Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
and
Comparator Design
By
Amir Agah
Approval
Name:
Amir Agah
Degree:
Master of Science
Title of Thesis:
Committee member:
____________________________
Dr. Klaas Bult
Broadcom Corporation, the Netherlands
____________________________
Professor Edoardo Charbon
Department of Electrical Engineering
____________________________
Professor Wouter A. Serdijn
Department of Electrical Engineering
ii
Abstract
Bit-error rate (BER) of comparators is becoming one of the limiting factors in the design
of high speed ADCs. BER measurement setup is introduced and implemented in this
thesis. Using this BER measurement setup gives us the opportunity to compare the BER
of different comparators. It also enables us to study the effect of different parameters
such as bias current, and power supply variations on the BER of these comparators.
Capacitive based comparator is also proposed in this work which is a new topology for
comparators and simulations show that it can perform better than the other conventional
comparators with respect to BER.
The capacitive based comparator and 2 conventional comparators are implemented in the
BER measurement setup so that they can also be compared on silicon.
iii
Acknowledgement
Acknowledgement
Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Klaas Bult at
Broadcom Netherlands for the continuous support of my M.Sc. thesis, for his patience,
motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge. His guidance helped me in all the time
of research. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor for my M.Sc. thesis. He
not only gives me technical support himself, but also offers me good opportunities to
discuss with the experienced designers in Broadcom.
I would also like to thank Professor John R. Long. I benefit a lot from the discussions
with him. The design experiences and the research attitude I learn from professor Long
are really precious to my future career. His guidance helped me a lot in all the time of
research and writing of this thesis.
I would like to show my special gratitude to all the colleagues in Broadcom, especially
Jan Mulder, Jan Westra and Frank Van der Goes. I really appreciate their willing and
patience to help me whenever I have problems. Without their help, I can not widen my
knowledge and make progress in my work.
Last, but not the least, I would like to express my gratitude to my family. Even thousands
of kilometers apart, they have been present through every step of my life, providing
support in difficult times. They have been a constant source of inspiration, and this thesis
is dedicated to them.
iv
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Abstract
iii
Acknowledgement
iv
Table of Contents
List of Figures
viii
List of Tables
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.3 Programmability
References
12
12
2.2.4 Noise
13
2.2.5 Offset
13
14
14
17
18
19
on metastability
2.3.5 Effect of noise on metastability
20
21
Table of Contents
Summary
22
References
22
24
24
27
31
32
Summary
35
References
35
36
36
39
44
48
4.5 Divider
50
4.6 Counter
51
Summary
52
References
52
53
53
54
5.3 Preamp
57
58
60
5.6 Programmability
65
Summary
66
References
67
vi
Table of Contents
Chapter 6
68
68
69
vii
List of Figures
List of Figures
Fig. 1-1. (a) Conventional comparator (b) Rest-time and Evaluation-time
in a clk cycle 2
Fig. 2-1. Simple comparator
Fig.2-2. Waveforms for the two outputs of the comparator for different
input signal amplitudes
10
Fig. 2-3. Theoretical error rates for two- and three-latch designs [1]
15
16
18
21
24
25
26
27
29
31
31
32
33
Fig.4-1. Detecting BE
36
37
38
39
40
Fig. 4-6 Sine wave plus noise with sigma which is 3 times smaller
than the amplitude of the sine wave (a) and its PDF (b)
40
Fig. 4-7: Sine wave plus noise with sigma which is 3 times smaller
than the amplitude of the sine wave (a) and its PDF (b)
viii
41
List of Figures
Fig.4-8 Output of the RC feedback and input sine-wave with no noise
41
42
Fig. 4-10 Output of the RC feedback and big input sine-wave with
transient noise
43
44
45
46
48
49
49
50
51
53
54
55
56
58
Fig. 5-6 Capacitive based comparator (a) two input nodes of the
comparators (b) output of the digital latch
59
Fig. 5-7 Vertical latch comparator (a) two input nodes of the comparators
(b) output of the digital latch
59
60
61
62
63
64
66
ix
List of Tables
List of Tables
Table 2-1: Slopes of data in Fig. 2-5 [4]
18
Table 3-1. W/L and number of fingers of each transistor in the comparators
34
34
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1 Introduction
In today's world, where demand for portable high-speed battery operated devices is
increasing, there is a major thrust towards low power design methodologies for high
resolution and high speed applications. It is well known that moving toward smaller
feature size CMOS technologies can reduce power consumption, however, process
variations and other non-idealities will greatly affect the overall performance of the
devices.
One such application where low power, high resolution and high speed are required is
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs). There are several portable devices which are
making use of these ADCs. For instance, these days, all the laptops and cell phones are
equipped with Wi-Fi and this is where a low power, high speed and high resolution ADC
is highly required. With the high growth in internet usage and demand for the higher
speed, there is also growing need for faster ADCs which are also low power. Advancing
from 2G mobile networks into 3G and 4G is also another indication of the growing
demand of high speed and low power ADCs.
The performance limiting blocks in such ADCs are typically inter-stage gain amplifiers
and comparators. According to the architecture of the ADC chosen, one or several
comparators might be used in a single ADC. Therefore, the comparator structure can
have an important influence on the total power consumption and other specifications of
the ADC, such as bit-error rate (BER), which will be discussed in details in this work.
-1-
Chapter 1
Introduction
In the literature one will find that a major emphasis has been made in regard to different
parts of ADCs such as inter-stage gain amplifiers but very little effort has been made
towards the design of comparators [1] [2] [3]. In most publications, a standard
comparator (Fig.1-1a) is used without considering the advantages or disadvantages of this
structure. In this work, it is shown that the conventional comparator is not always the best
choice with respect to power consumption and BER.
All of the comparators discussed in this work are clocked comparators. Considering the
behavior of the comparator, the clock period is divided into two parts, reset-time and
evaluation-time (Fig.1-1 b). During the reset-time the previous decision is removed and
comparator becomes ready for making a new decision. Evaluation time is the time in
which a comparator reacts to the input signal and makes decision. As the clock frequency
increases, the evaluation-time and also the reset-time of the comparator are reduced,
respectively, which shows the growing need for higher-speed comparators.
M8
Clk
In-
M1
In+
M2
Evaluation-time
M4
M3
clk
Out+
Reset-time
Out-
Clk
(b)
M7
M5
M6
(a)
Fig. 1-1. (a) Conventional comparator (b) Rest-time and Evaluation-time in a
clk cycle
-2-
Chapter 1
Introduction
Insufficient evaluation time results in the bit errors (which will be discussed in details
later) and insufficient reset-time results in hysterisis.
In this work, a new comparator structure is proposed. Looking at the literature, it can be
recognized that all comparators have a transconductance stage at their input which
converts a differential input voltage difference into a differential current. This current
difference is then applied to a latch, however, the main disadvantage of this method is
high power consumption, since the input stage also consumes power in the reset mode.
The proposed structure converts the voltage difference into a capacitor difference which
unbalances the latch. This unbalanced capacitive load helps the latch make the correct
decision. Simulation results show that this comparator has low power consumption and
with same power consumption it has lower BER when compared with other comparators.
This circuit will be discussed in details in chapter 3.
-3-
Eq. (1.1)
Chapter 1
Introduction
or approximately 12 days. If we want to examine the effect of one bias current on the
BER of an ADC, then we should change this current and run the system for several days
to see the effect of this change, which is really impractical. Thats why there are not
many publications in which BER of the design is reported, although it is becoming a
critical specification.
It is also seen that there are several publications proposing some new ideas for making
low-power ADCs but a lot of them are using some methods which are obviously
degrading the BER of the ADC but this is not shown in the measurements since no BER
measurement is done [6].
In this work, we propose a system which can measure the BER of different comparators
in less than a minute. For reducing the measurement time, several methods are used.
Increasing the clock frequency and keeping the comparator near its trigger point by
canceling offset and reducing signal variations at the input of the comparator are done in
order to increase the probability of the bit errors.
Being able to measure the BER of a comparator in a short time enables us to study the
effect of various parameters on the metastability of a comparator and it is also possible to
compare different comparators with respect to their BER.
Since the comparator can cause metastability in the system, it is critical to know the BER
of different comparators. Knowing the BER of different comparators, we can make use of
proper comparators in proper places and avoid poor BER or over designing by burning
too much current or wasting too much area.
One might say that it is a good idea to measure the BER of a comparator using the
available simulators, however, simulating metastability of a comparator is not straight
forward. For measuring the BER of a comparator at a certain clock frequency, first we
need to know the distribution of the signal at the input of the comparator and second we
need to find the smallest input voltage which can be detected by that comparator. This is
not easily done, since the accuracy of the simulator is limited (e.g., it is not possible to
apply 1fV input to the comparator). We can measure the time-constant of the comparator
and then calculate the BER by assuming that this time constant is not a function of input
voltage. This can be done by applying different voltages (relatively small but in the
-4-
Chapter 1
Introduction
region where the simulator is still accurate enough) and observing the behavior of the
output voltage of the comparator to each of these input voltages. Making use of this time
constant, we can extrapolate the BER of the comparator considering the frequency at
which comparator is supposed to operate. This is the main method
used to design a
comparator with a proper BER, however, this method is based on the assumption that the
time constant of the comparator is not a function of the input voltage. This is not
necessarily correct, since a comparator is a nonlinear device and the time constant of the
circuit is not necessarily constant for different input voltages. Measurement of BER will
be discussed in Chapter 3.
1.3. Programmability
Since we are going to study the effect of different parameters on the BER of comparators,
being able to change these parameters manually is a key point. We decided to make all of
these parameters programmable so that we can change and study their effect
independently. All of the bias currents, gains of the preamps and parameters in the digital
parts are made fully programmable. These parameters are controlled through a serial
computer interface and can be programmed via MATLAB. This way of testing also
enables us to automate many different tests to save time when testing the circuit. More
details about the testing of the circuit are discussed in Chapter 5.
Chapter 1
Introduction
and we can study the effect of different parameters on their BER. This system will
enables us to compare different comparators with respect to their BER on silicon, which
have never been done before.
In Chapter 5, the layout details and testing of the BER measurement setup are described.
It will be shown that comparators are sensitive to their physical layout and special
measures should be taken into account in order to make the layout completely
symmetrical, otherwise the comparator will show a considerable amount of offset. Well
also discuss the programmability of the setup, which eases the testing procedure of the
system.
Chapter 6 is dedicated to the conclusion and summery of what have been done in this
work.
Reference
[1] J. H. Hohl, W. R. Larsen, and L. C. Schooley, Prediction of error probabilities for
integrated digital synchronizers, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-19, pp. 236244,
Apr. 1984.
[2] C.W. Mangelzdorf, A 400-MHz Input Flash Converter with Error Correction, IEEE
J. Solid-State Circuits ,vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 184-191, Feb. 1990.
[3] Le-sup Kim and Robert W. Dutton, Metastability of CMOS Latch/Flip-Flop, IEEE
J. of Solid-State Circuits, VOL. 25, No.4, August 1990.
[4] L. Kleeman, A. Cantoni, Metastable behavior in digital systems, IEEE design & test
of computers, pp. 4-19, Dec. 1987.
[5] G.R. Couranz and D.F. Wann, "Theoretical and Experimental Behavior of
Synchronizers Operating in the Metastable Region," IEEE Trans. Computers, pp. 604616, June 1975.
[6] B. Verburggen, J. Craninckx, M. Kuijk, P. Wambacq, G. Van Der Plas, A 2.2mW
5b 1.75GS/s folding flash ADC in 90nm digital CMOS, ISSCC digest of Technical
papers, pp. 252-253, Feb. 2008.
-6-
Chapter 2
-7-
Chapter 2
M5
M6
M4
M3
Clk
In-
M1
In+
M2
M9
Out-
Out+
Bias
M7
M10
M8
Eq. (2-1)
where Vo is the output of the comparator, A is the gain in evaluation mode, Vi, is the
input voltage, t is the time since the onset of positive feedback, and is the time constant
of the latch in positive feedback. This time constant is defined by equation (2-2).
= Cout / gmeff
Eq. (2-2)
where Cout is the total capacitance at the output node and gmeff is the effective
transconductance of the NMOS latch which is:
gmeff = gm-
1
ro
-8-
Eq. (2-3)
Chapter 2
-9-
Chapter 2
Fig.2-2. Waveforms for the two outputs of the comparator for different input signal
amplitudes
When the clock signal is high, the comparator is in the reset mode and differential output
voltage is equal to zero since the switch between the output nodes is closed. When clock
signal becomes zero this switch opens and comparator enters the evaluation mode. The
output voltage grows roughly exponentially until it reaches a valid logic level.
As can be seen in Fig. 2, the comparator needs more time to reach a valid logic level as
the input voltage amplitude decreases. However, for a fixed evaluation time, there is a
minimum input voltage which can be detected by the comparator. During this period we
can consider the regenerative circuit to have an effective gain which is a function of time:
- 10 -
Chapter 2
Aeff=Vo/Vi=Aexp(t/ )
Eq. (2-4)
As the clock rate of the ADC is increased, the amount of time the latch stage of the
comparator spends in evaluation mode (where there is positive feedback) is reduced and
the effective gain of the latch reached at the end of half a clock cycle is lower. Lower
effective gain makes it more likely that relatively small input voltages will not be
amplified to a full logic level, and thus increases the chances for an error.
Reduction in can lower the error rate of the comparator. This can be done by increasing
the gain-bandwidth product of the latch since is inversely proportional to the gainbandwidth product of the latch.
Assuming a uniform distribution for the signal present at the input of the comparator,
BER can be defined by the minimum signal which can be detected by the comparator
divided by the maximum input voltage at the input of the comparator. However this is not
a practical definition, since the accuracy of the simulator is limited. Therefore for
measuring the BER of a comparator by a simulator, input voltages with amplitudes of
10mV, 1mV, 100uV, 10uV, 1uV (which are still in the range which can be accurately
simulated) are applied to the comparator, and all the output voltages are plotted on a same
graph, as shown in Fig. 2-2. Since these inputs differ by a factor of ten from each other,
all the output voltages should be equally distanced from each other in time considering
the exponential behavior of the comparator. It can be shown that this distance is equal to:
t = ln(10) *
Eq. (2-5)
Therefore, by measuring t on the plot one can calculate the time constant of the
comparator. Knowing this time constant and the clock frequency of the comparator, one
can calculate the minimum input voltage which can be detected by the comparator. Using
this minimum value and the distribution of the input signal of the comparator, the BER of
the comparator may be calculated. However, this method is based on this assumption that
the time constant of the comparator is not a function of the input signal, which is not
necessarily true for all comparator structures (this will be discussed in Chapter 3).
- 11 -
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
2.2.4 Noise
Input referred noise is an important parameter which is used to characterize the
performance of the comparator. PDF of this noise is considered to be Gaussian with zero
mean. Standard deviation (sigma) of this curve is the parameter which should determined
for characterizing this noise.
In most of the applications in which a comparator is used, 2 or 3 additional preamplifiers
are placed before the comparator. Using these preamps has several advantages, such as
reduction of the noise and offset. It can also suppress the effect of the kick-backs of the
comparator. However it increases the power consumption and the physical area of the
circuit.
Since a comparator is a nonlinear circuit, calculating the input referred noise of it is not a
straight-forward task. There are several simulation methods for measuring the noise of
linear and partially linear circuits, but there these are not applicable for the comparator.
Therefore, in this work we used large-signal (i.e., transient) noise simulation in order to
measure the standard deviation (sigma) of the input referred noise of the comparator.
2.2.5 Offset
In an ideal op amp or comparator, if the input signal is zero, the output will also be zero.
In actual circuits, imperfections in the circuit components and mismatch cause a DC
voltage to exist at the output, even when the input voltage is zero. This DC voltage is
referred to as DC offset.
A comparator is a sensitive structure to asymmetry and special attention should be made
in order to design it completely symmetrical. Any mismatch or any non-idealities in the
layout of the comparator will result in significant DC offset therefore layout of the
comparator is really important and critical. Although offset can be reduced significantly
by making use of preamps, it is still one of the major performance parameters of the
comparator.
It is shown that the common-mode voltage jump of the comparator output nodes at the
onset of the evaluation mode has a significant effect on the DC offset which is generated
by mismatch. It is shown that minimizing the common-mode voltage change at the start
- 13 -
Chapter 2
of the evaluation mode can minimize the effect of mismatch on the offset. We will use
this fact for designing a new comparator in Chapter 3. The other mechanism which can
result in offset is the imbalanced cross-talk from the clock.
- 14 -
Chapter 2
Fig. 2-3. Theoretical error rates for two- and three-latch designs [1]
Reduction in is also one of the things which can improve the error rate of the
comparator and it can be done by increasing the gain bandwidth of the latch.
Considering that the process sequence and device parameters are not routinely adjusted to
improve robustness against metastability, choosing the optimal device size, aspect ratio,
and circuit configuration seems the most viable approach to attack this problem
effectively at the circuit design stage.
Consider the structure of the normal D latch in CMOS shown below in Fig. 2-4.
- 15 -
Chapter 2
CLKB
I2
I1
D
I3
CLK
CLK
CLKB
In the metastable region, voltage at the output and the input of the inverters (I2 & I3) are
equal and thus all of the transistors are working in the saturation region. Considering this
fact, some papers [4] suggest using small-signal analysis for optimizing the device sizes.
In these articles, frequency-domain analysis is shown to be as effective in design as largesignal analysis. It is also verified by comparing results with those investigated
analytically and by large-signal (i.e., time-domain or transient) simulation [5], [6].
It is shown that using this kind of analysis it is possible to present further considerations
for optimal design of the CMOS latch/flip-flop against the metastable state. For instance,
in the frequency domain the Miller effect plays an important role in limiting the gainbandwidth product, which is a measure of how quickly the regenerative configurations
(which latches and flip-flops belong to), recover from the metastable state.
It is well known that the CMOS inverter has a high small-signal (i.e., ac) gain at the
metastable voltage. This ac gain determines the resolving capability (ability of going out
of metastable region) of CMOS inverters of the latch/flip-flop. It can be shown that total
small-signal Gm of two back-to-back inverters is equal to:
- 16 -
Chapter 2
Wp a
Wn 1
.(Vdd Vtp Vtn)
+ pCox
L 1+ a
L 1+ a
Gm= nCox
Eq. (2-6)
n Wn
p Wp
Eq. (2-7)
Studying the effect of different parameters such as aspect ratio of NMOS and PMOS
transistors and power supply on gain-bandwidth product, can also verify their effect on
metastability and enables us to optimize the design for lower BER.
- 17 -
Chapter 2
After doing the measurement on CMOS latch/flip-flop with different power supplies,
about three orders of magnitude of mean time between failure MTBF change is reported
as Vdd varies from Vdd = 5 V to Vdd = 4.5 V [4].
- 18 -
Chapter 2
As expected, the higher chip temperature gives rise to higher failure rates. About 75C
of temperature difference causes four orders of magnitude degradation in MTBF. It also
can be noticed that higher chip temperatures result in a lower slope of the measurement
data as listed in Table 2-1. In other words, the metastable state resolving ability of a
latch/flip-flop is severely hampered by increased chip temperature. This can be explained
by considering the fact that mobility of the transistor is reduced by increasing the
temperature since:
3
300 2
= 0
Eq. (2-8)
Eq. (2-9)
As you can see, scaling reduces the numerator of equation (2-9) more than the
denominator, which results in a smaller time constant. So it seems that scaling can reduce
the metastability problem. However, it can be seen from equation (2-9) that decreasing
the power supply will degrade , and as Vdd approaches 2Vth, will increase markedly.
But it is also possible to look at this problem from a different point of view. As discussed
earlier, the ac gain is the critical parameter for the metastable condition when the input
- 19 -
Chapter 2
and the output are at the same voltage. The slope in the dc voltage transfer characteristic
curve of the CMOS inverter represents the maximum ac gain. The output resistance of
the load (i.e., the PMOS device and NMOS device) determines that slope. For the scaled
devices, the channel-length modulation effect becomes more transparent, and as a result,
the output resistance is reduced, which results in a lower slope at V, which means a lower
ac gain. It can also be explained by mentioning that gmro decreases as we go into smaller
technologies. Since ro decreases dramatically as gate length is scaled down, this reduction
is not compensated by the increase in gm, so gmro is decreasing with technology scaling.
This negative effect can also be explained by equation 2-3, reduction of ro reduces gmeff
and this degradation of gmeff increases the time constant of the comparator. Therefore, the
metastable state problem becomes more serious in VLSI circuits using scaled devices due
to the degraded characteristics of the load.
Eq. (2-10)
where R and C stand for total impedance and total capacitance at the output node of the
latch. It is also shown that this probability is exactly the same for the time when circuit is
noise free.
- 20 -
Chapter 2
M8
Clk
In-
M1
In+
M2
M3
M4
Out+
Out-
Clk
M7
M5
M6
- 21 -
Chapter 2
A second switch (M8) is placed on top of the input pair which is open during the reset so
no current is burned during the reset time. Two PMOS transistors (M3 and M4) are added
which are responsible for pulling up the output node. These transistors reduce the pull-up
time of the comparator considerably.
This topology also has some problems, since M8 is open in the reset mode. Then all of
the transistors are biased off, and when comparators enter the evaluation mode it take a
while for this transistors to turn on and this delay can slow the comparator. The other
disadvantage is caused by adding PMOS transistors. These transistors increase the total
capacitance at the output approximately by a factor of two, however, they cant double
the effective gm of the comparator due to smaller of the PMOS transistors and also
smaller voltage headroom which is left for them. This results in a bigger time constant
and therefore slower comparator. This solution also increases the offset of the
comparator.
Summary
In this chapter, general behavior of the comparator is discussed and the performance
parameters of the comparators are introduced. A literature review is also done on what
have been done previously on the metastability problem of the latches and some solutions
are provided from the previous works.
References
[1] C.W. Mangelsdorf, A 400-MHz Input Flash Converter with Error Correction, IEEE
J. Solid-State Circuits ,vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 184-191, Feb. 1990.
[2] B.Zojer, R. Petschacher, and W. Luschnig, A 6-bit/200-MHz full Nyquist A/D
converter, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-20, no, 3, pp. 780-786, June 1985.
[3] J. H. Hohl, W. R. Larsen, and L. C. Schooley, Prediction of error probabilities for
integrated digital synchronizers, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-19, pp. 236244,
Apr. 1984.
[4] Le-sup Kim and Robert W. Dutton, Metastability of CMOS Latch/Flip-Flop, IEEE
J. of solid-state circuits, VOL. 25, No.4, Aug. 1990.
- 22 -
Chapter 2
[5] S. T. Flanagan, Synchronization reliability in CMOS technology, IEEE J. Solidstate Circuits, vol. SC-20, no. 4, pp. 880-882, Aug. 1985.
[6] T. Sakurai, Optimization of CMOS arbiter and synchronizer circuits with
submicrometer MOSFETs, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 901-906,
Aug. 1988.
[7] M. L. Cortes, E. J. McCluskey, K. D. Wagner, and D. J. Lu, Modeling power-supply
disturbances in digital circuit, ISSCC Dig. Tech. Papers, pp. 164-165, Feb. 1986.
[8] K. D. Wagner and E. J. McCluskey, Effect of study voltage on circuit propagation
delay and test applications, IEEE IC-CAD Conf. Proc., pp. 42-44, Nov. 1985.
[9] Clemenz L. Portmann and Teresa H. Y. Meng, Metastability in CMOS Library
Elements in Reduced Supply and Technology Scaled Applications, IEEE J. of solidstate circuits, VOL. 30, No.14, Jan. 1995.
[10] G.R.Couranz and D.F. Wann, "Theoretical and Experimental Behavior of
Synchronizers Operating in the Metastable Region," IEEE Trans. Computers, pp. 604616, June 1975.
- 23 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
VDD
M2
A+
B-
M6
This structure is known as vertical latch. Consider the initial condition in which A+ is
grounded and B- is connected to VDD, in this condition system is stable and no drain
current flows since Vgs of both transistors is zero. The other case in which this latch is
- 24 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
stable is the case when A+ is VDD and B- is grounded. In this case also no current is
flowing since Vds of all transistors are zero. However in any other condition which is
between these two stable conditions, the latch is unstable and it wants to reach the stable
condition in which A+ is VDD and B- is grounded. It is also good to mention that this
latch is capable of fast switching since Vgs of each transistor can reach VDD.
Now consider the comparator which is shown in Fig. 3-2. Some transistors such as reset
transistors are not shown for simplicity.
M11
M9
M1
M12
M10
M2
B-
B+
A+
AIn-
M3
Bias
M4
A-
A+
In+
M5
M6
M7
M13
M8
In the reset mode nodes B+ and B- are connected to VDD, therefore PMOS transistors
(M1, M2) are off and the only current which flows through the M7 and M8 is the current
which comes from the current mirror (M11 and M12). M5 and M6 are also turned off by
means of 2 switches which are placed on their drain (not shown in Fig. 3-2).
As soon as the reset switches are opened, the comparator enters the evaluation mode. If
the input voltage is big enough (i.e. bigger than 1mV), A- or A+ is pulled down by M7
and M8. Lets assume that In+ is considerably bigger than In- and therefore A+ is pulled
down. In this case since B- is VDD, the vertical latch of M2 and M6 is in stable region and
no current flows through these transistors. However since A- is not grounded, the other
vertical latch (M5 and M1) is in the unstable region described previously, and A- is
pulled up by M1 and B+ is pulled down by M5. The comparator is now in the stable
region and the decision is made.
- 25 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
Now lets assume that input voltage is not big enough (i.e. smaller than 1V) and
therefore M7 and M8 can not make a decision instantaneously. In this case, both of
vertical latches are in the unstable region and therefore both M5 and M6 are on. Nodes
B+ and B- are pulled down simultaneously, and therefore both M1 and M2 start to pump
more current into M7 and M8. This current increases the gm of these transistors which
therefore increases the effective gain of the latch and can effectively increase the speed of
the comparator. Making use of this structure, small input signals are amplified by a
higher gain and big inputs are amplified by lower gain. This results in the less total power
consumption, since extra current is only used if the input is considerably small (i.e.,
smaller than 1V) which is not the case usually.
Considering the fact that when one of M1 or M2 is turned on the other one should be
turned off by means of pulling up its gate to VDD, a pull-up network is required for B- and
B+. M3 and M4 are added for this purpose to the structure. The complete structure is
shown in Fig. 3-3.
M18
M21
M20 ClkB
M19
M13
M1
M3
M4
M2
M14
Out+
OutA+
AIn-
M16
Bias
M15
ClkB
Clk
M11 A+
In+
M17
ClkB
A- M12
ClkB
M9
M5
M6
M7
M8
M11 and M12 are added in order to prevent any current flowing to M5 and M6 during the
reset mode. M9 is used as a reset switch which short-circuits A+ and A- in the reset
mode. M13 and M14 are also reset switches which are used for resetting out- and out+
nodes into VDD in the reset mode.
- 26 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
Now that the whole structure is complete, it is good to make a final remark about this
circuit. When the comparator is in the metastable region, the structure of the vertical latch
from the common mode point of view is shown in Fig.3-4.
m : 1
M4
M2
A+
B-
M6
M8
1 : n
Sizing of the transistor in this structure is critical. This loop is made of two current
mirrors with gain of m and n. Current gain of the loop is the product of m and n. Since we
want this structure to latch just at the beginning of the evaluation mode, the current gain
of this loop should be more than one, otherwise the vertical latch is not latching.
Simulations show that a current gain of 3 or 4 achieves the lowest BER. A loop with
smaller gain is slow and therefore it reduces the effectiveness of the loop. Increasing the
current loop gain further is also not effective since it also increases the parasitic
capacitance of the output node which increases the time constant and it also increases the
power consumption dramatically. From now on, this comparator is referred to as vertical
latch comparator.
- 27 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
this current is applied to the latch. The latch is making its decision by considering this
current difference.
Using the input transconductance stage increases the power consumption of the
comparator since it is burning the bias current for the entire clock cycle (i.e., even during
the reset mode). If we use a switch to turn this stage off during the reset mode, it slows
the comparator since transistors need time for being turned on completely.
Considering the regenerative structure of the latches, it is clear that these structures are
extremely sensitive to mismatch and any unbalanced loading. Special measures should be
taken into account in order to keep the latch completely balanced. One of these measurers
is minimizing the common-mode (CM) jump which occurs at the beginning of the
evaluation mode. Reducing this CM jump can effectively reduce the sensitivity to
unbalanced loading [1].
Considering the fact that comparators are extremely sensitive to unbalanced loading, we
realized that it is possible to apply the input voltage into the comparator by converting
this voltage difference into a capacitor difference. By loading the latch with two
capacitors which are not equal due to applied input voltage, the comparator can then
make a decision.
One might think that adding the variable capacitors might slow down the latch however
thats not the case. It should be mentioned that no current mirror is connected to the latch
in this topology and this reduces the total excess capacitance at these nodes with respect
to the vertical latch comparator. The main advantage of this approach is the fact that this
comparator burns no current during the reset mode and this current can be used to
increase the gm and therefore reducing the time constant of the latch although the total
capacitance is increased. The other mechanism which reduces the effect of this additional
capacitance is the CM jump at the onset of the evaluation mode which can be translated
to an additional gain which increases the effective gain of this comparator.
Several measures have been taken into account in order to increase the sensitivity of the
comparator to the unbalanced load since we can increase the effective gain of the
comparator by this means. All the methods which one had to follow in order to reduce
this sensitivity should now be reversed [2] [3]. For instance maximizing the common-
- 28 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
mode jump at the beginning of the evaluation mode is an effective way of increasing the
effective gain of this comparator.
Structure of the capacitor based comparator is shown in Fig. 3-5.
Clk
Clk
M11
M13
M1
M3
M4
Clk
M2
M14
Clk
M12
Out+
OutClk
A+
A-
M9
M5
M15
M6
M7
M16
M8
In+
In-
Clk
M10
In the reset mode, all the nodes of the comparator are connected to Vdd by M11, M12,
M13 and M14. Power consumption is zero during the reset mode since no current flows
through the circuit. M10 is also open during the reset and therefore no current flows
through the comparator in this mode. At the beginning of the evaluation mode, nodes Aand A+ are pulled down (common mode jump), however, the time constant of these two
nodes is different since the variable capacitors (M15 and M16) at these nodes have
different values. Therefore the node which has the bigger time constant is pulled down
slower than the one which has a smaller time constant. The voltage difference between
the two nodes of the vertical latch results in the decision.
Choosing good sizing of the transistors for the capacitor based comparator is really
critical and it should be designed carefully. Designers should try to use transistors with
minimum length in order to minimize the parasitic caps at all the nodes. Current gain of
the vertical latch should be more than one, but going to gains of more than 4 is not
- 29 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
effective and it just increases the time constant which is not favorable. Sizes of the
switches should also be chosen carefully. Two measures should be taken into account for
choosing the best switch sizes, the ability of the switches to reset the comparator during
the reset time and also preventing the comparator from latching in the reset mode. So as
one can see, switch sizes are dependent on the clock frequency of the circuit.
One of the main things which should to be taken into account in the design of this
comparator is the value of this variable capacitor. Increasing the value of this capacitor is
not beneficial since it increases the loading of the comparator which increases the time
constant and slows the comparator. However, offset prevents us from decreasing this
value into really small values.
Due to processing variation, all the transistors which are used in the comparator are not
perfectly matched. This mismatch, which is mainly due to gm mismatch between
transistors, generates offset. If the variable capacitor is chosen to be rather small, even
with the highest input voltage it will not be able to compensate for the offset and it looks
like that the comparator has infinite offset. Therefore, offset should be checked carefully
when choosing these variable capacitors.
Input referred noise of this comparator is also highly dependent on the value of these
variable capacitors. Increasing these capacitors decreases the input referred noise.
The main disadvantage of this structure is hysteresis since this structure kicks back the
previous stage. The output of the comparator is separated from the input by just a
capacitor, and therefore the input node can sense the voltage fluctuations on the output.
This results in hysteresis. The amount of hysteresis which is tolerable highly depends on
the application. However, since the offset of these comparators is much larger than their
hysteresis, this effect is not usually limiting the performance. When necessary, measures
such as using a preamp and reducing the time constant of the input node can decrease this
hysterisis further.
Output voltages of the comparator are shown in Fig. 3-6. As one can see, two outputs of
the comparator are equal to Vdd in the reset mode. The comparator then enters the
evaluation mode and two output nodes are pulled down, but with different slopes. This
results in a voltage difference which helps the latch to make the decision.
- 30 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
Out+
Out-
Voltage [V]
Vin
Fig. 3-7. NMOS capacitor
- 31 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
Variable capacitor
Total gate capacitance [fF]
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.4
Vgs [V]
This curve is consistent with the curve shown in [4]. Considering the fact that the gate of
these NMOS capacitor is connected to VDD during the reset mode, the common mode
voltage for the output of the preamp that maximizes the capacitive difference between the
two input nodes is around 0.8V, which is about one threshold voltage below the VDD. At
this voltage, slope of the curve is maximum which maximizes the sensitivity of the
capacitor to voltage changes.
In this work, the output common mode voltage of the preamp is designed to be
programmable so that it is possible to trim the common mode voltage in order to
maximize the latch sensitivity.
Simulations show that using the NMOS transistor as the input variable capacitor
minimizes the BER and using PMOS transistor slows the comparator although it might
have noise advantages.
- 32 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
M10
Clk
In-
M1
In+
M2
M3
M4
Out+
Out-
Clk
M9
M5
M6
These comparators are designed in TSMC 65nm technology. W/L and number of fingers
of each transistor in the comparators are shown in table 1. It is also good to mention that
the bias current of the differential pair in the vertical latch comparator is 20uA.
As will be discussed in Chapter 4, comparators will be compared for the same input
referred noise level. Table 2 shows the power consumption (average power consumption
is measured at 500MHz), layout area, offset, time constant and BER at 2GHz of these
comparators
- 33 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
Table 3-1. W/L and number of fingers of each transistor in the comparators
M1-M2
M3-M4
M5-M6
M7-M8
M9
M10
M11-M12
M13-M14
M15-M16
M17
M18-M19
M20-M21
Conventional
comparator
W/L- number of fingers
2um/0.06um-8
1um/0.06um-2
1um/0.06um-2
0.4muu/0.06um-2
2um/0.06um-10
Vertical latch
comparator
W/L- number of fingers
0.6um/0.06um-6
0.6um/0.06um-2
1um/0.06um-2
1um/0.06um-2
1.4um/0.06um-2
0.7/0.06-1
0.21um/0.06um-1
1um/0.06um-2
1um/0.16um-2
1um/0.06um-2
1um/0.06um-2
Capacitive based
comparator
W/L- number of fingers
0.8um/0.06um - 4
0.8um/0.06um - 2
1.2um/0.06um -2
1.2um/0.06um -2
0.21um/0.06um - 1
1.2um/0.06um -16
0.5um/0.06um-2
0.21um/0.06um-1
1um/1um - 2
Average power
[W]
Offset[mV]
tau[ps]
Conventional
comparator
Vertical latch
comparator
Capacitive based
comparator
102
11
21
128
12.5
18
114
13.2
17
85
7.00E-10
190
5.00E-11
85.5
1.60E-11
By means of this table, one can choose the comparator which matches the best to its
application and as it was discussed previously, this can effectively improve the
performance of the total circuit.
Considering this table, it can be seen that time constant of both the vertical latch
comparator and the capacitive based comparator are almost the same, but the total power
which is burned for the comparator with the vertical latch is approximately 10% higher. It
can be seen that conventional comparator has a bigger time constant than the other two,
which indicates that this comparator it slower than the other ones. It is also good to
mention that the time constant of the comparator in Fig (3-6) varies a lot in different
process corners, therefore a lot of current needs to be burned in order to achieve small
time constant in all process corners.
- 34 -
Chapter 3
Comparator Design
It is also important to mention that this vertical latch comparator needs two clock signals
which increase the total power consumption of the clock generator. It also increases the
complexity of the layout. The area of this comparator is also bigger than the area
occupied by the capacitive comparator, however, the comparator of Fig. 3-6 is the best
choice when area is important. Layout of the comparators will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 5.
Offset of all these comparators are also in the same range and no circuit has any
advantage over the other one.
BER of the comparators is also calculated using the approximation which was explained
in Chapter 2. As one can see, BER of the capacitive based comparator is lower than the
other ones which make this comparator the best choice for high speed applications.
As it was mentioned previously, kick-backs of the capacitive based comparator is bigger
than the other two. The offset of these comparators are around 13mV. However, since the
kick backs are around one hundred microvolt in amplitude, it is not of a big concern.
Summary
In this chapter, the vertical latch is introduced for solving the pull-up problem of the
conventional comparator. The Idea of using a variable capacitor as the input of the latch
instead of the input current is discussed, and a capacitive based comparator is designed
using this idea. In the final part of this chapter, a conventional comparator, vertical latch
comparator and capacitive based comparator are compared with respect to their BER,
power consumption, layout area and offset.
References
[1] US Patent 6639430, Bult, et al. October 28,2003.
[2] A. Nikoozadeh, B. Murmann, An analysis of latch comparator offset due to load
capacitor mismatch, IEEE Transaction on circuits and systems-II, VOL. 53, NO. 12, pp.
1398-1402, December 2006.
[3] L. Samid, P. Volz, Y. Manoli, A dynamic analysis of a latched CMOS comparator,
in Proc. IEEE ISCAS., pp. 181184, May 2004.
[4] B. Razavi, Design of analog CMOS integrated circuits, New York: McGraw-Hill, pp.
39,
2003.
- 35 -
Chapter 4
In+
Latch
reset
In-
Xout
Latch
reset
clk
clk with phase shift
Fig.4-1. Detecting BE
The two outputs of the comparators are buffered and applied to two D flip-flops. At the
end of the evaluation time, these outputs are latched into these flip-flops. Different flipflop outputs indicate that no bit error happened, since the comparator has made a
decision. If these outputs are equal, it means that comparator hasnt been able to make a
decision and a bit error has occurred. This can easily be detected by making use of an
XNOR.
- 36 -
Chapter 4
For reducing the measurement time several measures have been taken into account. One
of the ways for increasing the number of bit errors is to increase the clock frequency.
This reduces the evaluation time and therefore the effective gain is reduced exponentially
(see Eq. 2-4) which increases the probability of the BE.
However, increasing the clock frequency also reduces the reset time, which is not really
favorable, and at certain point it might result in hysteresis. In order to prevent this
problem, it is possible to use wider reset switches, however this increases the BER since
it increases parasitic capacitance and the time constant of the output node.
The other way of reducing this effect is changing the duty cycle of the clock. By this
means, we can change the evaluation time without changing the reset time.
The other solution is to use different clocks for the comparator and the flip-flops. By
changing the phase of the clock which goes into the flip-flops, it is possible to change the
evaluation time without reducing the reset time. For a better understanding, look at Fig.42.
Voltage [V]
OutOut+
Clock
B
Time [ns]
Fig.4-2. Two outputs of the comparator and clock of the latch
- 37 -
Chapter 4
If the flip-flops are latched at moment A, no bit error is made since the outputs of the
comparator are different and the comparator has made its decision. But if the latches are
clocked at moment B, this situation is considered as a bit error because both of output
signals of the comparator have the same value which means that the comparator has not
been able to decide which input has a higher voltage. This has exactly the same effect as
changing the duty cycle of the clock.
The other effective way of increasing the BER of a comparator is to reduce the amplitude
of the signal at the input of the comparator. For this reason we should make sure that
comparator is always near its switching voltage. For this purpose, the circuit of Fig.4-3 is
proposed.
Digital Latch
In-
Pre
amp
500uV
Latch
Out+
In+
reset
Out-
Latch
reset
clk
This RC feedback works as an averaging circuit and it always keeps the comparator near
its switching point. This also automatically cancels the offset of the comparator. Now if
we apply a sine wave to the other input of the comparator, its negative input will follow
this sine wave. Reducing the amplitude of the sine wave increases the probability of the
bit error.
Since the comparator outputs are equal in the reset mode, the output of the RC network is
not following the input sine wave for the entire duration of the clock cycle. For
- 38 -
Chapter 4
preventing this effect, a digital latch is placed at the output of the comparator (see Fig.43). This digital latch holds the output of the comparator for the entire clock cycle and the
RC output follows the sine wave perfectly. The structure of this latch is shown in Fig. 4-4
In-
In+
Chapter 4
If noise is added to the input sine wave with sigma standard deviation which is one-third
the amplitude of the sine wave, the signal of Fig. 6-a is produced which has a PDF which
is shown in Fig 4-6b.
(b)
(a)
Fig. 4-6 Sine wave plus noise with sigma which is 3 times smaller than the amplitude
of the sine wave (a) and its PDF (b)
As you can see, we can reasonably approximate this curve with a pure sine wave.
However if the noise amplitude is not small with respect to sine wave, the PDF of the
resulting waveform can not be approximated by a pure sine wave (see Fig.4-7).
- 40 -
Chapter 4
(b)
(a)
Fig. 4-7:
Sine wave plus noise with sigma which is 3 times smaller than the
As you can see we are not able to approximate this wave with a pure sine wave anymore.
For a better understanding of how this can affect the behavior of the circuit, lets consider
Fig.4-8, which shows the waveforms at the input of the comparator when all the devices
are noise free.
As one can see, the negative input of the comparator (i.e., coming from the RC network)
is following the sine wave. Now, lets activate the transient noise of the devices
(amplitude of the input sine wave is small and comparable to the standard of the input
- 41 -
Chapter 4
Fig.4-9 Output of the RC feedback and small input sine-wave with transient noise
As one can see, negative input of the comparator is not following the sine wave, which is
an indication that the sine wave has a small amplitude compared to the input referred
noise. By increasing the amplitude of the sine wave, this problem is solved (see Fig. 410).
- 42 -
Chapter 4
Fig. 4-10 Output of the RC feedback and big input sine-wave with transient noise
By increasing the amplitude of the input sine wave, the output of the RC network is again
following the sine wave although the transient noise is applied. These waveforms
illustrate the importance of choosing a reasonable amplitude for the input sine wave.
Considering the fact that the standard deviation of the input referred noise of all the
comparators are designed to be 150V, amplitude of the sine wave is chosen to be 500
V.
In order to reduce the input referred noise and offset of the comparator, we added a
preamp to the comparator. This preamp has a programmable bias current (600A-800A1mA-1.2mA)
and
programmable
resistive
load
(440-660-990).
This
programmability not only enables us to achieve a gain of 3 to 5 but also lets change the
output common mode voltage of the preamp. We dont want to increase the gain of the
preamp more than this because in this way we are increasing the amplitude of the signal
at the input of the comparator, and we want to keep this signal as small as possible.
Unity-gain-bandwidth of the preamp also alternates between 1GHz and 2GHz by
choosing different bias currents and resistive loads. Putting the preamp at the input of the
comparator also helps to reduce the effect of comparator kickbacks.
A schematic of the preamp is shown in Fig.4-11.
- 43 -
Chapter 4
C1
W=5 m
L=0.06 m
m=30
M7
C2
M6
W=5 m
L=0.06 m
m=30
330
330
440
In-
C1
W=5 m
L=0.06 m
m=30
440
M1
W=3 m
L=0.2 m
m=140
W=5 m
L=0.06 m
m=30
220
220
C2 M5
M4
M3
Bias
In+
M2
W=3 m
L=0.2 m
m=140
W=2 m
L=0.12 m
m=120
- 44 -
Chapter 4
Clk
Latc
Latc
UP VC1out1
Counter1
VC1out2
Down
Up
Counter2
Down
divider
A detected bit error (which is the output of the XOR) and the output of the clock divider
are applied to counter1 in Fig. 4-12. Counter1 consists of two smaller counters which can
separately count the number of pulses at their input. So one of these counters is counting
the number of bit errors and the other is counting transitions in the divided clock signal.
When any of these counters reaches its maximum scale, a logic circuit compares it with
the value of the other counter. If the difference between the outputs of these two counters
is smaller than 33 percent, no change is necessary and the division factor is correct
because changing the division factor can only change the output of the divider by a factor
of 2 and if the difference is smaller than 33% changing the division factor just increases
this difference. However if this difference is bigger than 33%, the division factor needs to
be corrected.
Correction of the division factor is done by counter2. This counter can count up and
down, and the outputs of counter1 are the inputs to this counter.
Consider the case in which the number of bit errors is smaller than the number of divided
clock pulses. In this case, counter1 applies a pulse to the Up input of counter2. This pulse
increases the output of counter2, which increases the division factor of the divider and
therefore the number of divided clock signals is reduced by a factor of 2.
If the number from the divided clock signal is smaller than number of bit errors, counter1
applies a pulse to the down input of counter two. Therefore, the division factor is reduced
by a factor of two and the number of divided clock pulses output from counter1 is
doubled.
With this structure, the proper division factor is achieved after some attempts.
- 45 -
Chapter 4
One of the parameters which should be determined carefully is number of the bits in this
counter. This is important because bit error is a stochastic process and we want to
compare it with clock signal. Therefore we need to take enough samples, otherwise the
comparison will not be meaningful. This counter is made programmable and it can be
programmed to have 5 or 6 bits. Therefore number of bits can be modified during the
testing procedure.
Fig.4-13 shows the outputs of divider, output of the XOR, and the down and up outputs
of counter1.
- 46 -
Chapter 4
As one can see, the number of bit errors is higher than the number of pulses which are
coming out of the divider at the beginning. However, because the loop division factor is
corrected and the number of divided clock signals is increased (i.e., the division factor is
decreased by counter2), the number of bit errors and the number of divided clock signals
are close to each other.
Knowing the division factor, it is possible to calculate the BER of the comparator for
different clock frequencies.
As mentioned before, BER is dependent on the PDF of the input signal and in this setup
the input signal is a sine wave. If we want to use these results for a comparator which has
a different kind of input signal, proper calculations should be done depending on the PDF
of the input signal.
As mentioned in Chapter3, we want to compare the BER of three comparators with this
setup. One easy but not area efficient way, is to just repeat the structure 3 times with
these comparators. However since all the blocks which are used in all these setups are
identical, there is a more area efficient way of doing this. Making use of two multiplexers
after these comparators enable us to use the same setup for all the comparators. The only
thing which we need to do is to select a comparator by applying a proper control signal to
the multiplexers. This is shown in Fig. 4-14.
- 47 -
Chapter 4
Comparator 1
C0 C1
MUX
Comparator 2
Digital Latch
MUX
Comparator 3
C0 C1
Using this method, the area of the chip is reduced by a factor of approximately three.
- 48 -
Chapter 4
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=30
M5
M8
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=120
Bias
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=20
M6
M4
M3
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=30
In-
M7
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=30
In+
M2
M1
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=30
Clk
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=20
W=3 m
L=0.27 m
m=120
W=3 m
M9 L=0.2 m
m=140
Using this circuit, a 50mV sine wave is modified to rail to rail square wave signal which
can be used as the clock signal. Gain Bode diagram of the amplifier is shown in Fig. 416.
gain (db)
Output
- 49 -
Chapter 4
As one can see, gain of the amplifier is 33.7 dB and unity gain bandwidth is 7 GHz.
4.5 Divider
The divider architecture is shown in Fig. 4-17.
DFF
ctrl1 ctrl2
DFF
mux
DFF
DFF
Fig. 4-17 Divider block diagram
The divider is made of 64 stages (only 4 stages are shown in Fig 4-17) and each stage
provides division by 2. This divider can divide from 2 to 264.
In this structure, the output of each D-FF is connected to its input. However, we should
make sure that the input of the DFF is available at least 100ps before and after the rising
edge of the clock. Buffers are placed at the output of each DFF to create the required
delay.
- 50 -
Chapter 4
4.6 Counter
Considering the fact that bit-error is not a probable event and it is not happening in every
clock cycle, there is no need to use high speed counters in this setup since they just need
to count pulses which have frequencies which is much smaller than the clock frequency.
Counter architecture is shown in Fig. 4-18 (Only 2 bits of the counter is shown for
simplicity).
Q0
Carryin
Q1
Phi
carryout
Phi
Up/Down
Clk
This structure counts the number of pulses on the clock. In this structure, all the D-FFs
are connected to same clock and by setting the Up/Down input to logical one or zero we
can choose if we want to count up or count down. Each stage generates a carry signal
which goes to the next stage and together with the current state of each stage next state of
the stage is determined. Carryin signal of the first stage is connected to VDD since this
stage always should react to all the coming pulses.
- 51 -
Chapter 4
Summary
In this chapter, the BER measurement setup is introduced and all the blocks are described
in details. Effect of noise is also discussed and it is shown that the amplitude of the input
sine wave is determined by the input referred noise of the comparator.
References
[1] C.W. Mangelsdorf, A 400-MHz Input Flash Converter with Error Correction, IEEE
J. Solid-State Circuits ,vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 184-191, Feb. 1990.
[2] J. H. Hohl, W. R. Larsen, and L. C. Schooley, Prediction of error probabilities for
integrated digital synchronizers, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. SC-19, pp. 236244,
Apr. 1984.
[3] Le-sup Kim and Robert W. Dutton, Metastability of CMOS Latch/Flip-Flop, IEEE
J. of Solid-State Circuits, vol. 25, No.4, Aug. 1990.
- 52 -
Chapter 5
Dummy
transistors
gate1
gate2
Dummy
transistors
source
Fig. 5-1 Layout of 2 MOS transistors with 10 fingers
As it is shown in Fig. 5-1, first we draw a long row of transistors and then we try to
interleave the fingers of the diff. pair inside this row. The first transistors of each row are
dummies and they are not used since they are not matched well with other transistors.
The other advantage of using this method is to prevent the reverse engineering of the chip
- 53 -
Chapter 5
since all of the circuits look alike and patterns are not easily recognizable. This method is
used in the design of all the analog blocks in this work.
15u
9u
clk
9.5u
out-
out+
In-
In+
- 54 -
Chapter 5
Fig. 5-2 shows the layout of the capacitive based comparator. Layout of this comparator
is even more critical than the other ones, because the maximum capacitive difference
between the two output nodes of this comparator which can be produced by the input
voltage is 20fF (see Fig. 3-8), therefore a parasitic capacitor with this size can result in
the malfunction of the comparator. It is also good to mention that all the wires which are
used have minimum width in order to minimize the parasitic capacitance at each node. As
one can see, this layout is fully symmetrical and post simulations shows that the DC
offset of this comparator which is due to layout is smaller than 1 mV which is much
smaller than the offset which is because of process variations (more than 10 mV).
8um
clk
In-
In+
10um
out-
out+
- 55 -
Chapter 5
Fig. 5-3 shows the layout of the conventional comparator. This layout is also fully
symmetrical which minimizes the offset of the comparator. Conventional comparator is
the best choice when chip area is more important than the other specifications such as
BER.
15um
16um
In+
Out-
Out+
bias
Inclk
Fig.5-4 shows the layout of the vertical latch comparator. As one can see, the layout area
of this comparator is larger than the other comparators since this comparator needs an
- 56 -
Chapter 5
extra input stage and also biasing circuit. It is also good to recall that this comparator
needs 2 clock signals and this also increases the complexity of the layout.
After the layout of the comparators, several post layout simulations should be done in
order to study the effect of layout on the performance of the comparators. The time
constant of the comparator is usually increased significantly after the layout since a lot of
parasitic capacitances are added to each node. This increase in time constant results in
higher BER. For solving this problem, usually designers have to increase the bias current
of the input pair which increases the gm of the input pair and also NMOS latch. This
reduces the time constant and BER is improved.
It is also good to mention that all the final metal-fills around the comparators have been
done manually in order to minimize the negative effect of the parasitic capacitors which
can be added to the comparator after the metal-fill.
5.3 Preamp
One preamp is used for all the comparators in the BER measurement setup. In this way
we can make sure that comparators are compared to each other correctly. Layout of the
preamp is shown in Fig.5.
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Chapter 5
bias
In+
In42um
Out-
Out+
Input referred noise of this preamp is critical since it determines the amplitude of the
input sine wave (see, chapter 4.2). 1mA of current is burned in this preamp for reducing
the noise. An NMOS capacitor is also placed at the output of the preamp in order to
reduce the input referred noise of the preamp.
- 58 -
Chapter 5
Input sine-wave
RC output
Voltage [V]
Voltage [V]
Time [ns]
Time [ns]
(a)
(b)
Fig. 5-6 Capacitive based comparator (a) two input nodes of the comparators (b)
output of the digital latch
Input sine-wave
RC output
Voltage [V]
Voltage [V]
Time [ns]
Time [ns]
(b)
(a)
Fig. 5-7 Vertical latch comparator (a) two input nodes of the comparators (b) output
of the digital latch
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Chapter 5
Input sine-wave
RC output
Voltage [V]
Voltage [V]
Time [ns]
Time [ns]
(b)
(a)
Fig.5-8 Conventional comparator (a) two input nodes of the comparators (b) output
of the digital latch
As it was described previously in Chapter 5, for reducing the BER measurement time we
need to increase the probability of the bit-errors. One of the main solutions was to keep
the comparator near its switching point by decreasing the amplitude of the input sine
wave and making use of an RC feedback around the comparators. The post layout RC
extracted simulation shows that the loop is working properly for all of the comparators.
As one can see, when output of the digital latch is logical one, output of the RC network
has a positive slope and when it is logical zero, output of the RC network has negative
slope.
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Chapter 5
R1
C1
R3
R2
C2
R4
Serial
Interface
Input
VCM1
DVDD
AVDD
R5
VIN1
C3
50
C4
C5
VINS1
BER
measurement
chip
50
Clock differential
sine wave
C6
R6
VIP1
50
C7
Input sine
wave
R12
C12
R32
R22
C22
R42
VCM2
Serial
Interface
Clock
R52
VIN2
C32
50
C42
50
C52
VINS2
Output
Signals
50
C62
R62
VIP2
50
C72
5-9 Board Schematic (only important pads are shown for simplicity)
Before starting the measurement there are several things which should be done.
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Chapter 5
First of all we should make sure that proper clock signal is applied to the serial interface.
Considering the fact that this clock doesnt need to be high frequency, it has been
separated from the clock which goes to the comparators. This clock is applied directly to
the chip form the board as it is shown in figure 5-9. Now we should apply proper control
bits into the serial interface. Serial port of the computer should be connected to the input
of the serial interface on the board. Using MATLAB programming, these bits are applied
to the serial interface one by one. After this procedure, all these control bits are ready to
be applied to the BER measurement setup by applying a pulse on Strobe input of the
serial interface.
Now we should apply the sine wave which generates the clock signal on chip. As it was
explained in Chapter 5 we are using a differential amplifier for generating the clock
signal, therefore we need to apply a differential sine wave with a certain common-mode
voltage to this amplifier. For generating this differential signal we make use of the circuit
which is shown in Fig 5-10.
R1
C1
R3
R2
C2
R4
VCM
R5
VIN
C3
50
C4
C5
VON
VINS
50
VOP
C6
R6
VIP
50
C7
This circuit uses a transformer to convert a single ended signal of VINS to a differential
signal. Proper common mode voltage can also be applied via VCM node. VIP and VIN
- 62 -
Chapter 5
also enables us directly apply a differential voltage from the signal generator and without
the use of transformer. This circuit is also implemented on the board as one can see in
Fig. 5-9. 50 resistor is used for proper termination of the signal from the signal
generator.
The same setup is also used for applying a sine wave to the comparators as it is also
shown in Fig 5-9. However unlike the sine wave which is used to generate the clock
signal which is rather high frequency and also with big amplitude (i.e., bigger than
50mV), the amplitude of the sine wave which goes to the comparators is around 500V
and the frequency of it is less than 20MHz. It is not appropriate to apply a sine wave with
this amplitude directly to the chip because of noise considerations. Therefore a sine wave
with 100 times bigger amplitude is applied to the chip and then this amplitude is reduced
using the voltage division between two resistors on-chip. Fig 5-11 shows the circuit and
layout of this network.
out+
out-
IN+
IN-
4K
IN+
out+
40
4K
IN-
out-
- 63 -
Chapter 5
It is also good to mention that since the frequency of this sine wave can be reduce even
below 20MHz the band width limitation which is caused by this resistor and the parasitic
capacitor at this node is not a concern.
Considering the fact that only one of inputs of the comparator is connected to this sine
wave, only one of the outputs of this sine wave is used.
Using this board limits the design of the padring. Positions of the pins should be designed
in a way that they can be correctly attached to the board. Layout of the total chip is
shown in Fig. 5-12.
Serial Interface
Supply caps
Output
Buffers
BER
Measurement
Setup
Comparator sine
wave input pads
- 64 -
Chapter 5
It is also good to mention that the wires which are carrying the input sine wave used for
generating the clock signal should be as short as possible, therefore the closest pads to the
setup is used for this purpose. This choice is due to the fact that the frequency of this sine
wave can go up to 1GHZ or 2GHz and at these frequencies a long wire can behave like a
transmission line which can affect all the circuits. There is no similar concern about the
wires which are carrying the sine wave which is connected to the input of the
comparators due to the fact that the frequency of this sine wave is smaller than 20MHz.
As it is shown in Fig. 5-12, output buffers are used in order to properly isolating the
circuit and also increasing the driving power of the chip. These buffers are not high speed
buffers because outputs of BER measurement setup are in fact outputs of a counter which
is changing with a frequency which is much smaller than the clock signal as it was also
explained in Chapter 4.
Huge supply capacitors are used to minimize the noise and interference of the digital
circuits on the supply. These capacitors are in fact thick oxide NMOS transistors in
NWELL. These transistors have to be thick oxide because of reliability reasons and also
minimizing the gate leakage.
5.6 Programmability
As it was discussed previously, the BER measurement setup enables us to study the effect
of different parameters on the BER of comparators. All of these parameters are
programmable and they can be controlled by making use of a serial interface during the
measurement.
The serial interface structure is shown in Fig. 5-13 (only 2 blocks are shown for
simplicity).
- 65 -
Chapter 5
dinser
Clk
strobe
doutpar0
doutpar1
Before the start of the measurement, proper control bits are applied to the serial interface
by making use of serial port of the computer, and then these control bits are applied to the
BER measurement setup in parallel by applying a pulse on strobe pin. This method
simplifies the measurement because we can write a MATLAB script and it can change
the parameters of the circuit and redo the measurement several times. The clock of the
serial interface is also different from the clock which is used by the BER measurement
setup since this clock doesnt need to be high frequency.
Summary
In this chapter, the physical layout of the comparators and BER measurement setup are
provided and different considerations on this physical layout is discussed in details.
Testing plan, board design and programmability of the setup is also discussed in the final
part of this chapter.
- 66 -
Chapter 5
References
[1] M.J.M. Pelgrom, A.C.J Duinmaijer, A.P.G.Welbers, Matching properties of MOS
transistors, IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits, Vol. 24, No. 5, p.p. 1433-1439,
October 1989.
- 67 -
Chapter 6
Chapter 6
All the work presented in this thesis are summarized in this chapter and corresponding
conclusions are drawn. Finally, future works are recommended based on the
achievements.
- 68 -
Chapter 6
difference into a capacitance difference. This difference unbalances the latch and results
in the decision.
The capacitive based comparator with 2 other conventional comparators were designed
(including physical layout) in TSMC 650nm technology and compared from simulations
to each other with respect to their power consumption, BER, offset and physical layout
area.
This comparison shows that the simulated BER of capacitive based comparator is 1.6E11 which is lower than the BER of conventional comparator and vertical latch
comparator which are 7E-10 and 5E-11. This BER for the capacitive based comparator is
achieved with average power consumption of 114W which is approximately equal to the
power consumption of conventional and vertical latch comparator which are 102W and
128W. However the physical layout area of this comparator is 85.5m2 which is bigger
than the area of the conventional comparator (85m2) but still smaller than vertical latch
comparator (190m2).
It is also shown that the input referred offset of these comparators are 13.2mV for the
capacitive based, 11mV for the conventional and 12.5mV for the vertical latch
comparator which are approximately the same.
All these three comparators are also implemented inside the BER measurement setup so
that they can be also compared in the silicon.