In air, sound travels at about 330-350 ms-1, (about 1,200
km/hr) depending on temperature and density.
Sound waves are Mechanical (they need a medium)

and
Longitudinal (vibrate back-and-forth
in the line of the energy flow)
SOUND
WAVES
The denser the air, the slower the speed of sound.
Energy moves
In liquids and solids, sound travels much faster...

...about 1,500ms-1 in water
...about 5,000ms-1 in most metals.
Particles vibrate
Instead of crests and troughs, a series of compressions
and rarefactions pass through the medium as a sound
travels. The atoms and molecules are alternately squashed
together and then stretched apart as the energy flows
through.
FREQUENCY = PITCH
When you hear sounds of different pitch that is the way
your brain interprets sound waves of different frequency.
Sound Travels
Low Frequency = Low Pitch

High Frequency = High Pitch
Compression
Rarefaction
Compression
Rarefaction
AMPLITUDE = LOUDNESS or VOLUME
In a compression the air pressure is higher, and lower in a

rarefaction.
Displacement from
the equilibrium
Compression.
Sound waves with different amplitudes are interpreted by

your brain as sounds of different loudness or volume.
Higher air pressure
Larger Amplitude = Louder Sound

Smaller Amplitude = Quieter Sound
Time
Rarefaction. Lower pressure
ECHOES
...ECHOES ...ECHOES
USES OF
SONAR
Like all waves, sound can travel through a medium like air,
strike another medium (say, a brick wall) and bounce back.
The REFLECTED wave will be heard as an echo.
The time delay between

sending a sound ping and
receiving the echo, gives
depth and distance
SONAR
SOund Navigation And Ranging
BAT
Echoes
Anti-submarine
Warfare
Fish
Finders
from in
sect
Depth
Sounding
Squeaks of sound
Humans have invented SONAR technologies for things

such as depth sounding and detecting underwater
objects... fish or submarines, it all works the same way.
Some animals can send out sound waves and pick up the
echoes to help locate their prey, or to navigate, in
environments where they cant see very well.
(Such as murky water, or in darkness.)
The Principle of Superposition
All waves have the ability to pass through other waves

without being affected. For example, you could shine a red
spotlight across a beam of blue light, and each colour and
beam will emerge on the other side exactly the same.
However, if the waves are out of phase (for example, if

compression coincided with rarefaction) then there is
destructive interference... the opposite amplitudes may
cancel each other out.
However, for the instant that the 2 waves are superimposed

upon each other, they do interact and interfer with each
other.
Displacement
Add positive &

negative displacements
at the circled points
Very simply, the displacement of the two waves add

together at every point where the waves coincide.
Displacement
resultant A+B
wave A
Resultant
wave B
wave A
wave B
Theoretically, if 2 sound waves had the same amplitude and

were perfectly out of phase they could cancel out totally...
imagine having 2 sounds that add up to SILENCE!
(or 2 lights that combine to form DARKNESS!)
To find a
resultant, add
the displacements of A&B at
convenient
points (circled)
In this case, the waves A&B were in phase (crest coincided with crest, trough with trough) so the result was
constructive interference... the resultant has an amplitude
which is the sum of A+B.
In practice, this only happens over short distances or time

periods to give interference patterns and beat sounds.
When an in-coming wave meets a
reflected wave going back out, their
amplitudes add together.
The Principle of Superposition
Photo: Chris Potter
Technically, a breaking wave is not a wave at all.

Once it breaks, the water begins moving forward (which allows you to catch
it) and so both energy and matter are flowing forward... NOT a wave!
True water waves are the swells which you cannot catch.
Photo: Igor Kasalovic
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 2
Part A Fill in the blanks. Check your answers at the back
Sound waves are a)....................................... and b).................................... A sound wave consists of a series of high pressure
c)................................................... and lower pressure d)........................................................... travelling through the medium.
In air, the speed of sound is about e)............. ms-1, but it is much f).................................. (higher/lower) in water or in solids
such as metals.
The pitch of a sound is related to the g).................................... of the wave. The amplitude of the wave determines the
h)............................. of the sound we hear. Echoes occur when sounds i)............................................. Some animals use echoes
for j)............................................ Humans use the technology of k)............................................ for depth sounding and
l)..............................................
When 2 or more waves coincide, they will interfere with each other. The m).................................................. wave can be found
by adding together the separate wave n)....................................................
-ve
Displacement
+ve
Part B
Principle of Superposition Exercise
Find the resultant of these 2 waves by adding the displacements at the circled points, then join the sum points with
an even curve. IF THESE ARE SOUND WAVES, WHAT WOULD YOU HEAR?
(check your answer )
10
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Detection & Reception of EM Waves
EM Waves
Electromagnetic waves are Transverse waves which do

NOT require a medium to travel through...
they travel through a vacuum at 3.00x108ms-1, the speed
of light. They can travel through many other substances
at slightly slower speed. For example, light can travel
through glass or water at speeds of around 2.5x108ms-1. In
air, the speed is so close to the speed in a vacuum that, for
simplicity, (K.I.S.S. Principle) we take it to be the same.
Just as all EM waves are produced in the same basic way,

they are all received or detected in the same basic way too...
by a phenomenon called Resonance. When waves strike
something and are absorbed, they may cause sympathetic
vibrations within it.
EM radiation (EMR) does not require a medium because

the waves propagate as vibrations of electric and magnetic
fields, not as vibrating particles.
When the fat lady sings...
In cartoons and the movies (not in real life) the opera

singer hits a high note and all the wine glasses begin to
vibrate and then shatter... a fictional example of resonance.
Radio (and TV) waves

low
v.long
MEMBERS OF THE EMR SPECTRUM
microwaves
Wavelength decreasing
visible LIGHT
ultra-violet
Frequency increasing
Some real examples...

infra-red
(heat radiation)
When radio waves hit a suitable aerial wire or antenna, they

cause some electrons in the metal to oscillate back-andforth in sympathy with the wave. These oscillations are
amplified electronically and the signal converted to sound
in the speaker, allowing you to listen to the radio.
Gamma rays
very high
very short
X-rays
Although we tend to think of these as 7 different types of

radiation, you must realise that they are really all the same
thing, just at different wavelengths and frequencies.
When infra-red waves hit your skin they cause certain

molecules to begin to resonate and vibrate. This sets off
nerve messages to the brain and you feel warmth or heat
on your skin.
Production of EM Waves
All EM waves are produced in basically the same way:
vibration or oscillation of electrically charged particles.
For example....
Radio waves are produced by electric currents running
back-and-forth in a conducting wire.
Infra-red waves are made by molecules vibrating rapidly
because of the heat energy they contain.
In a camera the light causes resonance in chemicals in the

film. Chemical reactions occur
which permanently alter the film
so that an image appears when
developed later. Different film
can be sensitive to infra-red,
(photos in the dark) or X-rays
for medical uses.
Light is emitted when electrons rapidly jump down from

a higher to a lower orbit around an atom.
Gamma waves come from the vibrations of charged
particles within an atomic nucleus, during a nuclear
reaction in the atom.
11
Danger of High Frequency EMR
The Inverse Square Law
High frequency EMR (ultra-violet, X-ray & gamma) can be

very dangerous to living things.
As any form of radiation spreads out from its source its

intensity gets less. For example, a sound becomes quieter if
youre further from the source, or a light is not so bright as
you move further from it.
A little UV gives you a suntan, but long-term exposure

leads to skin damage, premature skin ageing, and is
implicated in causing skin cancers, including melanoma.
Mathematically, the relationship is that the intensity (I)

(such as brightness of light) is inversely proportional to the
SQUARE of the distance (d) from which it is viewed.
The Sun produces dangerous quantities of UV radiation,

but luckily most of it is absorbed by the ozone layer in
the upper atmosphere of the Earth.
Sun
Intensity
X-ray & gamma
UV
rad
io
inf
rar
some
reflected
ozone layer
ed
means
proportional
to
1
(distance)2
1
d2
&l
ig
ht
Earths surface
This diagram explains why:

upper atmosphere
Ozone is a form of oxygen which has 3 atoms per

molecule (O3) instead of the normal 2 (O2). The ozone
molecules resonate well at the frequency of UV and so
absorb it strongly.
Oxygen O2
does not
Absorb UV
2d
ce
an
dist
Square
dista
nce
UV
Rays
Square with sides

twice as long.
Area = 4x2
Area =x2
Same amount of
light falls on 4
times the area
light
source
At distance d from the light source, some light energy

falls on an area of x2 units. At twice that distance (2d) the
same amount of light would fall on an area of 4x2. The
brightness of the light must be only 1/4 as much (since the
same amount of light is falling on 4 times the area.)
Ozone O3
Absorbs
UV
So,
The Sun only produces small amounts of the even more
dangerous X-rays and gamma radiation. Once again, most
is absorbed in the upper atmosphere, this time by ordinary
oxygen and nitrogen gases.
twice the distance

3 times the distance
10 times the distance
1/4 as bright
1/9 as bright
1/100 as bright
...or if you move closer it will getter brighter:

at half the distance, 4 times brighter
at 1/3 the distance, 9 times brighter
...and so on.
Infra-red and light radiation penetrate well, (although about

30% is reflected) and while some radio frequencies get
through, many get absorbed or reflected.
TRY THE WORKSHEET PROBLEMS

AT THE END OF THIS SECTION
12
copyright 2005-2006
2x
EMR & Communication
How a Wave Carries Information
Humans rely on sound waves for communicating by direct

speech, but all our modern communication technologies
rely on EMR.
How can a voice or piece of music be carried by a wave?

The key feature is Modulation of the wave. There are 3
common ways to modulate the wave to carry information...
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Radio & microwaves carry radio and TV broadcasts,

telephone long-distance links, mobile phone networks, and
satellite links for telephone (including internet) and TV.
If you have Satellite TV, the dish on your roof is an
antenna to receive radio waves directly from an orbiting
satellite.
WAVE
MODULATION
Add to that, 2-way radio for military uses, CB amateurs and

boating, shipping and aircraft communications, and you
begin to realise how many radio waves are zapping around.
The amplitude stays constant

while the frequency (and
wavelength) vary within a fixed
range. The information (voice,
music etc) is coded in the
variations of frequency.
FM radio gives much better

fidelity and is superior, compared
to AM, for the quality of
Amplitude Modulation
sound (eg for music)
(AM)
received.
The frequency (and wavelength)
of the wave stays constant while
the amplitude varies.
Pulse Modulation
(Digital)
The changing amplitude
corresponds to the information
To carry information
being carried... whether voice or in digital form the
music, or whatever.
wave must switch
rapidly between 2
different states, representing the
1 and 0 of digital codes. The
wave can be switched rapidly on
and off (as in the diagram) or
switched back-and-forth between
different phase states... phase
modulation.
Light is being increasingly used in the form of LASER

beams carried in optical fibres for telephone and internet
communication.
Whats special about
LASER LIGHT?
It is one, pure frequency of light.
The waves are all in phase and so
they interfere constructively to
form a very intense, tight beam.
A laser beam will stay inside an
optical fibre and not leak out or
dissipate for long distances.
A laser can be turned on & off
very rapidly, so its perfect for
high speed digital communication.
This diagram compares the effect of
AM, FM & Digital Modulation

on the same carrier wave
Carrier
wave
No
information
carried
AM
signal
Amplitude
changes.
Frequency
constant
FM
signal
Freq. changes.
Amp.constant
Wave pulses
on and off
Digital
signal
Digital 1 0 1 1
0
message (a byte of data)
Laser Light Show

Photo: Keith Syvinski
13
copyright 2005-2006
Case Study: MOBILE (CELL) PHONES
2. The digital RADIO signal is

transmitted by your phone and received
by the local cell antenna.
When you use a mobile phone, the sound of your voice

goes into a microphone and almost instantly pops out the
other end into your friends ear. What happens in
between?
1. The SOUND energy of

your voice is converted to
ELECTRICAL signals by the
microphone. The electrical
signal is used to digitally
modulate a RADIO wave.
4. In the other cell area, the signal
is converted back to a modulated
RADIO signal and transmitted.
5. Your friends phone receives the

RADIO signal, amplifies it as an
ELECTRICAL signal and this is
converted to SOUND waves in their
earphone.
3. If your call is going to a

person in another location
(a different cell) the
signal is converted into a
modulated
MICROWAVE and
beamed, via hilltop relay
towers, to the correct area.
(Alternatively, it might be
sent as a modulated Laser
LIGHT beam through
optical fibres).
ENERGY
Y CHANGES
SOUND
ELECTRICITY
RADIO
MICROWAVE
(or LASER LIGHT)
RADIO
SOUND
Discussion:
LIMITATIONS OF COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
Modern communication systems have developed
rapidly and new features and capabilities seem to come
out every day. It seems that the entire system is
unlimited and that it can continue to expand and
improve forever.
In the future we will need to switch more

communications to use the laser light / optical fibre
method wherever possible, and to make better use of
the RF bands. For example, it is possible to use the
same frequency channel for several different
purposes as long as the different signals are modulated
differently and as long as the radio receivers are
sophisticated enough to pick out only the desired
signal and ignore the others.
Well perhaps it can, but NOT while continuing to use

the radio end of the EMR spectrum. Each station
or channel must operate on a different frequency or
else signals can jam or interfere with each other.
One thing is for sure... humans will keep

communicating and the need for new services will
keep expanding. So far, our technology has always
managed to keep up, and it will probably continue to
do so.
The simple fact is that there are now so many radio &
TV stations, mobile phone networks, aircraft and
shipping channels, military, police and emergency
service channels, etc. etc. all using the RF (Radio
Frequency) part of the EMR spectrum, that it is
becoming difficult to keep expanding services without
interfering with existing channels.
14
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 3
Part A
The energy changes occurring in a mobile phone call are as

follows: Sound waves of your voice are converted to an
ac)......................................... signal. This is used to modulate
a ad)........................................... wave transmitted to the local
cell antenna. Next, the signal is sent via
ae)......................................... link, or LASER beam to another
cell station. Here it is transmitted again as a
af)...................................... signal. The receiving phone
converts this to an ag)................................... signal and finally
it is converted back to sound waves.
Fill in the blank spaces
Electromagnetic waves are a)....................................... waves

which b).............................. (do/do not) require a
c).................................... to travel in. They all move at the
speed of light, which is d)..................................... ms-1 in a
vacuum. The members of the EMR spectrum (in order of
increasing frequency) are:
e)............................................, f)..................................................,
g)........................................, h)..............................................,
i)............................................, j)..................................................,
and k)...............................................
Part B
Practice Problems
The Inverse Square Law
Example Problem:
At a distance of 5m the brightness of a light is measured
to be 36 units. How bright would it be if viewed from
15m?
All EM waves are produced when electrical charges

l)........................................... They are all detected/received by
the process of m)................................................. This is when
the wave is absorbed by a substance and causes electrons or
molecules to n).................................................... in
sympathy with the wave.
Answer:
Since the distance is 3x further, then intensity will be
1/9. So new brightness = 36/9 = 4 units.
High frequency EMR, such as o).............................................

is dangerous to life. Luckily, the p)................................... layer
of the atmosphere absorbs most of the dangerous
q)........................... rays from the Sun.
TRY THESE:
1.
At a distance of 10m from a light, the brightness
(intensity) is 48 units. What intensity would it have at
distance:
a) 20m?
b) 40m?
c) 100m?
d) 5m?
All forms of radiation decrease in intensity in proportion to

the r).......................................... from the source, so if
distance is doubled, the intensity will drop to
s)................................ (fraction)
2.
How much stronger would a radio signal be if you moved
from 100km, to 25km distance from the transmitter?
EM waves are very important in modern communications.

The wave types used are mainly t).......................................
and ..................................................., but light is being used
more and more in the form of u).........................................
carried inside v)....................................... fibres.
3.
At 2m from a flame the brightness is 32 units. At what
distance would the brightness be 2 units?
Waves carry information by the process of

w).................................... This can be done in 3 ways:
AM stands for x).................................................................,
in which the information is carried as fluctuations in the
y)................................................ of the wave.
FM stands for z)................................................................,
in which the signal is carried by variations in
aa).............................................. of the wave.
Digital signals are carried by ab).....................................
modulation in which the carrier wave rapidly switches
between 2 states (e.g. on and off).
4.
One light bulb (at a certain distance) gives I units of
light intensity. To get the same light intensity at double
the distance, how many identical bulbs need to be
switched on?
15
4. REFLECTION & REFRACTION

Reflection of Light from Curved Mirrors
When a Wave Hits a Boundary
When a wave is travelling through one medium and then

strikes a different medium, one of 3 things can happen at
the boundary:
Concave mirrors (go in like a CAVE) reflect light to a

Focus, or focal point.
Example: Light waves travelling in air, then

hitting glass.
ABSORPTION
of the energy
Absorbed energy
becomes heat
REFLECTION
(bounces off)
Focus
TRANSMISSION into the

new medium, with possible REFRACTION
(change of direction)
It is quite possible that all 3 things can happen at once. For

example, if a beam of light is travelling through air, and
then strikes a glass window:
the glass ABSORBS some of the light.
some REFLECTS off the glass
some is TRANSMITTED through the glass.
Concave mirrors can give ENLARGED images if viewed

from the right distance, such as a household shaving mirror
or make-up mirror, which gives a magnified reflection of
your face. This is also the basis of a reflecting telescope.
Reflection
Convex mirrors reflect light so the rays diverge

outwards, as if coming from a focus behind the mirror.
The Law of Reflection is very simple:

Whatever angle a ray of light hits the surface, it will
bounce off again at the same angle.
In
cid
OR, more technically:

Angle of = Angle of
Incidence
Reflection
io = ro
en
Normal
line
tr
ay
io
ro
ed
ct
fle
e
R
Reflective
surface
such as a
mirror
y
ra
Virtual
Focus
The trickiest bit is how the angles are measured. They must
be measured between the rays and the NORMAL... an
imaginary line at right angles to the surface.
What if the Surface Isnt Flat?The Law of Reflection is
still obeyed, as shown:
The Incident rays P,Q & R
are parallel.
Each obeys the Law of
Reflection, but the
reflected rays go in
different directions.
Convex mirrors produce smaller (diminished) images, but

give a wider-angle view. An example of use is the side
mirrors on a car which give you a wide-angle view into the
drivers blind-spot.
The Normal for each ray

is shown as a dotted line
16
Reflections in Communications
Refraction
Wave reflection from the ionosphere can help with long

distance radio communications. It works best with the
longer wavelength AM signals.
Ion
os
When waves enters a new medium several things happen:

the waves change their speed (get faster or slower)
their wavelength changes (gets longer or shorter)
Note that frequency does NOT change!
they change direction (unless they hit at 90o to surface)
ph
ere
When a light wave enters a more dense medium:

(Example: going from air into glass)
EARTH
Receiver
Incident
Ray
Transmitter
io
normal
The Ionosphere is a zone in the upper atmosphere where

the air molecules are partly ionized (electrically charged) by
radiations from the Sun. The ionized gases act as a
reflective surface to radio waves of certain wavelengths.
ro
Air
TV signals and FM (shorter wavelengths) radio do not

reflect so well and generally you need to be in line of
sight from the transmitter to get good reception.
Glass
velocity slows
wavelength shorter (but frequency remains unchanged)
refracts towards the normal.
Another example involves how Microwaves are transmitted

and received. Microwaves are used to relay TV programs to
regional transmitters and to relay long distance phone calls
(including internet) from city to city.
io > ro
Angle of
Incidence
Microwave Reflector Dishes

Microwave
beam travels
between relay
stations
Angle of
Refraction
When going from a more dense, to a less dense medium the

opposite changes occur.
Refracted
Ray
Receiver
dish
Transmitter
dish
Refracted
Ray
Your satellite TV dish is a reflector too
ro
io
At the transmission end, a curved reflector keeps the waves

in a tight beam aimed at the next relay station. The receiver
has a similar dish to focus the waves into the receiving
antenna.
Incident
Ray
Glass
normal
Air
velocity speeds up
wavelength gets longer
refracts away from the normal.
Reflector
Dish
io < ro
Receiving
Antenna
When a light ray refracts, its wavelength changes, but

frequency stays the same. Since COLOUR is
determined by frequency, there is no colour change
during refraction.
Photo
Helen Lee
17
copyright 2005-2006
Refractive Index
You may have carried out an investigation in class using a

Ray Box Kit to measure angles of incidence and angles
of refraction.
When waves enter a new medium, and then exit it again, the
refractions that occur on the way in, are the opposite of
what happens on the way out.
When you graph the angles the result is a curve.
For example, this light ray goes from air, into glass and out
into air again.
Angle of incidence, io
Snells Law
45o
Angle of refraction,
28o
normal
Refraction
glass -> air
Refraction
air -> glass
ro
28o
45o
This is not much use for defining any relationship that may
exist.
Sin io
In 1621, Snell discovered that if you graph the Sine ratios

of the angles, the points lie in a straight line. You may have
done the same with your experimental data.
a
Gr
di
en
= sin45 / sin28 = 1.5
= sin28 / sin45 = 0.66
Refractive index (air -> glass)
a g
and
Refractive index(glass -> air)
g a
These 2 values are RECIPROCALS !! ...and this will

always be the case... the index of refraction going in is the
reciprocal of the index coming out.
i
Sin r
= Sin
e
ris n
t = ru
n2
=1
2
n1
TRY THE WORKSHEET at the end of this section

Sin ro
The fact that its a straight line means there is a direct

relationship between Sin i and Sin r.
The gradient of the line is not only the ratio between the
Sine of the angles, but is also equal to the ratio of velocities
of the wave in the 2 mediums involved. This special ratio
is known as the REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)
3 beams of light being

refracted through a
perspex block.
This is now called Snells Law:

Sine (angle incidence) = velocity (medium 1) =
Sine (angle refraction) velocity(medium 2)
Sin i = V1 =
Sin r
V2
Pencil appears broken

at the water surface, due
to refraction of the light
by which we see it.
18
copyright 2005-2006
... But What Happens Beyond the Critical Angle?

At incident angles larger than c, the ray reflects back
inside the glass... this is called
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION
Total Internal Reflection &

the Critical Angle
Consider the situation when waves are going from a more

dense medium into a less dense medium, such as light
going from glass into air.
The waves refract away from the normal.
Ray
reflects
inside
glass
Now think about increasing the incident angle as shown in

this series of diagrams.
If io > co
the ray cannot get out,
but reflects back inside
the glass
io>co
1
air
glass
io
ro
This has one very important application in communication

technology...
2
bigger i,
bigger r
ro
Optical fibres are thin strands of very pure glass that can
carry communications signals in the form of laser light
beams. The laser beams stay within the fibres because of
total internal reflection.
io
ro= 90o
Each fibre is a core strand of glass, with another layer

wrapped around it. The outer layer has a lower refractive
index than the core, so even where the fibre bends around
a corner, the laser light will generally strike the boundary at
an incident angle greater than the critical angle.
io=co
Critical Angle
There comes an angle (called the Critical Angle, (c))
Optical fibre
where the angle of refraction = 90o. At this point the

refracted ray runs along the edge of the glass, but does not
cross the boundary.
So, when the angle of incidence
Sin c =
Sin 90
Core.
high
index
io = co, ro= 90o
lower
index
am
e
rb
e
las
Laser bounces around corners

by total internal reflection
na
Whenever the laser beam hits the boundary between the 2

layers, the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle,
(io > co) so Total Internal Reflection occurs and the
beam stays totally within the fibres over long distances.
and sin 90o = 1, so...

Sin c =
1
na =
a ng
(If the fibre is kinked at a really sharp angle this wont

work... the fibres need to bend around corners in
reasonably gentle curves.)
This means that the Sine ratio of the

critical angle C is equal to the reciprocal
of the refractive index of the glass.
Decorative
optical fibres,
showing how
the light stays
inside due to
Total Internal
Reflection.
TRY THE WORKSHEET at the end of this section

Photo: Anthony Bortolloto
19
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 4
Part B
Part A Fill in the blanks. Check answers at the back.
Snells Law
When a wave meets the boundary between one medium

and another, any of 3 things can occur: the waves energy
can be absorbed, or the wave can be
a).......................................... or ....................................................
Example Problem
A beam of light goes from air into a glass block with a
refractive index of 1.50. The angle of incidence is 35o.
a) Find the angle of refraction.
b) If light travels in air at 3.00x108 ms-1, find the velocity in
the glass.
The Law of Reflection simply states that the angle of

b)........................... equals the angle of c)..................................
The angles must be measured from the wave ray to the
d)......................................, which is an imaginary line which is
e).................................................. to the boundary. Concave
mirrors reflect light into a f).............................. point and can
produce enlarged images, such as in a reflecting telescope.
A g)........................................... mirror reflects light outwards.
This produces images which are h)........................................,
but have a wider field of view. A practical use for this
mirror is i)......................................................................................
In communications, reflection is useful for long-distance
radio reception. Some radio wavelengths reflect from the
j).................................................... layer in the upper
atmosphere, and are bounced around the curvature of
the Earth. Satellite dishes and k)........................................
antennas use reflection to focus wave signals into the
receiver.
Sin i = V1 = 1n2
Sin r
V2
Solution: a) Sin i = n
Sin r
sin 35 / sin r = 1.50
sin r = sin 35 /1.50

= 0.38238...
therefore, angle of refraction, r = 22.5o
b)
V1 = n
V2
3.00x108 / V2 = 1.50
V2 = 3.00x108 / 1.50
therefore, velocity in glass, V = 2.00x108 ms-1
TRY THESE
1. In an experiment, a student sent a beam of light into a
block of clear plastic. The angle of incidence was measured
as 50o. The angle of refraction was 33o.
a) Find the refractive index of the plastic.
b) If light travels in air at 3.0x108ms-1, find its velocity in
the plastic.
Refraction occurs when waves go from one medium into

another. The waves may change in l)......................................,
and ................................. and .......................................................
For example, when light goes from air into glass its speed
m)......................................, and its n)..........................................
gets shorter (although o)............................................ does not
change)
It
also
changes
direction,
going
p)......................................... the normal.
2. Light travels through a diamond at only 1.25x108ms-1.

a) Find the refractive index of diamond.
b) If a ray of light strikes a diamond surface at an angle of
40o from the normal, find the angle of refraction as the ray
enters the diamond.
3. Using a laser beam and a fish tank filled with water, the
refractive index of the water was found to be 1.33.
a) At what incident angle must the beam strike the water to
produce an angle of refraction of 32.5o?
b) At what velocity does the laser beam travel in water?
Snells Law describes the direct relationship between the

Sine ratios of the angles of q)...................................... and
............................................ This ratio is called the
r)......................................................... It is also equal to the
ratio between the s)........................................ of the wave in
the 2 different mediums. The index for the wave entering
the medium, and the index for the wave exiting the medium
are always t)............................................ of each other.
4. Several different angles of incidence and refraction were

measured for a light ray going from air into a high density
crystal glass block.
a) For each pair of angles, calculate a refractive index value.
b) Find the average value for the refractive index.
c) Use the average value to find the velocity of light in the
crystal glass.
DATA Angle
Angle
Incidence
Refraction
50.0
25.0
42.0
21.0
30.0
17.0
65.0
31.0
When a light ray is going from a slower medium into a

faster one, the ray will refract u).........................................
the normal. As the angle of incidence increases, so will the
angle of refraction, until the refracted ray
v).................................................................of the boundary.
The angle of incidence at which this happens is called the
w)....................................... angle. At angles of incidence
greater than this angle, x)..............................................
....................................... occurs, and the ray stays within the
slower medium. This property is used in optical fibre
technology to ensure that y).............................................
beams stay within the fibres.
Practice Problems
continued...
20
Worksheet 4
Critical Angle
Part B Practice Problems (continued)
n2
na =
ng
9. a) Use the information in Q2 to find the critical angle

for light travelling inside a diamond.
b) Describe what would occur (no calculation required) if
light inside a diamond hit the boundary at an angle of
incidence of:
i) 20o
ii) 30o
5. Window glass has a refractive index of 1.50.

a) Find the velocity of light in this glass.
b) If a light ray strikes the glass surface at right angles (i.e. along
the normal line) what is the value of the angle of incidence?
c) Calculate the angle of refraction for this situation.
d) How do you interpret this result?
Reciprocal Indices
Sin c =
=1
n1
10. a) What is the critical angle for glass with ang = 1.50?
b) Describe (no calculation) what happens when light inside
the glass strikes the boundary at angle of incidence:
i) 40o ii) 41.8o iii) 45o
6. Refer to the information and answers to Q1.

a) What is the refractive index for light coming out of the
plastic into air?
b) If a light ray in the plastic struck the boundary at an
angle of incidence of 20o, at what angle of refraction will it
enter the air?
11. Light travelling inside a plastic block strikes the

boundary at an angle of incidence = 48.6o. The refracted
ray is seen to run exactly along the boundary between
plastic and air.
a) What is the critical angle?
b) What is the value of anp?
c) At what velocity does light travel in this plastic?
7. Refer to Q3.
a) What is the refractive index for light travelling from water
into air?
b) If a light ray emerged from water into air at an angle of
refraction of 37o, what must have been the angle of
incidence?
FULLY WORKED SOLUTIONS ARE

IN THE ANSWER SECTION
8. In a type of lead-crystal glass, a light ray exits from the

glass into air. At the interface, the angles were i = 15o, and
r = 25o.
a) What is the refractive index glassnair?
b) What is the index airnglass?
c) At what velocity does light travel in this glass?

21
5. DIGITAL COMMUNICATION & DATA STORAGE

Digital Technology
TECHNOLOGY CASE STUDY:
In the past 20-30 years our society has become more and
more digitized. Because of the speed, storage capacity
and processing ability of computers, almost every aspect of
our society has gone digital.
GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM

(GPS)
GPS is a system that allows a ship, aircraft, car or even a
bushwalker, to locate their exact position anywhere on
Earth instantly and continuously.
This simply means that all information (data) whether it be

a persons voice, written words, numbers, music,
photos, etc. is converted into digital code for processing,
storage or transmission and communication.
The system was developed for miltary uses, but then made
available to anyone. The military version is thought to be
accurate to within a few metres, the civilian version to
within about 50-100 metres.
A simple list of some of the technologies involved is:

CDs & DVDs, Mobile phones, digital cameras, the
internet, MP3 music, ATMs, computers and their
networks.
The system is based on a fleet of satellites positioned in

orbit so that from anywhere on Earth, at any moment, at
least 4 satellites are in line of sight.
Increasingly, WAVES are involved in these technologies,

especially
when
data
is
moved
around...
COMMUNICATION.
Each satellite constantly sends out radio signals identifying

itself, and the exact time the signal was sent.
Computer Hard Drive
Satellite orbits
Satellite 1
GPS
receiver
Earth
Photo by John de Boer
DIGITAL
TECHNOLOGIES
Satellite 3
Satellite 2
When your portable GPS receiver picks up the signal, it can

calculate your exact distance from the satellite, from the
time delay since the signal was sent.
By doing the same for 2 other satellites, the GPS unit
rapidly triangulates the signals from 3 satellites to pinpoint your location on the Earths surface. (Aircraft need a
4th signal to get their altitude)
Photo by Pip
Cars can now be fitted with GPS systems that show your
position on a screen, overlaid onto a road map of the area.
As you drive around, the system constantly shows your
changing position, and can advise you where to turn to
reach a designated destination.
Photo by John de Boer
22
CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Some students find that memorizing the OUTLINE of a topic
helps them learn and remember the concepts and important facts.
Practise on this blank version.
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
23
copyright 2005-2006
Practice Questions
8. Two pulses are travelling towards each other in a rope.
These are not intended to be "HSC style" questions, but to

challenge your basic knowledge and understanding of the
topic, and remind you of what you NEED to know at the
K.I.S.S. principle level.
When they meet at point X, :

A. they will interfer destructively and cancel out.
B. they will reflect off each other and bounce back.
C. constructive interference will increase the amplitude.
D. all wave motion will stop at point X.
When you have confidently mastered this level, it is strongly

recommended you work on questions from past exam
papers.
Part A
Multiple Choice
9. The navigation of a bat in the dark, and the depth

sounding from a boat, both work on the principle of:
A. Reflection
B. Refraction.
C. Resonance
D. Interference
1. A sound wave is best described as:

A. mechanical and transverse.
B. electromagnetic and transverse.
C. mechanical and longitudinal.
D. electromagnetic and longitudinal.
2. Which measurement in
this diagram (A,B,C or D)
correctly shows the
amplitude of the wave?
10. Compared to visible light:

A. Infra-red has shorter wavelength and lower frequency.
B. Ultra-violet has shorter wavelength and lower frequency.
C. X-rays have longer wavelength and lower frequency.
D. Microwaves have longer wavelength & lower frequency.
B
D
A
C
11. The radiation from the Sun least likely to reach the
Earths surface is:
A. Infra-red
B. visible light
C. Ultra-violet
D. radio waves.
3. In a Transverse wave, the particles of the medium:

A. vibrate perpendicular to the direction of energy flow..
B. move randomly in all directions.
C. vibrate parallel to the direction of energy flow..
D. move with the energy from one place to another.
12. The brightness of a light viewed from 40 metres,

compared to viewing from 10 metres would be:
A. 1/4 as bright
C. 1/16 as bright
B. 4 times brighter
D. 16 times brighter.
4. If the period of a wave is 4 seconds, then its frequency

is:
A. 0.25 Hz
B. 0.4 Hz
C. 4.0 Hz
D. 1/16 Hz
3
displacement
(mm)
5. The period of
this wave is:
A. 0.8s
B 1.6s
C. 3 mm
D. 6 mm
13. An example of REFLECTION being helpful in

communication is:
A. Radio waves bouncing off the ionosphere.
B. A convex dish antenna collects satellite TV signals.
C. Using a concave shaving mirror.
D. A convex side mirror on a car sees into the blind spot.
1.0
time
(s)
14. The diagrams show a carrier wave, and the modulated

wave carrying a signal or message. The method of
modulation used is:
Carrier wave
A. AM
B. FM
Modulated
C. Pulse
wave
D. Digital.
-3
6. If a sound wave has a velocity of 330ms-1, and its

frequency is 660Hz, then its wavelength must be:
A. 990 m
B. 2.0m
C. 0.5m
D. 330m
7. If you heard a sound wave with small amplitude and high
frequency, you would describe it as:
A. low volume and low pitch.
B. low volume and high pitch
C. high volume (loud) and low pitch
D. high volume and high pitch.
15. Which of the following does NOT change when a wave

undergoes refraction?
A. Velocity
B. Direction
C. Wavelength
D. Frequency
24

3
24. (5 marks)
The graph describes a
wave in the ocean.
17. Light travels in air at 3.0x108ms-1. If the refractive index

of glass = 1.5, then the velocity of light within the glass is:
A. 3.0 x108ms-1.
B. 2.0 x108ms-1.
C. 4.5 x108ms-1.
D. 1.5 x108ms-1.
b) Given that the wave travels at 12.5ms-1, find the

wavelength. Show your working.
a) What is the
frequency of the wave?
Explain your answer.
displacement (m)
16. If a light ray passed from air into one of the following
substances, (each at the same angle of incidence) which one
would show the least amount of refraction?
A. Water (refractive index = 1.3)
B. Diamond (refractive index = 2.4)
C. Glass (refractive index = 1.5)
D. Perspex (refractive index = 1.4)
time (sec)
20
10
-3
25. (3 marks)
Use the Principle of Superposition to sketch the
resultant of the 3 waves shown.
displacement
18. The refractive index of water = 1.33.

The Critical Angle for water would be closest to:
B. 45o
C. 49o
D. 53o
A. 38o
19. Long distance communication using laser light and
optical fibres is made practical because of:
A. Refraction inside the optical fibre.
B. Reflection from the ionosphere
C. Total internal reflection in the optical fibre.
D. Focusing of the light by a concave mirror.
20. The Global Positioning System (GPS) works on:
A. laser beams carried in optical fibres.
B. radio signals from local cell transmitters.
C. microwave beams focused by dish antennas.
D. radio signals from several satellites.
26. (4 marks)
With a water wave, a crest is where water has displaced
upwards, and a trough where it displaced downwards, as
the wave moves through.
Explain, in similar terms, what happens to air particles as a
sound wave passes.
Longer Response Questions

Mark values given are suggestions only, and are to give you
an idea of how detailed an answer is appropriate.
27. (3 marks)
Re-arrange these members of the EMR spectrum, placing
them in order from lowest to highest frequency.
Radio, infra-red, gamma, light, microwaves, X-ray, ultraviolet.
21. (3 marks)
List the energy transformations that occur from when you
speak into your mobile phone to when the message is
received at the local cell receiver.
28. (3 marks)
Identify a method for detecting each of these EMR types:
(choose a different method for each)
a) visible light
b) X-ray
c) infra-red
22. (4 marks)
Differentiate between:
a) mechanical and EMR waves.
b) transverse and longitudinal waves.
23. (5 marks)
A sound wave with frequency 400Hz travels through water
at 1,500 ms-1. Show working:
a) calculate the wavelength.
b) calculate the waves period.
29. (3 marks)
A lighthouse is viewed from 10km and its light intensity
(brightness) measured to be 0.1 units. How bright would it
appear if viewed from 1 km? Explain your answer.
30. (3 marks)
Discuss briefly a limitation on the use of EMR for
communication.

time
25
33. (4 marks)
Predict the path of this light ray after it strikes the
boundary. Explain your reasoning, and show any working.
31. (3 marks)
Complete each diagram to show the expected path of each
reflected light ray P, Q and R.
P
plastic.
n = 1.40
32. (6 marks)
In an experiment, angles of incidence and refraction were
measured as shown.
a) Find the refractive index of the plastic. Show working.
b) At what speed does light travel in this plastic? Show
working.
air
air
34. (3 marks)
Outline briefly the underlying principles used in one
application of physics related to waves.
plastic

26
Answer Section
Answers
Worksheet 1
Part A
a) energy
b) matter
c) medium
d) sound & water waves
e) vacuum
f) radio, light, UV, etc
g) Transverse
h) at right angles
i) in the same line
j) Wavelength
k) maximum displacement, from equilibrium position
l) waves / complete vibrations
m) Hertz (Hz)
n) The Period
o) reciprocal
p) frequency
q) wavelength
r) amplitude
s) period
t) frequency
u) decrease
v) wavelength
f =V/
= 1.20x108 Hz
= 3x108 / 2.50
2.50 cm wave:
f =V/
= 3x108 / 0.0250 = 1.20x1010 Hz
comparison: The frequency of the 2.5cm wave is 100
times higher than the 2.5m wave. (Makes sense: 100X
shorter wavelength --> 100X higher frequency)
7. 2.50 m wave:
8. Since 8 complete wavelengths fit in 0.96m, then

= 0.12 m
V= f = 384 x 0.12 = 46 ms-1
= 3.00x108 / 1.50x10-11
= 2.00 x 1019 Hz
b) T = 1 / f = 1 / 2x1019 = 5.00x10-20 s.
b) T = 1 / f
= 1 / 280
= 0.00357 s
(3.57 x10-3 s)
Part C Wave Graph Exercise
2.
V= f
2,500 = 0.400 x
= 2,500 / 0.400
= 6,250 m (6.25 x103 m)
i) A =
ii) d=
iii)T=
iv) f=
V= f
330 = 1200 x
= 330 / 1200
= 0.275 m (2.75 x 10-1m)
wave P
0.15 m
0.1 m
0.08 s
12.5 Hz
Q
0.10 m
-0.1 m
0.16 s
6.25 Hz
R
0.05 m
-0.05 m
0.04 s
25 Hz
v) V= f = 12.5 x 0.50 = 6.25 ms-1

vii) = V / f
wave Q:
= 9.5 / 6.25
wave R; =9.5 / 25
= 1.5 m
= 0.38 m
4 a) f = 1 / T
f = 1 / 16 = 6.25x10-2 Hz
b) V= f
6.50= 6.25x10-2 x
= 6.50 / 6.25x10-2 = 104 m
c) V= f
2.20 = 6.25x10-2 x
= 2.20 / 6.25x10-2 = 35.2 m
Wavelength has become a lot shorter as the wave entered
shallower water.
5. a) V= f ,
Part B (continued)
9. a) f = V /
Part B Problems
1. a) V= f
= 280 x 5.20
= 1460 m.
3.
Worksheet 1
Worksheet 2
Part A
a) mechanical
c) compressions
e) 330
g) frequency
i) reflect
k) SONAR
m) resultant
b) longitudinal
d) rarefactions
f) higher
h) loudness / volume
j) navigation / hunting prey
l) detecting fish / submarines
n) amplitudes
Part B
Superposition Graph Exercise
Using the sum of displacements at the circled points, the
resultant looks approximately like this:
Note that the amplitude of the resultant starts larger and
becomes smaller. You would hear the sound volume
decrease.
f =V/
= 3.00x108 / 7.00x10-7
= 4.29x1014 Hz
b) f = V /
= 3.00x108 / 3.00x10-7
= 1.00x1015 Hz
6.a) T= 1 / f
= 1/ 53,000
=1.89x10-5 s.
b) = V / f
= 3.00x108 / 53,000 =5.66x103 m.
(over 5 km!)
27
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 3
Part A
a) transverse
c) medium
e) radio
g) infra-red
i) ultra-violet
k) gamma rays
m) resonance
o) UV / X-rays / gamma
q) UV
s) one quarter
u) laser beams
w) modulation
y) amplitude
aa) frequency
ac) electrical
ae) microwave
ag) electrical
Worksheet 4 Answers
Part B (cont)
2. a) n=V1 / V2 = 3.00x108 / 1.25x108 = 2.40
b)
n = Sin i / Sin r
2.40 = sin40 / Sin r
Sin r = sin40 / 2.40 = 0.2678...
r = 15.5o
b) do not
d) 3 x 108
f) microwaves
h) visible light
j) X-ray
l) vibrate / oscillate
n) vibrate
p) ozone
r) square of distance
t) radio & microwaves
v) optical
x) Amplitude Modulation
z) Frequency Modulation
ab) Pulse
ad) radio
af) radio
3. a)
n = Sin i / Sin r
1.33 = Sin i / sin32.5
Sin i = 1.33 x sin32.5 = 0.7146...
i = 45.6o
b) n = V1 / V2
1.33= 3.00x108 / V2
V2 = 3.00x108 / 1.33 = 2.26x108 ms-1.
4. a)
Angle
Angle
Incidence
Refraction
50.0
25.0
42.0
21.0
30.0
17.0
65.0
31.0
b) Average =7.15/4 = 1.79
c) n = V1 / V2
Part B Inverse Square Law Problems

1.
a) 12 units (1/4 as bright)
b) 3 units (1/16)
c) 0.48 units (1/100)
d) 192 units (4x brighter)
2. Moved to 1/4 the distance, therefore 16X more intense.
1.79 = 3.00x108 / V2
V2 = 3.00x108 / 1.79 = 1.68x108 ms-1.
3. Intensity dropped from 32 units to 2 units.... 1/16.

Therefore must be 4X further away.... answer = 8 m.
5. a) n = V1 / V2
1.50 = 3.00x108 / V2
4. At double distance, intensity = 1/4.

Therefore need to turn on 4 identical bulbs to get same
amount of light.
V2 = 3.00x108 / 1.50 = 2.00x108 ms-1.

b) 0o
c)
n = Sin i / Sin r
1.50 = sin0 / Sin r
Sin r = sin0 / 1.50 = 0
r = 0o
d) The ray does NOT change direction.
(However, it would still change velocity and wavelength)
Worksheet 4
Part A
a) reflected or refracted
b) incidence
c) reflection
d) normal
e) perpendicular
f) focal
g) convex
h) smaller/diminished
i) drivers side mirror
j) ionosphere
k) microwave
l) direction, wavelength & velocity
m) slows down
n) wavelength
o) frequency
p) towards
q) incidence & refraction r) refractive index
s) velocities
t) reciprocals
u) away from
v) goes along the edge
w) critical
x) Total Internal Reflection
y) laser
Part B Snells Law Problems
1.a) n = Sin i / Sin r = sin50 / sin 33
b)
n= V1 / V2
Refractive
Index
1.81
1.87
1.71
1.76
Reciprocal Indices Problems

6. a)
= 1 / 1.4 = 0.71 (no units)
1n2 = 1
2
b)
7. a)
n1
n = Sin i / Sin r (must use the index for

0.71= sin20 / Sin r
plastic --> air)
Sin r = sin20 / 0.71 = 0.4817...
r = 29o
n2
= 1 / 2n1 = 1 / 1.33 = 0.752 (no units)
b) n = Sin i / Sin r
(must use the index for

0.752 = Sin i / sin37
water --> air)
Sin i = 0.752 x sin37 = 0.4525... So, i = 27o
n=1.4 (no units)
1.4 = 3.0x108 / V2
V2= 3.0x108 / 1.4
= 2.1 x 108 ms-1
28
copyright 2005-2006
Worksheet 4
Part B (cont)
8. a) n = Sin i / Sin r
= sin15 / sin25
n= 0.61 (for glass --> air)
b) n (air ->glass) = 1 / 0.61 = 1.6 (no units)
c)
n = V1 / V2
23.
a)
V=f
1,500 = 400 x
= 1,500 / 400 = 3.75 m.
b) T = 1/f = 1/400 = 0.0025 = 2.5x10-3 Hz
24.
a) from graph, T = 16 s. and f = 1/T
= 1/16 = 6.25x10-2 Hz
b) V = f
12.5 = 6.25x10-2 x
= 12.5 / 6.25x10-2 = 200 m.
1.6 = 3.0x108 / V2
V2 =
3.0x108
/ 1.6
V(glass) =
1.9x108
ms-1
Critical Angle & T.I.R.

9. a)
Sin c =
na =
nd
25. summing displacements at circled points:
Sin c = 1 / 2.40 = 4.1666....

c = 24.6o
b) i) Would refract out into the air.
ii) i > c, so ray would undergo total internal reflection
back inside the diamond.
resultant
(approx)
10. a) Sin c = 1 / n = 1 / 1.50 = 0.6666...

c = 41.8o
b) i) Refracts out into air
ii) Refracts and runs along the glass edge
iii) i > c, total internal reflection.
11. a) 48.6o (by definition of what happens at crit. angle)
b) Sin c = 1 / n
n= 1 / Sin c = 1 /sin48.6 = 1/0.7501...
n = 1.33
c) n = V1 / V2
26.
With a sound wave, a compression is where air particles
are pushed together, and a rarefaction is where they are
spread apart more, as the wave moves through.
1.33= 3.00x108 / V2
V2 =
3.00x108 /
1.33
2.26x108
27.
(lowest) Radio, microwaves, infra-red, light, ultra-violet, Xray, gamma (highest)
ms-1.
Practice Questions
Part A
1. C
2. D
3. A
4. A
5. B
6. C
7. B
8. C
Multiple Choice
9. A
13. A
10. D 14. B
11. C
15. D
12. C
16. A
28.
a) human eye. b) X-ray sensitive photo film.
c) receptors in human skin.
17. B
18. C
19. C
20. D
29.
At 1/10 the distance it will be 100X brighter.
0.1 x 100 = 10 units.
Part B In some cases there may be more than one correct

answer. The following model answers are correct
but not necessarily perfect.
30.
There are so many radio & TV stations, mobile phone
systems and users, as well as 2-way radio for aircraft,
shipping, military, taxis, etc, that the available radio bands
are becoming congested.
21. SOUND --> ELECTRICAL --> RADIO

22.
a) Mechanical waves require a medium substance to
travel in. EMR waves do not, and so can travel in vacuum.
b) Transverse waves vibrate at right angles to the direction
of energy movement. In a longitudinal wave, the vibration
is back-and-forth in the same direction as the energy flow.
There is a limit to how many systems and stations can

operate without overlapping in frequencies and causing
interference to each other.
29
copyright 2005-2006
31.
32.
a)
b)
33.
Note that the angle given is not the correct angle of
incidence. (Angle of incidence must be measured from the
normal)
So, i = 60o
Next, check if io is greater than co:
Sin c = 1 / n = 1 / 1.4 = 0.7142......
So, c = 46o.
Therefore, i > c
so ray will undergo total internal reflection, and reflect back
inside the plastic block. (at angle of reflection = 60o)
n = Sin i / Sin r
= sin33 / sin25
= 1.3 (no units)
n = V1 / V2 (given velocity in air =3.0x108)
34.
Underlying principles of the Global Positioning System:
GPS involves a small, portable receiver picking up radio
signals from a fleet of satellites in orbit. Each satellite sends
a coded message identifying itself and the precise time that
the signal was sent.
1.3= 3.0x108 / V2
V2= 3.0x108/1.3
V (in plastic)= 2.3x108 ms-1.
By comparing the signals from (at least) 3 different

satellites, the GPS receiver can triangulate to find its
position with a high degree of accuracy... within a few
metres in some cases.
NOTICE ANY ERRORS?

Our material is carefully proof-read
but were only human
If you notice any errors, please let us know
Need to contact us?

PO Box 2575
PORT MACQUARIE NSW 2444
(02) 6583 4333
ABN 54 406 994 557
30
FAX (02) 6583 9467
copyright 2005-2006

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Parramatta High School SL#606247

Preliminary Physics Topic 1

THE WORLD COMMUNICATES

but first, lets revise...

Energy is what causes changes and does work.

Examples of energy which moves around as waves include

Some forms of energy move around as WAVES . A

When the wind blows, both matter

Energy can be converted from one form to another. In

In this case, only the energy moves.

Waves Carry Energy

In this topic you will learn about waves and their

keep it simple science

Parramatta High School SL#606247

CONCEPT DIAGRAM (Mind Map) OF TOPIC

Frequency & Pitch

Light & Mirrors

keep it simple science

Parramatta High School SL#606247

1. THE NATURE OF WAVES

Waves carry energy, without the transfer of matter.

A wave is a vibration. In a mechanical wave, the particles

This can occur in 1 dimension:

Pulses moving along a slinky spring

Ripples spreading on the

This form of a wave, where the medium vibrates at right

If the rope is wiggled constantly up-and-down, you get not

Waves & Mediums

Mechanical waves are those which need a medium to

Electromagnetic (EM) waves do NOT need a medium...

keep it simple science

Parramatta High School SL#606247

Longitudinal waves are when the particles of the medium

LONGITUDINAL WAVE IN A SPRING

Wavelength = the distance from one crest to the next. (or

Note that there is a simple relationship between Frequency

The Greek letter lambda

is used as a symbol for wavelength.

Amplitude (a or A) = the distance that a particle in the

Velocity (v) = the speed of the wave, in metres/sec.(ms-1)

Frequency (f) = the rate at which the wave is vibrating.

THE WAVE EQUATION

TRY THE WORKSHEET, at the end of this section.

Preliminary Physics Topic 1

keep it simple science

Parramatta High School SL#606247

Graphing a Longitudinal Wave

A good way to represent a wave is by using a graph.

Cork bobs up and down

You may have carried out a First Hand Investigation in

If you graph the (up-down) displacement of the cork

You would have found...

Be careful! The graph looks like a wave, so its tempting to

What you CAN read from a Displacement-Time graph:

(If VELOCITY is the same)

Period. Since the horizontal scale is time, you can easily

e.g. if the ripples are 0.45m apart: (i.e. = 0.45m)

To have the same speed,

keep it simple science

Parramatta High School SL#606247

Wave Measurements and the Wave Equation

Fill in the blank spaces

Waves carry a)...................................... without the