SC-GCM-09 CM Issue 2 Copyright 2005 Spirax-Sarco Limited

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Module 2.5
Heat Transfer

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.1

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer
In a steam heating system, the sole purpose of the generation and distribution of steam is to
provide heat at the process heat transfer surface. If the required heat input rate and steam pressure
are known, then the necessary steam consumption rate may be determined. This will allow the
size of the boiler and the steam distribution system to be established.

Modes of heat transfer

Whenever a temperature gradient exists, either within a medium or between media, the transfer
of heat will occur. This may take the form of either conduction, convection or radiation.

Conduction

When a temperature gradient exists in either a solid or stationary fluid medium, the heat transfer
which takes place is known as conduction. When neighbouring molecules in a fluid collide,
energy is transferred from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules. Because higher
temperatures are associated with higher molecular energies, conduction must occur in the direction
of decreasing temperature.
This phenomenon can be seen in both liquids and gases. However, in liquids the molecular
interactions are stronger and more frequent, as the molecules are closer together. In solids,
conduction is caused by the atomic activity of lattice vibrations as explained in Module 2.2.
The equation used to express heat transfer by conduction is known as Fouriers Law. Where there
is a linear temperature distribution under steady-state conditions, for a one-dimensional plane
wall it may be written as:

 = N$

7
e

Equation 2.5.1

Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/mC)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the material (K or C)
= Material thickness (m)
Example 2.5.1
Consider a plane wall constructed of solid iron with a thermal conductivity of 70 W/mC, and a
thickness of 25 mm. It has a surface area of 0.3 m by 0.5 m, with a temperature of 150C on one
side and 80C on the other.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH =  : P &[[P [
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH

&
P

:N:

The thermal conductivity is a characteristic of the wall material and is dependent on temperature.
Table 2.5.1 shows the variation of thermal conductivity with temperature for various common
metals.

2.5.2

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Table 2.5.1 Thermal conductivity (W/m C)

Material
Iron
Low carbon steel
Stainless steel
Tungsten
Platinum
Aluminium
Gold
Silver
Copper

At 25C
80
54
16
180
70
250
310
420
401

Thermal conductivity (W/mC)

At 125C
68
51
17.5
160
71
255
312
418
400

At 225C
60
47
19
150
72
250
310
415
398

Considering the mechanism of heat transfer in conduction, in general the thermal conductivity of
a solid will be much greater than of a liquid, and the thermal conductivity of a liquid will be
greater than of a gas. Air has a particularly low thermal conductivity and this is why insulating
materials often have lots of air spaces.

Convection

The transfer of heat energy between a surface and a moving fluid at different temperatures is
known as convection. It is actually a combination of the mechanisms of diffusion and the bulk
motion of molecules.
Near the surface where the fluid velocity is low, diffusion (or random molecular motion) dominates.
However, moving away from the surface, bulk motion holds an increasing influence. Convective
heat transfer may take the form of either forced convection or natural convection. Forced convection
occurs when fluid flow is induced by an external force, such as a pump or an agitator. Conversely,
natural convection is caused by buoyancy forces, due to the density differences arising from the
temperature variations in the fluid.
The transfer of heat energy caused by a phase change, such as boiling or condensing, is also
referred to as a convective heat transfer process.
The equation for convection is expressed by Equation 2.5.2 which is a derivation of Newtons
Law of Cooling:

 = K$7

Equation 2.5.2

Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m K or W/m C)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m)
T = Temperature difference between the surface and the bulk fluid (K or C)
Example 2.5.2
Consider a plane surface 0.4 m by 0.9 m at a temperature of 20C.
A fluid flows over the surface with a bulk temperature of 50C.
The convective heat transfer coefficient (h) is 1 600 W/m C.
Determine the rate of heat transfer:
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH =   : P &[[P [&
+HDWWUDQVIHUUDWH

:N:

Radiation

The heat transfer due to the emission of energy from surfaces in the form of electromagnetic
waves is known as thermal radiation. In the absence of an intervening medium, there is a net heat
transfer between two surfaces of different temperatures. This form of heat transfer does not rely
on a material medium, and is actually most efficient in a vacuum.
The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.3

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

The general heat transfer equation

In most practical situations, it is very unusual for all energy to be transferred by one mode of heat
transfer alone. The overall heat transfer process will usually be a combination of two or more
different mechanisms.
The general equation used to calculate heat transfer across a surface used in the design procedure
and forming a part of heat exchange theory is:

8$7

Equation 2.5.3

Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W ( J /s))
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m K or W/m C)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or C)
Note:
Q will be a mean heat transfer rate (QM) if DT is a mean temperature difference (DTLM or DTAM).

The overall heat transfer coefficient (U)

This takes into account both conductive and convective resistance between two fluids separated
by a solid wall. The overall heat transfer coefficient is the reciprocal of the overall resistance to
heat transfer, which is the sum of the individual resistances.
The overall heat transfer coefficient may also take into account the degree of fouling in the heat
transfer process. The deposition of a film or scale on the heat transfer surface will greatly reduce
the rate of heat transfer. The fouling factor represents the additional thermal resistance caused by
fluid impurities, rust formation or other reactions between the fluid and the wall.
The magnitude of the individual coefficients will depend on the nature of the heat transfer
process, the physical properties of the fluids, the fluid flowrates and the physical layout of the
heat transfer surface.
As the physical layout cannot be established until the heat transfer area has been determined, the
design of a heat exchanger is by necessity, an iterative procedure. A starting point for this procedure
usually involves selecting typical values for the overall heat transfer coefficient of various types of
heat exchanger.
An accurate calculation for the individual heat transfer coefficients is a complicated procedure,
and in many cases it is not possible due to some of the parameters being unknown. Therefore,
the use of established typical values of overall heat transfer coefficient will be suitable for
practical purposes.

Temperature difference (DT)

Newtons law of cooling states that the heat transfer rate is related to the instantaneous temperature
difference between the hot and the cold media. In a heat transfer process, this temperature
difference will vary either with position or with time. The general heat transfer equation was thus
developed as an extension to Newtons law of cooling, where the mean temperature difference
is used to establish the heat transfer area required for a given heat duty.

Mean temperature difference (DTM)

The determination of the mean temperature difference in a flow type process like a heat exchanger
will be dependent upon the direction of flow. The primary and secondary fluids may flow in the
same direction (parallel flow /co-current flow), in the opposite direction (countercurrent flow), or
perpendicular to each other (crossflow). When saturated steam is used the primary fluid
temperature can be taken as a constant, because heat is transferred as a result of a change of
phase only. The result is that the temperature profile is no longer dependent on the direction
of flow.
2.5.4

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

However, as the secondary fluid passes over the heat transfer surface, the highest rate of heat
transfer occurs at the inlet and progressively decays along its travel to the outlet. This is simply
because the temperature difference between the steam and secondary fluid reduces with the rise
in secondary temperature.
The resulting temperature profile of the steam and secondary fluid is typically as shown
in Figure 2.5.1.

Steam temperature

Temperature C

Product temperature rise

W
Inlet

Outlet
Fluid passing through a heat exchanger

Fig. 2.5.1 Product temperature rise (LMTD)

The rise in secondary temperature is non-linear and is best represented by a logarithmic calculation.
For this purpose the mean temperature difference chosen is termed the Logarithmic Mean
Temperature Difference or LMTD or DTLM.
An easier (but less accurate) way to calculate the mean temperature difference is to consider the
Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference or AMTD or DTAM. This considers a linear increase in
the secondary fluid temperature and for quick manual calculations, will usually give a satisfactory
approximation of the mean temperature difference to be used in Equation 2.5.3. The AMTD
temperature profile is shown in Figure 2.5.2.
Steam temperature

Temperature C

W
W

Product temperature rise

Inlet

Outlet
Fluid passing through a heat exchanger

Fig. 2.5.2 Product temperature rise (AMTD)

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.5

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

The arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD):

7$0

7S 7S  7V7V




Where:
Tp1 = Primary fluid in temperature
Tp2 = Primary fluid out temperature
Ts1 = Secondary fluid in temperature
Ts2 = Secondary fluid out temperature

For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation
may be simplified to:
7 7
7$0  7V 

Equation 2.5.4

Where:
Ts = Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
Because there is no temperature change on the steam side, the AMTD normally provides a
satisfactory analysis of the heat transfer process, which is easy to manipulate in manual calculations.
However, a log mean temperature difference can also be used, which accounts for the non-linear
change in temperature of the secondary fluid.
The log mean temperature difference (LMTD):
7/0

( 7V 7 )  ( 7V 7 )

7V 7
,Q

7V 7

For steam, where the temperature of the primary fluid (steam) remains constant, this equation
may be simplified to:
7/0

7 7
7V 7
,Q

7V 7

Equation 2.5.5

Where:
Ts = Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
ln = A mathematical function known as natural logarithm
Both Equations 2.5.4 and 2.5.5 assume that there is no change in the specific heat capacity or the
overall heat transfer coefficient, and that there are no heat losses.
In reality the specific heat capacity may change as a result of temperature variations. The overall
heat transfer coefficient may also change because of variations in fluid properties and flow
conditions. However, in most applications the deviations will be almost negligible and the use of
mean values will be perfectly acceptable.
In many cases the heat exchange equipment will be insulated from its surroundings, but the
insulation will not be 100% efficient. Therefore, the energy transferred between the steam and
the secondary fluid may not represent all of the heat lost from the primary fluid.

2.5.6

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Example 2.5.3
Steam at 2 bar g is used to heat water from 20C to 50C.
The saturation temperature of steam at 2 bar g is 134C.
Determine the arithmetic and the log mean temperature differences:
7$0

 

'7$0

&

7/0

'7/0




 
 
,Q

 

 



,Q



 



 
,Q ()


&

In this example the AMTD and the LMTD have a similar value. This is because the secondary fluid
temperature rise is small in comparison with the temperature difference between the two fluids.
Example 2.5.4
Consider a pressurised process fluid tank, which is heated from 10C to 120C using steam at
4.0 bar g. The saturation temperature of steam at 4.0 bar g is 152C.
Determine the arithmetic and log mean temperature differences:
7$0

 

'7$0

&

7/0

'7/0




 
 
,Q

 

 



,Q



 



 
,Q (  )


&

Because the secondary fluid temperature rise is large in comparison with the temperature difference
between the two fluids, the discrepancy between the two results is more significant.
By using the AMTD rather than the LMTD, the calculated heat transfer area would be almost 15%
smaller than that required.

Barriers to heat transfer

The metal wall may not be the only barrier in a heat transfer process. There is likely to be a film
of air, condensate and scale on the steam side. On the product side there may also be baked-on
product or scale, and a stagnant film of product.
Agitation of the product may eliminate the effect of the stagnant film, whilst regular cleaning on
the product side should reduce the scale.
Regular cleaning of the surface on the steam side may also increase the rate of heat transfer by
reducing the thickness of any layer of scale, however, this may not always be possible. This layer
may also be reduced by careful attention to the correct operation of the boiler, and the removal
of water droplets carrying impurities from the boiler.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.7

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Product film

Scale

Metal heating surface

Scale

Condensate film

Steam

Air film

Heat
flow

Product

Fig. 2.5.3 Heat transfer layers

Filmwise condensation

The elimination of the condensate film, is not quite as simple. As the steam condenses to give up
its enthalpy of evaporation, droplets of water may form on the heat transfer surface. These may
then merge together to form a continuous film of condensate. The condensate film may be
between 100 and 150 times more resistant to heat transfer than a steel heating surface, and 500
to 600 times more resistant than copper.

Dropwise condensation

If the droplets of water on the heat transfer surface do not merge immediately and no continuous
condensate film is formed, dropwise condensation occurs. The heat transfer rates which can be
achieved during dropwise condensation, are generally much higher than those achieved during
filmwise condensation.
As a larger proportion of the heat transfer surface is exposed during dropwise condensation, heat
transfer coefficients may be up to ten times greater than those for filmwise condensation.
In the design of heat exchangers where dropwise condensation is promoted, the thermal resistance
it produces is often negligible in comparison to other heat transfer barriers. However, maintaining
the appropriate conditions for dropwise condensation have proved to be very difficult to achieve.
If the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting, it may be possible to maintain
dropwise condensation for a period of time. For this purpose, a range of surface coatings such as
Silicones, PTFE and an assortment of waxes and fatty acids are sometimes applied to surfaces in
a heat exchanger on which condensation is to be promoted. However, these coatings will gradually
lose their effectiveness due to processes such as oxidation or fouling, and film condensation will
eventually predominate.
As air is such a good insulator, it provides even more resistance to heat transfer. Air may be
between 1 500 and 3 000 times more resistant to heat flow than steel, and 8 000 to 16 000 more
resistant than copper. This means that a film of air only 0.025 mm thick may resist as much heat
transfer as a wall of copper 400 mm thick! Of course all of these comparative relationships
depend on the temperature profiles across each layer.

2.5.8

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Figure 2.5.4 illustrates the effect this combination of layers has on the heat transfer process. These
barriers to heat transfer not only increase the thickness of the entire conductive layer, but also
greatly reduce the mean thermal conductivity of the layer.
The more resistant the layer to heat flow, the larger the temperature gradient is likely to be. This
means that to achieve the same desired product temperature, the steam pressure may need to be
significantly higher.
The presence of air and water films on the heat transfer surfaces of either process or space
heating applications is not unusual. It occurs in all steam heated process units to some degree.
To achieve the desired product output and minimise the cost of process steam operations, a high
heating performance may be maintained by reducing the thickness of the films on the condensing
surface. In practice, air will usually have the most significant effect on heat transfer efficiency, and
its removal from the supply steam will increase heating performance.
Product film

Scale

Metal heating surface

Scale

Steam at 1 bar g

Condensate film

Air film

Steam
temperature
121C

Product

99C
Product
temperature
Fig. 2.5.4 Temperature gradients across heat transfer layers

Defining the overall heat transfer coefficient (U value)

The five main most commonly related terms associated with the subject of heat transfer are:
1. Heat flowrate
Q
(W)
2. Thermal conductivity
k
(W / mC)
3. Thermal resistivity
r
(mC / W)
4. Thermal resistance
R
(m2 C / W)
5. Thermal transmittance
U
(W / m2 C)
The following text in this Module describes them and how they are related to each other.
The traditional method for calculating heat transfer across a plane wall considers the use of an
overall heat transfer coefficient U, or more correctly, the overall thermal transmittance between
one side of the wall and the other.
U values are quoted for a wide range and combination of materials and fluids and are usually
influenced by empirical data and operating experience. The previously mentioned films of
condensate, air, scale, and product either side of the metal wall can have a significant effect on
the overall thermal transmittance and because of this, it is worth considering the whole issue of
heat transfer across a simple plane wall and then a multi-layer barrier.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.9

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Heat transfer by conduction through a simple plane wall

A good way to start is by looking at the simplest possible case, a metal wall with uniform thermal
properties and specified surface temperatures.
Steam side
surface temperature T1

DT
Metal wall
WidthL

Product side
surface temperature T2

Fig. 2.5.5 Conductive heat transfer through a plane wall

T1 and T2 are the surface temperatures either side of the metal wall, of thickness L; and the
temperature difference between the two surfaces is DT.
Ignoring the possible resistance to heat flow at the two surfaces, the process of heat flow through
the wall can be derived from Fouriers law of conduction as shown in Equation 2.5.1.
The term barrier refers to a heat resistive film or the metal wall of a heat exchanger.

 = N$

7
e

Equation 2.5.1

Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the barrier (W / m K or W / mC)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (K or C)
= Barrier thickness (m)
It is possible to rearrange Equation 2.5.1 into Equation 2.5.6.

 = $

7
e
N

Equation 2.5.6

Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W )
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C)

/ = Barrier thickness / material thermal conductivity P &

k
:
It can be seen from their definitions in Equation 2.5.6 that / k is the thickness of the barrier
divided by its inherent property of thermal conductivity. Simple arithmetic dictates that if
the length () of the barrier increases, the value / k will increase, and if the value of the barrier
conductivity (k) increases, then the value of / k will decrease. A characteristic that would behave
in this fashion is that of thermal resistance. If the length of the barrier increases, the resistance
to heat flow increases; and if the conductivity of the barrier material increases the resistance to
heat flow decreases. It can be concluded that the term / k in Equation 2.5.6 relates to
the thermal resistance of a barrier of known length.

2.5.10

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

The results of simple electrical theory parallel the equations appertaining to heat flow. In particular,
the concept of adding resistances in series is possible, and is a useful tool when analysing heat
transfer through a multi-layer barrier, as will be seen in a later section of this module.
Equation 2.5.6 can now be restated in terms of thermal resistance, where:
5H VLV WDQFH5

7KLFNQHVV
&RQGXFWLYLW\

5 = e

N :  P &

5 = e

P &
N :

as shown in Equation 2.5.7

  $

7
5

Equation 2.5.7

Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W )
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C)
R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 C / W)
Thermal resistance denotes a characteristic of a particular barrier, and will change in accordance
to its thickness and conductivity.
In contrast, the barriers ability to resist heat flow does not change, as this is a physical property
of the barrier material. This property is called thermal resistivity; it is the inverse of thermal
conductivity and is shown in Equation 2.5.8.

U 


N

Equation 2.5.8

Where:
r = Thermal resistivity (mC / W)
k = Thermal conductivity (W / mC)
(TXDOO\WKHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\N 
,IWKHWKHUPDOUHVLVWDQFHLV


U

IURP(TXDWLRQDQGN 


U

N
e
7KHQWKHUPDOUHVLVWDQFHLV
 [U WKLFNQHVV[WKHUPDOUHVLVWLYLW\

U

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.11

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Relating the overall resistance to the overall U value

The usual problem that has to be solved in heat transfer applications is the rate of heat transfer,
and this can be seen from the general heat transfer formula, Equation 2.5.3.

8$7

Equation 2.5.3

Where:
U = The overall thermal transmittance (W / m2 C)
By comparing Equations 2.5.3 and 2.5.7, it must be true that:

4 8$7 $

7
5

and therefore,
8 


5

Equation 2.5.9

Therefore, U value (thermal transmittance) is the inverse of resistance.

Heat flow through a multi-layer barrier

As seen in Figure 2.5.4, a practical application would be the metal wall of a heat exchanger tube
or plate which uses steam on one side to heat water on its other. It can also be seen that various
other barriers are present slowing down the heat flow, such as an air film, a condensate film, a
scale film, and a stationary film of secondary water immediately adjacent to the heating surface.
These films can be thought of as fouling the flow of heat through the barrier, and consequently
these resistances are considered by heat exchanger designers as fouling factors.
All of these films, in addition to the resistance of the metal wall, constitute a resistance to heat
flow and, as in an electrical circuit, these resistances can be added to form an overall resistance.
Therefore:
$V  8 


WKHRYHUDOO8LVWKHLQYHUVHRIWKHVXPRIWKHUHVLVWDQFHDVVKRZQLQ(TXDWLRQ
5

8 


5 5  5  5  5  5 


Equation 2.5.10

Where:
R1 = Resistance of the air film
R2 = Resistance of the condensate film
R3 = Resistance of the scale film on the steam side
R4 = Resistance of the of the metal wall
R5 = Resistance of the scale film on the water side
R6 = Resistance of the product film

2.5.12

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

As resistance is / k as shown in Equation 2.5.6, then Equation 2.5.10 can be rewritten as

Equation 2.5.11:
8 

e

N

 e 

N

 e 


N  

e

N  + 

e

N  + 

e

N

Equation 2.5.11

:KHUH
e
e
e
e
e
e

N

7KLFNQHVVRIDLUILOP
7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIDLU

N

7KLFNQHVVRIFRQGHQVDWHILOP
7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIFRQGHQVDWH

N

7KLFNQHVVRIVFDOHILOPRQVWHDPVLGH
7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIVFDOH

N

7KLFNQHVVRIPHWDOZDOO
7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIPHWDO

N

7KLFNQHVVRIVFDOHILOPRQZDWHUVLGH
7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIVFDOH

N

7KLFNQHVVRIZDWHUILOP
7KHUPDOFRQGXFWLYLW\RIZDWHU

Table 2.5.2 Typical thermal conductivities of various materials

Material
Air
Condensate
Scale
Water
Steel
Copper

Thermal conductivity W / mC
0.025
0.4
0.1 to 1
0.6
50
400

The thermal conductivities will alter depending on the film material (and temperature). For
instance, air roughly has thirty times greater resistance to heat flow than water. For this reason, it
is relatively more important to remove air from the steam supply before it reaches the heat
exchanger, than to remove water in the form of wet steam. Of course, it is still sensible to remove
wet steam at the same time.
The resistance of air to steel is roughly two thousand times more, and the resistance of air to
copper is roughly twenty thousand times more. Because of the high resistances of air and water
to that of steel and copper, the effect of small thicknesses of air and water on the overall resistance
to heat flow can be relatively large.
There is no point in changing a steel heat transfer system to copper if air and water films are still
present; there will be little improvement in performance, as will be proven in Example 2.5.5.
Air and water films on the steam side can be eradicated by good engineering practice simply by
installing a separator and float trap set in the steam supply prior the control valve. Scale films on
the steam side can also be reduced by fitting strainers in the same line.
Scale on the product side is a little more difficult to treat, but regular cleaning of heat exchangers
is sometimes one solution to this problem. Another way to reduce scaling is to run heat exchangers
at lower steam pressures; this reduces the steam temperature and the tendency for scale to form
from the product, especially if the product is a solution like milk.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.13

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Example 2.5.5
Consider a steam to water heat exchanger where the air film, condensate film and scale on the
steam side is 0.2 mm thick; on the water side, the water and scale films are 0.05 mm and 0.1 mm
thick respectively.
The thickness of the steel walled heating surface is 6 mm.
Table 2.5.3 The resistance of the barriers including steel tube
Material
Air
Condensate
Scale steam side
Steel tube
Water
Scale water side

Resistance R=/ k
(m2 C/W)
0.008
0.000 5
0.000 4
0.000 12
0.000 08
0.000 2

Conductivity k
(W/mC)
0.025
0.4
0.5
50.0
0.6
0.5

Thickness mm
0.2
0.2
0.2
6.0
0.05
0.1

From Equation 2.5.6:

1. Calculate the overall U value (U1) from the conditions shown in Table 2.5.3
8 

e

N  

e

N  

e


N  

e

N  + 

e

N  + 

e

Equation 2.5.11

N

:KHUH 
e
e
e
e
e
e

N



N



N



N
N



N



8 
8 
8 

2.5.14





 

 
:P&

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

2. Remove the air and the condensate from the steam supply
Now consider the same heat exchanger where the air and condensate have been removed by a
separator in the steam supply.
Calculate U2

8
8


 


 


:P &

8

It can be seen from U2 that by fitting a separator in the steam supply to this heat exchanger, and
assuming that all air and condensate has been removed from the steam, the thermal transmittance
is more than 11 times greater than the original value.
3. Remove the scale on the steam and water sides
Now consider reducing the scale on the steam side by fitting a strainer in the steam line, and
reducing the scale on the water side by operating at a lower steam pressure.
Calculate U3

8
8
8


  


 


 :P &

The thermal transmittance has increased another fourfold by eradicating the scale.
4. Revert to the original conditions but change from steel tube to copper tube of the same
thickness.
Table 2.5.4 The resistance of the barriers including copper tube
Material
Air
Condensate
Scale steam side
Copper tube
Water
Scale water side

Thickness mm
0.2
0.2
0.2
6.0
0.05
0.1

Conductivity k
(W/mC)
0.025
0.4
0.5
400.0
0.6
0.5

Resistance R=/ k
(m2 C/W)
0.00 8
0.000 5
0.000 4
0.000 015
0.000 08
0.000 2

Calculate U4

8
8
8



 

 
:P &

It can be seen that the greater conductivity offered by the copper over the steel has made very
little difference to the overall thermal transmittance of the heat exchanger, due to the dominating
effect of the air and other fouling factors.

The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.15

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Please note that, in practice, other factors will influence the overall U value, such as the velocities
of the steam and water passing through the heat exchanger tubes or plates, and the combination
of heat transfer by convection and radiation.
Also, it is unlikely that the fitting of a separator and strainer will completely eradicate the presence
of air, wet steam, and scale from inside a heat exchanger. The above calculations are only being
shown to highlight the effects of these on heat transfer. However, any attempt to remove such
barriers from the system will generally prove successful, and is virtually guaranteed to increase
heat transfer in steam heating plant and equipment as soon as this is done.
Rather than having to calculate individual resistances of film barriers, Tables exist showing overall
U values for different types of heat exchange application such as steam coil heating of water
or oil. These are documented in Module 2.10, Heating with coils and jackets.
U values for heat exchangers vary considerably due to factors such as design (shell and tube or
plate and frame construction), material of construction, and the type of fluids involved in the
heat transfer function.

2.5.16

The Steam and Condensate Loop

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

Questions
1. What is the conductive heat transfer rate per unit area across a copper wall 5 mm thick,
if the temperature on one side is 100C and the temperature on the other is 40C?
a| 21 000 W/m

b| 120 kW

c| 4 800 kW/m

d| 33.3 W/mm

2. The rate of convective heat transfer from a plane surface with an area of 1.5 m to a
fluid in motion is 40 kW. If the surface temperature is 15C and the fluid temperature
is 40C, what is the convective heat transfer coefficient?
a| 1 067 W/m C

b| 667 kW C /m

c| 1 500 kW m C

d| 2 400 kW/m C

3. According to the heat transfer equation, the heat transfer rate varies with:
a| The flowrate of the secondary fluid

b| The mass flowrate of steam

c| The temperature rise of the secondary fluid

d| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids

4. Steam at 3 bar g is used to heat water from 10C to 80C. What is the difference
between the AMTD and the LMTD in this case?
a| 70C

b| 4.3C

c| 99C

d| 10C

5. The temperature gradient across a heat transfer layer is an indication of:

a| The thickness of the heat transfer layer

b| The steam pressure

c| The thermal conductivity of the heat transfer layer

d| The mean temperature difference between the two fluids

6. One side of a plane surface is at 25C. A fluid at 70C flows across the other surface. The
convective heat transfer coefficient is 1 600 W/m C. What surface area is required to
transfer 68 kW?
a| 0.944 m

b| 0.447 m

c| 0.894 m

d| 1.888 m

Answers

1: c, 2: a, 3: d, 4: b, 5: c, 6: a
The Steam and Condensate Loop

2.5.17

Block 2 Steam Engineering Principles and Heat Transfer

2.5.18

Heat Transfer Module 2.5

The Steam and Condensate Loop