Forensic medicine

Dr.Eyad Abou Asali

Maxillofacial sur.
Ph.d

Definition and scope of Forensic Science

Forensic

science is application of science to the

law

Forensic science applies the knowledge &
technology of science for the definition &
enforcement of such laws

Forensic science is the application of science to
those criminal and civil laws that are enforced by
police agencies in a criminal justice system

History and development of Forensic

Science

Sir

Arthur Conan Doyle popularize crime

detection methods through his fictional character
Sherlock Holmes

Mathieu Orfilia and Alphonse Bertillion

Mathieu Orfila & Alphonse Bertillion

Father

of toxicology

Published first scientific treatise on the
detection of poisons & their effects on animals
& this established forensic toxicology as
legitimate scientific endeavor

Father of criminal identification

First scientific system of personal identification

Anthropometry used series of body
measurements to distinguish individuals

Francis Galton, Leon Lattes & Karl Landsteiner

Karl

Landsteiner

Francis Galton

Francis Galton, Karl Landsteiner

& Leon Lattes

First

definitive study of fingerprints & developed

a methodology for classifying for filing

Published book titled Finger Prints & explained
system for identification

Lansteiner discovered blood groups; A, B, AB, O

Lattes developed procedure determine blood
groups from dried bloodstain

Calvin Goddard, Albert S. Osborn & Walter C.

McCrone

Calvin Goddard, Albert S. Osborn & Walter C.

McCrone

Goddard

refined techniques for comparing

bullets fired using comparison microscope

Osborn developed fundamental principles of
document examination; authored Questioned
document book

McCrone pioneered use of microscope

Hans Gross, Edmund Locard

Hans

Gross

Edmund Locard

Hans Gross

Gross; First treatise describing application of

scientific disciplines and scientific method to
field of criminal investigation; produced a classic
book called Criminal Investigation- translated in
English

Edmund Locard

He

believed that when a criminal came in

contact with an object, a cross-transfer of
evidence occurred; Hence called Locards
exchange principle

He used a couple rooms and two assistants in an
attic to start the first police lab in Lyon France

USA

1932

first national crime lab developed in USA

with the FBI by J. Edgar Hoover for all law
enforcement agencies

Worlds largest forensic laboratory & performs
over a million examinations every year

1981 FBIs Forensic Science Research &
Training Center 1st time facility conduct
research to develop new & reliable scientific
methods applied to forensic science

Factors determining lab numbers increasing

The

demand for labs to perform drug analyses

single most important factor in expansion of
forensic services

Also the advent of DNA profiling has caused the
increase in labs & is the dominant factor in
explaining how general public perceives the
crime lab

Services of the Crime Laboratory

Reasons

for variations in services:

Variations

in local laws

Different capabilities & functions of organization to
which a laboratory is attached

Budgetary and staffing limitations

Often the sole purpose for crime lab creation has
been to process drug specimens

Basic services provided by full- service

crime labs

Physical

science unit: applies principles and

techniques of chemistry, physics & geology to
evidence evaluation; examinations of soil, drugs,
glass, paint, explosives etc are examined

Biology unit: applies principles and techniques to
identify DNA for profiling, stains & body fluids,
hair & fiber comparison, wood and plants

Basic crime lab

Firearms

unit: examination of firearms,

discharged bullets, cartridge cases, shot gun
shells, ammunitions, garments and other objects
examined to detect discharge of residues etc.

Document examination unit: handwriting and
typewriting on questioned documents studied;
analysis of paper & ink; erasures, obliterations,
document charred or burned

Basic crime lab

Photography:

examine and record evidence;

digital imaging, infrared, ultraviolet, and X-ray
photography techniques make invisible
information visible; court room presentations

Optional services provided by fullservice crime labs

Toxicology

unit: body fluids & organs examined

determine presence or absence of drugs &
poisons often this is shared with the medical
examiners or coroners office

Latent fingerprint unit: examination of latent
fingerprints submitted with other lab
examinations

Optional services provided by fullservice crime labs

Polygraph

unit: polygraph or lie detector used

primarily as a tool of the criminal investigator

Voiceprint analysis unit: cases involving
telephone threats, tape-recorded messages may
use unit to identify persons

Sound

patterns are suppose to be unique to the

person & and are captured on a voiceprint

Optional services provided by fullservice crime labs

Evidence-collector

unit: special trained personnel

collect & preserve physical evidence collected at
the crime scene

Functions of the Forensic Scientists

Analysis

of physical evidence: persons skilled in

applying principles & techniques of physical &
natural sciences to analysis of evidence but also
aware of the demands & constraints of court
system

Frye vs. United States: what ever conclusions
were deduced when examining evidence that
method has sufficient established acceptance in
particular field in which it belongs

Analysis of physical evidence

Books

and papers as well as a list of experts who

have used a method presented to a court is used
to fit the criteria of generally accepted by the
scientific community

Alternative to Frye standard is Federal rules of
evidence: part of it deals with expert testimony,
admissibility of all evidence

Analysis of physical evidence

continued

1993

the case of Daubert vs. Merrell Dow

Pharmaceutical, Inc. the U.S. Supreme Court
ruled that Frye standard or general acceptance
isnt the prerequisite to admissibility of scientific
evidence; some state courts may apply this ruling
and use the Federal rules of evidence; trial judges
are the gate keepers to determine the
admissibility of scientific evidence; good case for
this ruling: Coppolino vs. State

Provision of Expert Testimony

Person

convinces a trial judge he/she has

possesses a skill or knowledge in a trade or
profession aid court in determining truth of
matters at issue considered expert witness;
knowledge obtained by experience, training,
education or combination qualification expert
witness; opposing attorney allowed cross
examine witness to maybe poke holes testimony

Expert witness examples

Training Proper Recognition,

collection & preserving evidence

Specially

training personnel to recognize, collect

and preserve physical evidence is highly valued
since without them, evidence could be useless

Police officers or detectives are often trained by
forensic scientists to know what to look for

Other forensic science services

Forensic

pathology: involves investigation of

sudden, unnatural, unexplained, or violet deaths;
medical examiners or coroners & answer
questions like who is the victim, what injuries are
present, when did the injuries occur, why and
how were the injuries produced. Primary roll is
to determine cause of death & by autopsy

Forensic pathology

A

medical examiner maybe able to determine

time of death by evaluating stage of death of
victim; immediately after death rigor mortis sets
in, appears 1st 24 hrs & disappears after 36 hrs;
livor mortis also sets in and blue to black color
appears on body closed to ground; can be used
to determine if body moved after death; algor
mortis sets in as body loses heat to the ambient
room temperature

Forensic pathology

Time

of death also determined by examining

potassium levels in ocular fluid

The rate at which potassium is released into the
vitreous humor maybe used

Also examining stomach can help note what the
victims last meal was

Forensic Anthropology

Concerned

with the identification and

examination of human skeletal remains

Examination of skeletal remains reveal their
origin, sex, approximate age, race, skeletal injury

Used to identify victims of mass disasters

Forensic Entomology

Study

of insects and their relationship to criminal

investigation

Used to estimate the time of death when it
circumstances surrounding crime unknown

Blow flies first arrive when body starts to
decompose; eggs are laid, and maggots or fly
larvae

Larvae consume tissue & organs

Forensic Entomology

Identification

of specific insects present in body

and approximate how long body left exposed by
examining the stage development of fly larvae;
weather conditions and geography affects results

Forensic entomology continued

Forensic psychiatry

Relationship

between human behavior and legal

proceedings examined;

Civil cases determine people competent to
make decisions about wills, settling property or
refusing medical treatment

Criminal cases- evaluate behavioral disorders and
determine if people are competent to stand trial;
also behavioral patterns of criminals determine
profile

Forensic Odontology

Identification

of victims body is left

unrecognizable state

Teeth enamel, hardest substance in body

Use dental records such as x-rays, dental casts or
photograph of persons mouth comparison made
between dental remains & suspect victim

Use bite marks in some cases like assault

Forensic engineering

Failure

analysis, accident reconstruction and

causes and origins of fires or explosions; auto,
plane and others involved

Questions asked

How

did an accident or structural failure occur?

Were the parties involved responsible

If so, how were they responsible

Lecture: Forensic Evidence

Physical Evidence
Any material either in gross or trace
quantities that can establish through
scientific examination and analysis
that a crime has been committed.

Forensic laboratories
Items of physical evidence

identification

evaluation

individualization

Classification of Physical Evidence

Trace evidence


extremely small items

stands on its own to prove an

alleged fact

Direct evidence

Prima facie evidence

evidence established by law

Circumstantial evidence

incriminates a person

Exculpatory evidence

helps to prove that an accused

individual is not guilty

Physical evidence utilization in other areas

of forensic investigation

Provides investigative leads for a case

Ties one crime to a similar crime or connects one
suspect with another
Corroborates statements from witnesses to or
victims of a crime
The elements of a crime help to determine what
will be useful as evidence.
Besides knowing what types of evidence to search
for, it is necessary to know where evidence is most
likely to be found.

Characteristics of evidence

Class characteristics

features that place the item

into a specific category

Individual characteristics

features that distinguish one

item from another of the same
type

E x a m in a t io n a n d a n a l y s is o f p h y s ic a l
e v id e n c e

H ig h e s t d e g r e e o f s c ie n t ific c e r ta in t y p o s s ib le w ith
c u r r e n t te c h n o lo g y

p h y s ic a l
id e n tific a tio n

c h e m ic a l
id e n tific a tio n

b io lo g ic a l
id e n tific a tio n

diffuse reflectance
spectroscopy
Fibers
Composition
FT-IR
microscopy
Physical properties Solubility,
melting point
Glass
Refractive index
Microscopy
Magnesium
Atomic
absorption
spectrophotometry
Shoes
Miscellaneous
Solidphase extraction; LC
Powder
Drugs of abuse
FTIR

Evidence

Techniques

Gunshot residue
Atomic absorption
spectrophotometry,
scanning
electron microscopy
Clothing
Visible reflectance, FT-IR
microscopy, FTRaman
Pen inks
UVvis, LC
Plastic fragments
FT-IR, UVvis
Tire fragments
Thermal analysis, FT-IR
Food (poisoned)
Liquid- and solid-phase
extraction, GC/MS
Fingerprints
Fluorescent visualization
Metals
Atomic absorption
spectrophotometry,
titrations

Types of physical evidence



BODY FLUIDS
Conventional serology:
 presence of blood in stains
 species identification and ABO
grouping
 is not adequately informative to
positive identify a person
DNA analysis can associate victim
and/or suspect with each other or
with the crime scene
BLOODSTAIN PATTERNS
 additional information

SEM: erythrocytes & lymphocytes

Types of physical evidence

BODY TISSUES


organ samples collected at

autopsy, including blood, urine
and stomach contents

toxicological analysis

DRUGS & CONTROLLED

SUBSTANCES


volatile compounds (ethanol, methanol,

isopropanol)
heavy metals (arsenic)
nonvolatile organic compounds (drugs
of abuse, pharmaceuticals)
miscellaneous (strychnine, cyanide)

trace drug presence, identity, and

quantity

plant materials, powders, tablets,

capsules

Black tar heroine wrapped in cellophane

Types of physical evidence

DOCUMENTS
 examination

typed, handwritten and printed

materials for evidence of forgery

indented writings, obliterated or

altered writings, used carbon paper,
burned or charred paper



paper and ink analysis

handwriting comparison to
determine authenticity

Obliterated writing examination

Types of physical evidence

HAIRS
 hairs analysis can
determine

human/animal
race
body area
cosmetic treatments
method of removal (crushed, cut,
burned, forcibly removed, fallen
out naturally)
can associate a hair to a person
positive identification
presence of drugs and poisons

type

color, composition construction












morphological features
DNA analysis
toxicological examination

FIBERS




Types of physical evidence

Two matching hairs identified with the

comparison microscope

Flax fibers viewed with

polarized light

Types of physical evidence

FINGERPRINTS

the strongest possible evidence

of a persons identity

Fingerprint Matching

FIRE DEBRIS &

EXPLOSIVES RESIDUE
EXAMINATIONS

identification of accelerants and

explosive residues
Unburned accelerator liquid on a soot covered carpet

Types of physical evidence

FIREARMS & AMMUNITION

individual microscopic marks



identification, source, operability of

firearms.

detection and characterization of

gunpowder residues

muzzle-to-garments distance
estimation

GLASS FRAGMENTS
 Cause of breakage


Direction of breakage force

Physical fitting

Glass fragment comparisons

Photomicrograph: test
bullet - questioned bullet

Glass fracture produced

by a high-speed projectile

Types of physical evidence

PAINT & PAINT PRODUCTS

analysis and comparison of paint

transferred from the surface of an
object to another during the
commission of a crime:
Suspect vehicle impacting a victim
vehicle; a pedestrian or a stationary
object
Tool impacting stationary object
Paint databases can help identify
the year, make and/or color of a
motor vehicle from a chip of paint
left at the scene.



Paint Layers on Wood Surface

Types of physical evidence




TOOLMARK
IDENTIFICATION
microscopic side-by-side comparison
attempts to link a particular tool with
a particular mark to the exclusion of
any other tool
Spacing between teeth in gripping -major
role in toolmark examinations

ROPE & CORDAGE

composition, construction, color and

diameter

manufacturer

Types of physical evidence






SOILS & MINERALS

comparison between two or
more soils to determine if they
share a common origin
color, texture, composition
comparison

Layers of soil exposed at a grave site. Each

layer must be sampled

WOOD
place the suspect at the crime
scene
side or end matching, fracture
matching and species
identification.
Cross-section - Xylem

Types of physical evidence

OILS/GREASE &
COSMETIC PRODUCTS

SHOEPRINTS & TIRE

TREAD IMPRESSIONS
have value for forensic
comparisons.

can provide positive

identification of the suspects
shoes or tires from the suspects
vehicle.

possess unique composition for

comparison

Shoeprint
collected
using a
gelatin lifter.

Processing physical evidence

discovering, recognizing and examining it;

collecting, recording and identifying it;

packaging, conveying and storing it;

exhibiting it in court;

disposing of it when the case is closed.

The Crime Scene

Physical Evidence

Physical evidence is any object that can establish

that a crime has been committed or can link a
crime and its victim or its perpetrator.
Forensic science begins at the crime scene. The
investigator must recognize physical evidence &
properly preserve it for laboratory examination.
The evidence must be kept in its original condition
as much as possible.

Securing the Crime Scene

Secure & Isolate the Crime Scene

First priority is medical assistance to individuals &
arresting the perpetrator.

Ropes or barricades and guards will prevent
unauthorized access to the area.

Every person who enters the crime scene has the
potential to destroy physical evidence.

The lead investigator evaluates the scene & determines
the boundaries. They do an initial walk through &
develop a strategy.

All items must be documented & photographed.

Recording the Crime Scene

3 methods of crimescene recording:

photography,
sketches, & notes
Ideally all 3 should
be used

Photography

The crime scene should be unaltered, unless injured

people are involved, objects must not be moved
until they have been photographed from all
necessary angles.

If things are removed, added, or positions changed the

photographs may not be admissible evidence.

Photograph completely
Area where crime took place & adjacent areas

Various angles

Photography

If crime scene includes a body:

Take photos to show bodys location & position relative to the

whole crime scene
Take close-up photos of injuries & weapons lying near the body
After the body is removed, photograph the surface underneath.

When size is significant, use a ruler or other measuring

scale
Digital cameras allow for enhancement & examination in
fine detail.
Videotaping a scene is also becoming popular.

Sketches

Once photos are taken, sketch the scene.

A rough sketch is a sketch, drawn at the crime scene, that
contains an accurate depiction of the dimensions of the
scene & shows the location of all objects having a bearing
on the case.

All measurements are made with a tape measure

Show all items of physical evidence
Assign each item a number or letter and list it in the legend
Show a compass heading designating north

A finished sketch is a precise rendering of the crime scene,

usually drawn to scale.

Computer-aided drafting (CAD) has become the standard.

Rough-sketch diagram of a crime

scene. Courtesy Sirchie Finger
Print Laboratories, Inc.,
Youngsville, N.C.,
www.sirchie.com.

Finished-sketch
diagram of a crime
scene. Courtesy
Sirchie Finger Print
Laboratories, Inc.,
Youngsville, N.C.,
www.sirchie.com.

Notes

Note taking must be a constant activity throughout

the processing of the crime scene.
The notes may be the only source of information to
refresh memory.
Tape-recording notes at a scene can be
advantageous detailed notes can be taped much
faster than they can be written.

Dealing with Physical Evidence

Once found, physical evidence must be collected

& stored in a way that preserves its integrity for
forensic comparison & analysis.
The search for physical evidence must be thorough
and systematic, even when suspects are
immediately seized.
A forensic scientist is not usually needed at the
scene unless the evidence is complex or it is a
major crime.
Some police agencies have trained field evidence
technicians.

Searching the Crime Scene

One person should supervise & coordinate.

Include all probable entry & exit points in search
What to search for will be determined by the
particular circumstances of the crime.

Examples
Homicide

Hit-and-run

In most crimes, a search for latent fingerprints is

required.

Systematic Search

Collect Physical Evidence

Physical evidence can be anything from massive objects to

microscopic traces.
It may be necessary to take custody of all clothing worn by
the participants in a crime.

Handle carefully & wrap separately to avoid loss of trace evidence.

Critical areas of the crime scene should be vacuumed & the

sweepings submitted to the lab for analysis.
Mobile crime-scene vehicles carry supplies to protect the
crime scene; photo, collect, & package evidence; & develop
latent fingerprints.

Collect Physical Evidence

The integrity of evidence is best maintained when

the item is kept in its original condition as found at
the crime scene.
The entire object should be sent to the lab.
If evidence is found adhering to a large structure,
remove specimen with forceps or other appropriate
tool.

In the case of a bloodstain, one may either scrape the

stain off the surface, transfer the stain to a moistened
swab, or cut out the area of the object containing the
stain.

Collect Physical Evidence

Each different item or similar items collected at

different locations must be placed in separate
containers.
Packaging evidence separately prevents damage
through contact and prevents cross-contamination.

Autopsy Room

Medical examiner or coroner carefully examines the victim

to establish a cause & manner of death.
Tissues are retained for pathological & toxicological
examination.
The following are collected & sent to the lab:

Victims clothing
Fingernail scraping
Head & pubic hairs
Blood (DNA typing)
Vaginal, anal, & oral swabs (in sex-related crimes)
Recovered bullets from the body
Hand swabs from shooting victims (for GSR analysis)

Tools for Evidence Collection

Forceps
Unbreakable plastic pill bottles w/ pressure lids
Manila envelopes, glass vials, pill boxes
Paper bags are better than plasticwhy?
Fire evidence must be kept in an airtight container to
prevent evaporation of petroleum residues
Clothing must be air-dried & placed in individual paper
bags.
http://www.crimescene.com/ecpi/evidence_collection.shtml

Chain of Custody

Chain of custody is a list of all people who came into

possession of an item of evidence.
Chain must be established whenever evidence is presented
in court as an exhibit.

Failure to do so may lead to ? Regarding authenticity & integrity of

evidence.

All items should be carefully packaged and marked upon

their retrieval at crime sites.
Normally, the collectors initials & date of collection are
inscribed directly on the article.
The evidence container must also be marked with
collectors initials, location of evidence, & date of collection.