Offshore Wind AFFGKMS Lab

Table of Contents
Offshore Wind 1ac...................................................................................................... 6
Plan......................................................................................................................... 7
Plan 2...................................................................................................................... 8
Plan 3...................................................................................................................... 9
Inherency (1ac)..................................................................................................... 10
Warming Advantage (1ac)..................................................................................... 11
Soft Power Advantage (1ac).................................................................................. 13
Oceans Advantage (1ac)....................................................................................... 17
Competitiveness Advantage (1ac).........................................................................19
Economy Advantage (1ac).................................................................................... 23
Energy Independence Advantage (1ac).................................................................26
Solvency (1ac)....................................................................................................... 29
InherencyNo Offshore Wind Now........................................................................32
InherencyBackground Info on Cape Wind Project............................................33
InherencyFacts About the Turbines.................................................................34
Solvency Extensions.............................................................................................. 35
Offshore Wind Can Provide Enough Power.........................................................36
SolvencyPlan Done By Executive Order..........................................................37
SolvencyAT: Bureaucracy...............................................................................38
SolvencyCoastal Zone Management Act Needed to Solve..............................39
SolvencyOffshore Provides Massive Renewable Energy..................................40
SolvencyPlan Solves........................................................................................ 41
Public Trust Plan Solvency.................................................................................. 43
Warming Advantage Extensions............................................................................44
Warming Coming Now........................................................................................ 45
Warming is Anthropogenic................................................................................. 46
Warming: AT: Too Far Gone...............................................................................47
Warming: Cant Adapt....................................................................................... 48
Warming Kills Economy...................................................................................... 49
Warming: Laundry List Impacts.........................................................................50
Warming: Now Key............................................................................................ 52
Warming: Ocean Acidification Add-On...............................................................53
Warming Causes Species Extinction...................................................................54

Warming: AT: Food Turn.................................................................................... 57

Warming: AT: Oceans Check............................................................................. 60
WarmingMust Solve Now................................................................................. 62
Warming SolvencyOffshore Wind Solves Warming..........................................63
Warming AdvantageWar Impact......................................................................66
Warming advantageExtinction Impact............................................................67
Warming: AT: Models Bad................................................................................. 69
Warming: AT: Not Warming Now.......................................................................70
Warming Hurts Economy.................................................................................... 73
Economy Advantage Extensions...........................................................................74
Recession Coming Now...................................................................................... 75
Economy Solvency............................................................................................. 77
Competitiveness Advantage Extensions................................................................80
CompetitivenessUS behind in renewable energy now.....................................81
Competitiveness Solvency................................................................................. 83
Protectionism = War........................................................................................... 85
Oceans Advantage Extensions.............................................................................. 86
OceansAT: Resiliency...................................................................................... 87
OceansSolvency Extensions............................................................................88
Coral Reefs Key to Solve Extinction....................................................................92
Soft Power Advantage Extensions.........................................................................99
Soft Power: AT: Hard Power Take-outs Turns...................................................100
Soft Power Low Now......................................................................................... 101
Soft Power Advantage Solvency.......................................................................102
Soft Power Solves Laundry List.........................................................................103
Soft Power Solves Terrorism.............................................................................105
Soft Power Solvency......................................................................................... 106
Soft Power: Disease Extensions.......................................................................107
Soft Power: Proliferation Extensions................................................................108
Soft Power: Terrorism Extensions.....................................................................109
Energy Dependence Advantage Extensions........................................................110
Energy Dependence Solvency Extensions........................................................111
Disad Answers..................................................................................................... 113
AT: Bird Disad.................................................................................................. 115
AT: Environment DA......................................................................................... 118

AT: Electricity Prices DA................................................................................... 119

AT: Intermittency............................................................................................. 122
AT: Politics Disad............................................................................................. 123
AT: Spending Disad.......................................................................................... 125
AT: Wind Requires Fossil Fuels.........................................................................126
Counterplan Answers.......................................................................................... 127
States Counterplan Answers............................................................................128
States Cant Solve AFF: 1ar Extensions...........................................................131
State CP: 1ar: Federal jurisdiction...................................................................132
Permutation Extensions.................................................................................... 135
Privates Counterplan Answers..........................................................................138
Onshore Wind Counterplan Answers................................................................140
Onshore Wind Doesnt Solve 1ar......................................................................142
NEPA Counterplan Answers.............................................................................. 145
AT: Cars Counterplan....................................................................................... 147
Negative................................................................................................................. 148
Disad Links.......................................................................................................... 150
Politics Disad Links........................................................................................... 151
Spending Disad Links....................................................................................... 152
Counterplans....................................................................................................... 153
Onshore Wind CounterplanNet Benefit: Spending........................................154
Federalism Link................................................................................................ 156
Privates CP....................................................................................................... 157
States Counterplan.......................................................................................... 158
States Counterplan Solvency Extensions.........................................................159
States Counterplan: Federal Control Bad........................................................161
States CounterplanAT: Race to the Bottom..................................................162
Solvency Neg...................................................................................................... 163
Wind power cant solve.................................................................................... 164
Long Time-Frame.............................................................................................. 165
Birds Turn......................................................................................................... 166
Economy NEG...................................................................................................... 167
Warming NEG...................................................................................................... 168

Offshore Wind 1ac

Plan
The United States federal government should provide an
explicit mandate for offshore wind power development, require
revisions in states Coastal Zone Management Plans in
accordance with the mandate, and provide incentives for
offshore wind power development.

Plan 2
The United States federal government should provide an
explicit mandate for offshore wind power development, and
require revisions in states Coastal Zone Management Plans in
accordance with the mandate.

Plan 3
The United States federal government should remove barriers
to offshore wind power.

Inherency (1ac)
(--) Offshore Wind Farms Could Supply Much of the U.S.'s
Electricity but Isnt Being Implemented Now
Woody 5/8/14 (Todd, Offshore Wind Farms Could Supply Much of the
U.S.'s Electricity (If They Ever Get Built) While Europe powers ahead, the U.S.
government tries to jumpstart offshore wind technology. TODD WOODY is an
environmental and technology journalist based in California. He has written
for The New York Times and Quartz, and was previously an editor and writer
at Fortune, Forbes, and Business 2.0 ZJN)
When I flew into Copenhagen in 2007, the jet passed over a gleaming array of white wind turbines arranged in a necklace in the

Denmarks offshore wind farm building boom has continued. Last

December, for instance, wind farms supplied more half the countrys electricity
demand. In England, the London Array went online in 2012, its 175 turbines generating 630 megawatts of electricity from the
Thames Estuary. The United States, on the other hand, is generating not a watt from
commercial offshore wind farms, despite 80 percent of its electricity demand
coming from coastal states, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. In fact, the offshore wind
capacity of the country has been estimated at 4 million megawatts, or four times
the entire generating capacity of existing U.S. power plants. The nations first
offshore project, Cape Wind, has been mired in litigation and bureaucratic red
tape since 2001. Just on Friday, a federal judge dismissed the latest legal challenge
to the 468-megawatt wind farm that would be built in Nantucket Sound off Cape
Cod, Massachusetts. The Great Energy Shift Part Two An Atlantic Special Report Read More The Energy Department took
citys harbor. Since then,

a small step on Wednesday, however, to spur offshore wind, awarding $47 million for three experimental projects to test new
technology to take advantage of the strong winds that blow in coastal waters. A New Jersey company called Fishermens Energy
scored cash to build five, 5-megawatt turbines three miles off Atlantic City. The project will test a twisted jack foundation, which is a
new type of offshore platform that is cheaper to make and install than traditional platforms. On the West Coast, Seattle-based
Principle Power will deploy five 6-megawatt turbines 18 miles off Coos Bay, Oregon, to test its semi-submersible floating wind
turbine platform. Developing such technology is crucial if wind farms are going to be built in the deep waters off the West Coast,
where anchoring platforms to the seabed would be prohibitively expensive. According to the Energy Department, more than 60
percent of the U.S.s offshore wind capacity is in the deep ocean. The Principle Power turbines, for example, will be installed in the
ocean where depths reach 1,000 feet. Even further from shore, Dominion Virginia Power will test a hurricane-proof design for two 6megawatt turbines and platforms to be built 26 miles off Virginia Beach as well as demonstrate the viability of installing, maintaining
and operating projects so far from land. All the projects will deploy next-generation direct drive turbines from Alstom, Siemens and
XEMC that use fewer moving parts than conventional geared turbines. Given the high cost of fixing turbines far from shore, the

The three projects selected today are aimed at deploying

offshore wind installations in U.S. waters by 2017, the Energy Department said in a
statement. But dont hold your breath.
fewer breakable parts the better.

Warming Advantage (1ac)

The Earth is rapidly warming425 scientists from 57 countries
have confirmed rapid warming is occurring nowwere near
irreversible tipping points:
Tom Revell, 7/18/2014 (staff writer, Climates annual physical reveals
record-breaking global warming,
http://blueandgreentomorrow.com/2014/07/18/climates-annual-physicalreveals-record-breaking-global-warming/, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
In 2013 almost all climate indicators high temperatures, rising sea levels, Arctic
sea ice coverage were consistent with a globally warming planet, according to a
comprehensive new report. The State of the Climate 2013 report, published on
Thursday by the American Meteorological Society, was compiled by 425 scientists
from 57 countries. The 212-page document compared to a patients annual physical finds
that almost all evidence suggests that the health of the climate is deteriorating.
Average surface temperatures continued to rise. Independent datasets show 2013
was one of the warmest years since measurements began , with estimates placing it between
the second and sixth hottest on record. In Australia, it proved to be the number one warmest year on record.

Similar trends have also been confirmed in the oceans . Again, independent datasets identify
2013 as being in the top ten hottest years on record for sea surface temperatures. This warming extended to the
Arctic, where sea ice extent recovered slightly from a record low in 2012 but was still at its sixth lowest since
satellite observations began in 1979. Driven by ice melt in the Arctic and elsewhere, global mean sea level

These findings reinforce what scientists for

decades have observed: that our planet is becoming a warmer place, said NOAA
continued to rise, increasing by 3.8 millimetres.

administrator Kathryn Sullivan. But perhaps most concerning of all is that the concentration of atmospheric carbon
the greenhouse gas largely responsible for global warming reached a historically high global average of 395.3
parts per million (ppm) over 2013. April of this year proved to be the first month in human history in which levels of
CO2 averaged at over 400 ppm, suggesting the trends observed in State of the Climate 2013 are only set to grow
more severe. The

take-home message here is that the planet its state of the climate
is changing more rapidly in todays world than at any time in modern
civilization, Tom Karl, director of NOAAs National Climatic Data Center, told Climate Central. If we want to
do an analogy to human health, if we are looking at our weight gain and we are trying to maintain an ideal weight,

Scientists fear that on

our current trajectory, mankind will fail to limit global temperature rises to below 2C
from pre-industrial times. Above this threshold, suggested by scientists and agreed by
world leaders, experts believe irreversible tipping points will be set in motion.
we are continuing to see ourselves put on more weight from year to year, he said.

New reports confirm: warming causes human extinction:

Greg Ansley (staff writer) 4/1/2014
(http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?
c_id=2&objectid=11229788, Academics warn human survival on the line,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Leading Australian academics have warned that humans could face extinction
from massive global health crises, plunging food production, and other damage inflicted on the Earth's
life support system by climate change. Their warning follows the release yesterday
of the latest report of the United Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which forecast a
catastrophic future for the planet unless urgent action is taken . Australia was warned in the
report of major declines in agricultural productivity, the death of the Great Barrier Reef, more severe heatwaves and

Australian National
University Emeritus Professor Anthony McMichael , Canberra University Professor Colin Butler and
Canberra University's Associate Dean, Research, Helen Louise Berry say the crucial impact on human
life has been sidelined. At potential risk is the survival of the species. The three
bushfire seasons, and storms and flooding of increasing severity and intensity. But

academics were contributors to the report on the impact of climate change on human health. "Public discussion has
focused narrowly on a largely spurious debate about the basic science and on the risks to property, iconic species
and ecosystems, jobs, the GDP and the economics of taking action versus taking our chances," they wrote in The
Conversation. Waves broke over Porthcawl Harbour, South Wales, when the UK was battered by high winds and
heavy rain in February. "Missing from the discussion is the threat climate change poses to Earth's life-support
system - from declines in regional food yields, freshwater shortage, damage to settlements from extreme weather
events and loss of habitable, especially coastal, land. "The list goes on: changes in infectious disease patterns and
the mental health consequences of trauma, loss, displacement and resource conflict. " In

short, human-

driven climate change poses a great threat, unprecedented in type and scale, to well-being, health
and perhaps even to human survival ." They wrote that over the next few decades climate change would
hit mainly in poorer and vulnerable communities already suffering high rates of illnesses such as under-nutrition
and diarrhoeal disease. Researchers in many countries had already reported increases in heat-related illnesses and
deaths, changes in the distribution of water-borne diseases and the insects that carry them, and reduced food
yields. By 2100, when according to some computer models the planet will have warmed by an average 4C, "people
won't be able to cope, let alone work productively, in the hottest parts of the year. "Some regions may become
uninhabitable," they wrote. "Impacts on mental health could be similarly extreme, further limiting our collective
capacity to cope, recover and adapt." The increasing frequency of extreme heatwaves and bushfires pose
significant risks to life, property damage and the economy, with more frequent and intense flooding. But one of the
report's lead authors, Macquarie University Professor Lesley Hughes, said action could still be taken to avoid the
worst: "It's not all doom and gloom if we get a wriggle on and do a lot about it." " This

is the critical decade

to tackle the cause of climate change and stabilise the climate to avert the most serious
risks." Report paints grim picture The negative effects of climate change are already beginning to be felt worldwide
and yet countries are ill-prepared for the potentially immense effects on food security, water supplies and human
health, the United Nations climate report has concluded. In the most comprehensive study yet into the effects of
rising levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warns that global
warming could undermine economic growth and increase poverty. The IPCC found the negative effects of climate
change have already extended beyond any potential benefits of rising temperatures. They will worsen if globalaverage temperatures continue to rise by the expected lower limit of 2C by 2100 and could become catastrophic if
temperatures rise higher than 4C. In a blunt and often pessimistic assessment of climate-change effects, the fifth
since 1990, the IPCC scientists give a stark warning about what the world should expect if global temperatures rise
as predicted without mitigation or adaptation. "In recent decades, changes in climate have caused impacts on
natural and human systems on all continents and across the oceans," says the report released after a final meeting
in Yokohama, Japan. It says climate-change effects this century are tipped to slow economic growth, make poverty
tougher, further erode food security, and prolong existing and create new poverty traps, the latter particularly in
urban areas and "emerging hot spots of hunger". "Climate

change is happening, there are big

risks for everyone and no place in the world is immune from them," said Professor Neil Adger of Exeter
University, one of the many lead authors of the report. Nearly 2000 experts from around the world
contributed.

Offshore wind power mitigates the effects of warming:

Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
offshore wind energy projects have the potential to generate large
quantities of pollutant-free electricity near many of the worlds major population
As noted in Part I,

centers, and thus to help reduce the ongoing and projected economic, health, and
environmental damages from climate change. Wind speeds over water are
stronger and more consistent than over land, and have a gross potential
generating capacity four times greater than the nations present electric
capacity.119 The net capacity factor120 for offshore turbines is greater than standard land-based turbines, and
their blade-tip speeds are higher than their land-based counterparts.121 Offshore wind turbine substructure designs
mainly fall into three depth categories: shallow (30 m or less), transitional (30 m to 60 m), and deep water ( greater
than 60 m).122 Most of the grid-scale offshore wind farms in Europe have monopole foundations embedded into the
seabed in water depths ranging from 5 m to 30 m;123 the proposed American projects such as Cape Wind in
Massachusetts and Block Island in Rhode Island would likewise be shallowwater installations.124

Soft Power Advantage (1ac)

The US failure to take the lead on climate change is
undermining its soft power:
Joe Romm (staff writer) 4/5/2012 (U.S. Global Warming Denial Will Help
China Overtake America, Experts Warn,
http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/04/05/456978/us-global-warmingdenial-will-help-china-overtake-america-experts-say/, Accessed 7/27/2014)
Raven and biologist Paul R. Ehrlich co-invented the bedrock concept of co-evolution, in 1964. Raven tells ABC bluntly Its not a
matter of conjecture anymore, he said. Climate

change is the most serious challenge probably

that the human race has ever confronted. Raven quickly summarized the virtually unanimous
understanding of the worlds climate scientists and other responsible experts about the great upheavals manmade global warming is
now producing. Blakemore has a great video interview of Raven in the now world-famous, immense and exquisite gardens that .. he
had turned into an expansive vision of what a peaceful and balanced world could look like a sort of international botanical
metaphor. Raven talks warming starting around 2:15: He slams denialism, as Blakemore explains: Americas Prestige Damaged by
Its Climate Denialism; World Has Given Up on Hoped-for U.S. Leadership Two

years ago, Raven added in his email, the

world was hoping for U.S. leadership on this question, global climate change,
and now it has pretty well given up, with us as the only hold-out nation on the science. An extensive
disinformation campaign in the United States about the scientific solidity and gravity of manmade global warming has been
described in detail by a number of academic analyses and extensive professional journalistic enquiry. For example, Merchants of
Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues From Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming, by Naomi Oreskes and
Erik M. Conway, details how ideological, political and fossil fuel industry interests have been able to confuse and intimidate many
leaders in legislature and media. Blakemore notes that other leading experts have made a similar warning of the risks posed to this
country of allowing its science, climate, and energy policy to continue to be captured by the deniers: Also dovetailing with this and
Peter Ravens assessment that the

world has pretty much given up on American leadership in

climate, Christiana Figueres, the head of the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) used even
stronger language, speaking of the tragedy of the U.S. position: The tragedy of the position that the U.S. is taking is that not only

the more tragic part about it is the U.S. is

cutting off its possibilities to be a leader in this field, to be a leader in green
technology (and thus) to create jobs, Figueres said. The U.S. is losing leadership to
China. So we lose moral leadership which will become an increasing threat to
our so-called soft power as the full impact of climate change begins to kick in
over the coming decades and the world sees our intransigence as a major reason
for inaction. And we lose the chance to be a leader in the single biggest job creating
sector of this century carbon-reducing technologies and strategies .
does it act here in a way that is not particularly ambitious, but

Soft power is necessary to solve terrorism, proliferation, and

disease:
Mark P. Lagon (International Relations and Security Chair at
Georgetown University's Master of Science in Foreign Service Program)
2011 (The Value of Values: Soft Power Under Obama, Sept/Oct 2011,
http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/article/value-values-soft-power-underobama)
Despite large economic challenges, two protracted military expeditions, and the rise of China, India, Brazil, and

the United States still has an unrivaled ability to

confront terrorism, nuclear proliferation, financial instability, pandemic disease, mass
atrocity, or tyranny. Although far from omnipotent, the United States is still, as former Secretary of State
Madeleine Albright called it, the indispensible nation. Soft power is crucial to sustaining
and best leveraging this role as catalyst. That President Obama should have excluded it from his
other new players on the international scene,

vision of Americas foreign policy assetsparticularly in the key cases of Iran, Russia, and Egyptsuggests that he
feels the country has so declined, not only in real power but in the power of example, that it lacks the moral
authority to project soft power. In the 1970s, many also considered the US in decline as it grappled with
counterinsurgency in faraway lands, a crisis due to economic stagnation, and reliance on foreign oil. Like Obama,
Henry Kissinger tried to manage decline in what he saw as a multipolar world, dressing up prescriptions for policy
as descriptions of immutable reality. In the 1980s, however, soft power played a crucial part in a turnaround for US
foreign policy. Applying it, President Reagan sought to transcend a nuclear balance of terror with defensive
technologies, pushed allies in the Cold War (e.g., El Salvador, Chile, Taiwan, South Korea, and the Philippines) to
liberalize for their own good, backed labor movements opposed to Communists in Poland and Central America, and
called for the Berlin Wall to be torn downover Foggy Bottom objections. This symbolism not only boosted the
perception and the reality of US influence, but also hastened the demise of the USSR and the Warsaw Pact. For
Barack Obama, this was the path not taken. Even the Arab Spring has not cured his acute allergy to soft power. His
May 20, 2011, speech on the Middle East and Northern Africa came four months after the Jasmine Revolution
emerged. His emphasis on 1967 borders as the basis for Israeli-Palestinian peace managed to eclipse even his
broad words (vice deeds) on democracy in the Middle East. Further, those words failed to explain his deeds in
continuing to support some Arab autocracies (e.g., Bahrains, backed by Saudi forces) even as he gives tardy
rhetorical support for popular forces casting aside other ones. To use soft power without hard power is to be

Even France, with its long commitment

to realpolitik, has overtaken the United States as proponent and implementer of
humanitarian intervention in Libya and Ivory Coast. When the American president
has no problem with France combining hard and soft power better than the United
States, something is seriously amiss.
Sweden. To use hard power without soft power is to be China.

Terrorism risks Extinction

Hellman 8 (Martin E. Hellman, emeritus prof of engineering @ Stanford, Risk
Analysis of Nuclear Deterrence SPRING 2008 THE BENT OF TAU BETA PI,
http://www.nuclearrisk.org/paper.pdf)

The threat of nuclear terrorism looms much larger in the publics mind than the threat of a full-scale
nuclear war, yet this article focuses primarily on the latter. An explanation is therefore in order before proceeding.

A terrorist attack involving a nuclear weapon would be a catastrophe of immense

proportions: A 10-kiloton bomb detonated at Grand Central Station on a typical work day would likely kill some
half a million people, and inflict over a trillion dollars in direct economic damage. America and its way of life would

The likelihood of such an attack is also

significant. Former Secretary of Defense William Perry has estimated the chance of a nuclear
terrorist incident within the next decade to be roughly 50 percent [Bunn 2007, page 15]. David
be changed forever. [Bunn 2003, pages viii-ix].

Albright, a former weapons inspector in Iraq, estimates those odds at less than one percent, but notes, We would
never accept a situation where the chance of a major nuclear accident like Chernobyl would be anywhere near
1% .... A nuclear terrorism attack is a low-probability event, but we cant live in a world where its anything but

In a survey of 85 national security experts, Senator

Richard Lugar found a median estimate of 20 percent for the probability of an attack involving a
nuclear explosion occurring somewhere in the world in the next 10 years, with 79
percent of the respondents believing it more likely to be carried out by terrorists
than by a government [Lugar 2005, pp. 14-15]. I support increased efforts to reduce the threat of nuclear
terrorism, but that is not inconsistent with the approach of this article. Because terrorism is one of the
potential trigger mechanisms for a full-scale nuclear war , the risk analyses proposed herein will
extremely low-probability. [Hegland 2005].

include estimating the risk of nuclear terrorism as one component of the overall risk. If that risk, the overall risk, or
both are found to be unacceptable, then the proposed remedies would be directed to reduce which- ever risk(s)
warrant attention. Similar remarks apply to a number of other threats (e.g., nuclear war between the U.S. and China
over Taiwan). his article would be incomplete if it only dealt with the threat of nuclear terrorism and neglected the
threat of full- scale nuclear war. If both risks are unacceptable, an effort to reduce only the terrorist component

societys almost total neglect of the threat of fullscale nuclear war makes studying that risk all the more important . The cosT of World War iii
would leave humanity in great peril. In fact,

The danger associated with nuclear deterrence depends on both the cost of a failure and the failure rate.3 This
section explores the cost of a failure of nuclear deterrence, and the next section is concerned with the failure rate.
While other definitions are possible, this article defines a failure of deterrence to mean a full-scale exchange of all
nuclear weapons available to the U.S. and Russia, an event that will be termed World War III. Approximately 20
million people died as a result of the first World War. World War IIs fatalities were double or triple that number
chaos prevented a more precise deter- mination. In both cases humanity recovered, and the world today bears few
scars that attest to the horror of those two wars. Many people therefore implicitly believe that a third World War
would be horrible but survivable, an extrapola- tion of the effects of the first two global wars. In that view, World
War III, while horrible, is something that humanity may just have to face and from which it will then have to recover.
In contrast, some of those most qualified to assess the situation hold a very different view. In a 1961 speech to a
joint session of the Philippine Con- gress, General Douglas MacArthur, stated, Global war has become a

No
longer does it possess even the chance of the winner of a duel. It contains now only
the germs of double suicide. Former Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara ex- pressed a similar view:
Frankenstein to destroy both sides. If you lose, you are annihilated. If you win, you stand only to lose.

If deterrence fails and conflict develops, the present U.S. and NATO strategy carries with it a high risk that

Western civilization will be destroyed [McNamara 1986, page 6]. More recently, George Shultz,
William Perry, Henry Kissinger, and Sam Nunn4 echoed those concerns when they quoted President Reagans belief
that nuclear weapons were totally irrational, totally inhu- mane, good for nothing but killing, possibly destructive of
life on earth and civilization. [Shultz 2007] Official studies, while couched in less emotional terms, still convey the
horrendous toll that World War III would exact: The

resulting deaths would be far beyond any

precedent. Executive branch calculations show a range of U.S. deaths from 35 to 77 percent (i.e., 79-160 million
dead) a change in targeting could kill somewhere between 20 million and 30 million additional people on each
side .... These calculations reflect only deaths during the first 30 days. Additional millions would be injured, and
many would eventually die from lack of adequate medical care millions of people might starve or freeze during
the follow- ing winter, but it is not possible to estimate how many. further millions might eventually die of
latent radiation effects. [OTA 1979, page 8] This OTA report also noted the possibility of serious ecological damage
[OTA 1979, page 9], a concern that as- sumed a new potentiality when the TTAPS report [TTAPS 1983] proposed

nuclear explosions and their resultant fire- storms

could usher in a nuclear winter that might erase homo sapiens from the face of the
earth, much as many scientists now believe the K-T Extinction that wiped out the dinosaurs resulted from an
that the ash and dust from so many nearly simultaneous

impact winter caused by ash and dust from a large asteroid or comet striking Earth. The TTAPS report produced a
heated debate, and there is still no scientific consensus on whether a nuclear winter would follow a full-scale

even a limited nuclear exchange or

one between newer nuclear-weapon states, such as India and Pakistan, could have devastating longlasting climatic consequences due to the large volumes of smoke that would be generated by fires in
nuclear war. Recent work [Robock 2007, Toon 2007] suggests that

modern megacities. While it is uncertain how destructive World War III would be, prudence dictates that we apply
the same engi- neering conservatism that saved the Golden Gate Bridge from collapsing on its 50th anniversary
and assume that

preventing World War III is a necessity not an option.

Proliferation risks extinction:

David Wolfe (Director, Oppenheimer Institute for Science and International
Co-operation), 11/13/2011
(http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/nov/13/pragmatic-approaches-tonuclear-proliferation, Accessed 8/3/2014, rwg)
Nuclear
weapons are the greatest threat to human survival ever invented. Benn is old
I feel it necessary to respond to the naive letter from Tony Benn et al (Letters, 10 November).

enough, as am I, to remember that some 150,000 human beings were evaporated in August 1945. What is not
generally realised is that the weapons used in Japan were mere firecrackers compared to what is available today.
We must now consider the instantaneous deaths of millions. The cause of non-proliferation was greatly hampered
by the lies of Bush and Blair over Iraq. But there is a real and increasing threat. There is no military need or use for
the horrible instruments. Not from Israel, and certainly not from the UK, where 25bn is foolishly allocated for their
renewal. Israel is the only country with such arms whose very existence has been threatened by Iran. And Iran has
directly violated the non-proliferation treaty for decades, not years, as carefully documented by David Albright and
colleagues at the Institute for Science and International Security. The poison of weapon development has spread
from North Korea to Libya, even to Syria, all regimes with the blood of their citizens on their hands.

It is

proliferation that is the huge threat. Every country that develops these
weapons represents a huge increase in the threat to civilisation. Every weapon
produced increases the possibility of their use, whether on purpose, by accident, or
by terrorism. It is unlikely that Iran's programme can be stopped, and military action is useless, stupid and
counterproductive. But no country should be allowed such production with immunity. Some international actions,

Illegality which threatens the

survival of the human race cannot be allowed to proceed unhindered .
probably in the form of diplomatic pressure and sanctions, are called for.

Diseases cause extinctionnew viruses are constantly

emerging:
Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science, 2009 ( Human
Extinction: The Uncertainty of Our Fate http://dujs.dartmouth.edu/spring2009/human-extinction-the-uncertainty-of-our-fate#.U95moKNeJHQ,
Accessed 8/3/2014, rwg)
In the past, humans have indeed fallen victim to viruses. Perhaps the best-known
case was the bubonic plague that killed up to one third of the European population in
the mid-14th century (7). While vaccines have been developed for the plague and some other infectious diseases ,
new viral strains are constantly emerging a process that maintains the
possibility of a pandemic-facilitated human extinction. Some surveyed students
mentioned AIDS as a potential pandemic-causing virus. It is true that scientists have been unable thus far to find a
sustainable cure for AIDS, mainly due to HIVs rapid and constant evolution. Specifically, two factors account for the
viruss abnormally high mutation rate: 1. HIVs use of reverse transcriptase, which does not have a proof-reading
mechanism, and 2. the lack of an error-correction mechanism in HIV DNA polymerase (8). Luckily, though, there are
certain characteristics of HIV that make it a poor candidate for a large-scale global infection: HIV can lie dormant in
the human body for years without manifesting itself, and AIDS itself does not kill directly, but rather through the

for more easily transmitted viruses such as

influenza, the evolution of new strains could prove far more consequential. The
simultaneous occurrence of antigenic drift (point mutations that lead to new strains)
and antigenic shift (the inter-species transfer of disease) in the influenza virus could produce a new
version of influenza for which scientists may not immediately find a cure. Since
weakening of the immune system. However,

influenza can spread quickly, this lag time could potentially lead to a global influenza pandemic, according to the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (9). The most recent scare of this variety came in 1918 when bird flu
managed to kill over 50 million people around the world in what is sometimes referred to as the Spanish flu
pandemic. Perhaps even more frightening is the fact that only 25 mutations were required to convert the original
viral strain which could only infect birds into a human-viable strain (10).

The plan allows for the US to demonstrate its leadership in

renewable energy to mitigate climate change:
Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
States like Rhode Island and Massachusetts will continue to push forward with the development of offshore wind
farms, despite the unavoidable setbacks that have already occurred. The recent release of the MMS final rules is a

the federal government recognizes the urgent need to move away from
conventional energy resources and move toward alternative renewable energy
resources such as offshore wind farms . Several issues arising under the new legislation have been
identified and must be improved upon if the United States is serious about becoming a
global leader in the offshore wind energy industry. While an OZMP is one
sign that

recommendation for how the federal government may attempt to streamline the regulatory process and [*247]
plan for cumulative impacts, there are certainly other viable options that the government should take into

Regardless of which regulatory scheme ultimately prevails, the United

States should continue to push forward with the development of alternative
renewable energy projects in order to meet future energy demands and help
mitigate the detrimental effects of global warming .
consideration.

Oceans Advantage (1ac)

(--) The worlds oceans are on the verge of collapseresilience
is being overcome:
Justin Gregg, 6/27/2014 (staff writer)
(http://www.earthtouchnews.com/wildlife/oceans/new-report-says-our-oceansare-dying-but-its-not-too-late-to-change-that, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
A new report from an independent commission warns that our oceans are on the
verge of collapse. Human threats like overfishing, ocean acidification and pollution
have grown at an unprecedented rate in recent decades, and will lead to the decimation
of marine ecosystems unless immediate action is taken. "Benign neglect by the
majority, and active abuse by the minority, have fuelled a cycle of decline," suggests the Global Ocean
Commission in a report on ocean health published this week. The Commission , an
initiative of the Pew Charitable Trusts and based out of the University of Oxford, is headed by ocean
experts and influential political leaders from around the globe. overfishinginfographic_2014_06_27 In the 1980s, 39% of fish species were classified as exploited, overexploited or collapsed.
Three decades later, this number has spiked to 87%. Image: Global Ocean Commission. The problem of
unsustainable fishing practices on the high seas is a focal point of the report. The so-called "freedom of the high
seas", a doctrine enshrined in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, established an area of
international waters that lies outside the jurisdiction of any one nation, and begins 200 nautical miles from shore.
According to the Commission, the high seas, which constitute 64% of the world's oceans, are "being exploited by

The Commission
is calling for world governments to take immediate action in stopping those
industrial practices that pose the greatest threat to our oceans. "Unless we turn the
tide on ocean decline within five years, the international community should consider
turning the high seas into an off-limits regeneration zone until its condition is
restored," suggested Jos Mara Figueres, co-chair of the Commission and former president of Costa Rica.
those with the money and ability to do so, with little sense of responsibility or social justice".

Although there are a handful of regulations and agencies governing commercial access to the high seas, the
Commission has outlined "serious gaps in the global ocean governance system" that "add up to a systemic
weakness that allows threats such as illegal fishing and the destruction of marine biodiversity to continue". Perhaps
the most worrying finding outlined in the report is the acceleration of the exploitation of these regulatory gaps, and
the dramatic impact this is having on fish stocks. At the time the UN approved the Convention in the 1980s, 39% of
fish species were classified as exploited, overexploited or collapsed. Three decades later, this number has spiked to
87%. This is partly due to technological innovation that has allowed the fishing, mining, and oil and gas industries to
exploit what were once inaccessible areas of the oceans. The high seas, once protected by their inhospitable
remoteness, have been systematically transformed into what Commission co-chair David Miliband has dubbed
"plundered territory". The high seas, once protected by their inhospitable remoteness, have been systematically
transformed into plundered territory. In an effort to rectify the damage caused by our "Wild West" approach to high
seas resource management, the Global Ocean Commission has launched the Mission Ocean initiative. Their eightpart solution, intended to be rolled out over the next five years, aims to put a stop to overfishing, as well as clamp
down on illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing around the globe. They aim to close regulatory gaps through
robust enforcement of current international agreements and establish binding environmental standards for offshore
oil and gas industries. Although much of the report focuses on the kinds of things that must be done by
international regulatory bodies in order to save our oceans, there is one area where the average citizen can play a
role: the reduction of plastic in our oceans. According to the report, "plastics are by far the most abundant and
problematic type of marine debris". Recent reports suggest that plastic waste causes $13 billion in damage to
marine ecosystems each year. Reducing our reliance on plastics something that individuals can do on a daily basis
is a simple step all of us can take to halt our rush toward marine collapse.

Collapse of marine ecosystems causes extinction

CRAIG 03 - Associate Dean for Environmental Programs @
Florida State University [Robin Kundis Craig, ARTICLE: Taking Steps Toward Marine
Wilderness Protection? Fishing and Coral Reef Marine Reserves in Florida and Hawaii, McGeorge Law
Review, Winter 2003, 34 McGeorge L. Rev. 155
Biodiversity and ecosystem function arguments for conserving marine ecosystems also exist, just as they do for terrestrial
ecosystems, but these arguments have thus far rarely been raised in political debates. For example, besides significant tourism
values - the most economically valuable ecosystem service coral reefs provide, worldwide - coral reefs protect against storms and
dampen other environmental fluctuations, services worth more than ten times the reefs' value for food production. n856 Waste
treatment is another significant, non-extractive ecosystem function that intact coral reef ecosystems provide. n857 More generally,
"ocean ecosystems play a major role in the global geochemical cycling of all the elements that represent the basic building blocks of
living organisms, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur, as well as other less abundant but necessary elements." n858 In
a very real and direct sense, therefore, human

degradation of marine ecosystems impairs the

planet's ability to support life.

Maintaining biodiversity is often critical to maintaining the functions of marine

ecosystems. Current evidence shows that, in general, an ecosystem's ability to keep functioning in the face of disturbance is
strongly dependent on its biodiversity, "indicating that more diverse ecosystems are more stable." n859 Coral reef ecosystems are
particularly dependent on their biodiversity. [*265]
Most ecologists agree that the complexity of interactions and degree of interrelatedness among component species is higher on
coral reefs than in any other marine environment. This implies that the ecosystem functioning that produces the most highly valued
components is also complex and that many otherwise insignificant species have strong effects on sustaining the rest of the reef
system. n860

maintaining and restoring the biodiversity of marine ecosystems is critical to

maintaining and restoring the ecosystem services that they provide . Non-use biodiversity
Thus,

values for marine ecosystems have been calculated in the wake of marine disasters, like the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska. n861
Similar calculations could derive preservation values for marine wilderness. However, economic value, or economic value
equivalents, should not be "the sole or even primary justification for conservation of ocean ecosystems. Ethical arguments also have
considerable force and merit." n862 At the forefront of such arguments should be a recognition of how little we know about the sea and about the actual effect of human activities on marine ecosystems. The United States has traditionally failed to protect marine
ecosystems because it was difficult to detect anthropogenic harm to the oceans, but we now know that such harm is occurring even though we are not completely sure about causation or about how to fix every problem. Ecosystems like the NWHI coral reef

we are doing to
should be preserving marine wilderness whenever we can - especially
when the United States has within its territory relatively pristine marine ecosystems that
may be unique in the world.
ecosystem should inspire lawmakers and policymakers to admit that most of the time we really do not know what
the sea and hence

Multiple recent studies confirm offshore wind benefit marine

ecology and bolster marine biodiversity:

Casey 12 (Zo, 12/4/14, Offshore wind farms benefit sealife, says study,
http://www.ewea.org/blog/2012/12/offshore-wind-farms-benefit-sealife-saysstudy/, Senior Communication Officer and Blog Editor for European Wind Energy Association, mls)
Offshore wind farms can create a host of benefits for the local marine environment ,
as well as combatting climate change, a new study by the Marine Institute at Plymouth
University has found. The Marine Institute found that wind farms provide shelter to
fish species since sea bottom trawling is often forbidden inside a wind farm, and it
found that turbine support structures can create artificial reefs for some species. A
separate study at the Nysted offshore wind farm in Denmark confirmed this finding
by saying that artificial reefs provided favourable growth conditions for blue mussels
and crab species. A study on the Thanet offshore wind farm in the UK found that some species like cod
shelter inside the wind farm. One high-profile issue covered by the Marine Institute study was that of organisms
colliding with offshore wind turbines. The study, backed-up by a number of previous studies, found that many bird
species fly low over the water, avoiding collision with wind turbine blades. It also found that some species, such as
Eider ducks, do modify their courses slightly to avoid offshore turbines. When it comes to noise, the study found no
significant impact on behaviour or populations. It noted that a separate study in the Netherlands found more
porpoise clicks inside a Dutch wind farm than outside it perhaps exploiting the higher fish densities found.

study also said that offshore wind power and other marine renewable energies

The

should be rolled out rapidly in order to combat the threats to marine biodiversity ,
food production and economies posed by climate change. It is necessary to rapidly deploy large quantities of
marine renewable energy to reduce the carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning which are leading to ocean
acidification, global warming and climatic changes, the study published said. EWEA forecasts that 40 GW of
offshore wind capacity will be online in European seas by 2020 which will offset 102 million tonnes of CO2 every
year. By 2030, the expected 150 GW of offshore capacity will offset 315 million tonnes of CO2 annually thats a
significant contribution to the effort to cut carbon. It is clear that the marine environment is already being
damaged by the increasingly apparent impacts of climate change; however it is not too late to make a difference to
avoid more extreme impacts, the study said. If

you bring all these studies together they all

point to a similar conclusion: offshore wind farms have a positive impact on the
marine environment in several ways, said Angeliki Koulouri, Research Officer at EWEA. First they
contribute to a reduction in CO2 emissions, the major threat to biodiversity, second, they provide regeneration
areas for fish and benthic populations, she added.

Competitiveness Advantage (1ac)

US competitiveness is on a downward slide in the status quo:

Michael Porter, professor @ Harvard Business School, March
2012 (http://hbr.org/2012/03/the-looming-challenge-to-uscompetitiveness/ar/1, The Looming Challenge to U.S. Competitiveness,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The American economy is clearly struggling to recover from a recession of unusual depth
and duration, as we are reminded nearly every day. But the United States also faces a less visible
but more fundamental challenge: a series of underlying structural changes that
could permanently impair Americas ability to maintain, much less raise, the living
standards of its citizens. If government and business leaders react only to the downturn and fail to confront
Americas deeper challenge, they will revive an economy with weak long-term prospects. During the past
year, we have examined U.S. competitiveness with the help of a diverse group
of scholars, business leaders from around the world , and the first-ever comprehensive survey of
Harvard Business School alumni. Our research suggests that the U.S. faces serious
challenges. Too often, Americas leaders, in government and business, have acted in ways that neutralize the
countrys many strengths. However, the decline of U.S. competitiveness is far from
inevitable. The United States remains the worlds most productive large economy
and its largest market for sophisticated goods and services , which stimulates innovation and
acts as a magnet for investment. To restore its competitiveness, America needs a long-term
strategy. This will require numerous policy changes by government, which may seem unlikely with Washington
gridlocked. However, many of the crucial steps can and must be carried out by states and regions, where many of
the key drivers of competitiveness reside. More important, business leaders can and must play a far more proactive
role in transforming competition and investing in local communities rather than being passive victims of public
policy or hostages of misguided shareholders. What Is Competitiveness? America cannot address its economic
prospects without a clear understanding of what we mean by competitiveness and how it shapes U.S. prosperity.
The concept is widely misunderstood, with dangerous consequences for political discourse, policy, and corporate
choices that are all too evident today. The United States is a competitive location to the extent that companies
operating in the U.S. are able to compete successfully in the global economy while supporting high and rising living
standards for the average American. (We thank Richard Vietor and Matthew Weinzierl for helping to articulate this
definition.) A competitive location produces prosperity for both companies and citizens. Lower American wages do
not boost U.S. competitiveness. Neither does a cheaper dollar. A weakened currency makes imports more expensive
and discounts the price of American exportsin essence, it constitutes a national pay cut. Some steps that reduce

Whether a
nation is competitive hinges instead on its long-run productivity that is, the value of goods
firms short-term costs, then, actually work against the true competitiveness of the United States.

and services produced per unit of human, capital, and natural resources. Only by improving their ability to
transform inputs into valuable products and services can companies in a country prosper while supporting rising
wages for citizens. Increasing productivity over the long run should be the central goal of economic policy. This
requires a business environment that supports continual innovation in products, processes, and management.

Declines in competitiveness cause protectionism:

Georgios Georgiadis, European Central Bank, 6/10/2013 (Growth,
Competitiveness and Trade Protectionism During the Great Recession,
http://www.uibcongres.org/imgdb/archivo_dpo12975.pdf, Accessed
7/27/2014)
This paper investigates the effect of domestic and affected trading partner's growth as well as competitiveness on

Using a comprehensive
dataset on trade policies provided by the Global Trade Alert, we consider a wide
array of trade barriers which stretch be- yond traditional dimensions of
protectionism, in particular \murky" measures (such as state aid measures involving local content
trade policies of G20 economies for the time period during the Great Recession.

requirements) which have been quan- titatively important during the Great Recession. Despite the observed

restraint in trade protectionism, we find that the relationship between domestic growth, compet- itiveness and trade
protectionism documented for the decades prior to the financial crisis continued to hold during the Great Recession:

Countries tended to pursue more trade-restrictive policies when they experienced

recessions and/or when their com- petitiveness deteriorated. Moreover, we find that this
relationship continued to hold even when non-traditional, \murky" protectionism is
taken into account in addition to traditional trade policies such as tariff and trade
defence measures. Regarding dif- ferences in the recourse to trade protectionism across countries, we
find that (i) trade policies of G20 advanced economies responded more strongly to
changes in domestic growth and competitiveness than those of G20 emerging
market economies, and that (ii) G20 economies' trade policies vis-a-vis other G20 economies were less
responsive to changes in competitiveness than those pursued vis-a-vis non-G20 economies.

Protectionism will lead to terrorism, genocide, world war, and

extinction.
Panzner (faculty at the New York Institute of Finance)
2008 (faculty at the New York Institute of Finance, 25-year veteran of the
global stock, bond, and currency markets who has worked in New York and
London for HSBC, Soros Funds, ABN Amro, Dresdner Bank, and JPMorgan
Chase (Michael, Financial Armageddon: Protect Your Future from Economic
Collapse, Revised and Updated Edition, p. 136-138, googlebooks)
Continuing calls for curbs on the flow of finance and trade will inspire the United States
and other nations to spew forth protectionist legislation like the notorious Smoot-Hawley bill.
Introduced at the start of the Great Depression, it triggered a series of tit-for-tat economic responses, which
many commentators believe helped turn a serious economic downturn into a
prolonged and devastating global disaster , But if history is any guide, those lessons will have been
long forgotten during the next collapse. Eventually, fed by a mood of desperation and growing public anger,
restrictions on trade, finance, investment, and immigration will almost certainly intensify. Authorities and ordinary
citizens will likely scrutinize the cross-border movement of Americans and outsiders alike, and lawmakers may even
call for a general crackdown on nonessential travel. Meanwhile, many nations will make transporting or sending
funds to other countries exceedingly difficult. As desperate officials try to limit the fallout from decades of illconceived, corrupt, and reckless policies, they will introduce controls on foreign exchange, foreign individuals and
companies seeking to acquire certain American infrastructure assets, or trying to buy property and other assets on
the (heap thanks to a rapidly depreciating dollar, will be stymied by limits on investment by noncitizens. Those
efforts will cause spasms to ripple across economies and markets, disrupting global payment, settlement, and
clearing mechanisms. All of this will, of course, continue to undermine business confidence and consumer
spending. In a world of lockouts and lockdowns, any link that transmits systemic financial pressures across markets
through arbitrage or portfolio-based risk management, or that allows diseases to be easily spread from one country
to the next by tourists and wildlife, or that otherwise facilitates unwelcome exchanges of any kind will be viewed

The rise in isolationism and protectionism will bring about

ever more heated arguments and dangerous confrontations over shared sources of oil, gas, and
other key commodities as well as factors of production that must, out of necessity, be acquired from lesswith suspicion and dealt with accordingly.

than-friendly nations. Whether involving raw materials used in strategic industries or basic necessities such as food,
water, and energy, efforts to secure adequate supplies will take increasing precedence in a world where demand

Disputes over the misuse, overuse, and pollution of the

environment and natural resources will become more commonplace. Around the world, such
tensions will give rise to full-scale military encounters , often with minimal provocation. In some
seems constantly out of kilter with supply.

instances, economic conditions will serve as a convenient pretext for conflicts that stem from cultural and religious

nations may look to divert attention away from domestic problems by

channeling frustration and populist sentiment toward other countries and cultures . Enabled by cheap
technology and the waning threat of American retribution, terrorist groups will likely boost the
frequency and scale of their horrifying attacks, bringing the threat of random violence
differences. Alternatively,

to a whole new level.

Turbulent conditions will encourage aggressive saber rattling and interdictions by

rogue nations running amok. Age-old clashes will also take on a new, more healed sense of urgency. China will likely
assume an increasingly belligerent posture toward Taiwan, while Iran may embark on overt colonization of its
neighbors in the Mideast. Israel, for its part, may look to draw a dwindling list of allies from around the world into a
growing number of conflicts. Some observers, like John Mearsheimer, a political scientist at the University of
Chicago, have even speculated that an "intense confrontation" between the United States and China is "inevitable"
at some point. More than a few disputes will turn out to be almost wholly ideological. Growing cultural and religious
differences will be transformed from wars of words to battles soaked in blood. Long-simmering resentments could

Terrorists
employing biological or nuclear weapons will vie with conventional forces using jets,
cruise missiles, and bunker-busting bombs to cause widespread destruction. Many will interpret steppedup conflicts between Muslims and Western societies as the beginnings of a new
world war.
also degenerate quickly, spurring the basest of human instincts and triggering genocidal acts.

Wind energy will bolster US competitiveness:

David Kashi, 7/22/2013 (staff writer, The US Department Of The Interior
Announced Plans To Increase Wind Energy, http://www.ibtimes.com/usdepartment-interior-announced-plans-increase-wind-energy-1355929,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The U.S. Department of the Interior, or DOI, announced the nations second offshore
wind energy lease sale off the coast of Virginia, the DOI said in a press release
Monday. The competitive lease sale offshore Virginia will mark an important
transition from planning to action when it comes to capturing the enormous clean
energy potential offered by Atlantic wind, Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell said.
Responsible commercial wind energy development has the potential to
create jobs, increase our energy security and strengthen our nations
competitiveness.

Economy Advantage (1ac)

US recession is coming now:
Toledo Blade, 7/27/2014 (Sluggish growth to weigh down American
economy, economist predicts,
http://www.toledoblade.com/Economy/2014/07/27/Sluggish-growth-to-weighdown-American-economy-economist-predicts.html, Accessed 8/3/2014, rwg)
Levy, who oversees the Levy Forecast , a newsletter analyzing the economy
that his family started in 1949 and one with an enviable record. Nearly a decade ago, the now
59-year-old economist warned that U.S. housing was a bubble set to burst, and the
damage would push the country into a recession so severe the Federal Reserve would have to
slash short-term borrowing rates to their lowest levels ever to stimulate the economy. Thats exactly what
happened. Now, Mr. Levy says the United States is likely to fall into a recession next
year triggered by downturns in other countries, the first time in modern history. The recession for the
rest of the world ... will be worse than the last one , says Mr. Levy, whose grandfather called the
Thats the view of David

1929 stock crash and whose father won praise over decades for anticipating turns in the business cycle, often
against conventional wisdom. Mr. Levys forecast for a global recession is extreme, but its worth considering given
how much is riding on the dominant view that economies are healing. Investors have pushed U.S. stocks to record
highs, and Fed estimates have the United States growing at an annual pace of at least 3 percent for the rest of the
year and all of 2015. Investors also have poured hundreds of millions of dollars into emerging market stock funds

Worrisome signs are out

there. Unlike their U.S. counterparts, European banks are stuck with too many bad loans from the financial crisis.
recently on hopes economic growth in those countries will pick up, not stall.

Business debt is too high. And confidence is fleeting, as investors saw earlier this month when stocks sold off on
worries over the stability of Portugals largest bank. In China and other emerging markets, the problem of relying on
indebted Americans to buy more of their goods each year and not selling enough to their own people means a glut
of underused factories. The

world hopes to ride on the coattails of the U.S. consumer , says

Eswar Prasad, an economist at Cornell University, but the U.S. consumer isnt in a position to
take on the burden. Emerging markets bounced back faster from the financial crisis than did rich countries,
but Mr. Levy thinks a big reason for that has made things worse. Overseas companies poured money into factories,
machines, and buildings to make things on the assumption that exports, after snapping back from recession lows,
would continue to grow at their prior pace. They have not, because companies had been investing too much to
expand production before the crisis too. You build factories and stores, and they cant pay for themselves, says
Mr. Levy, chairman of the Jerome Levy Forecasting Center, a consulting firm. Businesses cant generate profits, and
they start to contract. Compared to such fragile economies, Mr. Levy says the United States is in decent shape.
Like most economists, hes not worried about the nations 2.9 percent drop in economic output in the first quarter.
He expects growth to return, but not for long, as a recession in Europe or emerging markets spreads to the United
States. Mr. Levy says the United States is more vulnerable to troubles abroad than people realize. Exports
contributed 14 percent of U.S. economic output last year, up from 9 percent in 2002. That sounds good, but it also
makes the country more dependent on global growth, which, in turn, relies more on emerging markets. Those

Mr. Levy predicts a

U.S. recession will throw its housing recovery in reverse and push home prices below the low in
the last recession. He says panicked investors are likely to dump stocks and flood into U.S.
markets accounted for 50 percent of global output last year, up from 38 percent in 2002.

Treasurys, a haven in troubled times, like never before. The yield on the 10-year Treasury note, which moves
opposite to its price, is likely to fall from 2.5 percent to less than 1 percent an unprecedented low. In 2012, when
investors feared a breakup of the euro-currency bloc, the 10-year yield fell to 1.4 percent.

Economic decline causes war studies prove

Royal 10 (Jedediah, Director of Cooperative Threat Reduction at the U.S.
Department of Defense, 2010, Economic Integration, Economic Signaling and

the Problem of Economic Crises, in Economics of War and Peace: Economic,

Legal and Political Perspectives, ed. Goldsmith and Brauer, p. 213-215)
periods of economic decline may increase the likelihood of external
conflict. Political science literature has contributed a moderate degree of attention to the impact of economic
Less intuitive is how

decline and the security and defence behaviour of interdependent stales. Research in this vein has been considered
at systemic, dyadic and national levels. Several notable contributions follow. First, on the systemic level. Pollins

rhythms in
the global economy are associated with the rise and fall of a pre-eminent power and
the often bloody transition from one pre-eminent leader to the next. As such, exogenous
shocks such as economic crises could usher in a redistribution of relative power (see also
Gilpin. 19SJ) that leads to uncertainty about power balances, increasing the risk of
miscalculation (Fcaron. 1995). Alternatively, even a relatively certain redistribution of power could lead to a
(20081 advances Modclski and Thompson's (1996) work on leadership cycle theory, finding that

permissive environment for conflict as a rising power may seek to challenge a declining power (Werner. 1999).
Separately. Pollins (1996) also shows that global economic cycles combined with parallel leadership cycles impact
the likelihood of conflict among major, medium and small powers, although he suggests that the causes and
connections between global economic conditions and security conditions remain unknown. Second, on a dyadic
level. Copeland's (1996. 2000) theory of trade expectations suggests that 'future expectation of trade' is a
significant variable in understanding economic conditions and security behaviour of states. He argues that
interdependent states arc likely to gain pacific benefits from trade so long as they have an optimistic view of future

if the expectations of future trade decline, particularly for difficult

to replace items such as energy resources, the likelihood for conflict increases, as states
will be inclined to use force to gain access to those resources . Crises could potentially be the
trade relations. However,

trigger for decreased trade expectations either on its own or because it triggers protectionist moves by
interdependent states.4 Third, others have considered the link between economic decline and external armed
conflict at a national level. Mom berg and Hess (2002) find a strong correlation between internal conflict and

The linkage, between

internal and external conflict and prosperity are strong and mutually reinforcing .
external conflict, particularly during periods of economic downturn. They write.

Economic conflict lends to spawn internal conflict, which in turn returns the favour. Moreover, the presence of a
recession tends to amplify the extent to which international and external conflicts self-reinforce each other
(Hlomhen? & Hess. 2(102. p. X9> Economic decline has also been linked with an increase in the likelihood of
terrorism (Blombcrg. Hess. & Wee ra pan a, 2004). which has the capacity to spill across borders and lead to
external tensions. Furthermore, crises generally reduce the popularity of a sitting government. " Diversionary

theory" suggests that, when facing unpopularity arising from economic decline, sitting
governments have increased incentives to fabricate external military conflicts to create a
'rally around the flag' effect. Wang (1996), DcRoucn (1995), and Blombcrg. Hess, and Thacker (2006) find
supporting evidence showing that economic decline and use of force arc at least indirecti) correlated. Gelpi (1997).
Miller (1999). and Kisangani and Pickering (2009) suggest that Ihe tendency towards diversionary tactics arc greater
for democratic states than autocratic states, due to the fact that democratic leaders are generally more susceptible
to being removed from office due to lack of domestic support. DeRouen (2000) has provided evidence showing that
periods of weak economic performance in the United States, and thus weak Presidential popularity, are statistically
linked lo an increase in the use of force. In summary, rcccni economic scholarship positively correlates economic

political science scholarship

links economic decline with external conflict al systemic, dyadic and national levels.' This implied
integration with an increase in the frequency of economic crises, whereas

connection between integration, crises and armed conflict has not featured prominently in the economic-security
debate and deserves more attention.

Offshore wind will turn the US into a massive economic

powerhouse:
Sargent, 9/13/12 [Rob Sargent, U.S. Poised to Join the Race on Offshore
Wind: Lawmakers Must Commit to More Pollution-Free Energy,
http://www.environmentamerica.org/news/ame/us-poised-join-race-offshorewind]

The Turning Point for Atlantic Offshore Wind Energy includes details on the key milestones each Atlantic Coast state

Offshore
wind energy will be an economic powerhouse for America. Harnessing the 52 gigawatts of
already-identified available Atlantic offshore wind energy just 4 percent of the estimated
generation potential of this massive resource could generate $200 billion in economic
activity, create 300,000 jobs, and sustain power for about 14 million homes. (Europe
already produces enough energy from offshore wind right now to power 4 million homes.) America is closer
than ever to bringing offshore wind energy ashore . Efforts are underway in 10 Atlantic Coast
and along with the wind potential and the economic benefits. Among the highlights of the report:

states, with over 2,000 square nautical miles of federal waters already designated for wind energy development off
of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. Environmental reviews finding no
significant impacts have been completed, and leases are expected to be issued for some of these areas by the end

Despite this progress, leadership is urgently needed at both the state and
federal level to ensure offshore wind energy becomes a reality in America: President
Obama should set a clear national goal for offshore wind energy development, and
each Atlantic state governor should also a set goal for offshore wind development off their shores. These goals
must be supported by policies that prioritize offshore wind energy and other efforts to
of the year.

secure buyers for this new source of reliable, clean energy.

Energy Independence Advantage

(1ac)
The US is heavily dependent on foreign energy sources:
Don Briggs, president of the Louisiana Oil & Gas Association, 7/20/20 14
(http://www.shreveporttimes.com/article/20140721/NEWS05/307210006/DonBriggs-Support-oil-gas-bolster-U-S-security)
Why does the current instability in Iraq cause our gas prices to jump? Why should anything going on in Libya affect
the United States energy market? One simple reason:

The United States has been dependent on

foreign resources for several decades. Our dependence has not been on just any ol country.
Specifically, we have been dependent on the Organization of Exporting Countries for our yearly imports of

To be more specific, the latest data from the United States Energy
Information Administration shows that we imported 5.83 million barrels of petroleum
a day from OPEC countries or 55 percent of our net imports for 2012. This fact quickly
petroleum.

answers the previous question of why our market is disrupted by Middle Eastern instability. Naturally, looking at this
data, it would be accurate to say that energy independence needs to occur sooner than late r.
Although this is an accurate statement, the broader scope of energy security cannot be ignored. No one would
argue that the United States is a world super power. However, as instability continues in the Middle East, and the
demand for natural resources in America grows, an obvious tie between our power and our natural resource
stability can be seen. As the oil and natural gas supply increases with each new day here in the United States, it is
vital that our federal government and our individual states recognize the importance of free enterprise. Rather than
hamper new development and exploration, our nation should be doing everything possible to encourage new oil
and gas business. Will oil and gas be the fuel of the future? Authorities on all fronts argue this issue daily. For today,
oil and natural gas are the leading fuels that literally power our country. Petroleum products can be found in nearly
any item you pick up. What are the tangibles of energy security? For starters, the U.S. Department of Defense relies
on petroleum for more than 75 percent of its needs. Another example of energy security is the fact that nearly
every farming and manufactured food and household product is made through the use of petroleum. Just as Russia
has done with the Ukraine by cutting off natural gas supplies, similarly, if Saudi Arabia decided to diminish their
imports to the United States, immediate chaos would be thrown into the U.S. trade market. What is the solution to
achieving energy independence and security? The United States is on the right path. Developing our own
technologies and our own natural resources will only speed up the process of establishing our long-term energy
security. The ripple effect, however, on our energy security and independence starts small. For example, when a
local or parish/county government overregulates or prohibits oil and gas operations, even this action decelerates
our long-term safety and strength as a nation.

(--) Continued energy dependence risks multiple scenarios for

war:
Mark E. Rosen, 2010 (Deputy General Counsel, CNA Corporation),
University of Richmond Law Review, March 2010 44 U. Rich. L. Rev. 977,
ENERGY INDEPENDENCE AND CLIMATE CHANGE: THE ECONOMIC AND
NATIONAL SECURITY CONSEQUENCES OF FAILING TO ACT.
There is a growing consensus in U.S. national security circles that American
dependence on imported oil constitutes a threat to the United States because a
substantial portion of those oil reserves are controlled by governments that have
historically pursued policies inimical to U.S. interests . For example, Venezuela, which represents
eleven percent of U.S. oil imports, "regularly espouses anti-American and anti-Western rhetoric both at home and abroad ... [and] ...
promotes ... [an] anti-U.S. influence in parts of Latin and South America ..." n72 that retards the growth of friendly political and
economic ties among the United States, Venezuela, and a few other states in Latin and South America. This scenario plays out in
many different regions. Russia, for example, has used its oil leverage to exert extreme political pressure upon Ukraine and Belarus.
n73 Longstanding Western commercial relations with repressive regimes in the Middle East - i.e., Iran, Sudan, and Saudi Arabia raise similar issues because of the mixed strategic messages that are being sent. Of course, large wealth [*989] transfers have
allowed the Taliban in Saudi Arabia to bankroll terrorism. n74 A.

Chokepoints and Flashpoints For the

foreseeable future, the U.S. military will most likely be involved in protecting access
to oil supplies - including the political independence of oil producers - and the global movements of using oil to help sustain
the smooth functioning of the world economy. The security challenges associated with preserving access to oil are complicated by
geographical "chokepoints," through which oil flows or is transported, but which are vulnerable to piracy or closure. n75

"Flashpoints"

also exist as a result of political - and sometimes military - competition

to secure commercial or sovereign access to oil in the face of disputed maritime and land claims
that are associated with oil and gas deposits. Together, these challenges have necessitated that
the United States and its allies maintain costly navies and air forces to protect sea
lanes, ocean access, and maintain a presence to deter military competition in
disputed regions. A selection of today's chokepoints and flashpoints follow. The
Strait of Hormuz. This strait is the narrow waterway that allows access from the Indian Ocean into the Persian Gulf.
Two-thirds of the world's oil is transported by ocean, and a very large percentage of that trade moves through Hormuz. The northern
tip of Oman forms the southern shoreline of the strait. n76 Hormuz is protected by the constant transits of the U.S. Navy and its
allies. Even though the strait has not been closed, the Persian Gulf has been the scene of extensive military conflict. n77 On
September 22, 1980, Iraq invaded Iran, initiating an eight-year war between the two countries that featured the "War of the
Tankers," in which 543 ships, including the USS Stark, were attacked, while the U.S. Navy provided escort services to protect tankers
[*990] that were transiting the Persian Gulf. n78 There have been past threats by Iran to militarily close the strait. n79 Additionally,
there are ongoing territorial disputes between the United Arab Emirates and Iran over ownership of three islands that are located in
approaches to the strait. n80 Closure of the strait would cause severe disruption in the movements of the world's oil supplies and, at
a minimum, cause significant price increases and perhaps supply shortages in many regions for the duration of the closure. n81
During the War of the Tankers, oil prices increased from $ 13 per barrel to $ 31 a barrel due to supply disruptions and other "fear"
factors. n82 Bab el-Mandeb. The strait separates Africa (Djibouti and Eritrea) and Asia (Yemen), and it connects the Red Sea to the
Indian Ocean via the Gulf of Aden. The strait is an oil transit chokepoint since most of Europe's crude oil from the Middle East passes
north through Bab el-Mandeb into the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal. n83 Closure of the strait due to terrorist activities or for
political/military reasons, could keep tankers from the Persian Gulf from reaching the Suez Canal and Sumed Pipeline complex,
diverting them around the southern tip of Africa (the Cape of Good Hope). n84 This would add greatly to transit time and cost, and
would effectively tie-up spare tanker capacity. Closure of the Bab el-Mandeb would effectively block non-oil shipping from using the
Suez Canal. n85 In October 2002 the French-flagged tanker Limburg was attacked off the coast of Yemen by terrorists. n86 During

The
Turkish Straits and Caspian Oil. The term "Turkish Straits" refers to the two narrow
straits in northwestern Turkey, the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, which connect the Sea of Marmara with the
Black Sea on one side and the Aegean arm of the Mediterranean Sea on the other. Turkey and Russia have been
locked in a longstanding dispute over passage issues involving the Turkish Straits.
the [*991] Yom Kippur War in 1973, Egypt closed the strait as a means of blockading the southern Israeli port of Eilat. n87

n88 The 1936 Montreux Convention puts Turkey in charge of regulating traffic through the straits; n89 yet Turkey has been hard
pressed to stop an onslaught of Russian, Ukrainian, and Cypriot tankers, which transport Caspian Sea oil to markets in Western
Europe. n90 Because of the very heavy shipping traffic and very challenging geography, there have been many collisions and
groundings in the past, creating terrible pollution incidents and death. n91 Thus far, none of these incidents have been attributed to
state-on-state-conflict or terrorism; n92 however, the confined waterway is an especially attractive target because of the grave
economic and environmental damage that would result from a well-timed and well-placed attack on a loaded tanker. The issues
surrounding the straits are also a subset of larger problems associated with the exploitation of Caspian oil, including severe pollution
of the Caspian Sea as a result of imprudent extraction techniques, as well as the ever-present potential for conflict among the
various claimants to the Caspian's hydrocarbon resources due to an inability of the various Caspian littoral states to agree on their

Any one of these problems could

become a major flashpoint in the future. China vs. Japan. The Daiyu/Senkaku islands
located in the East China Sea have become an increasingly contentious dispute
maritime boundaries - and their [*992] legal areas in which to drill. n93

because both claimants have, in the past, used modern military platforms to patrol the areas of their claims in which there are
suspected oil and gas deposits in the seabed. n94 In September 2005, for example, China dispatched five warships to disputed
waters surrounding its oil and gas platforms, which were spotted by a Japanese maritime patrol aircraft. n95 There have been other
similar military-to-military encounters. n96 Given the fact that both countries have modern armed forces and are comparatively

The Arctic Super

Highway. Traditionalists would probably not include the Arctic as a security
chokepoint. The oil connection is reasonably well known: "22 percent of the world's undiscovered energy
energy starved, it is not difficult to envision serious conflict erupting over these disputed areas.

reserves are projected to be in the region (including 13 percent of the world's petroleum and 30 percent of natural gas)." n97 However, given the very
small margins that transporters earn transporting oil from point A to B, n98 shipping companies are always in search of shorter routes to transport oil to
market. As the thawing of the Arctic Ocean continues as a result of climate change, n99 this may create new shipping routes that transporters of [*993] oil
and other goods will use to maximize their profits and minimize their transit times. As supplies of readily exploitable crude oil are reduced, the probability
increases that some of this trade will result from exploitation activities in the land and littoral areas adjacent to the Arctic Sea. This development is
concerning for a number of reasons: (1) the area is very remote and could provide a safe haven to pirates seeking to hijack cargoes; (2) the environmental
sensitivity of the area, and the concomitant difficulty of mounting a cleanup effort, means that an oil spill in that marine environment will be much more
persistent than an oil spill in temperate waters; n100 (3) the Arctic presents unique navigational difficulties due to the lack of good charts, navigational
aids, and communications towers, as well as the impacts of extreme cold on the operational effectiveness of systems; n101 (4) the unsettled nature of
claims by various countries, including the United States, to the seabed continental shelf resources in the littoral areas off their coastlines creates the
potential for military competition and conflict over these claims. n102 The International Maritime Organization ("IMO") is now circulating draft guidelines
for ships operating in Arctic areas to promote - but not require - ship hardening against an iceberg strike, better crew training, and environmental
protection measures. n103 These guidelines are merely advisory and can only be implemented via the flag states. n104 Also, neither IMO nor any of the

UN Law of the Sea Institutions have mandatory jurisdiction over any of the flashpoint issues relating [*994] to competing continental shelf claims in the

The above is only a selected list of

potential flashpoints in which oil is the main culprit. Disputes between China and six
other nations of the Spratly Islands, and other territories in the South China Sea,
remain unresolved.
Arctic, n105 meaning that any disputes will remain unresolved for a long time .

Offshore wind power creates energy independence:

Peter J. Schaumberg and Angela F. Colamaria 2009 (former Deputy
Associate Solicitor for the Division of Mineral Resources & former senior
career attorney responsible for mineral development matters, Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Renewable energy opportunities on the OCS are a key component to securing this
Nation's energy independence. The offshore wind energy sector, in particular,
has grown exponentially worldwide. Opportunities for development on the OCS will
likely accelerate the pace of that expansion . In addition, recent experience with high energy prices
and the instability associated with dependence on foreign sources of supply are creating opportunities for

The
OCS final rules are important in that they create the potential for renewable energy
to displace a portion of U.S. fossil fuel use. Such a shift will generate environmental
benefits, reduce U.S. dependence on foreign sources of energy, and create
new renewable energy jobs.
developers to initiate projects on the OCS with newer technologies, such as tidal, wave, and thermal energy.

Solvency (1ac)
(--) The plan is necessary to bolster support for offshore wind
power in the United States:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
C. Suggested Revisions to the CZMA Despite its ineffectiveness to date, the

CZMA has great potential to serve as a

framework for offshore wind power development. With some simple but clear
revisions that could enhance federal influence , mimicking Denmark's stronger centralized control of energy development,
the CZMA could be used to mandate offshore wind power -friendly CZMPs where applicable.
At the same time, the Act will continue to uphold the federalism values ingrained in the management of coastal resources in the United States. These
revisions should be: To include an explicit mandate for offshore wind power
development where appropriate and feasible on all U.S. coasts; To require
revisions to CZMPs in accordance with this new mandate and To increase funding
and other incentives for offshore wind power development. Revising the CZMA is not a new idea for
Congress. For example, during the Cape Wind federal jurisdiction saga, Cong. William D. Delahunt (D-MA) proposed a set of revisions to the CZMA 2 5 7 in
response to the Cape Wind federal jurisdiction confusion. 2 5 8 Although these did not pass, 2 5 9 and focused on agency jurisdiction over offshore wind rather than
the promotion of offshore wind, the proposal at least demonstrates some willingness in Congress to take on the idea of revising the CZMA. Indeed, the CZMA has
been amended in the 260 past, for example to encourage aquaculture. In a promising sign of state willingness to cooperate in coastal management, Massachusetts and
fifteen other states participated in MMS's initial Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement (PEIS) process, which 261 was MMS's effort to determine how to
address offshore wind permitting. Several commenters in the process, including representatives of state agencies, urged MMS to coordinate with state authorities in
finding suitable locations for 262 offshore wind facilities. More recently, Massachusetts's Ocean Management Plan explicitly suggests coordination with MMS for
offshore renewable energy 263 siting. 1. Mandate Offshore Wind Power Development Although the United States has evolved a fundamentally different approach to
coastal management from Denmark, revisions

to the CZMA should shift our national approach toward

increased, centralized influence and coordination that has worked so
effectively in that country. Currently the CZMA recognizes the potential importance of offshore energy development and requires the consideration of the
development of energy facilities that "are of greater than local significance" in state plans. 2 64 These vague standards are not sufficient, however, as evidenced by the
failure of offshore wind power development in the United States, and in Cape Wind in particular. The

CZMA should be revised to

include an explicit mandate to states to permit, and possibly even to promote,
offshore wind energy and other renewable energy development in appropriate
locations. The term "development" should broadly encompass generation facilities as well as transmission lines and other works required to allow facilities to
operate effectively. While it is important for states to continue to respond to local concerns and negative impacts, the federal government needs a stronger voice in
favor of the national interest in offshore wind power development. This new mandate would not have a detrimental effect on the federal government's broad goal of
environmental protection. It would not give offshore wind power developers a right to develop anywhere off the coast, but it would push development in locations that
are appropriate environmentally. Along with studies relating to optimal coastal development conditions, for example, wind pattern studies, MMS's PEIS could serve as
a useful starting point in defining what "appropriate locations" should entail. The PEIS examines "the potential environmental consequences of implementing the
[Alternative Energy and Alternate Use Program on the OCS] and will be used ,,265 to establish initial measures to mitigate environmental consequences. Individual
projects would almost certainly still require individual EISs under NEPA, which would further ensure environmentally appropriate offshore renewable development.
In fact, NEPA would effectively serve as a backstop to the development that a revised CZMA would encourage, as it would discourage or prohibit environmentally
harmful overdevelopment. This revision to the CZMA could change how coastal states treat offshore wind power development in two ways. First, it would require
changes to many states' CZMPs to reflect the new national priority for offshore renewable energy sources, including offshore wind. Second, the new CZMA mandate
would affect how states approach the federal consistency review process with respect to renewable permitting and construction in state and federal waters.266 The
federal government would likely certify offshore wind projects as consistent with states' revised CZMPs because development of offshore renewable energy would be
an explicit goal in the states' CZMPs under the revised CZMA. Similarly, states would less frequently be able to object to these determinations, because they would
have difficulty finding inconsistency with their revised state CZMPs. 2 6 7 And even if a coastal state did object to a federal determination, the Secretary of Commerce
could overrule the state's objection as inconsistent with the new objectives of the CZMA.268 Thus, the revised CZMA would more effectively compel states to
consider the national benefits of offshore wind in addition to just their consideration of the local costs. Further, it would give offshore wind proponents support in
combating local opposition to projects. This revision could come in tandem with revisions to the Energy Policy Act or as part of an entirely new energy agenda.
President Barack Obama has repeatedly expressed interest in a new trajectory for energy policy in the United States that focuses on climate change, energy efficiency,
renewable energy, and energy independence. 2 6 9 Congress could take advantage of this momentum to make these related revisions to the CZMA as well. In fact,
reform of an existing, familiar set of regulations, like the CZMA, may be more palatable to Congress, and an easy first step to take with regard to renewable energy. 2.
Require Revisions to State Plans To give this new offshore renewable energy mandate effect, Congress or the Secretary of Commerce should instruct states to revise
their CZMPs in 270 order to achieve full compliance with the new requirement. Once the plans are revised, the CZMA already provides the Secretary of Commerce
with a mechanism to ensure there are no gaps or deficiencies in state plans. As noted previously, before approving a state's CZMP, the Secretary of Commerce must
ensure the CZMP is in compliance with the CZMA and all other additional 27 rules and regulations the Secretary has promulgated.271 If the CZMA's "purposes" were
to include promotion of offshore wind power generation, the Secretary of Commerce could make sure the CZMPs carry out that purpose. Thus, states could retain

some measure of control, but the broader benefits of offshore wind power development would be integrated into both the CZMA and the CZMPs. As noted previously,

CZMPs revised in favor of offshore wind would also give proponents of development
more statutory support in any state litigation by offshore wind opponents and may
even deter such litigation altogether. 3. Increase Funding and Incentives for Offshore Wind As previously discussed, a federal
agency, MMS, is responsible for siting 272 and permitting offshore wind power generation facilities. Although the CZMA alludes to the ability of the federal
government to play another role by encouraging energy facility development through "financial assistance,"273 it is once again vague. Congress

would
need to back up its commitment to offshore wind power development-and
renewable energy, in general-with funding increases and incentives for such
development in particular. Such assistance could include incentives for not only generation facilities, but also transmission and distribution
lines, and any other related works necessary for functioning offshore wind farms. Funding could be dependent on state CZMP revision, as described above, to
encourage prompt revision. Congress has already recognized the importance of tax incentives for renewable energy in its renewal 274 of the Production Tax Credit
through 2012. Other studies

have shown a correlation between these credits and increases

in renewable energy investment, and have postulated more significant increases
with a longer-term incentive. 2 7 5 While this revision would likely be the hardest of the three for Congress to swallow, particularly during
an economic downturn, there is at least one compelling reason for Congress to consider it: offshore wind power development can create jobs, both regionally and
nationally. 2 7 6 Indeed, President Obama has explicitly acknowledged the potential for clean energy to create new jobs, with particular urgency as the United States
continues to see high rates of unemployment. 2 7 7 In addition, the President has acknowledged the 278 importance of public spending to stimulate the economy. In
particular, he has promised to spend significantly on renewable energy, in part because of its job- creation potential. 2 7 9 Or, as with the other aforementioned
revisions to the CZMA, these incentives might be tied into broader revisions to the Energy Policy Act or the creation of new climate change legislation.280 While this
idea might buck historical trends related to federal involvement in Coastal Zone development, it is well within the realm of practical policies already being discussed.

(--) Federal incentives are key to making offshore wind cost

competitive:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Addressing economic challenges and making offshore wind projects more attractive to investors will take a
concerted effort on the part of the government and the private sector. Although the cost of onshore wind energy
has decreased significantly over the past twenty years, at $ 0.04 per kilowatt-hour ("kWh"), wind energy remains
more expensive than coal or hydropower. n28 Offshore wind energy is even more expensive, as it is projected to

Notwithstanding the fact that the coal and

gas industries are much more mature than wind energy, another contributing factor
to the difference in cost is the enormous gap in the amount of government subsidies
for fossil fuels compared to those for renewable energy [*1154] sources. n30 From 2002
to 2008, the federal government subsidized five dollars for fossil fuels for every two
dollars it subsidized for renewable energy . n31 It will be hard for offshore wind
energy to compete if the federal government does not provide support similar
to what it has provided for fossil fuels.
cost about twice as much as onshore wind power. n29

(--) Stronger federal policy key to speed up offshore wind

power development:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Although it is too soon to know the combined effects of the Oceans Act and the Ocean Management Plan on Cape
Wind, and on offshore wind energy and offshore renewable energy in Massachusetts generally, the Act and the Plan
certainly appear encouraging. Indeed, project developers Cape Wind Associates have been optimistic.226 However,
the Oceans Act and Ocean Management Plan, though promising, have come late in the game for Cape Wind, nine
long years after the project sought its initial federal permits. For most of this time, Cape Wind proponents had to
fight state and local interests at every turn, at both the state and federal levels, with no explicit state or federal

Although Massachusetts finally

appears to be explicitly acknowledging the broad benefits of offshore wind power,
mandate to back them up in administrative processes or litigation.

other states may not have such foresight,

and other projects may face the same uphill battle as

Without a stronger federal policy

in the process promoting the broad benefits of offshore wind, and one with a
congressional mandate and requirements to back it up, offshore wind power
development is sure to be slow. The CZMA offers a potential way for the federal government to
Cape Wind against powerful opposition focused on local costs.

assert itself and the benefits of offshore wind in state and local decision making.

InherencyNo Offshore Wind Now

(--) No offshore wind production in the US now:
Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
While Europe has well-established offshore wind farms off the coast of Denmark and
England, n6 currently no offshore wind farm has started production in the United
States. n7 The most [*901] prominent project, Cape Wind, has been mired in
litigation for the past decade. n8

InherencyBackground Info on Cape Wind Project

Background info on Cape Wind:
Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
In Massachusetts, the Alliance to Protect Nantucket Sound challenged the
transmission lines for the Cape Wind project under the public trust doctrine . n199 This
case might provide a blueprint for future public trust claims applied to offshore
wind. n200 The doctrine [*923] issue centered on whether a state regulatory body's siting board had authority to administer public trust rights
through a Section 69K certificate. n201 The Section 69K certificate granted total approval for the construction of transmission lines on state
submerged land. n202 The litigants first argued that the siting board did not have legislative authority to administer public trust rights. n203 The
court held that a Massachusetts statute granted the authority to the siting board. n204 More

interestingly, the litigants

argued that the wind farm was inconsistent with the public trust rights in the
submerged land. n205 On this issue, the court focused narrowly on the effect of the transmission lines on public rights. n206 In the
end, because the wind farms were located on federal land, the court would not enter them into their public trust determination. n207 Furthermore,
the majority did not attempt any balancing between the public rights and the value of renewable energy. n208 As Professor Alexandra Klass
points out, the majority opinion narrowly tailored the issue to focus on the challenged siting permit to approve electricity transmission lines. n209
The dissent, on the other hand, sought to consider the broad, overarching effects of the entire wind farm system on public rights. n210

Cape Wind project:

Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
The Cape Wind project could achieve these goals without causing significant
environmental harm. MMS has prepared Draft and Final Environmental Impact
Statements (EIS), and a Biological Assessment, and has predicted that the projectboth in construction and in operation-would have almost entirely minor or negligible
impacts on wildlife. 1 5 3 According to the Biological Assessment, it would have no
significant impact on any species listed under the Endangered Species Act.154 At
worst, Cape Wind could have a moderately negative cumulative impact on the
endangered roseate tern and the threatened piping plover. 15 Despite its minimal
impact on the environment, many Massachusetts residents, most of them living on
Cape Cod, adamantly oppose the Cape Wind project. The entire project would
consist of 130 turbines, each rising 260 feet above the water, over 24 square miles
in Nantucket Sound. 15

InherencyFacts About the Turbines

Facts about the turbines:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
As of 2007, the average capacity of an onshore wind farm was 120 MW. 4 7 U.S.

wind farm capacity has been

growing rapidly, and there are proposals for much larger wind farms-some as large
as 3,000 to 4,000 MW. 4 8 Proposed U.S. off- shore wind projects have ranged from 10 to over 750 MW.49 As noted prev- iously,
the Cape Wind project falls in the middle of this range, with an expected capacity of 450 MW and a projected average daily production of 170
MW.o Although technologically similar to onshore turbines, offshore turbines have some unique features, in addition to generally being larger
and capable of producing more energy. Offshore-turbine structure is driven by the conditions they will face, including water depth, wind and
wave conditions, and seabed geology.52 In

shallow water, the offshore turbine is rooted into the

seabed, though engineers are developing floating turbines for deeper water . 5 3 An
offshore turbine has undersea electrical collection and transmission cables, along with an offshore substation, though the substation may also be
sited onshore.

Solvency Extensions

Offshore Wind Can Provide Enough Power

(--) Offshore wind can provide for US power needs:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Thus, Part III focuses on one promising technology to demonstrate the flaws in current licensing permitting regimes,
and makes concrete recommendations for reform.16 Wind power generation from onshore installations is proven
technology, generates no greenhouse gases, consumes no water,17 is increasingly cost-competitive with most
fossil fuel sources,18 and can be deployed relatively quickly in many parts of the United States and the world.19

Offshore wind power is a relatively newer technology , especially deep-water floating projects,
and is presently less cost-competitive than onshore wind.20 However, because wind speeds are on
average about 90% stronger and more consistent over water than over land, with
higher power densities and lower shear and turbulence ,21 Americas offshore
resources can provide more than its current electricity use.

(--) )Offshore wind could power 26% of all US homes:

Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
the United States has not kept pace with
other countries in developing offshore wind facilities. Though offshore wind has been used in
other countries for nearly twenty years,' 1 none of the United States' current wind capacity
comes from offshore wind.12 An estimated 900,000 MW of potential wind energy
capacity exists off the coasts of the United States -an estimated 98,000 MW of it in shallow
waters.1 4 This shallow-water capacity could power between 22 and 29 million homes,
or between 20 and 26 percent of all U.S. homes. The nation has failed to take advantage of this
In spite of the impressive growth in the U.S. wind industry,

promising resource. This failure can be ascribed in part to the unevenly balanced distribution of the costs and
benefits of offshore wind technology, as well as to the incoherent regulatory framework in the United States for
managing coastal resources.1 7 While the most compelling benefits of offshore wind are frequently regional,
national, or even global, the costs are almost exclusively local. The U.S. regulatory framework is not set up to
handle this cost-benefit gap. As a result, local opposition has stalled offshore wind power development, and
inadequate attention has been paid to its wide-ranging benefits. The Cape Wind project in Massachusetts is a stark
example of how local forces have hindered offshore wind power development. The project is expected to have a
maximum production of 450 MW and an average daily production of 170 MW, or 75 percent of the 230-MW average
demand of Cape Cod and neighboring islands.' 8 In addition to this electricity boon to energy- constrained
Massachusetts,' 9 Cape Wind will reduce regional air pollution and global carbon dioxide emissions.20 Nonetheless,
local opponents to Cape Wind protest its effect on the surrounding environment, including its aesthetic impacts. 2 '
Without an effective way to champion the regional, national, and global benefits of offshore wind, policymakers
have been unable to keep local interests from controlling the process through protest and litigation. After about ten
years of waiting and fighting, Cape Wind developers have still not begun construction.

SolvencyPlan Done By Executive Order

(--) The plan would be done by executive order:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg
As discussed in the preceding subsection, some of the recommended reformssuch
as life cycle assessments, expediting and coordinating regulatory reviews, and
instituting rebuttable presumptionscould be initiated through a combination of
executive orders, rulemaking, and interagency memoranda of understanding, to the extent
that they are not undertaken legislatively. An area of reform that would require action specifically by CEQ and key
regulatory agencies has to do with the categorical exclusion process under NEPA.

SolvencyAT: Bureaucracy
(--) The plan solves for existing bureaucracythats why we
streamline the Coastal Zone Management Act thats our
Schroeder evidence.
(--) Bureaucracy for offshore wind being streamlined:
Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Recently, the DOI took another major step, adding more efficiency to the permitting
process for offshore wind [*911] development in federal waters. n80 The "Smart from the
Start" initiative identified several key problems with the federal leasing process and
implemented two strategies to streamline Atlantic offshore wind projects . n81 First,
the initiative identifies the best Atlantic coastal regions for offshore wind
development, designated "Wind Energy Areas" (WEAs). n82 These regions are identified based on several factors, including the areas'
wind energy potential (strong winds) and geographic considerations that would reduce cost, such as the depth of the ocean floor. n83 The
DOI plans to consolidate environmental and financial information from various
governmental entities and make this information available in a centralized format . n84
This will allow potential investors to quickly make informed business decisions . n85
Second, the initiative streamlines the environmental review process. n86 Through the
environmental information gathered for the WEAs, the DOI will conduct initial environmental assessments under NEPA. n87 After developers
submit proposed construction plans, the DOI will determine [*912] whether an EIS will be needed. n88 One chief criticism of the federal offshore
leasing program was the requirement that some firms might have to conduct more than one EIS, which could result in a seven to ten year delay
before construction could begin. n89

(--) Federal government capable of streamlining regulations:

Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
If the federal government eventually decides that offshore wind energy
development must occur more rapidly in order to meet national needs, the DWPA
serves as a successful model of streamlining a regulatory process for offshore,
alternative energy facilities. Only seven years after the 2002 DWPA amendments
were enacted, three deepwater ports have been successfully licensed and
constructed in the United States, n113 demonstrating the DWPA's success in
streamlining the agency's regulatory scheme.

SolvencyCoastal Zone Management Act Needed

to Solve
(--) Coastal Zone Management Act is key to solve:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
V THE COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT ACT: A POTENTIAL SOLUTION The Cape Wind example
poignantly illustrates the disconnect between local costs and national benefits with regard to offshore wind power

The
federal government needs a stronger role in the process to counteract narrowminded state and local opposition. With a well-integrated federal perspective, agencies and developers
could properly weigh regional, national, and global benefits of offshore wind against its limited local costs. The
CZMA presents an obvious starting point for a revised regulatory framework. It already
development, and the potential for local interests to hijack state and federal processes and stall a project.

covers the states' coastal zones-that is, the area three miles or less from the shore-and leaves states with
substantial power. 2 2 7 However, it currently does not give sufficient weight to the national interest in the benefits
of offshore wind power. Some academics have come to a similar conclusion, but their revisions are tentative and
minor.228 Now is a time for more decisive and bold action . With the change in the United States'
administration, the deteriorating climate situation, and the nation's ongoing energy and economic crises, the
country has both the opportunity and the need to make effective changes. However, setting up an entirely new
regulatory scheme, as some have suggested, 2 2 9 goes too far: it fails to acknowledge what Congress can

With some
strengthening revisions, the CZMA might become the simple solution that helps
the United States turn offshore wind on.
realistically accomplish and ignores the tools we already have in our hands in the CZMA.

SolvencyOffshore Provides Massive Renewable

Energy
(--) Offshore wind would provide significant renewable energy
resources:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
There is great potential for offshore wind energy throughout the coastal United States. In 2009, the National
Renewable Energy Laboratory conducted [*2052] an assessment of offshore wind energy resources throughout the
country. n174 The group concluded that "offshore

wind resources have the potential to be a

significant domestic renewable energy source for coastal electricity loads ." n175 In
addition, the data demonstrated that all coastal states possess large areas of ocean
off their coasts with the wind speed, ocean depth, and distance from the shore ideal
for offshore wind energy collection. n176 Moreover, there is demonstrated interest from the states
themselves. Katherine Roek, in her article, Offshore Wind Energy in the United States: A Legal and Policy Patchwork,
provides a list of state-by-state efforts to promote wind energy, through legislation or otherwise. n177 Proposals for
projects are currently being explored in many states, including Rhode Island, n178 South Carolina, n179 New York,
n180 New Jersey, n181 and even another project in Massachusetts. n182

(--) Offshore wind produces enough electricity to meet the

needs of the nation:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Onshore wind resources have the potential to supply much of the nation's energy
needs, but the challenge of transmitting electricity from remote onshore sites to
large load centers limits the use of land-based wind turbines . n7 In contrast, offshore
wind resources "are located in relative proximity to the country's largest centers of
electricity use." n8 "The [DOE] estimates that the wind resources along American
ocean and Great Lakes coasts are capable of providing 900,000 megawatts (MW) of
electricity - an amount nearly equivalent to the nation's current total installed
capacity." n9

(--) Wind energy off the US coasts contains more potential

energy than the nations currently installed capacity:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Offshore wind energy is a vast resource that has the potential to address the United
States' urgent environmental and energy needs. Wind resources above the United
States' outer continental [*1152] shelf ("OCS") are abundant and broadly dispersed. As
mentioned earlier, the winds off the United States' coasts contain more potential
energy than the nation's total amount of current installed electric capacity . n14 Of the
lower forty-eight states, twenty-eight border a coastline. n15 These same twenty-eight states use 78% of the
nation's electricity. n16 Offshore wind above waters measuring less than thirty meters deep contains enough

energy to supply all but two of these coastal states with at least 20% of their electricity needs. n17 "For most
coastal states, offshore wind resources are the only indigenous energy source capable of making a significant
energy contribution." n18 Offshore wind is a viable resource located in close proximity to areas of the country where
electricity is highest in demand. Why, then, are there no commercial offshore wind farms along the United States'
coasts?

SolvencyPlan Solves

(--) The plan provides the impetus for offshore windDenmark

proves
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Although the failure of offshore wind power in the United States is discouraging, the
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) offers a potential solution. With specific
revisions, the CZMA could serve as the impetus that offshore wind power
needs for success in the United States. Part I gives background information on wind energy. Part II provides more
detail on offshore wind power, including its benefits, costs, and potential. Part III, describes the current regulatory framework for offshore wind
power, covering both federal and state jurisdictions, followed by an explanation of the CZMA, which provides the primary mechanisms for
balancing federal and state interests in U.S. coastal resources. Part IV tells the story of the Cape Wind project, providing background information,
detail on federal and state involvement in the project, related litigation, and the current status of the project as of this writing. In Part V, I move
from the frustrations of Cape Wind to my proposal for a modified CZMA, which would offer hope for offshore wind power development in the
United States. I first describe the current failure of the CZMA to promote offshore wind power. I then draw lessons from Denmark, which has
been the paragon of offshore wind power success, and about how the United States could improve its regulatory framework for offshore wind
power. Based

on Denmark's success, I suggest three specific revisions to the CZMA: (1)

an explicit mandate for offshore wind power development where appropriate and
feasible on all U.S. coasts; (2) required revisions to states' Coastal Zone Management
Plans (CZMPs) in accordance with this new mandate; and (3) increased funding and
other incentives for offshore wind power development. I briefly discuss whether and how these revisions
might affect other types of offshore energy projects, such as offshore oil and gas extraction. I conclude by emphasizing that revisions to the
CZMA are necessarily but one piece of an effective offshore renewable energy program in the United States.

(--) Establishing the first offshore wind farm will cause

investors to invest in the project:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
A real offshore wind farm may encourage government to rethink investment in
offshore wind energy. Potential developers who begin to invest large sums of capital

will likely put pressure on federal and state politicians to increase government incentives for
offshore wind. Such pressure may be what the industry needs in order to achieve the
long-term financial guarantees it desires. n156 Long-term guarantees will then lead
to even further investment.

Public Trust Plan Solvency

(--) Changing the public trust doctrine solves:
Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
III. The

Public Trust Doctrine One unaddressed advantage for offshore wind in Texas is
the potentially lower risk of litigation. Constant litigation undoubtedly slowed the
Cape Wind project. n105 Litigants advanced numerous legal [*914] theories to enjoin
the construction of the Cape Wind project. n106 Surprisingly, Texas's greatest
advantage for offshore wind is not the state's leasing and permitting programs . n107
Rather, it is the case law surrounding an ancient theory of liability: the public trust
doctrine. n108 The doctrine's application has taken many fact-specific forms since its origins in ancient Roman law. n109 Broadly, the
doctrine limits the government's ability to convey state-owned lands that the state has held for public use and enjoyment. n110 Traditionally, the
public held rights in fishing and navigation on public trust lands. n111 These rights function as a minimum standard that a state may not
eliminate, but a state is permitted to bolster public trust rights, by providing a right to ecological protection, for example. n112 The creation of
additional public trust rights has received considerable scholarly attention. n113 In 1970, Professor Joseph Sax published a law review article
citing the doctrine's power to encompass environmental concerns in the face of a state's relinquishment of public land. n114 More importantly, the
California Supreme Court adopted these ideas in National Audubon Society v. Superior Court (Mono Lake), creating a judicial check on
environmentally harmful government [*915] action. n115 In Mono Lake, the court found that the state had an affirmative duty to consider the
Mono Lake's ecological importance before granting to the Los Angeles Water District an unfettered right to grant water licenses to private
entities. n116 State courts have also drawn on additional sources of law to buttress public trust rights. n117 For instance, some states have
constitutional provisions that guarantee the protection of scarce natural resources. n118 Some state courts have then construed these legislative
commands as a source of rights in publicly held lands. n119 A. The Development of the Public Trust Doctrine in American Law The

U.S.
Supreme Court played a crucial role in defining the early contours of the doctrine .
n120 In 1892, the Court issued an opinion that solidified the doctrine's role in enjoining state action inconsistent with publicly held rights. n121
The case pitted the State of Illinois against a private railroad company. n122 The Illinois state legislature conveyed harbor-front property in
Chicago to a private railroad company. n123 The conveyance gave fee simple to the railroad company but restricted the company from later
conveying the submerged land to another party. n124 Ultimately, the railroad company was given unrestricted authority to construct "bridges,
dams, embankments, engine-houses, shops and other [*916] buildings necessary for completing, maintaining and operating the road." n125

Warming Advantage Extensions

Warming Coming Now

(--) Warming is coming nowexpanding renewable energy is
necessary to stop it:
Taber D. Allison, Terry L. Root, and Peter C. Frumhoff 2014 (American Wind
Wildlife Institute, Stanford University, Union of Concerned Scientists,
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1127-y/fulltext.html,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Increasing greenhouse gas emissions are projected to raise global average surface
temperatures by 34 C within this century, dramatically increasing the extinction
risk for terrestrial and freshwater species and severely disrupting ecosystems across the globe.
Limiting the magnitude of warming and its devastating impacts on biodiversity will
require deep emissions reductions that include the rapid, large-scale deployment of
low-carbon renewable energy. Concerns about potential adverse impacts to species and ecosystems
from the expansion of renewable energy development will play an important role in determining the pace and scale
of emissions reductions and hence, the impact of climate change on global biodiversity. Efforts are underway to
reduce uncertainty regarding wildlife impacts from renewable energy development, but such uncertainty cannot be
eliminated. We argue the need to accept some and perhaps substantial risk of impacts to wildlife from renewable
energy development in order to limit the far greater risks to biodiversity loss owing to climate change. We propose
a path forward for better reconciling expedited renewable energy development with wildlife conservation in a
warming world.

Warming is Anthropogenic
(--) Warming is anthropogenic:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
In 2007, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that it is
very likelyat least 90% certainthat humans are responsible for most of the
unequivocal increases in globally averaged temperatures of the previous fifty
years.

Warming: AT: Too Far Gone

(--) Extend our Revell evidenceeven if some warming is
inevitableif we can stave off the tipping pointwe can
prevent catastrophic warming.
(--) Even if some warming is inevitable, the risk of catastrophic
warming can be reduced through sustained cuts in emissions:
Taber D. Allison, Terry L. Root, and Peter C. Frumhoff 2014 (American Wind
Wildlife Institute, Stanford University, Union of Concerned Scientists,
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1127-y/fulltext.html,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Even if we stabilized atmospheric concentrations of heat-trapping gases at todays
levels through immediate and deep reductions in emissions, surface temperatures would continue
to rise for decades as excess heat now contained in the deep ocean is released to the atmosphere. Adapting
to further climate change is unavoidable, but the risks of potentially catastrophic
warming can be reduced through deep and sustained cuts in emissions.

Warming: Cant Adapt

(--) Extend our Revell evidencewe are coming close to
irreversible tipping pointseven if we can adapt to some
warmingwe cant adapt to catastrophic warming.
(--) We cant adapt to warming:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
it also is unequivocal that GHG levels have not
stabilized but continue to grow, ecosystems and food production have not been
able to adapt, and our heavy reliance on fossil fuels perpetuates dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system .31 Equally unequivocal is that 2011 global
Yet in the twenty years since the UNFCCC,

temperatures were the tenth highest on record and [were] higher than any previous year with a La Nina event,
which [normally] has a relative cooling influence.32 The warmest thirteen years of average global temperatures
also have all occurred in the [fifteen] years since 1997.33 Global emissions of carbon dioxide also jumped 5.9% in
2010500 million extra tons of carbon was pumped into the airthe largest absolute jump in any year since the
Industrial Revolution [began in 1750], and the largest percentage increase since 2003.34

Warming Kills Economy

(--) Warming devastates the economy:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
To best understand the urgency, Part II begins with a look at our current fossil and renewable energy mix in the
generation of electricity,5 and then reviews the current and predicted climate change impacts on our energy

At stake are several hundred billion dollars of climate changerelated

damages each year just in the United Statesfrom farming, fishing, and forestry
industries increasingly harmed by changing temperature and precipitation patterns,6 to
coastlines and cities progressively more threatened by rising sea levels.7 The business and insurance
sectors have been hit by a growing number of extreme weather events (most recently
choices.

Hurricane Sandy),8 public health is increasingly threatened by disease and mortality from our over-reliance on fossil
fuels and from their resulting emissions,9 and U.S. national security is increasingly at risk from having to protect
more foreign sources of fossil fuels and from resource-related conflicts resulting in more violence and displaced
persons.

Warming: Laundry List Impacts

Warming causes poverty, water scarcity, and disease:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Climate change is defined as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that
alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
comparable time periods. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 3, U.N. Doc.
FCC/INFORMAL/84, GE.05-62220 (E) 200795 (1992) [hereinafter UNFCCC], available at

Climate change is by far the most

important and fundamental issue affecting all of our lives. It affects core
development issues: poverty, water scarcity, disease, regional and political instability, global
health. . . . [If we take on climate change], we can be in a much better position to
address and resolve all of these issues. Climate change affects the future of humanity, and it affects
http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/convkp/ conveng.pdf. Furthermore:

the future of the planet Earth. Bryan Walsh, Q&A: The U.N.s Ban Ki-Moon on Climate Change, TIME, Dec. 11, 2009,
http:// www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1929071_1929070_1947173,00.html (last visited Nov.
18, 2012) (quoting U.N. Secretary General Ban Ki-Moon).

Poverty is the equivalent to a thermonuclear war between

Russia and the US this systemic impact is bigger and more
probable than any war
James Gilligan, Department of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School, 20 00
edition, Violence: Reflections on Our Deadliest Epidemic, p. 195-196
The 14 to 18 million deaths a year caused by structural violence compare with
about 100,000 deaths per year from armed conflict. Comparing this frequency of
deaths from structural violence to the frequency of those caused by major
military and political violence, such as World War II (an estimated 49 million
military and civilian deaths, including those caused by genocide--or about eight
million per year, 1935-1945), the Indonesian massacre of 1965-1966 (perhaps
575,000 deaths), the Vietnam war (possibly two million, 1954-1973), and even a
hypothetical nuclear exchange between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R (232 million), it
was clear that even war cannot begin to compare with structural violence, which
continues year after year. In other word, every fifteen years, on the average, as
many people die because of relative poverty as would be killed in a nuclear war
that caused 232 million deaths; and every single year, two to three times as
many people die from poverty throughout the world as were killed by the Nazi
genocide of the Jews over a six-year period. This is, in effect, the equivalent of an
ongoing, unending, in fact accelerating, thermonuclear war, or genocide,
perpetrated on the weak and poor every year of every decade, throughout the
world.

Water shortages cause war:

MYERS, Honorary Visiting Fellow at Oxford University, Bulletin of the
Atomic Scientists September 1, 2002; LEXIS
The Middle East is not the only region where water is a source of conflict . According
to Sandra Postel, director of the Massachusetts-based Global Water Policy Project:
"As demands for water hit the limits of a finite supply, conflicts are spreading
within nations. More than 50 countries on five continents might soon be spiraling
toward water disputes unless they move quickly to strike agreements on how to
share the rivers that flow across international boundaries." Included on the list of
places where water is a potential source of conflict are traditional rivals such as
India and Pakistan, Brazil and Argentina, and Turkey and Syria.

Disease risks extinction

The Scotsman, 9/11/1995 (The mega death, Lexis)
plagues, viruses and killer microbes are the
arsenal of the future. Together with the sarin gas which it released on the Tokyo underground in April, the Japanese Ohm
cult had stockpiled a lethal bacterium which it chose not to unleash. Crippling continents by using killer
infectious diseases is no far- fetched idea of sci-fi novels. But the scientists' inability to distinguish between
Bullets and bombs may be the weapons of the present, but

naturally emerging and synthetic disease outbreaks means whole areas could be laid waste before anyone realised what was
happening, warns Laurie Garrett, author of a ground-breaking book on the burgeoning of infectious disease. All this on top of the fact

new diseases are emerging naturally at an alarming rate - representing a real

threat to the survival of the human species - says The Coming Plague. Meticulously researched over
that

the past decade, Garrett's book charts the history of our age-old battle against the microbes, and concludes that we are beginning
to cede the advantage to the disease-carriers. The optimism born out of defeating smallpox in the Sixties was dangerously
premature. Everything from overuse of antibiotics to increased promiscuity have helped smooth the path for the microbes ever
since. "The survival of the human species is not a pre- ordained evolutionary programme," warns Nobel Laureate Joshua Lederberg
in The Coming Plague.

Warming: Now Key

Next ten years are key to solve warming:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
In order to even have a fifty-fifty chance that the average global temperature will not rise more than 2C35 beyond
the temperature of 1750,36 our cumulative emissions of CO2 after 1750 must not exceed one trillion tons.
However, by mid-October 2012 we had already emitted over 561 billion tons, and at current rates, we will emit the

The consequence is that members of the current generation

are uniquely placed in human history: the choices we make nowin the next 1020
yearswill alter the destiny of our species (let alone every other species)
unalterably, and forever.38 Unfortunately by the end of 2011, the more than 10,000 government and U.N.
officials from all over the world attending the Durban climate change conference39 agreed that there is a
significant gap between the aggregate effect of Parties mitigation pledges in terms
of global annual emissions of greenhouse gases by 2020 and aggregate emission
pathways consistent with having a likely chance of holding the increase in global
average temperature below 2C or 1.5C above pre-industrial levels.40
trillionth ton in June 2043.37

Warming: Ocean Acidification Add-On

A) High Co2 levels cause ocean acidificationkilling coral
reefs:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Over the past century, oceans, which cover 70% of the Earths surface, have been warming. Global sea-surface temperatures have
increased about 1.3F and the heat has penetrated almost two miles into the deep ocean.92 This increased warming is contributing
to the destruction of seagrass meadows, causing an annual release back into the environment of 299 million tons of carbon.93

Elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations also are leading to higher absorption of

CO2 into the upper ocean, making the surface waters more acidic (lower pH).94 [O]cean
chemistry currently is changing at least 100 times more rapidly than it has changed during the 650,000 years preceding our [fossil-

This acidification has serious implications for the calcification rates of organisms
Coral reefshabitat for over a million marine speciesare
collapsing, endangering more than a third of all coral species .96 Indeed, temperature
thresholds for the majority of coral reefs worldwide are expected to be exceeded,
causing mass bleaching and complete coral mortality .97 [T]he productivity of plankton, krill, and
fueled] industrial era.95

and plants living at all levels within the global ocean.

marine snails, which compose the base of the ocean food-chain, [also] declines as the ocean acidifies,98 adversely impacting
populations of everything from whales to salmon99species that are also are being harmed by the oceans warming.100

B) Coral reefs solve extinction

Creedence Gerlach, 6/9/2014 (staff writer, 5 Ways Coral Reefs Are
Important to Humans, http://aquaviews.net/explore-the-blue/5-ways-coralreefs-important-humans/; Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
From the Great Barrier Reef to the Caribbeans treasures, coral reefs are an
integral part of ocean life. Not only do they attract and house an array of marine life, they also provide a place of
exploration for SCUBA divers and marine scientists. Environmental consciousness is critical to keep the worlds coral reef
populations healthy. From reducing ocean waste to preserving specific habitats, we hold the potential to help corals flourish even
more for a healthy global ecosystem. Lets take a look at five key ways in which coral reefs are important to humans. Fishing And
Tourism Economy Reefs house a huge habitat for creatures that humans use for economic purposes. Fishing is a multimillion-dollar
business, feeding the worlds population. Sea animals, including shelled organisms, provide economies with souvenir items to entice
tourists. The reef itself is a tourist attraction, creating water sport economies based on snorkeling and SCUBA fees. Air Quality Corals
use the dissolved carbon dioxide in the ocean water to form new reefs. This gas conversion to limestone shell controls the carbon
dioxide levels in the ocean. Without corals activity, that gas could saturate the ocean and air mass above it. All wildlife, including
humans, would be negatively affected with a higher carbon dioxide level. Food Web Without reefs, several thousand fish species
wouldnt have a home. Because of the corals protective design, exposed fish would slowly dieback, creating an imbalance in the
oceans food web. Larger fish would soon decline in population because reef fish wouldnt be available as a food source. The reef
and food web are solidly connected. coral reefsErosion Control The oceans powerful currents could easily erode famous beaches
and shorelines without coral reefs in place. As waves strike the reefs, the water is slightly redirected and slowed down to preserve
the shoreline. The currents themselves may change course permanently without reefs in place, contributing to climate change as

Modern medicine uses the

rainforest and coral reefs to expand on lifesaving drugs. Without reefs , the flora and fauna
necessary for some cancer-fighting drugs wouldnt be available. Its crucial to keep reefs
healthy to derive medicines for human survival.
warm and cold water mix differently across the globe. Medicines Derived From Coral

Warming Causes Species Extinction

A) Warming causes massive species extinctionspecies cant

adapt:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Extinctions from climate change also are expected to be significant and widespread.
The IPCC Fourth Assessment found that approximately 20 30% of plant and
animal species assessed so far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if
increases in global average temperature exceed 1.5 2.5C101a range likely to
be exceeded in the coming decades. [R]ecent studies have linked global warming
to declines in such [] species as [] blue crabs, penguins, gray whales, salmon,
walruses, and ringed seals[; b]ird extinction rates are predicted to be as high as
38[%] in Europe and 72[%] in northeastern Australia, if global warming exceeds 2C
above pre-industrial levels.102 Between now and 2050, Conservation International
estimates that one species will face extinction every twenty minutes;103 the
current extinction rate is one thousand times faster than the average during Earths
history,104 in part because the climate is changing more than 100 times faster than
the rate at which many species can adapt.105

B) Species extinction threatens human extinction:

Eric Chivian, 2011 (Species Extinction, Biodiversity Loss and Human
Health http://www.ilo.org/oshenc/part-vii/environmental-healthhazards/item/505-species-extinction-biodiversity-loss-and-human-health)
This article examines the human health implications resulting from this widespread
loss of biological diversity. It is the authors belief that if people fully comprehended
the effect these massive species extinctions will have - in foreclosing the possibility
of understanding and treating many incurable diseases, and ultimately, perhaps, in
threatening human survival - then they would recognize that the current rates of
biodiversity loss represent nothing less than a slowly evolving medical emergency
and would demand that efforts to preserve species and ecosystems be given the
highest priority.

(--) Current levels of warming will cause massive species

extinction:
Taber D. Allison, Terry L. Root, and Peter C. Frumhoff 2014 (American Wind
Wildlife Institute, Stanford University, Union of Concerned Scientists,
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1127-y/fulltext.html,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports that a large fraction of species
around the globe face increased extinction risk under projected climate change
during and beyond the 21st Century particularly when the synergistic effects of climate change with
other anthropogenic impacts such as habitat loss and fragmentation and invasive species are taken into account.

the risk of extinction owing to climate change is

projected to increase regardless of the scenario used to project future climate
change, but the fraction of species at risk will be greater as the magnitude of
temperature change increases. For example, most of the worlds biodiversity is concentrated in the
tropics. Under medium to high magnitude warming, tropical species (characteristically, with
quite limited physiological tolerance to changes in climate) will experience monthly average
temperatures that exceed historic bounds before 2100 (Mora et al. 2013).
(Scholes et al. 2014). According to the IPCC,

(--) Global Warming Kills species in the squo

NRDC Accessed July 21, 2014 (The Consequences of Global Warming On
Wildlife http://www.nrdc.org/documents.asp?topicid=2, ekr)
Rising temperatures ravage coral reefs and melt the habitats of polar bears and
Antarctic penguins. Ecosystem Shifts and Species Die-Off Increasing global
temperatures are expected to disrupt ecosystems, pushing to extinction those
species that cannot adapt. The first comprehensive assessment of the extinction
risk from global warming found that more than 1 million species could be
obliterated by 2050 if the current trajectory continues. Warning signs today: A
recent study of nearly 2,000 species of plants and animals discovered movement
toward the poles at an average rate of 3.8 miles per decade. Similarly, the study
found species in alpine areas to be moving vertically at a rate of 20 feet per decade
in the second half of the 20th century. The latest Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change report found that approximately 20 to 30 percent of plant and
animal species assessed so far are likely to be at increased risk of extinction if
global average temperature increases by more than 2.7 to 4.5 degrees Fahrenheit.
Some polar bears are drowning because they have to swim longer distances to
reach ice floes. The U. S. Geological Survey has predicted that two-thirds of the
world's polar bear sub-populations will be extinct by mid-century due to melting of
the Arctic ice cap. In Washington's Olympic Mountains, sub-alpine forest has
invaded higher elevation alpine meadows. Bermuda's mangrove forests are
disappearing. In areas of California, shoreline sea life is shifting northward, probably
in response to warmer ocean and air temperatures. Over the past 25 years, some
Antarctic penguin populations have shrunk by 33 percent due to declines in winter
sea-ice habitat. The ocean will continue to become more acidic due to carbon
dioxide emissions. Because of this acidification, species with hard calcium
carbonate shells are vulnerable, as are coral reefs, which are vital to ocean
ecosystems. Scientists predict that a 3.6 degree Fahrenheit increase in temperature
would wipe out 97 percent of the world's coral reefs.

Warming: AT: Food Turn

(--) Extend our Ravell and our Ansley evidencetheir Co2 good
arguments dont assume the effect warming has on the
environmenttheyve spotted us an extinction DA.
(--) Turn: weeds & pests will choke out agricultural crops:
Lynne Peeples (staff writer) 5/9/2014 (Climate Change Will Strengthen
Pests, Weaken Crops, Studies Say,
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/05/09/climate-change-crops-agriculturepublic-health_n_5289109.html, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Count weeds and insect pests among the beneficiaries of climate change.
Meanwhile, the crops we need will have fewer nutrients that make them beneficial,
scientists revealed this week. At the root of the problem: Rising carbon dioxide
levels, warming temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events do not treat all plants, insects and soil
nutrients equally, according to a new federal climate report and a Harvard University study. " Weeds are going
to be winners under any climate change scenario that we anticipate ," said Lewis Ziska, a
plant physiologist at the U.S. Department of Agriculture's crop systems and global change program, and co-author

Crop-devouring insects, too, are predicted to

win. Ultimately, the biggest losers may be us. April was the first month in human history when carbon dioxide
of the National Climate Assessment released Tuesday.

levels averaged greater than 400 parts per million in the atmosphere. It's an arbitrary but ominous milestone,
according to experts, who forecast concentrations of the greenhouse gas will surpass 550 parts per million within
the next 40 years. Both food crops and their weedy nemeses thrive on carbon dioxide . It's
the core ingredient of photosynthesis, the process by which a plant coverts energy from the sun into sugar to grow.

Yet some plants turn the gas into a competitive edge more efficiently than others. "A lot of
our worst weeds benefit the most from high carbon dioxide ," said David Wolfe, an expert in
climate change and plant physiology at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. What's more, many weeds are
incredibly adaptive to environmental changes -- warmer temperatures, or extreme events such as
droughts or floods -- which may help them further choke out critical crops, experts noted.
Still, Ziska said he sees a "silver lining" in weeds' resiliency. "Many of these adaptive weeds are cousins to crops,"
he said. "So, we're trying to identify their beneficial characteristics and then transfer them into crops such as wheat,

Insect pests, even more than weeds, thrive in warmer temperatures, which can
and the chances that their progeny
will survive to continue feeding on and infecting crops with harmful bacteria , viruses
oats, barley or rice."

increase the speed at which the menaces grow and reproduce,

and fungi. Some of the pests are already expanding into territories -- such as the Northeast -- that were once too
cold to host them, Wolfe said. 'KILLING THE PESTS' Dealing with these weeds and bugs creates a two-fold threat to
public health: The increased use of herbicides and insecticides. More chemical dousing means higher costs to
farmers -- the U.S. already spends more than $11 billion a year to control weeds -- and greater contamination of
soil, food and water. The National Climate Assessment adds that there may be toxic effects for farmers,
farmworkers and consumers exposed to these chemicals. The report also notes that "the most widely used
herbicide in the United States, glyphosate (also known as Roundup and other brand names), loses its efficacy on
weeds grown at CO2 levels projected to occur in the coming decades." Tom Helscher, a spokesman for Monsanto,
the manufacturer of Roundup, criticized the statement. "The phrasing 'loses its efficacy' seems to exaggerate what
the referenced study described as 'slightly increased' in tolerance to glyphosate," Helscher told The Huffington Post.
Ziska authored a 1999 paper on glyphosate and carbon dioxide that was referenced in this week's climate
assessment. He has published a handful of other studies since on the same subject, nearly all reaching the same
conclusion: Glyphosate is less effective at higher concentrations of carbon dioxide. "It takes more chemicals to kill
the weeds," Ziska said. Further, noted Ziska, that escalating need for more chemicals comes on top of already
growing use of glyphosate and other herbicides in the U.S. Much of the increase has been linked to evolving
resistance among weeds to the widely used chemicals. Many farmers are then driven to apply greater quantities of

A study
published in the journal Nature on Wednesday warns of yet another public health
threat from rising carbon dioxide: Fewer nutrients in important food crops , including
glyphosate, or supplement with other -- often more toxic -- herbicides such as 2,4-D. A DROP IN QUALITY

wheat, rice and soybeans. In other words, it's not just quantity, but also quality that is at stake .
Researchers simulated conditions expected by mid-century and found significant reductions in zinc, iron and
protein.

(--) Warming devastates agriculture:

Kurukulasuriya, Pradeep; Rosenthal, Shane. 2013. Climate Change and
Agriculture : A Review of Impacts and Adaptations. World Bank, Washington, DC.
World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/16616 License: CC
BY 3.0 IGO., Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The vulnerability of the agricultural sector to both climate change and variability is
well established in the literature. The general consensus is that changes in
temperature and precipitation will result in changes in land and water regimes that
will subsequently affect agricultural productivity. Research has also shown that
specifically in tropical regions, with many of the poorest countries, impacts on
agricultural productivity are expected to be particularly harmful. The vulnerability of
these countries is also especially likely to be acute in light of technological,
resource, and institutional constraints . Although estimates suggest that global food production is
likely to be robust, experts predict tropical regions will see both a reduction in agricultural yields and a rise in
poverty levels as livelihood opportunities for many engaged in the agricultural sector become increasingly
susceptible to expected climate pressures

(--) Co2 decreases plant quality & increases pestsoffsetting

plant growth:
Peter Stiling, PhD Researcher @ University of South Florida ,
Accessed 7/27/2014 (http://www.cas.usf.edu/~pstiling/Elevated%20CO2.htm,
rwg)
the
effects of elevated CO2 on whole communities has rarely been studied. Most
research has focused on laboratory studies of plant growth in an enriched CO2
atmosphere. Such research has often shown how CO2 fertilization increases plant growth and decreases leaf
nitrogen because available nitrogen is diluted over a greater biomass. How such changes affect whole
communities of plants, herbivores and their enemies is not well known because it is hard
Fueled by deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels the rise in atmosphere in CO2 continues unabated, yet

to establish whole communities of herbivores and natural enemies in a laboratory setting. What is needed are field

Field
experiments which elevate CO2 in natural communities have been set up by Dr. Bert
experiments, which elevate CO2 over whole communities. These experiments are very costly and very rare.

Drake, of the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center at Edgewater, Maryland. On the shores of the
Chesapeake, Dr. Drake has investigated the effects of elevated CO2 on salt marsh communities for nearly twenty
years. In Florida, he established eight elevated CO2 chambers, and eight ambient CO2 chambers as controls, over
the scrub-forest at Kennedy Space Center, in the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge (as shown in the above
photo). The forest, being fired maintained, is of low statue, 3-4m, and is small enough to be enclosed by hexagonal
chambers into which CO2 is pumped to near twice-ambient levels, about 700ppm. These are the levels generally

An attractive feature of this experiment

is that it is was conducted under natural conditions , where water and nutrients may be limiting.
predicted to be reached by the middle of the next century.

The most common plant species are myrtle oak, Quercus myrtifolia, sand-live oak, Q. geminata, Chapman oak, Q.
chapmanii, the shrub Vaccinium myrsinites, and the nitrogen-fixing vine, Galactia elliottii. Results showed an
increase in plant growth for Q. myrtifolia and Q. chapmanii and a decrease in leaf nitrogen. Q. geminata growth was
not increased. Against this backdrop my lab has studied the effects of elevated CO2 on insect herbivores and their
natural enemies, especially leaf miners (as shown in the photographs, the bottom photo shows the caterpillar with
the top part of the mine removed). This was possible because the chambers are open-topped, and allow access to
the full complement of herbivores.

Our initial surveys showed four main things: Insects show

increased per capita leaf consumption because of lowered leaf nitrogen levels.
Host plant induced mortality increases, possibly induced by decreased foliar
quality. Parasitoid induced death of insects increased four fold possibly because insect herbivores take longer to
grow. Insect densities per 200 leaves decreased in elevated CO2. Such results were consistent from 1996, when the

During this time, the increased plant growth inside the

elevated chambers failed to compensate for the lowered plant quality . Herbivore
CO2 was turned on through 2001.

densities were still lower per m2. However, the difference between herbivore densities in ambient and elevated CO2
became smaller each year and by 2002 the increased biomass in the elevated CO2 was sufficient to cause elevated
herbivore densities per m2, despite lower foliage quality. This difference increased every year until 2007, when the
CO2 was turned off and the experiment ended. This work illustrates the value of long-term funding for global
change studies since initial results may change over loner periods of time.

(--) Warming risks food insecurity:

Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Climate change thus increases food insecurity by reducing yields of grains, such as
corn and wheat, through increased water scarcity and intensification of severe hot
conditions, thereby causing corn price volatility to sharply increase.90 Globally, the
number of people living in severely stressed river basins will increase by one to
two billion people in the 2050s. About two-thirds of global land area is expected to
experience increased water stress.

(--) Warming affecting key food sources:

Greg Ansley (staff writer) 4/1/2014
(http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?
c_id=2&objectid=11229788, Academics warn human survival on the line,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Crop yields have increased in general over recent decades but the rate of
improvement would have been even faster had it not been for climate change. The
signature of rising temperatures and heat stress are already showing on yield of
wheat and maize, the report says. All aspects of food security are potentially affected by climate
Food security

change, including food access, utilisation and price stability, it says.

Warming: AT: Oceans Check

(--) Oceans arent checking warmingthats the Ravell

evidence.
(--) Oceans dont check warming it just causes ocean
acidification:
Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
[*218] With an ever-increasing energy demand worldwide, greenhouse gas emissions from conventional energy
resources such as natural gas, oil and coal continue to act as a catalyst for global warming. n4 As a result, climate
change is having a detrimental impact on the environment by increasing water temperatures, altering habitats and
migratory patterns, causing sea-level rise and beach erosion, increasing vulnerability to hurricanes and floods, and

While the ocean is able to absorb carbon dioxide

from the atmosphere and thereby help mitigate climate change, such absorption
leads to ocean acidification, which threatens marine species and the marine
ecosystem. n6
causing a significant loss of coastal wetlands. n5

(--) The impact is extinction:

Marine Ecosystems Services Partnership, 2014
(http://marineecosystemservices.org/node/12519, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The scientific community and policy makers recognize marine and coastal
ecosystem services (MCES) as extremely important for human survival. Peer reviewed
assessments to date, however, have used a variety of terms and classifications for ES which have caused confusion
and misinterpretation of the results and hindered communication among involved parties. The European
Commissions Joint Research Centre research group has reviewed the scientific literature to assess the state of the
art of existing MCES assessments, identify gaps and limitations, and propose ways forward. A wide variety of
methodologies, terminologies, and ES classification systems were identified. Based on the existing approaches, the
research group also identified the main research gaps, proposed an integrated ES classification system, and gave
clear definitions of ES tailored to the marine environment. This webinar will demonstrate this work and will go
beyond the scientific component by exploring potential practical implications. We will discuss the applicability of the
integrated MCES classification system for systematically organizing MCES information and enabling interoperability
among existing MCES online platforms. Learn more about this project at http://ges.jrc.ec.europa.eu

WarmingMust Solve Now

(--) Window of opportunity on warming is closing rapidly:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg
The window of opportunity to stabilize carbon levels in our atmosphere and prevent
escalating climate-driven damage to our world is rapidly closing . We must first understand
where our carbon-driven energy and electricity technologies are taking us, and learn from the experiences and
lessons climate change scientists are trying to teach us, because we are on the verge of losingfor the next
thousand or more yearsthe environmental and economic quality of life that we inherited.

Warming SolvencyOffshore Wind Solves Warming

(--) Wind power would provide dramatic decreases in CO2
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
wind
power is poised to become a significant component of the United States' energy
portfolio.' Installed wind capacity has grown from about 1,000 megawatts (MW) in 1985 to nearly 35,000 MW by
INTRODUCTION The drastic growth in electricity produced by wind in the United States indicates that

the end of 2009, enough to power roughly 9.7 million homes. As of September 2008, the United States led the world

According to the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), currently

installed wind power capacity in the United States will avoid an estimated sixtytwo million tons of carbon dioxide annually, or the equivalent to taking 10.5
million cars off the road. 4
in energy produced by wind turbines. 3

(--) Offshore wind solves warming:

Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
The human and environmental costs from failing to promptly reduce dependence on
carbon-dioxide emitting sources for electricity, heating, and transportation are dire
and indisputable. Rather than being the leader among major countries in per capita GHG emissions, our
country urgently needs to lead the world in cutting 80% of our emissions by 2050 and using our renewable energy
resources and technological advances to help other major emitting countries do the same. However, significantly
increasing our use of carbon-free renewable sources to protect current and future generations of all species
human and non-humanrequires concrete changes in how our legal system regulates and permits renewable

One source with the potential for significant energy production and
comparable elimination of fossil fueled GHGs near major American and global
population centers is offshore wind.
energy sources.

(--) Wind power solves climate change:

Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Once a wind project is built, it involves only minimal environmental impacts compared to traditional electricity
generation. Wind power emits negligible amounts of traditional air pollutants, such as
sulfur dioxide and particulate matter, as well as carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. 6 2 Lower emissions of

Lower
greenhouse gas emissions will help to combat climate change , effects of which will be felt
traditional air pollutants means fewer air quality-related illnesses locally and regionally. 6 3

locally and around the world. 6 4 According to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the effects of
climate change will include melting snow, ice, and permafrost; significant effects on terrestrial, marine, and
freshwater plant and animal species; forced changes to agricultural and forestry management; and adverse human

The U.S. Energy

Information Administration estimates that the United States emits 6 billion metric
tons of greenhouse gases annually, and it expects emissions to increase to 7.9
billion metric tons by 2030, with 40 percent of emissions coming from the electric
power sector. 6 6 Thus, if the United States can get more of its electricity from wind
power, it will contribute less to climate change, and help to mitigate its
negative impacts.
health impacts, including increased heat-related mortality and infectious diseases. 6 5

(--) Wind slows the impacts of climate change:

Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Environmental concerns, supply uncertainties, and energy prices are driving the United States to rethink its energy
policy, and in turn, to work toward the development of cleaner, renewable energy sources. As evidence of this
policy change, the Energy Information Administration reported that use of renewable energy in the United States
grew 3.3% over the last year, much faster than the 0.5% growth in total energy use. n1 Wind power is among the
many types of energy that the federal government considers a renewable energy source. n2 "Wind energy has been
the world's fastest growing energy source on a percentage basis for more than a decade," and wind energy capacity
is expected to double approximately every three to four years. n3 The U.S. Department of Energy ("DOE") considers
wind power to be "one of the cleanest and most environmentally neutral energy sources in the world today." n4

wind energy does not degrade our air or water, and it avoids the
detrimental environmental effects associated with mining and drilling. n5 The
expanded use of wind energy also slows the impacts of climate change by removing
greenhouse gas emissions from the atmosphere . n6
[*1150] Indeed,

(--) Offshore wind energy key to prevent warming and reduce

emissions
Environment America 12 (Ennvironment America, environmental advocacy
organization, 11-28-12, U.S. Wind Energy Prevents as Much Global Warming
Pollution as Taking 13 Million Cars Off the Road Each Year, Environment America,
http://www.environmentamerica.org/news/ame/us-wind-energy-prevents-muchglobal-warming-pollution-taking-13-million-cars-road-each-year, mgsk-sd)
As Superstorm Sandy and its aftermath prompt more Americans to call for action tackling global warming, Environment America

a new Environment America Research & Policy Center report today showing how current power
generation from wind energy prevents as much global warming pollution as taking
13 million cars off the road each year. With the fiscal cliff and the expiration of key tax credits for
wind power quickly approaching, Environment America is urging Congress to extend critical federal
incentives for wind powerthe renewable energy production tax credit and the offshore wind investment
tax creditbefore they expire at the end of the year. Our message to Congress is clear: Dont throw wind
power off the fiscal cliff, said Courtney Abrams, Clean Energy Advocate for Environment America. Our clean
released

air, water, and childrens future are too important to blow it now. U.S. Senators championing wind energy and the wind tax
extensions expressed their support this morning along with the report release: "Extending

the wind Production Tax

Credit is one of the most straightforward

ways we can support clean, Made-in-America energy and

American manufacturing jobs. We need the PTC to help create more good-paying jobs here at home, including jobs for our veterans
who are transitioning from the military into the civilian workforce," U.S. Sen. Mark Udall (D-Colo.) said. " The

wind PTC is
a commonsense way to support clean energy and to reduce our carbon emissions. It is
critical that Congress extend the PTC ASAP and support clean, renewable wind energy."
Wind energy is a win for the economy, a win for the environment, and a win for New Jersey, stated
also

U.S. Sen. Frank R. Lautenberg (D-N.J.), a member of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee. We will
continue fighting in Congress to extend the wind production tax credit and support the kind of energy development that is needed to
create jobs, clean up the air our children breathe, and move America to a clean energy future.

(--) Energy Department funds offshore wind farms to reduce

climate change
Bastasch 7/1/14 (Michael Bastasch, writer for the Daily Caller, 7/1/14, Feds Give Cape Wind
Project $150 Million Loan Guarantee, Daily Caller, http://dailycaller.com/2014/07/01/feds-give-capewind-project-150-million-loan-guarantee/#ixzz388kDOpx5, mgsk-sd)

The Energy Department has given a conditional $150 million loan to the Cape Wind
project in Massachusetts in a move to fund the first offshore wind farm in the United
States. Cape Wind will receive the $150 million loan after it secures $2.6 billion in financing, according to the
Energy Department. Once it has secured the balance of the funding, it will get taxpayer dollars to help
construct 130 wind turbines that will have a capacity of 360 megawatts of power . If
built, the Cape Wind Project could transform the fishing ports and manufacturing towns in Eastern
Massachusetts into a hub for a vibrant U.S. offshore wind industry , said Peter Davidson, executive
director of the DOEs loan program in a statement. The lessons that could be learned from this project can help
catalyze similar projects in other areas of the U.S. with excellent offshore wind resources. Massachusetts
Democrats hailed the loan as a boom to the state and a step in the right direction in fighting global warming.
Offshore

wind will not only provide a new, clean source of energy for the United States, it
will reduce American reliance on fossil fuel, mitigate climate change and jump start
a new U.S. industry that will create thousands of clean energy jobs , said
Massachusetts Gov. Deval Patrick. This funding will help Massachusetts make energy history and continue
our leadership as a clean energy jobs hub for the entire nation, said Sen. Ed Markey.

Wind energy solves best reduces world power and diminishes

costs
Jacobson and Delucchi 10 (Mark Z. Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering from Stanford University and
Institute of Transportation Studies from University of California, 12-30-10, Providing
all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I:Technologies, energy
resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure and materials,
http://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/JDEnPolicyPt1.pdf, mgsk-sd)
Climate change, pollution, and energy insecurity are among the greatest problems of
our time. Addressing them requires major changes in our energy infrastructure. Here, we analyze the feasibility of
providing worldwide energy for all purposes (electric power, transportation, heating/cooling, etc.) from wind,
water, and sunlight (WWS). In Part I, we discuss WWS energy system characteristics, current and future energy demand,
availability of WWS resources, numbers of WWS devices, and area and material requirements. In Part II, we address variability,
economics, and policy of WWS energy. We estimate that 3,800,000 5 MW wind turbines, 49,000 300 MW concentrated solar plants,
40,000 300 MW solar PV power plants, 1.7 billion 3 kW rooftop PV systems, 5350 100 MW geothermal power plants, 270 new 1300
MW hydroelectric power plants, 720,000 0.75 MW wave devices, and 490,000 1 MW tidal turbines can power a 2030 WWS world that
uses electricity and electrolytic hydrogen for all purposes.

Such a WWS infrastructure reduces world

power demand by 30% and requires only 0.41% and 0.59% more of the worlds land for footprint and spacing,
respectively. We suggest producing all new energy with WWS by 2030 and replacing the pre-existing
energy by 2050. Barriers to the plan are primarily social and political, not technological or
economic. The energy cost in a WWS world should be similar to that today. A solution
to the problems of climate change, air pollution, water pollution, and energy insecurity
requires a large-scale conversion to clean, perpetual, and reliable energy at low cost together with
an increase in energy efficiency. Over the past decade, a number of studies have proposed large-

scale renewable energy plans. Jacobson and Masters (2001) suggested that the U.S. could satisfy
its Kyoto Protocol requirement for reducing carbon dioxide emissions by replacing 60% of
its coal generation with 214,000236,000 wind turbines rated at 1.5 MW (million watts). Also in
2001, Czisch (2006) suggested that a totally renewable electricity supply system, with intercontinental transmission
lines linking dispersed wind sites with hydropower backup, could supply Europe, North Africa, and East Asia at total
costs per kWh comparable with the costs of the current system. Hoffert et al. (2002)

suggested a portfolio of
solutions for stabilizing atmospheric CO2, including increasing the use of renewable energy and
nuclear energy, decarbonizing fossil fuels and sequestering carbon, and improving energy efficiency.

Warming AdvantageWar Impact

(--) Climate change causes war:
Greg Ansley (staff writer) 4/1/2014
(http://www.nzherald.co.nz/world/news/article.cfm?
c_id=2&objectid=11229788, Academics warn human survival on the line,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Climate change can indirectly increase the risk of violent conflicts, such as civil
wars, by amplifying the well-documented drivers such as poverty and economic
shocks. Climate change will also increase the risk of unplanned displacement of
people and a change in migration patterns, the report says.

Warming advantageExtinction Impact

(--) Warming is caused by burning fossil fuels and threatens
human survival:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) trap heat in the atmosphere.24 The primary GHG emitted
by human activities is carbon dioxide (CO2), which in 2010 represented 84% of all
human-sourced GHG emissions in the U.S.25 The combustion of fossil fuels to
generate electricity is the largest single source of CO2 emissions in the nation,
accounting for about 40% of total U.S. CO2 emissions and 33% of total U.S.
greenhouse gas emissions in 2009.26 Beginning with the 1750 Industrial
Revolution, atmospheric concentrations of GHGs have significantly increased with
greater use of fossil fuelswhich has in turn caused our world to warm and the
climate to change.27 In fact, climate change may be the single greatest threat
to human society and wildlife, as well as to the ecosystems upon which each
depends for survival.

(--) Not just animals- Warming risks human extinction

Snow and Hannam 14 (Deborah and Peter, March 31, 2014, Climate change
could make humans extinct, warns health expert ,
http://www.smh.com.au/environment/climate-change/climate-change-could-makehumans-extinct-warns-health-expert-20140330-35rus.html, ekr)

The Earth is warming so

rapidly that unless humans can arrest the trend, we risk becoming ''extinct'' as a
species, a leading Australian health academic has warned. Helen Berry, associate dean in the faculty of health at
Warming "threat": The rate of change has never been as fast as it is today.

the University of Canberra, said while the Earth has been warmer and colder at different points in the planet's
history, the rate of change has never been as fast as it is today . ''What is remarkable, and
alarming, is the speed of the change since the 1970s, when we started burning a lot of fossil fuels in a massive

''We can't possibly evolve to match this rate [of warming] and, unless we
get control of it, it will mean our extinction eventually.'' Professor Berry is one of three leading
way,'' she said.

academics who have contributed to the health chapter of a Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
report due on Monday. She and co-authors Tony McMichael, of the Australian National University, and Colin Butler,
of the University of Canberra, have outlined the health risks of rapid global warming in a companion piece for The
Conversation, also published on Monday. The three warn that the adverse effects on population health and social

''Human-driven climate change

poses a great threat, unprecedented in type and scale, to wellbeing, health and
perhaps even to human survival,'' they write. They predict that the greatest challenges will
stability have been ''missing from the discussion'' on climate change.

come from undernutrition and impaired child development from reduced food yields;
hospitalisations and deaths due to intense heatwaves, fires and other weatherrelated disasters; and the spread of infectious diseases . They warn the ''largest
impacts'' will be on poorer and vulnerable populations , winding back recent hard-won gains of
social development programs. Projecting to an average global warming of 4 degrees by 2100, they say ''people
won't be able to cope, let alone work productively, in the hottest parts of the year'' .
They say that action on climate change would produce ''extremely large health
benefits'', which would greatly outweigh the costs of curbing emission
growth. A leaked draft of the IPCC report notes that a warming climate would lead to fewer cold weather-related
deaths but the benefits would be ''greatly'' outweighed by the impacts of more frequent heat extremes. Under a
high emissions scenario, some land regions will experience temperatures four to seven degrees higher than preindustrial times, the report said. While some adaptive measures are possible, limits to humans' ability to regulate
heat will affect health and potentially cut global productivity in the warmest months by 40 per cent by 2100. Body
temperatures rising above 38 degrees impair physical and cognitive functions, while risks of organ damage, loss of

Farm crops and

livestock will also struggle with thermal and water stress. Staple crops such as corn,
rice, wheat and soybeans are assumed to face a temperature limit of 40-45 degrees ,
consciousness and death increase sharply above 40.6 degrees, the draft report said.

with temperature thresholds for key sowing stages near or below 35 degrees, the report said.

Warming: AT: Models Bad

(--) An overwhelming scientific consensus is on our side
extend our Ravell evidence that 425 scientists from 75
countries are on our side.
(--) Climate Models Accurate
Nuccitelli, environmental scientist, 7/21, (Dana, 7-21-14, Climate
models accurately predicted global warming when reflecting natural ocean cycles ,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/climate-consensus-97-percent/2014/jul/21/realistic-climate-models-accurately-predicted-global-warming, risk
assessor)
The claim that climate models are unreliable is the 6th-most popular contrarian myth. The argument is generally
based on the claim that climate models didn't predict the slowdown in global surface warming over the past 15
years. That's in large part because during that time, we've predominantly experienced La Nia conditions. Climate
modelers couldn't predict that ahead of time, but the models that happened to accurately simulate those conditions
also accurately predicted the amount of global surface warming we've experienced. Yu Kosaka and Shang-Ping Xie
from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography published a paper in Nature last year taking a similar approach to that
of Risbey and colleagues. In that study, the authors ran climate model simulations in which they incorporated the
observed Pacific Ocean sea surface temperature changes, essentially forcing the models to accurately reflect the
influence from these ocean cycles. When they did that, the authors found that the models simulated the observed
global surface temperature changes remarkably well. The results of these studies give us two important pieces of
information: When they reflect the actual changes in ocean cycles, climate models are quite accurate even in their
short-term temperature predictions. The short-term slowdown in the warming of global surface temperatures is
likely predominantly due to these ocean cycles. The second point is supported by many recent studies finding that
unprecedentedly strong Pacific trade winds have been churning the ocean and funneling more heat to the deeper
layers, leaving less to warm the surface. All signs point to this being a temporary change, and once the oceans
begin to switch back to more frequent El Nio conditions, we expect to see less efficient ocean heat absorption

people
who don't understand how the climate or modeling work have used the surface
warming slowdown to incorrectly argue that climate models aren't reliable and that
global warming is nothing to worry about. This new study shows once again that climate
models are indeed reliable, and if we don't soon act to slow down human-caused
global warming and the risks it poses, we're likely headed for a very bleak future .
leading to accelerated warming of global surface temperatures. It's unfortunate that in the meantime,

Warming: AT: Not Warming Now

(--) Ravell evidence denies thiswarming is coming at a rapid
pace.
(--) Global Warming is on pause now but will come back with a
vengeance
The Economist 14 (3-8-14, Who Pressed the Pause Button? ,
http://www.economist.com/news/science-and-technology/21598610-slowdownrising-temperatures-over-past-15-years-goes-being, ekr)
In September 2013 the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change did so in terms of fluctuating solar output,
atmospheric pollution and volcanoes. All three, it thought, were unusually influential. The suns power output
fluctuates slightly over a cycle that lasts about 11 years. The current cycle seems to have gone on longer than
normal and may have started from a lower base, so for the past decade less heat has been reaching Earth than
usual. Pollution throws aerosols (particles such as soot, and suspended droplets of things like sulphuric acid) into
the air, where they reflect sunlight back into space. The more there are, the greater their cooling effectand
pollution from Chinese coal-fired power plants, in particular, has been rising. Volcanoes do the same thing, so
increased volcanic activity tends to reduce temperatures. Gavin Schmidt and two colleagues at NASAs Goddard
Institute quantify the effects of these trends in Nature Geoscience. They argue that climate models underplay the
delayed and subdued solar cycle. They think the models do not fully account for the effects of pollution (specifically,
nitrate pollution and indirect effects like interactions between aerosols and clouds). And they claim that the impact
of volcanic activity since 2000 has been greater than previously thought. Adjusting for all this ,

they find that

the difference between actual temperature readings and computer-generated ones
largely disappears. The implication is that the solar cycle and aerosols explain much of the
pause. Blowing hot and cold There is, however, another type of explanation. Much of the incoming heat
is absorbed by oceans, especially the largest, the Pacific . Several new studies link the pause
with changes in the Pacific and in the trade winds that influence the circulation of water within it. Trade winds blow
east-west at tropical latitudes. In so doing they push warm surface water towards Asia and draw cooler, deep water
to the surface in the central and eastern Pacific, which chills the atmosphere. Water movement at the surface also
speeds up a giant churn in the ocean. This pulls some warm water downwards, sequestering heat at greater depth.
In a study published in Nature in 2013, Yu Kosaka and Shang-Ping Xie of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, in
San Diego, argued that much of the difference between climate models and actual temperatures could be
accounted for by cooling in the eastern Pacific. Every few years, as Dr Kosaka and Dr Xie observe, the trade winds
slacken and the warm water in the western Pacific sloshes back to replace the cool surface layer of the central and

This weather pattern is called El Nio and it warms the whole

atmosphere. There was an exceptionally strong Nio in 1997-98, an unusually hot
year. The opposite pattern, with cooler temperatures and stronger trade winds, is called La Nia. The 199798 Nio was followed by a series of Nias, explaining part of the pause. Switches
eastern parts of the ocean.

between El Nio and La Nia are frequent. But there is also a long-term cycle called the Pacific Decadal Oscillation
(PDO), which switches from a warm (or positive) phase to a cool (negative) one every 20 or 30 years. The positive
phase encourages more frequent, powerful Nios. According to Kevin Trenberth and John Fasullo of Americas
National Centre for Atmospheric Research, the PDO was positive in 1976-98a period of rising temperaturesand
negative in 1943-76 and since 2000, producing a series of cooling Nias. But that is not the end of it. Laid on top of
these cyclical patterns is what looks like a one-off increase in the strength of trade winds during the past 20 years.
According to a study in Nature Climate Change, by Matthew England of the University of New South Wales and
others, record trade winds have produced a sort of super-Nia. On average, sea levels have risen by about 3mm a
year in the past 30 years. But those in the eastern Pacific have barely budged, whereas those near the Philippines
have risen by 20cm since the late 1990s. A wall of warm water, in other words, is being held in place by powerful
winds, with cool water rising behind it. According to Dr England ,

the effect of the trade winds explains

most of the temperature pause. If so, the pause has gone from being not explained to explained
twice overonce by aerosols and the solar cycle, and again by ocean winds and
currents. These two accounts are not contradictory. The processes at work are understood, but
their relative contributions are not. Nor is the answer to what is, from the human point of view, the biggest question
of all, namely what these explanations imply about how long the pause might continue. On the face of it, if some
heat is being sucked into the deep ocean, the process could simply carry on: the ocean has a huge capacity to

absorb heat as long as the pump sending it to the bottom remains in working order. But that is not all there is to it.
Gravity wants the western-Pacific water wall to slosh back; it is held in place only by exceptionally strong trade

temperatures will start to rise again. The solar cycle is already

turning. And aerosol cooling is likely to be reined in by Chinas anti-pollution laws.
Most of the circumstances that have put the planets temperature rise on pause
look temporary. Like the Terminator, global warming will be back
winds. If those winds slacken,

(--) Warming Pause temporary, warming real

Metcalfe journalist 14 (John, 7-22-14, More Evidence there is no Pause in
Global Warming , http://www.citylab.com/weather/2014/07/more-evidence-there-isno-pause-in-global-warming/374807/ , ekr)
With researchers these days ignoring climate change because there is no scientific
consensus on it, it would seem this logic is impossible to refute. Ha, just kidding: In
fact, a peer-reviewed study last week in Geophysical Research Letters throws horse
manure over it (a copy is available here). Shaun Lovejoy is a physics professor at
Montreal's McGill University who ran a statistical analysis of global temperatures
from 1998 to 2013. He believes that what skeptics deride as a "pause" in warming
was caused by natural temperature fluctuations, and that these fluctuations helped
muddle the ongoing and very real progression of climate change. His findings:
Lovejoys new study concludes that there has been a natural cooling fluctuation of
about 0.28 to 0.37 degrees Celsius since 1998a pattern that is in line with
variations that occur historically every 20 to 50 years, according to the analysis.
"We find many examples of these variations in pre-industrial temperature
reconstructions" based on proxies such as tree rings, ice cores, and lake sediment,
Lovejoy says. "Being based on climate records, this approach avoids any biases that
might affect the sophisticated computer models that are commonly used for
understanding global warming." Whats more, the cooling effect observed between
1998 and 2013 "exactly follows a slightly larger pre-pause warming event, from
1992 to 1998," so that the natural cooling during the "pause" is no more than a
return to the longer term natural variability, Lovejoy concludes. "The pause thus has
a convincing statistical explanation." Lovejoy's study adds another possibility for
what caused the reduced rate of heating; scientists have also considered abnormal
patterns in the trade winds, recent volcanic eruptions that spewed aerosols into the
air, and the ocean sucking up heat like a sponge, as seen in this chart based on
NOAA data: (EPA) In other news, global temperatures made this past month the
hottest June on record. As that follows the hottest May known to humankind, some
are speculating that "2014 could become the warmest year on record," says the
Capital Weather Gang.

(--) Warming still occurring in squo

Borenstein associated press science writer 14 (Seth, 7.22.14,
Global warming makes for hottest June ever,
http://www.csmonitor.com/Environment/Latest-News-Wires/2014/0722/Globalwarming-makes-for-hottest-June-ever, ekr)
WASHINGTON The globe is on a hot streak, setting a heat record in June. That's
after the world broke a record in May. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration announced Monday that last month's average global temperature

was 61.2 degrees (16.2 Celsius), which is 1.3 degrees higher than the 20th century
average. It beat 2010's old record by one-twentieth of a degree. While onetwentieth of a degree doesn't sound like much, in temperature records it's like
winning a horse race by several lengths, said NOAA climate monitoring chief Derek
Arndt. And that's only part of it. The world's oceans not only broke a monthly heat
record at 62.7 degrees (17 Celsius), but it was the hottest the oceans have been on
record no matter what the month, Arndt said. "We are living in the steroid era of the
climate system," Arndt said. Arndt said both the June and May records were driven
by unusually hot oceans, especially the Pacific and Indian oceans. Heat records in
June broke on every continent but Antarctica, especially in New Zealand, northern
South America, Greenland, central Africa and southern Asia. The United States had
only its 33rd hottest June. All 12 of the world's monthly heat records have been set
after 1997, more than half in the last decade. All the global cold monthly records
were set before 1917. And with a likely El Nino this year the warming of the
tropical Pacific which influences the world's weather and increases global
temperatures it is starting to look like another extra warm year, said University of
Arizona climate scientist Jonathan Overpeck. The first six months of the year are the
third warmest first six months on record, coming behind 2010 and 1998, according
to NOAA Global temperature records go back to 1880 and this is the 352nd hotter
than average month in a row. "This is what global warming looks like," Overpeck
said in an email. "Not record hot everywhere all the time, but certainly a reflection
that the odds of record hot are going up everywhere around the planet."

Warming Hurts Economy

(--) Climate change triggers natural disasters, damaging the
economy.
Mundy and Nelson 14 (Alicia Mundy & Colleen Mccain Nelson, 5-7-14,
Climate change already hurting economy,
http://www.businessspectator.com.au/article/2014/5/7/science-environment/climatechange-already-hurting-economy, Reporters of energy, and the politics and lobbying
of the energy industry in the Washington Bureau, and also writes about the
environmental network, smt.)
Climate change is having a present-day, negative impact on Americans' everyday lives and damaging the US
economy as extreme weather brings flooding, droughts and other disasters to
every region in the country, a federal advisory committee has concluded. The congressionally mandated National
Climate Assessment, produced by more than 300 experts overseen by a panel of 60 scientists, concludes that the
nation has already suffered billions of dollars in damages from severe weatherrelated disruptions, which it says will continue to get worse. The document, considered the
most comprehensive analysis of the effects of climate change on the US , is to be released by
the climate advisory panel after a final vote Tuesday morning. President Barack Obama is planning to promote it in a series of events this week calling for
action to combat the trend, and using the report to bring public attention to climate change-related problems. "The findings in this National Climate
Assessment underscore the need for urgent action to combat the threats from climate change, protect American citizens and communities today, and
build a sustainable future for our kids and grandkids," the White House said. The report, by the Federal National Climate Assessment and Development
Advisory Committee, details the effects of climate change on every state in the country and every sector of the economy, from rapidly receding ice in
Alaska to heat waves and coastal flooding in the Northeast. Rising seas in the South put major cities such as Miami at risk, it says. The report says it isn't
too late to implement policies to reduce the carbon emissions that cause greenhouse gases, and calls on governments at all levels to find ways to lower
emissions, particularly from energy production. The report also emphasizes adaptation -- the notion that society needs to find ways to prepare for and
adjust to some of the changes. The report pins much of the increase in climate change on human behaviour and resource usage patterns designed to
highlight problems even at the community level. Superstorm Sandy which destroyed much of northern New Jersey's beaches in 2012, and the heat wave
in the Midwest are among examples the administration will use this week to try to raise concerns among average Americans about climate change.

(--) Global warming puts economies at risk.

Suzuki 14 (David Suzuki, 7-9-14, Yes, Climate Change Will Hurt Your Bottom
Line, http://www.huffingtonpost.ca/david-suzuki/climate-changeeconomics_b_5568735.html, Professor Emeritus at the University of British
Columbia in Vancouver,smt)
Those who don't outright deny the existence of human-caused global warming often argue we can't or shouldn't do anything about it
because it would be too costly. Take Prime Minister Stephen Harper, who recently said, "No matter what they say, no country is

failing to act on
global warming, many leaders are putting jobs and economic prosperity at risk ,
according to recent studies. It's suicidal, both economically and literally, to focus on
the fossil fuel industry's limited, short-term economic benefits at the expense of
long-term prosperity, human health and the natural systems, plants and animals
that make our well-being and survival possible . Those who refuse to take climate change seriously are
subjecting us to enormous economic risks and foregoing the numerous benefits that solutions would bring. The World Bank
-- hardly a radical organization -- is behind one study . While still viewing the problem and solutions through the lens of
outmoded economic thinking, its report demolishes arguments made by the likes of Stephen Harper. " Climate change
poses a severe risk to global economic stability ," said World Bank Group president
Jim Yong Kim in a news release, adding, "We believe it's possible to reduce emissions and
deliver jobs and economic opportunity, while also cutting health care and energy
costs." Risky Business, a report by prominent U.S. Republicans and Democrats,
concludes, "The U.S. economy faces significant risks from unmitigated climate
change," especially in coastal regions and agricultural areas. We're making the same mistake with
going to take actions that are going to deliberately destroy jobs and growth in their country." But in

climate change we made leading to the economic meltdown of 2008 , according to Henry
Paulson, who served as treasury secretary under George W. Bush and sponsored the U.S. bipartisan report with former hedge fund

climate change is a more

intractable problem," he argued in the New York Times. "That means the decisions we're making today
-- to continue along a path that's almost entirely carbon-dependent -- are locking us in for
long-term consequences that we will not be able to change but only adapt to, at enormous cost."
executive Thomas Steyer and former New York mayor Michael Bloomberg. "But

Economy Advantage Extensions

Recession Coming Now

(--) US wont recover from its downward economic spiral:
Andrew Moran, 8/1/2014 (Peter Schiff: U.S. economy has been in a
recession during entire Obama presidency,
http://economiccollapsenews.com/2014/08/01/peter-schiff-u-s-economy-hasbeen-in-a-recession-during-entire-obama-presidency/, Accessed 8/3/2014,
rwg)
Peter Schiff, CEO of Euro Pacific Capital and bestselling author of Crash Proof, presented the
case that the U.S. economy needs to grow five percent each quarter in order to
signify a recovery, something that has not transpired since the economic collapse
a few years ago. Speaking in an interview with Yahoo! Finance on Tuesday, Schiff argued that the U.S.
economy has been in a recession throughout the entire Obama presidency, though the National Bureau of Economic
Research officially declared the recession ended Jun. 2009. The culprit? The Federal Reserve. People

are
losing their full-time jobs, housing is terrible, the price of food and utilities are rising.
The economy is rolling over and the euphoric effects of cheap money are wearing
off, said Schiff. The economy is not recovering the way the Fed believes it is and all [Fed Chair Janet Yellen]
can do is buy more bonds, buy more mortgages, and print more money. This will
help in the short run but undermine the economy in the long run. In other words,
the U.S. will not be recovering from its economic downward spiral.

(--) The US economy is weak nowmultiple indicators prove:

Paul Davidson, 6/29/2014 (IHS Global Insight economist, Weak
spending raising doubts about economy,
http://www.greenvilleonline.com/story/money/business/2014/06/29/weakspending-raising-doubts-economy/11730883/, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
An economy that was expected to finally take off this year instead may disappoint
again. Recent reports showing feeble consumer spending in May and an
unexpectedly sharp economic contraction in the first quarter have prompted
some analysts to cast doubt on a much-anticipated acceleration in growth . "It does
call into question is this the year that's going to be the good year after all?" economist Paul Edelstein of IHS
Global Insight said of the consumer spending data.

After accounting for inflation, consumer

spending dipped 0.1% in May after falling 0.2% in April, the Commerce Department said. Reduced spending
on health care and utilities made up much of the decline. But excluding auto purchases, household consumption of
goods was weak as well. That defied the Hollywood script written by many economists. After consumer spending
rose just 1% in a first quarter battered by harsh winter weather, shoppers were expected to hit the malls with a
vengeance in the current quarter, snapping up everything from summer outfits to flat-screen TVs. But while
personal income rose solidly, rising food and energy prices prompted many Americans to rein in discretionary
purchases, Edelstein said. "The

juxtaposition of pathetic economic growth and accelerating

inflation doesn't speak wonders about the economy's growth potential ," Michael Feroli of
JPMorgan Chase said in a research note. IHS has lowered its second-quarter estimate for economic growth from
3.7% at an annual rate to about 3.4%. Allowing for the economy's first-quarter contraction of 2.9%, IHS predicts
growth for the year will be 1.6%, down from its previous 2.2% forecast. The economy grew 2.6% last year. Most
economists have shrugged off the 2.9% decline in first-quarter output the economy's worst showing since the
recession ended five years ago chalking it up to bad weather, among other temporary factors. " It

does call
into question is this the year that's going to be the good year after all?"

US Economy falls to seven month low

Stilwell 5/22 (Victoria Stilwell, economist for Bloomberg, 5/22/14, Americans
Outlook for U.S. Economy Falls to Seven-Month Low, Bloomberg,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-05-22/americans-outlook-for-u-s-economyfalls-to-seven-month-low.html, gkms-sd)
Americans

expectations for the economy deteriorated to a seven-month low in May , a sign

that the rebound from weakness earlier this year may be limited by still-cautious consumers. An expectations
gauge that tracks where the economy is heading declined to 42.5 in May from 48 in the month prior, data from the
Bloomberg Consumer Comfort Index showed today. The share of respondents who said the economy was getting
worse climbed to the highest level this year. The weekly measure of sentiment declined to 34.1 in the period ended

Wages last month failed to keep pace with a rising

cost of living as prices increased for such necessities as food and fuel. Stronger hiring that
leads to fatter paychecks would help spur confidence and provide households the wherewithal to
boost their spending. Were having a very disappointing rebound from a slowdown
that was thought to have been caused only by the weather, said Joseph Brusuelas, a senior economist at
May 18 from 34.9, the third straight drop.

Bloomberg LP in New York. The lagged effect of elevated interest rates and gasoline prices, as well as weaker equity
gains, have taken at least a temporary bite out of sentiment. Another report today showed claims for
unemployment benefits rose more than forecast last week. Jobless claims increased by 28,000 to 326,000 in the
week ended May 17, Labor Department figures showed in Washington . Stocks were little changed at 9:33 a.m.,

those
said the economy was worsening, up from 31 percent in
April, while the share of respondents who saw an improvement dropped by the most since October.
Bloombergs weekly measure of the economy declined to 20.6 last week, the lowest
level since early February, from 21.5 in the prior period. The buying-climate measure, which asks
with the Standard & Poors 500 Index rising less than 0.1 percent to 1,888.48. Some 37 percent of

surveyed

for the Bloomberg comfort index

consumers whether this is a good time to make purchases, dropped to a six-week low of 30.9 from 32.2. The gauge
of personal finances held at 50.8, also the weakest since the first week of April. Elevated prices at grocery stores
and gas stations are probably souring Americans views of the economy. The consumer-price index increased 0.3
percent in April, the biggest advance since June, the Labor Department said last week.

Food prices climbed

0.4 percent for a third consecutive month as the cost of meat advanced by the most since
November 2003. Gasoline Prices While gasoline prices were little changed last week from the prior period at an
average $3.65 a gallon, they were up from $3.18 six months earlier. Fuel costs reached $3.70 on April 26, the

As prices rise, inflation-adjusted earnings are taking a blow . Real

hourly wages fell 0.3 percent in April from a month earlier and declined 0.1 percent from April 2013, the
highest since March 2013.

first year-over-year decrease since October 2012. Further job gains may lay the groundwork for higher wages and
confidence. Payrolls climbed by 288,000 workers in April after a 203,000 increase the previous month that was
larger than first estimated, the Labor Department said this month. Todays figures showed sentiment fell in five of
seven income brackets last week, with those making more than $100,000 leading the decline. Sentiment among

The
gauge has declined by 9.4 points in the past month . Biggest Drop Among the regions, the South
the highest-earning Americans dropped 3.6 points to 52.9, the lowest level since the week ended Feb. 2.

showed the biggest drop in confidence, with a decline of 2.6 points to a one-month low of 35. Sentiment fell in the
Northeast and rose in the Midwest and West. This is the fourth release in which the Bloomberg comfort index has
been presented on a scale of zero to 100 rather than the previous minus 100 to 100, with the midpoint shifting to
50 from zero. The change is also reflected in the gauges components. It doesnt affect the measures relationship
to each other or their correlation with other economic indicators. Historical data has been revised and analysis of
trends, values and other variables also arent affected.

Economic decline has been the fastest since the recession

House 6/25 (Jonathon House, economist for wall street journal, 6/25/14, U.S.
Economy Shrinks by Most in Five Years, Wall Street Journal,
http://online.wsj.com/articles/u-s-gdp-contracted-at-2-9-pace-in-first-quarter1403699600, gkms-sd)

disruptions at home and weak demand abroad caused a contraction of rare severity in
the U.S. economy in the first quarter, renewing doubts about the strength of the nation's
five-year-old recovery. Gross domestic product, the broadest measure of goods and services produced across
the economy, fell at a seasonally adjusted annual rate of 2.9% in the first quarter, the Commerce
Department said in its third reading of the data Wednesday. That was a sharp downward revision
from the previous estimate that output fell at an annual rate of 1%. It also represented the
fastest rate of decline since the recession , and was the largest drop recorded since
the end of World War II that wasn't part of a recession. To be sure, many signs since March, including
Weather

reports of growth in consumer spending, business investment and hiring, indicate the first quarter doesn't mark the
start of a new recession. And revisions in future years could alter the first-quarter figure. J.P. Morgan Chase

economist Michael Feroli described the decline as "mostly a confluence of several

negative, but mostly one-off, factors." But the severity of the drop, he said, "calls into question how much
vigor there is in the pace of activity" going forward.

Economy Solvency
(--) Offshore wind massively boosts the economy:
The Guardian 12(Investment in offshore wind better for economy than
gas, report shows
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/dec/04/investment-windeconomy-gasThe Guardian is a British national daily newspaperIn August
2013, The Guardian in paper form had an average daily circulation of 189,000
copies.[4] Its combined print and online editions reach nearly 9 million
readers. Tuesday 4 December 2012 05.27 EST, AED)
Large-scale investment in offshore wind would generate more wealth for the
economy and create more jobs than relying on gas -fired power plants, a report suggested on Tuesday.
Substantial deployment of offshore wind by 2030 would have only a marginal impact on electricity prices but would
boost growth, cut dependence on gas imports, and reduce emissions , the report for WWF-UK and
Greenpeace said. The study by Cambridge Econometrics compared a scenario with steady growth in offshore wind capacity in the 2020s with a power system where there was no new

Focusing investment on wind power would

create up to 70,000 more jobs in 2030 than relying on electricity from gas-fired power plants. According to the analysis, which comes ahead
of the government publishing its gas strategy this week, GDP would be 20bn (0.8%) higher in 2030 if there was a
focus on offshore wind. The study suggests electricity prices would only be 1% higher if the UK relied heavily on offshore wind, as gas import prices are
forecast to rise and the costs of offshore wind to fall as deployment is scaled up. Carbon emissions would be two-thirds lower with
large-scale investment in offshore wind than if the UK stuck with gas for electricity supplies and the country would save 8bn a year on gas
imports by 2030. The benefits to the economy from investing in wind still outweigh
focusing on gas, even if gas prices are lower than expected and even if a significant supply chain does not
offshore wind post-2020, with significantly more gas used to meet electricity needs.

develop in the UK, the report claims. Exploiting unconventional shale gas through fracking will have little impact as it would be a benefit to the economy in both scenarios, used either as
a domestic gas supply or exported if the UK was relying more on wind, the report said. Environmental groups have been critical of George Osborne's backing for a second "dash for gas"

They warn
that failing to include a target to slash emissions from the power sector by 2030 in
the recently published energy bill will undermine investment in renewables after
2020, after which time support for low carbon power is unclear.
instead of aiming for low-carbon investment, with support for new gas-fired power plants and tax relief for unconventional shale gas exploration in the UK.

(--) Building offshore wind farms help Americas economy

Europe proves
Oceana 10(Untapped Wealth: Offshore Wind Can Deliver Cleaner, More
Affordable Energy and More Jobs Than Offshore Oil
http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/Offshore_Wind_Report.pd, Oceana is the largest
international ocean conservation and advocacy organization. Oceana works to
protect and restore the worlds oceans through targeted policy campaigns.Oceana
bases its policy campaign goals on science to achieve concrete and measurable
results through targeted campaigns that combine policy, advocacy, science, law,
media, and public pressure to prevent collapse of fish populations, marine mammals
and other sea life caused by industrial fishing and pollution. Campaigns are
designed to produce clear, identifiable policy changes within a 35 year timeframe.
September 2010. AED)

Offshore wind technology can help build the U.S. economy. While the U.S. has not
yet installed any offshore wind farms, Europe has been doing so for 20 years and
has become the leading supplier of offshore wind turbines. Building our own

domestic manufacturing base would strengthen our economy, allow U.S.

expenditures to remain here at home, and allow the U.S. to become an offshore
wind technology exporter.

Offshore wind is key for the US economy

Todd, Chen, and Clogston 13 (Jennifer Todd is an Economic Development
Associate at IEDC, Jess Chen is a Research Fellow and a PhD candidate at American
University, Frankie Clogston is an IEDC Consultant and a PhD candidate at Johns
Hopkins University, 10/1/13, Analysis of the Offshore Wind Energy Industry,
International Economic Development Council,
http://www.iedconline.org/clientuploads/Downloads/edrp/IEDC_Offshore_Wind.pdf,
gkms-sd)
Offshore wind power offers an inexhaustible energy sourc e and, in the U.S., is located close to
major population centers where demand for energy is highest. To date, this market has been
insufficiently tapped. The U.S. has yet to produce a single megawatt (MW) of energy
from an offshore wind source. The success of the domestic onshore wind industry foreshadows some of the
potential of offshore wind. This chapter hopes to spur action that will unlock this potential. The first section
discusses the benefits of offshore wind energy in detail as well as hurdles to market development. The final section

offshore wind energy will

create new jobs and economic investment. Offshore wind generates more jobs per
megawatt than onshore wind and other fossil fuels due to the labor associated with
proposes tactics that can help overcome these hurdles. There is evidence that

manufacturing, operating, and servicing the wind farms. As the European Wind Energy Association (EWEA) states,

the offshore wind industry has an additional employment effect due to the higher cost of
installing, operating, and maintaining offshore wind turbines than land-based ones.1 It is also likely that offshore
wind job creation will come at a time and to those places where it is particularly
needed. As the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) indicates, many of the jobs for the new offshore industry
will potentially be located in economically depressed ports and shipyards . These locations
will serve as fabrication and staging areas for manufacture, installation, and maintenance of offshore wind

These areas can particularly stand to gain jobs in a new offshore wind
industry, since they have experienced a double blow from the downturn in
manufacturing and the recent recession .
turbines.2

Offshore wind generates $200 billion and 15,000 jobs

Todd, Chen, and Clogston 13 (Jennifer Todd is an Economic Development
Associate at IEDC, Jess Chen is a Research Fellow and a PhD candidate at American
University, Frankie Clogston is an IEDC Consultant and a PhD candidate at Johns
Hopkins University, 10/1/13, Analysis of the Offshore Wind Energy Industry,
International Economic Development Council,
http://www.iedconline.org/clientuploads/Downloads/edrp/IEDC_Offshore_Wind.pdf,
gkms-sd)
U.S. Department of Energy estimates that in addition to the 43,000 permanent
O&M jobs, the target 54 GW of offshore wind production would require more than
1.1 million job-years to manufacture and install the turbines.24 Reaching the target is also
expected to generate an estimated $200 billion in new economic activity .25 This calculation is
The

based on a factor of more than 20 jobs for each MW of new offshore wind, as extrapolated from a EWEA 2009
report.26 However, it should be noted that EWEA has revised its projection for MW, total jobs and jobs per MW by
2030 in its more recent 2011 publication, which could affect U.S. estimates updated in the future. Some individual

projects in the U.S. have conducted studies providing job projections. Lake Erie Energy Development Corporation
(LEEDCo) is undertaking the development of a 5,000 MW wind farm in the waters north of Cleveland, Ohio. The
stakeholders believe it could be a strong generator of jobs, partially due to the existing port infrastructure and
supply chain capacities from the areas onshore wind industry. By the time the wind farm is online, they project that

8,000 jobs will have been created. In Maine, the Deepwater Offshore Wind Plan is projected
to generate 7,000 to 15,000 jobs.

(--) Wind turbines increase jobs:

Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
It is impossible to manufacture, build, install and maintain wind turbines without
people. It is equally impossible to plan, gain per- mits for and supervise a wind farm
without them. Unsurprisingly then, employment related to wind energy has also
gone up strik- ingly in recent years. Over the past 5 years, the EU wind energy
industry has created more than 60,000 new jobs. On average, the wind energy
sector in Europe has employed 33 new people every day, 7 days a week over the
past 5 years [27]

(--) Wind energy bolsters jobs:

Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
Wind energy has become an important player in the worlds energy markets, with the 2008 market for turbine

The wind industry also creates many new jobs; over

400,000 people are now employed in this industry, and that number is expected to
be in the millions in the near future. The wind now generates more than 1.5% of the
worlds electricity, upfrom0.1%in1997.Aroundtheworld,80countriesarenowusing wind power on a commercial
installations worth about D 36.5 billion.

basis [17,20]

(--) Wind energy produces jobs:

Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
The wind sector worldwide has become a major job generator: within only 3 years,
the wind sector worldwide almost doubled the number of jobs from 235,000 in 2005
to 440,000 in the year 2008.These 440,000 employees in the wind sector worldwide, most of them highly skilled jobs, are
contributing to the generation of 260TWh of electricity [28]

Competitiveness Advantage
Extensions

CompetitivenessUS behind in renewable energy

now
(--) Europe leads the world in wind energy:
Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
The cumulative installed wind power capacity by region is pre- sented in Fig. 4 [17] .

that Europe is the global leader in the wind energy sector.

It can be seen here

Europe decreased its share in total

However, Europe
is still the strongest con- tinent while North America and Asia are increasing rapidly
their shares. Approximately 55% of the total installed wind capacity of the world is in Europe, 23% in America
installed capacity from 66% in 2006 to 61% in the year 2007 further down to 55% in 2008.

and 20% in Asia. In the Euro- pean Union (EU), installed wind power capacity has increased by an average of 27%
annually over the past 10 years, from 6453MW in 1998 to 65,933MW in 2008.

(--) Rest of the world is ahead of the US in offshore wind power

development:
Ben Deninger (associate in the law firm Cole, Scott & Kissane) 20 14
(Texas Environmental Law Journal, May 2014, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed
7/22/2014, rwg)
What is perhaps most troubling about the slow process faced by Cape Wind is that the

rest of the world is already far

ahead of the United States. During 2012 alone, 293 turbines were erected in Europe
on nine offshore wind farms and 1,166 MW of new power was connected to the European power grid. n23 In China,
the National Energy Administration projects that new development plus existing
offshore wind farms will exceed five million KW of wind capacity by 2015. n24 However,
after examining the chronology of the regulatory and litigation-based hoops Cape Wind has had to jump through, it is not surprising that the
market is hesitant to invest in offshore wind development in the United States.

(--) US is behind Europe in development of wind energy:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
Unlike Europe, no

offshore wind project has commenced construction in the U nited States.

Europe has been ahead of the United States in the development of wind energy
generally, and [*687] has had more land use constraints than the United States, which
meant that the push offshore naturally had to occur first in Europe. The United States has been
behind Europe in the formulation of a comprehensive regulatory scheme for offshore wind, with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 being the first time that development
of offshore wind facilities was addressed at the federal level. Nevertheless, several states have already begun laying the groundwork for extensive offshore wind
development by setting ambitious policy goals and offering generous economic incentives for renewable energy generation, and actively seeking project proposals
from offshore developers. In Delaware, the nation's first offshore power purchase agreement was signed in 2007 between developer Bluewater Wind and the Delmarva
Power utility company. n58 This agreement followed the passage of a state Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) requiring that 20% of Delaware's electricity come
from renewable sources by 2019. n59 The project, which will have a generating capacity of 450 MW, n60 is expected to be built and supplying Delmarva Power with
16% of its electricity by 2012. n61

(--) US behind in offshore wind

Schroeder 10 (Erica Schroeder, October 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,

http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview, University of California Berkeley School
of Law, Yale School of Forestry & Environmental Studies AS)

the United States has not kept pace with

other countries in developing offshore wind facilities . Though offshore wind has been
used in other countries for nearly twenty years,'1 none of the United States' current wind
capacity comes from offshore wind.12 An estimated 900,000 MW of potential wind energy capacity
In spite of the impressive growth in the U.S. wind industry,

exists off the coasts of the United States -an estimated 98,000 MW of it in [end of pg 1632] shallow waters.14 This

shallow-water capacity could power between 22 and 29 million homes, or between 20 and 26
percent of all U.S. homes. The nation has failed to take advantage of this promising
resource. This failure can be ascribed in part to the unevenly balanced distribution of the costs and benefits of

offshore wind technology, as well as to the incoherent regulatory framework in the United States for managing
coastal resources.17 While the most compelling benefits of offshore wind are frequently regional, national, or even
global, the costs are almost exclusively local. The U.S. regulatory framework is not set up to handle this cost-benefit

local opposition has stalled offshore wind power development, and

inadequate attention has been paid to its wide-ranging benefits
gap. As a result,

(--) US behind Germany in offshore wind

Parker CEO of Sustainable Insight Capital Management 09 (Kevin
Parker at the American Council on Renewable Energy, 09-20-09, Phase II of
Renewable Energy in America: National Policy Reform, http://www.acore.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/02/PhaseIISummaryReport1.pdf, CEO at Sustainable Insight
Capital Management and Global Head of Deutsche Bank Asset Management AS)
According to Parker, Germany is the global policy success story. Though it does not have a comparative

Germany passed comprehensive green energy

legislation, helping it to achieve a 17% renewable electricity mix and making it a leader in
wind and solar power. In contrast to the Germans stable, consistent policy framework, the United States has a
patchwork system of incentives that have been allowed to expire numerous times,
causing abrupt stops and starts in investment.
advantage in renewable energy resource potential,

Competitiveness Solvency
(--) Renewable energy incentives key to competitiveness:
USITC 13 (United States International Trade Commission, August 2013,

Renewable Energy and Related Services: Recent Developments,

http://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub4421.pdf, an independent, bipartisan,
quasi-judicial, federal agency of the United States that provides trade expertise to
both the legislative and executive branches AS)
Renewable energy policies are also used to meet an array of additional goals. They can be industrial policies for
governments that anticipate growing demand for renewable energy in the future (in the same way that

Policymakers often
talk about the need to improve domestic competitiveness and increase their
countrys share of the global renewable energy market . 3 Renewable energy
incentives are also used to achieve economic development, job creation, and
environmental justice (for example, reducing emissions of particulates such as soot and ash near lowincome communities). Renewable energy incentives that are sufficiently powerful can
accomplish these goals, but such goals are often in tension with each other. For example, a policy that
governments promote investment in high-tech manufacturing and other industries).

aims to deploy renewable [End of pg. 181] energy and create jobs simultaneously may cost more per job and per
kilowatt-hour (kWh) than single-focus policies.4

(--) Renewable energy can stimulate competitiveness:

Luecke President and Executive Director at The Solar
Foundation 11 (Andrea Luecke, 10-7-11, Renewable Energy Best

Practices in Promotion and Use for Latin America and the Caribbean,
https://www.competecaribbean.org/publication/renewable-energy-bestpractises-in-promotion-and-use-for-latin-america-and-the-caribbeanenglish/wppa_download, former Project Manager U.S. Peace Corps, former
Managing Director of Field Operations
ASAFO Global Medical Trust AS)
Improved Regional Economic Competitiveness A new renewable energy market can also stimulate
regional economic competiveness by inducing new private capital investments .
According to Bloomberg New Energy Finance, in the year ending June 2011, new investment in clean energy rose 22

A successful renewable energy market

would help stabilize long term energy prices, acting as a hedge against rising electricity rates.
Reliance on energy imports would also be reduced , thus saving ratepayers money. A
percent (now at $41.7 billion globally) (Downing, 2011).

manufacturing firm, for example, may choose to locate in a region with abundant clean electricity to avoid costly
environmental controls or regulations. Finally, the existence of one or two renewable energy businesses in a region
can create a clustering effect of companies that operate up and down the supply chain. All this helps to make a
region more economically attractive, and therefore competitive.

(--) Renewable energy key to US competitiveness:

Georgetown International Environmental Law Review 11

(Georgetown International Environmental Law Review, 02-07-11, Helpful (or

Harmful?) to U.S. Competitiveness Lawmakers Seek to Eliminate EPAs
Ability to Regulate GHGs, http://gielr.wordpress.com/2011/02/07/helpful-orharmful-to-u-s-competitiveness-lawmakers-seek-to-eliminate-epas-ability-toregulate-ghgs/, a student-edited scholarly journal published at Georgetown
University Law Center AS)
However, given the fact that developing economic powers such as China are already
giving massive subsidies to their renewable energy sector, the attempt to inhibit
measures which promote renewable energy may harm U.S. competitiveness in the

long run. Similarly, the draft has also come under criticism based on the premise
that its effect in the job market may be negative rather than positive. Natural
Resources Defense Council Climate Campaign Director, Pete Altman, said that the
regulations would benefit the job market by creating jobs in the pollution-control
industry which already creates billions of dollars of export revenue for the U.S.

(--) Alternative energy key to competitiveness:

Melnyk and Andersen 9 (Markian M. W. Melnyk and Robert M.
Andersen, 2009, , http://books.google.com/books?
id=JxTRlPGGjt0C&pg=PA9&lpg=PA9&dq=%22renewable+energy
%22+AROUND(20)+%22US+competitiveness
%22&source=bl&ots=Ep5fXRGzx0&sig=HVeCDB7DPvHRhge5R-imjBFx9M&hl=en&sa=X&ei=CcfOU5zgJZStyATihYKYBA&ved=0CC4Q6AEwBQ
#v=onepage&q&f=false, AS)
In the long run, promoting enhanced efficiency and expanded alternative energy
supply options increases domestic investment opportunities, spurs domestic
employment, and improves U.S. competitiveness. In 2005, expenditures on
imported oil equaled one-third of the U.S. current account deficit of$800 billion."
Shifting even a fraction of this expenditure to US. investments could have a
dramatic, positive effect on the US economy.

Protectionism = War
(--) Protectionism causes global war:
Dan Weil, 6/25/2012 (staff writer, Trade Protectionism on the Rise,
Threatening Global Economy, http://www.newsmax.com/Economy/TradeProtectionism-Global-Economy/2012/06/25/id/443299/, Accessed 7/27/2014,
rwg)
Countries around the world are adopting more and more trade-protectionist measures, and thats not good news for
the global economy. The World Trade Organization reported at the end of April that Group-of-20 (G-20) nations had
imposed 124 rules restricting trade since mid-October, according to The New York Times. Those regulations affect
about 1 percent of global trade.

Its understandable that governments would turn to

protectionism at a time of sluggish economic growth. But the results can be dangerous,
because the globalization of the past 30 years has made economies more and more
dependent on trade. In the 34 countries that are members of the Organization of Economic Cooperation and
Development, trade accounts for about 25 percent of GDP on average. That matches the figure for the United

The trend is particularly alarming in that trade protectionism helped lead

to the outbreak of World War II. Cleary G-20 nations need to seriously step up their efforts to fight
States alone.

protectionism, Karel De Gucht, the European Union trade commissioner, says in a recent statement. It sends the
wrong signal to global trading partners, it sends the wrong signal to investors, and it sends the wrong signal to the
business community. The fact that so many countries are dependent on trade may actually help prevent a trade
war, as governments will hopefully come to realize that their protectionism is ultimately self-defeating.

Oceans Advantage Extensions

OceansAT: Resiliency
(--) Extend our Gregg 14 evidenceoceans are on the brink of
collapseyou should prefer our evidenceit is newer and cites
new trends in the oceans.
(--) Marine Ecosystems are very fragile
Peace 09 (Johanna, 12/1/09, Increasing Ocean Acidification Is Tipping Fragile Balances within Marine
Ecosystems, http://insideclimatenews.org/news/20091201/increasing-ocean-acidification-tipping-fragile-balanceswithin-marine-ecosystems, staff writer, mls)

The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the world's oceans is shifting fragile
balances within marine ecosystems, and it could cause unpredictable changes for
sea life ranging from corals to oysters to whales, scientists say. One threat is from
acidification a chemical process that occurs when carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere is absorbed into sea water, causing the water's pH level to drop. As
acidification increases, scientists now worry its effects on marine life may be more wideranging than previously predicted. In recent months, new threats to species and signs of shifting
populations have raised alarm within the scientific community. The Center for Biological Diversity (CBD) took one
protective step this fall when it filed a petition to list 83 species of coral under the federal Endangered Species Act.
The group seeks to expand on its successful 2006 petition to list elkhorn corals and staghorn corals as
endangered, a landmark decision that marked the U.S. governments first official recognition of climate change as
an existential threat to a species. Over the coming year, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
whose Coral Reef Watch tracks the health of corals worldwide, will review CBDs petition and determine whether to
assign endangered status to each of the 83 species on the list. Ocean Acidification Threatens Coral Reefs

Falling pH levels are particularly harmful for calcifying organisms such as coral and
shellfish, which have a harder time building and maintaining their calcium-based exteriors as the ocean grows
more acidic. A recent study of the changes in shellfish at different levels of ocean acidity found that the
concentrations of CO2 likely to be found in oceans later this century decreased the chances of survival for young
clams and scallops by more than 50%. The survivors also developed more slowly, suggesting their populations

acidification happens at a rate parallel to the

increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide oceans absorb about one-third of CO2 its picking
up pace. According to CBD oceans director Miyoko Sakashita, coral reefs are likely to be the first
major ecosystems widely damaged by the effects of more acidic oceans. Within a few
would be even more vulnerable to prey. Since

decades, global warming and ocean acidification threaten to completely unravel magnificent coral reefs that took

ocean researchers fear that acidification

will obliterate Earths coral reefs in as few as 50 years . Thats why they have begun to design
millions of years to build, Sakashita said. In fact, some

cryogenically cooled coral preservation arks where polyps can be stored to stave off total extinction. London
Institute of Zoology researcher Alex Rogers explained: At the moment the concept we are actually looking at is to
literally have a frozen ark for reef-building corals. So that essentially is a lab-based project to freeze the diversity of
corals that can build coral reefs. Rogers and his team hope to have coral arks operating within two years at the
UKs Whipsnade Zoo and, eventually, at other locations worldwide. After collecting and freezing small samples of
diverse coral species from the ocean, the scientists plan to construct propagation centers where new colonies and
entire reefs can be re-built using the preserved coral tissue. Other Potential Consequences Corals arent the only
species likely to be affected by the ongoing acidification of the worlds oceans. According to marine ecologist Joanie
Kleypas, ocean acidification could affect ocean life forms ranging from tiny algae to giant whales in unpredictable
ways. For one thing, the oceans falling pH will mean that sound travels faster underwater a change that could
either help or hinder the sound-based communication of marine mammals like dolphins and whales. It could be
confusing to these mammals, making them think things are closer than they are, Kleypas said. Or it could be good
for them, helping them to communicate over longer distances. And though a rising level of dissolved CO2 weakens
the skeletons of calcifying creatures like coral, it may be a boon for other organisms that use the gas for
photosynthesis. Certain species of sea grass, for instance, may use the extra CO2 to grow faster and stronger,
eventually competing with retreating reefs for space. Its too soon to tell exactly what the impacts will be for some

Damage to populations of the tiniest plants and creatures ,

whether through rising water temperature, greater acidity or loss of habitat, can spread through an
forms of marine life, scientists say.

entire food chain, throwing it out of balance . Consider, for example, the tiny pterapod, a marine
snail whose shell is affected by changing pH. The pterapod is an important food source for young salmon, mackerel,
herring and cod, which are important food sources for larger animals and economic sources for humans. Youre
shifting the whole balance of elements, Kleypas said. We cant yet predict how marine communities are going to
respond to that.

OceansSolvency Extensions
(--) Offshore wind energy benefits the marine ecosystem.
MUSIAL & BUTTERFIELD 06 National Renewable Energy Laboratory [W.
Musial and S. Butterfield, Energy from Offshore Wind, May 14, 2006,
http://www.nrel.gov/wind/pdfs/39450.pdf] J.L.
offshore wind energy is considered to have
relatively benign effects on the marine environment , according extensive analyses conducted by the
By comparison to other forms of electric power generation,

European Community3. However, regulatory and environmental uncertainties have hindered the approvals for the first offshore wind
projects in the United States and for the early years of development may have a greater influence over the pace of industry growth
than the technical issues presented above. Regulatory Framework for Wind Energy. Though the offshore wind industry has over a
decade of experience in Europe, the United States did not have any project proposals until 2001 with the Cape Wind Associates
project in Nantucket Sound [31]. Moreover, there were no firm national policies for offshore wind developments until the summer of
2005 with the passage of the Energy Policy Act of 2005. This is a case where projects were proposed before policies were in place.
On August 8, 2005, President Bush signed into law the Energy Policy Act (EPAct 2005, PL 109-58) granting the Minerals Management
Service (MMS) within the Department of the Interior (DOI) new responsibilities over renewable energy and alternate uses of offshore
public lands [8]. Prior to the passage of this legislation, the U.S. Army of Corp of Engineers (ACE) assumed the lead for coordinating
the approval process for the first applications. For the last 40 years, MMS has regulated the offshore oil and gas industry and other
mineral extraction activities in federal waters, also known as the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). This new regulatory authority
granted to MMS will evaluate compatible uses of the OCS, establish fair economic compensation for projects in federal waters,
evaluate potential impacts to marine resources, and involve other federal and state agencies in the review and approval of future
wind power permits. The new authority does not supersede or modify existing authority of any other federal agency. It does not
change any of the exclusions of the moratoria areas for oil and gas drilling. In addition, the regulatory regime will not apply to areas
designated as National Marine Sanctuaries, National Parks, National Wildlife Refuges, Sanctuaries, National Parks, National Wildlife
Refuges, or any National Monument. The project siting process will have to take into account these exclusion zones and a range of
legal authorities affecting the OCS [32]. Given their experience in the oil and gas program and sand and gravel mining, MMS has a
wealth of experience in siting and managing activities on the OCS. They do not, however, have a depth of understanding about wind
resources or the wind energy industry. DOE and MMS will be signing a memorandum of understanding to facilitate cooperation
between the two government entities for exchanging technical information relating to offshore wind energy R&D activities,
engineering principles of wind turbines and their components, and certification procedures for the turbines and the entire structure.
In addition to the MMS and ACE, there are two other key federal agencies involved with ocean boundary jurisdictions, including the
independent Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). FERC
jurisdiction stems from their authority regarding electric transmission rights for approval of power supply contracts and connecting
to the landfall cable. Most recently, FERC has assumed additional authority over ocean technology projects with a license
requirement for wave power. NOAA, within the Department of Commerce, has jurisdictional authority to protect and manage marine
sanctuaries. Any projects in or around a marine sanctuary or any protected area will be subject to NOAA review and approval. There
is a multitude of other federal and state agencies involved with ocean uses and management that have a role in the approval
process for offshore wind projects. Generally, these roles and responsibilities are well defined, but there are numerous areas where
these responsibilities overlap and even conflict. This could create a web of approvals and consultations that would delay projects
and not necessarily contribute to better siting or management of offshore wind energy projects. Now MMS has the authority to strike
a better balance between the development of the offshore wind resources and competing commercial and natural resource
interests. The new MMS authority to develop a new regulatory paradigm for offshore wind facilities, based upon Section 388 of the
EPAct 2005, includes the following responsibilities: 3 For detailed analyses comparing the lifecycle costs of fossil, nuclear and wind
power, see the EC reports at http://www.externe.info. Act as the lead agency for permitting offshore renewable energy projects,
including wind.4 Ensure consultation with states and other stakeholders. Grant easements, leases or rights-of-ways for uses of
the OCS on a competitive basis. Pursue appropriate enforcement actions in the event that violations occur. Require financial
surety to ensure that facilities constructed are properly removed at the end of their economic life (decommissioning). Regulate,
monitor, and determine fair return to the nation with a reasonable payment for sharing revenue among coastal states within 15
miles of a project. MMS is under a congressional mandate to develop new regulations by May 2006. The Advanced Notice of
Proposed Regulation was just issued in December 2005 and public comments are being sought. Potential Environmental and Socio-

The full range of potential environmental impacts from offshore wind is

unknown today in the United States, since no projects have yet been installed . The only
Economic Issues.

project evaluation thus far is the 3800-page Cape Wind draft environmental impact statement (DEIS) prepared by Cape Wind
Associates, under the leadership of the ACE New England District. The document, released in November 2004, did not identify any
significant impacts, but a range of specific mitigation measures and monitoring studies are proposed. The ACE held several public
hearings, coordinated with 17 public agencies, and received over 5000 public comments. The extensive public involvement
requirements along with the transfer of jurisdiction to MMS have slowed the permitting process significantly. Recently, MMS required
that the Cape Wind DEIS be expanded to include construction and operational procedures, personnel safety, and decommissioning
that fit a broader cradle-to-grave approach -- reflecting the new MMS program authority. The only peer-reviewed information on
potential environmental impacts from offshore wind is based upon lessons learned from land-based projects and European beforeand-after-control-impact (BACI) studies for installed projects. Though there is over 15 years experience with offshore wind facilities in
Europe, most of the projects were quite small (less than 10 turbines) and there were not scientifically credible siting criteria, study
methodologies, and mitigation strategies established. Given the higher growth rate in Europe and significant deployment plans for
the next 10 years, there is now a proliferation of studies and standards. The most credible and broad-based environmental studies in
Europe for commercial facilities are based upon the Horns Rev and Nysted projects in Denmark. These 2 sites have 80 and 72
turbines, respectively. Both sites have government- 4 The new authorization also includes jurisdictional authority over alternative
energy, such as wave, solar, and current power as well as marine related uses of the existing infrastructure and a coastal assistance

program that are not addressed in this paper. sponsored BACI studies with oversight from an international scientific panel reviewing
the methods, design plans, and findings from three-year post-construction evaluations. The Danish studies did identify several
significant temporal impacts during the construction phase. The pile driving and increased transportation requirements, for example,
created noise and disturbance to the marine environment. Consequently, they documented short-term impacts to marine mammals
as they dispersed away from the area when noise levels increased. In order to mitigate these temporal impacts, pingers were used
before construction began to scare away any mammals in the area to reduce the impacts of the construction noise. Satellite tracking
devices and porpoise detectors were attached to the seals and porpoises to verify their movements. Since the mammals returned to
the area during the operational phase, these impacts were considered insignificant. The actual impact to the mammals for feeding
and molting is considered unknown since it is very difficult to ascertain the physical impacts on mammals in the wild and the
subjects would have to be tracked for several seasons for a more definitive survey5. There are now thousands of pages of scientific
material relating to the ecological effects of offshore wind sites in Europe and the United States. A discussion of the range of
environmental effects and findings along with issues related to the competing uses of the ocean is beyond the scope of this paper.

A recent survey of residents of

Cape Cod, MA near the proposed Cape Wind project conducted by the University of
Delaware identified the following as the most important concerns [33]: Impacts on
marine life, aesthetics, fishing impacts, boating and yachting safety. Unfortunately,
some of these public concerns have been heightened by poorly researched media
anecdotes rather than documented factual information. The installation of wind
turbines also provides some beneficial effects to the local community and ecosystem .
The turbine foundations placed onto or buried into the seabed create artificial reefs or breeding
grounds that have a beneficial effect on local fish populations and benthic
communities. Danish studies indicate that socio-economic impacts may be positive. Over 80% of the respondents in a recent
To give the reader a sense of community priorities, public opinion may shed some light.

Danish study have a positive attitude towards the establishment of new offshore wind farms. There were, however, some concerns
about the visual externalities of turbines when they can be seen from the shore (generally, less than 10 km). In the case of the
Horns Rev wind site, over 1700 man-years of local jobs were created during the construction period and 2000 man-years created
over the 20-year life of the projects. Approximately, one fourth of these jobs were locally based. The multiplier effects are associated
with the construction activities and the manufacturing of materials as well as indirect effects from demands of inputs from goods

Realistically, there is no form of electric generation that can claim to be

completely benign with respect to the environment. To provide a fair assessment of
the alternatives, the environmental impact of a generating facility should be
compared to the impact of an equivalent power plant using a competing fuel source
with the same capacity. When this comparison is conducted, the potential impacts
of offshore wind to the environment appear to very benign [34]. Summary An overview of the
and services.

present status offshore wind energy showed the industry in its infancy but with the potential to become a major contributor in the
U.S. electric energy market. Since over half of the cost of an offshore wind energy power plant is outside the wind turbine itself, the
offshore industry would be the primary beneficiary from this new energy source. If offshore energy predictions are achieved, offshore
wind could result in over $100 billion of revenue to the domestic offshore industry over the next 30 years. The offshore would
receive this revenue in the form of construction, site assessments, subsea electrical, inspections, service, and operation contracts.
The technical issues and design challenges needed to achieve economic competitiveness for near term deployments in shallow
water below 30-m depth were described, as well as the requirements for future technologies needed to deploy systems in deeper
water beyond the current depth limits. New regulatory authority was granted to the Minerals Management Service in 2005 and this

Offshore wind shows very low impacts to the environment

but regulatory and environmental barriers have hindered the first offshore wind
projects in the United States.
new regulatory system was discussed.

(--) Offshore wind power creates artificial reefs

ScienceDaily 10 (ScienceDaily, 1/19/10, Offshore wind power and wave energy devices create
artificial reefs, http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100118132130.htm , science news stories
from the worlds leading universities and research organizations, mls)

Offshore wind power and wave energy foundations can increase local
abundances of fish and crabs. The reef-like constructions also favour for
example blue mussels and barnacles. What's more, it is possible to increase or decrease the
abundance of various species by altering the structural design of foundation. This was shown by Dan Wilhelmsson

"Hard surfaces are

often hard currency in the ocean, and these foundations can function as artificial
reefs. Rock boulders are often placed around the structures to prevent erosion (scouring) around these, and this
of the Department of Zoology, Stockholm University, in a recently published dissertation.

strengthens the reef function," says Dan Wilhelmsson. A major expansion of offshore wind power is underway
along European coasts, and the interest is growing in countries such as the US, China, Japan, and India. Moreover,
wave power technologies are being developed very rapidly. Many thousand wind and wave power plants grouped in
large arrays that each cover several square kilometers can be expected. How marine life will react to this is not
clear, but several research projects investigating the impacts of noise, shadows, electromagnetic fields, and
changes in hydrology etc. are underway. Dan Wilhelmsson studied how offshore wind turbines constitute habitats

wind turbines, even without scour

function as artificial reefs for bottom dwelling fish . The seabed in the
vicinity of wind turbines had higher densities of fish compared to further away from
the turbines and in reference areas. This was despite that the natural bottoms were rich in boulders and algae.
for fish, crabs, lobsters, fouling animals, and plants. He shows that
protection,

Blue mussels dominated on the wind turbines that appeared to offer good growth conditions. Wave power
foundations, too, constituting massive concrete blocks, proved to attract fish and large crabs. Blue mussels fall
down from the surface buoys and become food for animals on the foundations and on the adjacent seabed.
Lobsters also settle under the foundations. In a large-scale experiment, holes were drilled in the foundations, and
this dramatically increased numbers of crabs. The position of the holes also proved to be of importance for the
crabs. However, aggregations of certain species may have a negative impact on other species. The number of
predatory animals on artificial reefs can sometimes become so large that the organisms they prey on, such as seapens, starfish, and crustaceans, are decimated in the surroundings, and certain species can disappear entirely.
"With

wind and wave energy farms, it should be possible to create large areas with
biologically productive reef structures , which would moreover be protected from bottom trawling. By
carefully designing the foundations it would be possible to favour and protect important species or, conversely, to
reduce the reef effects in order minimize the impact on an area," says Dan Wilhelmsson.

(--) Offshore wind farms cultivate and aid ocean life

Owen staff-writer for The Independent July 21 (2014)
(Jonathan, 07/21/2014, Offshore Wind Farms Create Reef Effect Perfect for
Marine Wildlife Especially Seals,
http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/offshore-wind-farms-create-reefeffect-perfect-for-marine-wildlife--especially-seals-9619371.html, GHS//TG)
wind farms have an unexpected benefit if you happen to be a harbour seal
hunting for food in British waters, according to a new study. They are a magnet for hungry seals eager to take
advantage of the fact that fish and crustaceans tend to cluster on the structures which
become artificial reefs for marine life over time. Offshore wind farms can be fertile
feeding grounds for seals who choose to seek them out concludes the study, by an international
team of researchers from Britain, Holland and the US, published yesterday in Current Biology Journal. This is
because the presence of a hard structure beneath the waves attracts barnacles and other crustaceans, and, in turn, fish. Dr
Deborah Russell, a research fellow at the Scottish Oceans Institute at the University
of St Andrews, explained how the reef effect attracts seals . Things like barnacles and mussels
But

will settle on hard structures and then that in turn will attract other marine species and it builds up over time.

(--) Offshore wind farms benefit marine life

Richardson news-writer at Clean Technica 2012 (Jake,
12/10/2012, Offshore Wind Benefits Sea Life,
http://cleantechnica.com/2012/12/10/offshore-wind-benefits-sea-life/,
GHS//TG)
research study conducted by the Marine Institute at Plymouth University found that
offshore wind farms can provide benefits to fish , namely because they can function as
shelters (since sea bottom trawling is not allowed inside wind farms). It seems a little ironic that one human-made technology
A

can protect fish from the very invasive and destructive practice of using technology for sea-bottom trawling. The studys lead author
wrote,

It is necessary to rapidly deploy large quantities of marine renewable energy

to reduce the carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning which are leading to ocean

acidification, global warming and climatic changes. Done well and sensitively its
deployment could be beneficial to marine wildlife compared to the alternative
scenario of greater levels of climate change . (Source: Friends of the Earth)

(--) Trawling independently destroys the oceans

VINSON 06 JD Candidate, Georgetown University [Anna,
Deep Sea Bottom Trawling and the Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape: A Test
Case for Global Action, Georgetown International Environmental Law Review,
Winter, 18 Geo. Int'l Envtl. L. Rev. 355]
Every year an area of the ocean floor twice the size of the United States is
decimated by trawling, a fishing practice whereby powerful vessels drag enormous nets on heavy metal
frames. Modern technology has enabled trawlers to operate in the deep sea where bottom trawling has
become the greatest threat to deep sea ecology . Covering more than half of the earth's surface,
the deep sea supports millions of terrestrial and aquatic organisms . As a result, it assists
breeding and feeding of organisms in shallower waters that support marine fisheries worldwide .
The deep sea also contains biologically rich submerged mountains called seamounts
that serve as an oasis of biological productivity in the open ocean. Bottom trawling
scrapes these seamounts and other deep sea structures clean, easily devastating entire
ecosystems. Recently, the United Nations declined to adopt a global moratorium to
prohibit deep sea bottom trawling. Though advocates for the moratorium still urge the United Nations
to consider the proposed resolution, they also seek alternate methods to terminate the bottom trawl fishery. One
option is to restrict fishing methods through cooperative management agreements among neighboring countries.
Though the effectiveness of such agreements is limited by the jurisdiction of the individual signatories, a
cooperative management agreement, such as the emerging regional marine reserve in the tropical Pacific, could
serve as a good trial ground for a moratorium on deep sea bottom trawling. The Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape, a
product of the cooperation and combined oceanic jurisdictions of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador,
encompasses an atypically large and biodiverse area of the deep sea. Banning deep sea bottom trawling in the
Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape will protect the vital environment and resources of that region while providing an
unparalleled opportunity to illustrate the benefits of a moratorium for the global community. Accordingly, this note
argues that such a ban in the Eastern Tropical Pacific Seascape should be adopted. II. DEEP SEA BOTTOM TRAWLING

The unique characteristics of the deep sea, including remarkable habitats such as seamounts, make
the deep sea ecologically invaluable. Unfortunately, anthropogenic activities threaten
the health of the deep sea. One of the greatest threats is deep sea bottom trawling, the global
significance of which is tremendous. The ecological impact of deep sea bottom trawling is so
grave that the minimal economic benefit in no way justifies the practice.

(--) Offshore Wind helps solve overfishing & trawling

EBERHARDT 06 B.A., 1998, Swarthmore (Biology); M.F.S., 2001, Harvard;
J.D. Candidate, 2006, New York University School of Law. Senior Notes Editor,
2005-2006, New York University Environmental Law Journal [Robert W.
Eberhardt, FEDERALISM AND THE SITING OF OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY
FACILITIES, New York University Environmental Law Journal, 14 N.Y.U. Envtl.
L.J. 374]
Commercial fisheries are common-pool resources with government regulation
justified to avoid overexploitation, and increasingly regulation has been extended to
influence impacts on fisheries that result from activities other than direct capture. n124 In addition to
general wildlife, habitat, and use value impacts described above, the development of an offshore wind

farm could impact commercial fishing by limiting the waters open for fishing or by
influencing commercial fish stocks. Depending on the spacing between turbines, it may or may not be
possible for commercial boats employing particular types of fishing tackle to operate within the boundaries of the
facility. Submarine cables also may prevent continued trawling operations in both
the vicinity of the turbines and in areas around cables connecting the project to [*401] the grid. n125 Fish stocks
may be affected by disruptions of bottom habitat during construction and habitat creation on the marine

The invertebrate reef communities that develop on marine

foundations may serve as habitat for particular fish species, which may benefit
fishing industries if these species are exploited for commercial purposes but could hurt commercial fisheries
if the artificial reefs support non-commercial competitors. n127 Commercial fishery impacts have the
potential for horizontal spillovers primarily when facilities are located near state
borders or in interstate water bodies or when effects influence wide-ranging or highly migratory species.
Impacts resulting from facility components on the outer continental shelf may represent
vertical spillovers of significance to coastal states, because commercial fisheries can
represent an important part of local economies. The extent to which fisheries impacts represent
foundations of the turbines. n126

vertical spillovers would depend on whether facility components have the potential to influence commercial fishing
activity or particular fisheries exploited by coastal residents.

Coral Reefs Key to Solve Extinction

(--) Coral reefs are the most biologically rich and economically
valuable ecosystems in the world.
NOAA accessed July 21st 2014 The NOAA is the national oceanic and atmospheric
administration, a branch of the United States Department of Commerce that specializes in conserving
and protecting the ocean. ["Corals." NOAA National Ocean Service Education. U.S. Department of
Commerce, n.d. Web. 21 July 2014. J.L.]

Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth . Coral reefs
support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including about 4,000 species of fish, 800
species of hard corals and hundreds of other species. Scientists estimate that there may be another 1 to 8 million

This biodiversity is
considered key to finding new medicines for the 21st century . Many drugs are now
being developed from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for cancer,
arthritis, human bacterial infections, viruses, and other diseases . Storehouses of
immense biological wealth, reefs also provide economic and environmental services
to millions of people. Coral reefs may provide goods and services worth $375 billion
each year. This is an amazing figure for an environment that covers less than 1 percent of the Earths surface
undiscovered species of organisms living in and around reefs (Reaka-Kudla, 1997).

(Costanza et al., 1997). boat with harvested sponges In the 1890s, harvesting sponges was second only to cigarmaking in economic importance in the Florida Keys. Nets of recently harvested marine sponges are drying on the
top of the boat's wheelhouse. Click the image for a larger vew. (photo: Scott Larosa) Healthy reefs contribute to
local economies through tourism. Diving tours, fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near
reef systems provide millions of jobs and contribute billions of dollars all over the world. Recent studies show that
millions of people visit coral reefs in the Florida Keys every year. These reefs alone are estimated to have an asset
value of $7.6 billion (Johns et al., 2001). The commercial value of U.S. fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million
(NMFS/NOAA, 2001). In addition, the annual value of reef-dependent recreational fisheries probably exceeds $100

In developing countries, coral reefs contribute about one-quarter of the

total fish catch, providing critical food resources for tens of millions of people (Jameson
million per year.

et al., 1995). Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines from wave action and prevent erosion, property damage and
loss of life. Reefs also protect the highly productive wetlands along the coast, as well as ports and harbors and the
economies they support. Globally, half a billion people are estimated to live within 100 kilometers of a coral reef
and benefit from its production and protection. Natural Threats to Coral Reefs "" next page shallow water coral
Corals growing in very shallow water are the most vulnerable to environmental hazards. Shallow tides can expose
them to the air, drying the polyps out and killing them. Branching corals growing in shallow water can be smashed
by storms. Coral reefs face numerous threats. Weather-related damage to reefs occurs frequently. Large and
powerful waves from hurricanes and cyclones can break apart or flatten large coral heads, scattering their
fragments (Barnes & Hughes, 1999; Jones & Endean, 1976). A single storm seldom kills off an entire colony, but
slow-growing corals may be overgrown by algae before they can recover (UVI, 2001). Reefs also are threatened by
tidal emersions. Long periods of exceptionally low tides leave shallow water coral heads exposed, damaging reefs.
The amount of damage depends on the time of day and the weather conditions. Corals exposed during daylight
hours are subjected to the most ultraviolet radiation, which can overheat and dry out the coral's tissues. Corals may
become so physiologically stressed that they begin to expel their symbiotic zooxanthellae, which leads to bleaching,
and in many cases, death (Barnes & Huges, 1999). crown of thorns sea star In addition to severe weather, corals
are vulnerable to attacks by predators. Large sea stars like this crown-of-thorns (Acanthaster planci) slowly crawl
over coral reefs consuming all of the living coral tissue they come into contact with. Click the image for a larger
view. Increased sea surface temperatures, decreased sea level and increased salinity from altered rainfall can all
result from weather patterns such as El Nio. Together these conditions can have devastating effects on a corals
physiology (Forrester, 1997.) During the 1997-1998 El Nio season, extensive and severe coral reef bleaching
occurred in the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean. Approximately 70 to 80 percent of all shallow-water corals on many
Indo-Pacific reefs were killed. (NMFS Office of Protected Resources, 2001). In addition to weather, corals are
vulnerable to predation. Fish, marine worms, barnacles, crabs, snails and sea stars all prey on the soft inner tissues
of coral polyps (Jones & Endean, 1976). In extreme cases, entire reefs can be devastated by this kind of predation.
In 1978 and 1979, a massive outbreak of crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) attacked the reef at the
Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary in American Samoa. Approximately 90 percent of the corals were
destroyed. Coral reefs may recover from periodic traumas caused by weather or other natural occurrences. If,
however, corals are subjected to numerous and sustained stresses including those imposed by people, the strain
may be too much for them to endure, and they will perish. Anthropogenic Threats to Corals "" next page grounded

ship on coral reef Ships that become grounded on coral reefs may cause immediate and long-term damage to reefs.
Click the image for a larger view. Human-caused, or anthropogenic activities are major threats to coral reefs.
Pollution, overfishing, destructive fishing practices using dynamite or cyanide, collecting live corals for the
aquarium market and mining coral for building materials are some of the many ways that people damage reefs all
around the world every day. (Bryant et al., 1998) One of the most significant threats to reefs is pollution. Landbased runoff and pollutant discharges can result from dredging, coastal development, agricultural and deforestation
activities, and sewage treatment plant operations. This runoff may contain sediments, nutrients, chemicals,
insecticides, oil, and debris (UVI, 2001). When some pollutants enter the water, nutrient levels can increase,
promoting the rapid growth of algae and other organisms that can smother corals (Jones & Endean, 1976). marine
debris on coral There are many ways that pollution can damage reefs. Debris like this plastic bag can quickly
become entangled on a coral and smother it. Click the image for a larger view. Coral reefs also are affected by
leaking fuels, anti-fouling paints and coatings, and other chemicals that enter the water (UVI, 2001). Petroleum
spills do not always appear to affect corals directly because the oil usually stays near the surface of the water, and
much of it evaporates into the atmosphere within days. However, if an oil spill occurs while corals are spawning, the
eggs and sperm can be damaged as they float near the surface before they fertilize and settle. So, in addition to
compromising water quality, oil pollution can disrupt the reproductive success of corals, making them vulnerable to
other types of disturbances. (Bryant, et al, 1998). In many areas, coral reefs are destroyed when coral heads and
brightly-colored reef fishes are collected for the aquarium and jewelry trade. Careless or untrained divers can
trample fragile corals, and many fishing techniques can be destructive. In blast fishing, dynamite or other heavy
explosives are detonated to startle fish out of hiding places. This practice indiscriminately kills other species and
can crack and stress corals so much so that they expel their zooxanthellae. As a result, large sections of reefs can
be destroyed. Cyanide fishing, which involves spraying or dumping cyanide onto reefs to stun and capture live fish,
also kills coral polyps and degrades the reef habitat (NMFS Office of Protected Resources, 2001). More than 40
countries are affected by blast fishing, and more than 15 countries have reported cyanide fishing activities (ICRI,
1995). fishing trawler Certain types of fishing can severely damage reefs. Trawlers catch fish by dragging nets along
the ocean bottom. Reefs in the net's path get mowed down. Long wide patches of rubble and sand are all that is left
in their wake. Other damaging fishing techniques include deep water trawling, which involves dragging a fishing net
along the sea bottom, and muro-ami netting, in which reefs are pounded with weighted bags to startle fish out of
crevices. (Bryant, et al, 1998). Often, fishing nets left as debris can be problematic in areas of wave disturbance. In
shallow water, live corals become entangled in these nets and are torn away from their bases (Coles, 1996). In
addition anchors dropped from fishing vessels onto reefs can break and destroy coral colonies (Bryant, et al, 1998).
Coral Diseases "" next page blackband disease This large brain coral is being attacked by black-band disease. This
is the only coral disease that can be successfully treated. Click the image for a larger view. (Photo: Andy Bruckner,
NOAA) Coral diseases generally occur in response to biological stresses, such as bacteria, fungi and viruses, and
nonbiological stresses, such as increased sea surface temperatures, ultraviolet radiation and pollutants. One type of
stress may exacerbate the other (NMFS, 2001). The frequency of coral diseases has increased significantly over the
last 10 years, causing widespread mortality among reef-building corals. Many scientists believe the increase is
related to deteriorating water quality associated with human-made pollutants and increased sea surface
temperatures. These factors may allow for the proliferation and colonization of microbes. However, exact causes for
coral diseases remain elusive. The onset of most diseases likely is a response to multiple factors (NMFS, 2001).
yellowband disease Yellow-band disease can rapidly spread over a coral, destroying the delicate underlying tissues.
On the left is a massive coral in the early stages of attack by yellow band disease. On the right is the same coral
several weeks later. Note how rapidly the area of destroyed tissue has expanded. Click the image for a larger view.
(Photo: Andy Bruckner, NOAA) While the pathologies, or mechanisms by which many diseases act upon the coral
polyp are not well known, the effects that these diseases have on corals has been well documented. Black-band
disease, discolored spots, red-band disease, and yellow-blotch/band disease appear as discolored bands, spots or
lesions on the surface of the coral. Over time, these progress across or expand over the corals surface consuming
the living tissue and leaving the stark white coral skeleton in their wake. Other diseases, such as rapid wasting,
white-band, white-plague and white-pox, often cause large patches of living coral tissue to slough off, exposing the
skeleton beneath. Once exposed, the corals limestone skeleton can be a fertile breeding ground for algae and
encrusting invertebrates. The colonization and overgrowth of the exposed coral skeleton by foreign organisms often
results in the health of the entire colony taking a downward spiral from which it seldom recovers. Protecting Coral
Reefs "" next page animation of sea surface temperatures Using color enhanced images of sea surface temperature
scientists can observe how environmental changes on a global scale can affect coral reefs in specific regions. Click

Coral reefs are some of the

most biologically rich and economically valuable ecosystems on Earth. They provide
food, jobs, income, and protection to billions of people worldwide . However, coral reefs and
the image for an animation of sea surface temperature change over time.

the magnificent creatures that call them home are in danger of disappearing if actions are not taken to protect

They are threatened by an increasing range of impacts including pollution,

invasive species, diseases, bleaching, and global climate change. The rapid decline
and loss of these valuable, ancient, and complex ecosystems have significant social,
economic, and environmental consequences in the United States and around the
them.

world.

In 1998, the President of the United States established the Coral Reef Task Force (CRTF) to protect and
conserve coral reefs. The CRTF is responsible for mapping and monitoring U.S. coral reefs; researching the causes of
coral reef degradation including pollution and over fishing and finding solutions to these problems; and promoting
conservation and the sustainable use of coral reefs. As a principle member of the CRTF, and as directed by the Coral
Reef Conservation Act of 2000,

NOAA has the responsibility to conserve coral reef

ecosystems.

(--) Reefs are valuable to food security as well as to the

economy.
NOAA accessed July 22nd 2014. The NOAA is the national oceanic and atmospheric
administration, a branch of the United States Department of Commerce that specializes in conserving
and protecting the ocean. ["Value of Coral Ecosystems." NOAA's Coral Reef Conservation Program:
Values. U.S. Department of Commerce, n.d. Web. 22 July 2014. J.L.]

Healthy coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse and economically
valuable ecosystems on earth, providing valuable and vital ecosystem services.
Coral ecosystems are a source of food for millions; protect coastlines from storms
and erosion; provide habitat, spawning and nursery grounds for economically
important fish species; provide jobs and income to local economies from fishing,
recreation, and tourism; are a source of new medicines, and are hotspots of marine
biodiversity. They also are of great cultural importance in many regions around the world, particularly Polynesia. Hanau ka
'Uko-ko'ako'a, hanau kana, he Ako'ako'a, puka. (Born the coral polyp, born of him a coral colony emerged.) Kumulipo, Hawaiian
hymn of creation "Coral

reef declines will have alarming consequences for approximately

500 million people who depend on coral reefs for food, coastal protection, building
materials, and income from tourism. This includes 30 million who are virtually
totally dependent on coral reefs for their livelihoods or for the land they live on
(atolls)." Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (Status of Coral Reefs of the
World: 2008) The economic and intrinsic value of coral ecosystems has been
recognized internationally. Some actions to preserve coral ecosystems for future generations include: Over 13 sites
on the UNESCO World Heritage List contain coral ecosystems, including, among others, the Great Barrier Reef (added in 1981),
Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park in the Philippines (added in 2009) and the Belize Barrier Reserve System, (added to the List of World
Heritage in Danger in 2009). In 2009, the US government nominated the Papahnaumokukea Marine National Monument for
addition to the List. As part of the Micronesia Challenge, five nations and territories in the Micronesia region, including the US
territories of Guam and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, have committed to conserve at least 30 percent of their
near-shore marine resources by 2020. Caribbean nations and territories are following suit with a pledge to conserve at least 20
percent of their marine and coastal habitats by 2020. US National Marine Sanctuaries and three Marine National Monuments contain
coral ecosystems. In the US, coral reefs are found in the waters of the Western Atlantic and Caribbean (Florida, Puerto Rico, and the
US Virgin Islands) and the Pacific Islands (Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands).
They are also found along the coasts of over 100 other countries. While it is difficult to put a dollar value on some of the benefits

one recent estimate gave the total net benefit of the world's coral
reef ecosystems to be $29.8 billion/year . [a] For example, the economic importance of
Hawai`i's coral reefs, when combining recreational, amenity, fishery, and
biodiversity values, were estimated to have direct economic benefits of $360
million/year. [b] The global value above does not account for the economic value of
deep-sea coral ecosystems, which, while less well studied and understood, also
provide important ecosystem services. Deep-sea corals serve as hot-spots of
biodiversity in the deeper ocean and their structure provides enhanced feeding
opportunities, a place to hide from predators, a nursery area for juveniles, fish
spawning aggregation sites, and a place for sedentary invertebrates to grow, much
like their coral reef counterparts. These ecosystems have been identified as habitat
for commercially important fishes such as rockfish, shrimp, and crabs. Deep-sea
corals are also being targeted in the search for new medicines. [c] The value of
these services adds to the global value of coral ecosystems .
coral ecosystems provide,

(--) Reefs are vital to fisheries, coastal protection, and medical

advances.
WWF accessed July 22nd 2014 The WWF is the world wildlife fund. WWF is one of the
world's largest conservation organizations, working do conserve nature and different species of
wildlife. ["Coral Reefs: Importance." WWF. World Wildlife Fund, n.d. Web. 22 July 2014. J.L.]

support enormous biodiversity,

they are also of immense value to humankind. Latest estimates suggest coral reefs provide
close to US$30 billion each year in goods and services, including: Fisheries: Coral
reefs are vital to the worlds fisheries. They form the nurseries for about a quarter of
the ocean's fish, and thus provide revenue for local communities as well as national
and international fishing fleets. An estimated one billion people have some
dependence on coral reefs for food and income from fishing. If properly managed,
reefs can yield around 15 tonnes of fish and other seafood per square kilometre
each year. Tourism: Tourism revenues generated by coral reefs are also significant. For example, according to a
Tropical coral reefs are very productive ecosystems. Not only are do they

report by the Key West chamber of commerce, tourists visiting the Florida Keys in the US generate at least US$3
billion dollars in annual income, while Australias Great Barrier Reef generates well over US$1 billion per year.
Sustainably manged coral reef-based tourism can also provide significant alternative or additional sources of

Coastal protection: Coral reefs break

the power of the waves during storms, hurricanes, typhoons, and even tsumanis . By
helping to prevent coastal erosion, flooding, and loss of property on the shore, the
reefs save billions of dollars each year in terms of reduced insurance and
reconstruction costs and reduced need to build costly coastal defences - not to
mention the reduced human cost of destruction and displacement. Source of
medical advances: We can also expect coral reef species to contribute to future medical
advances. Already coral reef organisms are being used in treatments for diseases
like cancer and HIV. Just as with tropical forests, we may continue to find the
answers to medical problems in the coral reefs - so long as we can keep them
healthy. Intrinsic value: For many coastal societies around the world, coral reefs and their inhabitants are
income to poorer coastal communities in developing countries.

intricately woven into cultural tradtions. For these people - as well as for those who have floated with a mask and
snorkel, immersed themselves in the three dimensional wonderland of a scuba dive, or experienced these habitats
through media and books - a world without coral reefs would be an infinitely poorer place.

(--) A food-security crisis will arise from continued exploitation

of reefs.
Connor 07 Steven Connor is the Science Editor of the Independent newspaper and he won the special
merit award of the European School of Oncology for investigative journalism. He has a degree in zoology from the
University of Oxford & has a special interest in genetics and medical science, human evolution and origins, climate
change, and the environment. [Connor, Steven. "Loss of Coral May Cause Food Supply Crisis." Common Dreams.
The Independent/UK, 04 Apr. 2007. Web. 22 July 2014. https://www.commondreams.org/archive/2007/04/04/303
J.L. ]
More than half of the tropical coral reefs in the world where governments collect data on fishing levels are being
degraded beyond repair, according to a global survey of reef fisheries. The findings suggest that it would take an
additional area of tropical coral four times the size of the Great Barrier Reef - the biggest reef system in the world -

If the commercial exploitation of tropical corals continues at

present rates, many reefs will be irreversibly degraded and millions of people will
have to look for other sources of food, scientists said. "Millions of people are dependent
on coral reef fisheries. We are facing a global crisis among communities which have
limited alternative livelihoods or major food sources," said Katie Newton of the
University of East Anglia in Norwich. "We're facing a food-security crisis - 30 million
to sustain current fishing levels.

people on the planet depend entirely on coral reefs for their income and for their
food," Ms Newton said. The study found that 55 per cent of the 49 island nations who register their fish catch are
fishing unsustainably by taking more fish, mollusks and crustaceans than the reefs are able to replace. The

that the amount of fish being caught on tropical coral reefs is

currently 64 per higher than can be reasonably sustained . This means that it would require an
scientists estimated

additional area of tropical coral amounting to 75,000 sq km - 3.7 times the size of the Great Barrier Reef - to make

By 2050, population growth would triple the

fishing pressures, yet coral reefs will continue to suffer from other threats, notably
pollution and global warming. The study, published in the online journal Current Biology, suggests that
current fishing levels sustainable, the scientists said.

the threat to tropical corals will lead to many inhabited island atolls being abandoned during the 21st century. Nick

Dulvy, of the Center for Environment, Fisheries and Aquaculture in Lowestoft, said
exploitation of coral fisheries would cause social and economic hardship.
"Alternative livelihoods will be essential for many of those currently dependent on
coral reef fisheries," he said. It is estimated that 284,300 sq km of tropical coral exist globally and that about
20 per cent have been irreversibly lost in recent decades. Another 26 per cent is at risk. Small-scale fishing
can be sustainable but population growth and the spread of unsustainable methods
of fishing - such as the use of dynamite - is damaging many reefs beyond repair .
"Once [large fish] are removed, you get various cascade effects such as a proliferation in sea urchins, which are
indiscriminate grazers," Ms Newton said.

(--) Coral Reefs key to Biodiversity

NOAA accessed 7/21/14

(NOAA, accessed 7/12/14, Biodiversity,

http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/biodiversity/, mls)

Coral reefs are essential spawning, nursery, breeding, and feeding grounds for
numerous organisms. In terms of biodiversity, the variety of species living on a coral reef is
greater than in any other shallow-water marine ecosystems and is one of the most
diverse on the planet, yet coral reefs cover less than one tenth of one percent of the ocean floor. [a] Of
the 34 recognised animal Phyla, 32 are found on coral reefs , compared to only nine Phyla in
tropical rainforests. [b] In addition to scores of invertebrate species and macrofauna (sharks, sea
turtles, etc.), coral reefs support more than 800 hard coral species and more than 4,000
species of fish. [a, c] Over 25 percent of the world's fish biodiversity , and between nine and
12 percent of the world's total fisheries, are associated with coral reefs. [a] While a portion of these
diverse species are associated with reefs only to hunt or for a portion of their life cyclesuch as juveniles utilizing
reefs as a nursery and adults during spawningothers spend their entire lives in reef ecosystems. And this may

scientists estimate that there may be another one to nine

million undiscovered species of organisms living in and around reefs ! [d] By one estimate,
only be the tip of the iceberg;

biodiversity value accounts for $5.5 billion of the total estimated annual global net benefit of coral reefs. [e] In
Hawai`i alone, a study placed annual value of biodiversity on Hawaiian reefs to be $17.84 million/year. [f ]

The

Coral Triangle is located along the equator where the western portion of the Pacific Ocean meets the Indian
Ocean; it includes all or part of the exclusive economic zones of Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, the

region is recognized as the most biodiverse

reef region in the worldit is home to one third of the world's remaining reefs, 75
percent of the known coral species, and almost 3,000 species of fish the total value of
Philippines, the Solomon Islands, and Timor-Leste. This

that region's coral reef ecosystems is estimated at $2.3 billion/year. [g] While less well studied than shallow-water

deep-sea coral communities are thought to support the greatest biodiversity in

the deep ocean. At several sites in the northeast Atlantic, 92 percent of fish species were associated with
reefs,

communities of Lophelia deep-sea corals rather than the surrounding seabed. Several deep-sea communities have
already been identified as essential habitat for federally-managed species. [h] The values coral ecosystems provide
in terms of biodiversity and habitat for other species feed into benefits for humans, such as fisheries that provide
food and income for millions, reef-based recreation like diving and fishing that provide income for local economies
and leisure to millions, and the medical potential of compounds isolated from organisms living on reefs.

(--) Coral Reefs can save oceans

Tel Aviv University 6/24 (Tel Aviv University, 6/24/14, Can coral save our oceans? Soft coral
tissue may help protect reefs against the hazardous effects of climate change,
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2014/06/140624172301.htm, mls)
Coral reefs are home to a rich and diverse ecosystem, providing a habitat for a wide range of marine animals. But

the increasing acidification of ocean water is jeopardizing the calcified foundations

of these reefs, endangering the survival of thousands upon thousands of resident
species. New research by Prof. Yehuda Benayahu, Dr. Zehava Barkay, Prof. Maoz Fine, and their jointly supervised
graduate student Yasmin Gabay of Tel Aviv University's Department of Zoology, Wolfson Applied Materials Research

the Interuniversity Institute for Marine Sciences in Eilat has uncovered the
protective properties of soft coral tissue, which proved resilient when exposed to
declining oceanic pH levels. The study, published in PLOS One, provides insight into the changing face of
Center and

coral reefs threatened by dropping oceanic pH levels and may provide a new approach toward preserving the

Acidification is caused by
increased carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere due to global change, fossil
fuel burning, and other pollution. These emissions dissolve in the ocean, resulting in
a slight lowering of oceanic pH levels. This produces changes to ocean water's carbon content,
harder, calcified reef foundations. Reefs and environmental change

destroying the calcification of reef-building stony coral. "The rise in temperature and ocean acidification are the
main concerns of environmental change," said Prof. Benayahu, the Israel Cohen Chair in Environmental Zoology,
whose TAU laboratory is home to one of the world's only soft coral (octocoral) research centers. "We know the value
of reefs, the massive calcium carbonate constructions that act as wave breakers, and protect against floods,
erosion, hurricanes, and typhoons. While alive, they provide habitats for thousands of living organisms, from sea
urchins to clams, algae to fish. Reefs are also economically important in regions like Eilat or the Caribbean." At first,
the researchers examined the effects of lowered pH levels on living colonies of soft corals. Observing no significant
effects on their physiology, Gabay thought it would be interesting to consider the effects of acidification on the
skeleton of these soft corals. "We really wanted to know if something could survive dropping pH levels in the
future," said Gabay. "I was curious as to whether coral tissue could protect the inner coral skeleton, which is of most
use in terms of reef construction, so I conducted an experiment using live soft corals and soft coral skeletons, which
were placed in tanks containing ocean water with manipulated pH levels." Using state-of-the-art microscopy, Gabay
then scanned the tissue-covered skeletons and bare skeletons of soft corals exposed to experimental acidic
conditions, the same conditions the International Panel of Climate Change predicts will occur 100 years from now if
carbon dioxide emissions continue to rise. She found that the bare soft coral skeletons exhibited acidic stressed
symptoms -- large pockets burned into their microscopic corpuscular subunits -- whereas the tissue-covered
skeleton revealed almost no damage to its microscopic subunits. "We

found that the soft coral's tissue

may indeed protect the skeleton from declining pH levels," said Yasmin Gabay. "The
organism's internal environment apparently has a mechanism that protects against the
acidic conditions." The future of "the orchestra" According to Prof. Benayahu, the future of soft-coral reefs
isstill unclear. Soft corals are not primary reef builders, because their skeletons are slow to calcify. Stony corals
provide the massive skeletons that create reefs. Soft corals are replacing these reef builders, because they are
somehow able to survive and live under extreme environmental conditions. "A reef is like an orchestra. Many
organisms interact to create harmony," said Prof. Benayahu. "Thousands of species live together and create life
together. It is hard to predict what will happen if only soft corals survive, because they simply do not calcify at same
rate as stony corals." The researchers are currently studying the potential effects of soft coral displacement of stony
coral species and the subsequent ramifications for reefs.

(--) Biodiversity collapse causes extinction

Novacek and Cleland 01 (Michael J., Elsa E., 5/8/2001, The current biodiversity extinction
event: Scenarios for mitigation and recovery, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3055649?origin=JSTOR-pdf, Senior Vice
President and Provost of Science; Curator, Division of Paleontology, Associate Professor of Ecology, Behavior and
Evolution, mls)

The current massive degradation of habitat and extinction of species is taking place
on a catastrophically short timescale, and their effects will fundamentally reset the
future evolution of the planet's biota. The fossil record suggests that recovery of global ecosystems
has required millions or even tens of millions of years. Thus, intervention by humans, the very agents of the current

environmental crisis, is required for any possibility of short-term recovery or maintenance of the biota. Many current
recovery efforts have deficiencies, including insufficient information on the diversity and distribution of species,
ecological processes, and magnitude and interaction of threats to biodiversity (pollution, overharvesting, climate
change, disruption of biogeochemical cy- cles, introduced or invasive species, habitat loss and fragmentation
through land use, disruption of community structure in habitats, and others). A much greater and more urgently
applied investment to address these deficiencies is obviously warranted. Conservation and restoration in humandominated ecosystems must strengthen connections between human activities, such as agricultural or harvesting
practices, and relevant research generated in the bio- logical, earth, and atmospheric sciences. Certain threats to
biodi- versity require intensive international cooperation and input from the scientific community to mitigate their
harmful effects, includ- ing climate change and alteration of global biogeochemical cycles. In a world already
transformed by human activity, the connection between humans and the ecosystems they depend on must frame
any strategy for the recovery of the biota. There massive is consensus degradation in the of habitat scientific and
community extinction that of many the current of the massive degradation of habitat and extinction of many of the

Based on
extinction rates estimated to be thousands of times the background rate, figures approach- ing 30%
extermination of all species by the mid 21st century are not unrealistic (1-4), an event
comparable to some of the catastrophic mass extinction events of the past (5, 6). The
current rate of rainforest destruction poses a profound threat to species diversity (7). Likewise, the
degradation of the marine ecosystems (8, 9) is directly evident through the
denudation of species that were once dominant and integral to such ecosystems .
Earth's biota is unprecedented and is taking place on a cata- strophically short timescale.

Indeed, this colloquium is framed by a view that if the current global extinction event is of the magnitude that
seems to be well indicated by the data at hand, then its effects will fundamentally reset the future evolution of the
planet's biota. The devastating impact of the current biodiversity crisis moves us to consider the possibilities for the
recovery of the biota. Here, there are several options. First, a rebound could occur from a natural reversal in trends.
Such a pattern would, however, require an unacceptably long timescale; recoveries from mass extinction in the
fossil record are measured in millions or tens of millions of years (10). Second, recovery could result from
unacceptably Malthusian compensation - namely, marked re- duction in the world population of human consumers.
Third, some degree of recovery could result from a policy that protects key habitats even with minimal protection of

A fourth recovery
scenario involves enlightened human intervention beyond simple measures of
wilderness pres- ervation, a strategy that embraces ecosystem management and
mitigation of the current alteration of global biogeochemical cycles . Here, strong
ecosystems already altered or encroached on by human activity (i.e., protecting "hotspots").

preference is expressed for the last of these options. Clearly, the future of evolution of the planet's biota depends
significantly on what we do now to minimize loss of species, populations, and habitats. At the same time, there is
acute recognition of the challenges and potential shortcomings of many attempts at remediation and recovery. It is
hoped that this panel's consideration of major threats, their interaction, and the linkage between science and
conservation in mitigating these threats suggest some feasible recovery scenarios at several different scales

the fossil record powerfully

indicates the reality of extinction on many scales, the magnitude as well as selectivity of effects,
Lessons from the Past: Recovery as a Long-Term Phenomenon It is clear that

and the pattern of recovery and survival (11, 12). To what extent then does the fossil record help us in forecasting
both scenarios for extinction and recovery in the current crisis? Consideration of this question moves us to
acknowledge that there are several aspects of these past events that diminish their relevance to the current
situation. First, ancient mass extinction events have been documented over comparatively long or imprecise
timescales. The current crisis has been extended through historical times, a matter of centuries or a millennium,
with a greatly accelerated impact that began during the 20th century with the exponential increase of world human
populations. Thus, a period of only 75 to 100 years may be most critical to the transformation of the present biota.

mass extinction events of the past are typified by global scale ecological
transformation. By contrast, the current event is typified by a "patchy" pattern
involving habitat frag- mentation and loss , where impacts vary markedly for different habitats and
Second,

different regions of the world (13). There is a large body of evidence that suggests global climate changes and
alteration of global biogeochemical cycles may cause widespread transformations of ecosystems, but significant
biodiversity loss has not yet been linked to these impacts. Third, data on mass extinction events in the fossil record

the current
biodiversity crisis has one obvious biotic cause: ourselves . Moreover, the source of the trauma
often fail to provide a clear connection between a primary cause and effect (14-16). In contrast,

also has the presumed capacity to mitigate its own deleterious impact. Although the extinction of many species
may be an irreversible outcome of the current event, certain aspects of human-caused global change are reversible.

Soft Power Advantage Extensions

Soft Power: AT: Hard Power Take-outs Turns

(--) Group their hard power argumentsthey have nothing to
do with our argumentthe US has lost its MORAL LEADERSHIP
nowthats our Romm evidencerestoring SOFT POWER is key
to solvewe have no effect on military installations, basing,
etc.
(--) Soft power is sustainable and provides for effective
leadership while hard power failstheir arguments only
bolster the 1ac:
Jan-Philipp N E Wagner, May 14 2014 (The Effectiveness of Soft & Hard
Power in Contemporary International Relations http://www.eir.info/2014/05/14/the-effectiveness-of-soft-hard-power-in-contemporaryinternational-relations/, Accessed 7/27/14, rwg)
The first part of this essay explains the concepts of hard and soft power with
referring to their combination, soft power. Then, the effectiveness of the two
concepts is assessed by discussing different examples of their use in foreign policy
making. This discussion also includes examples for the use of smart power. The
essay states that soft power is the more effective and efficient concept in
contemporary global politics because of its endurance and sustainability. Hard
power, however, is less useful today as the global system changes in its disfavour.
In addition to soft power, smart power strategies play an important role in the
contemporary international system.

Soft Power Low Now

(--) American soft power is low now:
C. Richard Neu, (senior economist @ RAND Corporation) 2/2013 (U.S. 'Soft
Power' Abroad Is Losing Its Punch http://www.rand.org/blog/2013/02/us-softpower-abroad-is-losing-its-punch.html, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The way America flexes it economic muscle around the world is changing dramaticallyand not necessarily for the
better. In 1997, facing a wave of sovereign debt defaults, the International Monetary Fund asked its member states
to pledge lines of credit to support Fund rescue efforts. The United States and other nations did as asked. In 2009,
the United States responded again to a call for expanded credit lines. When the Fund sought yet another expansion
of these credit lines last April, 39 countries, including China, Russia, Brazil, Mexico, India, and Saudi Arabia, stepped
up. Even cash-strapped Italy and Spain pledged support. But the United States was conspicuously absent. A pledge
from the United States requires congressional authorization. In the midst of last spring's contentious debate over

Where the
United States had previously demonstrated international leadership, other countries
some of them America's rivals for international influence now make the running. This is a small
example of what may be a troubling trend: America's fiscal predicament and the seeming inability
of its political system to resolve these matters may be taking a toll on the instruments of
U.S. soft power and on the country's ability to shape international developments
in ways that serve American interests.
U.S. government deficits and debts, support for an international body was a political nonstarter.

Soft Power Advantage Solvency

(--) The plan demonstrates US leadership in offshore wind to
the world:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Another important aspect of Cape Wind is its role in demonstrating

to the world that the United States

is committed to the development of renewable energy and, in particular, offshore
wind energy. n157 The international community has criticized the United States for
failing to show leadership on the issue of global climate change . n158 As the United Nations
continues to seek an international agreement that addresses climate change on a world-wide level, n159 the United States can
point to Cape Wind as a sign [*1172] of things to come. Cape Wind's construction
would provide a positive example of the United States' commitment to reducing
greenhouse gas emissions and addressing global climate change .

Soft Power Solves Laundry List

(--) Declining soft power leads to terrorism and disease:
JOSHUA KURLANTZICK, 2005 (Carnegie Endowment) The Decline of
American Soft Power, http://carnegieendowment.org/files/Kurlantzick.pdf
A broad decline in soft power has many practical implications . These include the drain in
foreign tal- ent coming to the United States, the potential back- lash against American companies, the growing
attractiveness of China and Europe, and the possi- bility that anti- US sentiment will make it easier for terrorist
groups to recruit. In addition, with a decline in soft power, Washington is simply less able to per- suade others. In
the run-up to the Iraq War, the Bush administration could not convince Turkey, a longtime US ally, to play a major
staging role, in part because America s image in Turkey was so poor. During the war itself, the United States has
failed to obtain significant participation from all but a hand- ful of major nations, again in part because of Amer- ica

In attempts to persuade North Korea to

abandon its nuclear weapons, Washington has had to allow China to play a central
role, partly because few Asian states view the United States as a neutral, legitimate broker in the talks. Instead,
Washington must increasingly resort to the other option Nye discusses force, or the threat of force. With
foreign governments and publics sus- picious of American policy, the White House
has been unable to lead a multinational effort to halt Iran s nuclear program, and
instead has had to resort to threatening sanctions at the United Nations or even the possibility of
s negative image in countries ranging from India to Germany.

strikes against Iran. With America s image declining in nations like Thailand and Pakistan, it is harder for leaders in
these countries to openly embrace counterterrorism cooperation with the United States, so Washington resorts to
quiet arm-twisting and blandishments to obtain counterterror concessions. Force is not a long-term solution.

Newer, non- traditional security threats such as disease , human trafficking, and drug trafficking
can only be man- aged through forms of multilateral cooperation that depend on
America s ability to persuade other nations. Terrorism itself cannot be defeated by
force alone, a fact that even the White House recognizes . The 2002 National Security Strategy
emphasizes that winning the war on terror requires the United States to lead a battle of ideas against the ideological roots of terrorism, in addition to rooting out and destroying individual militant cells.

Soft Power Solves Terrorism

(--) Soft power solves terrorism
Joseph S. Nye, 2004 (professor of international relations @ Harvard, The
Decline of America's Soft Power,
http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/59888/joseph-s-nye-jr/the-decline-ofamericas-soft-power, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
the United States' soft power -- its ability to attract
others by the legitimacy of U.S. policies and the values that underlie them -- is in decline as a result .
Anti-Americanism has increased in recent years, and

According to Gallup International polls, pluralities in 29 countries say that Washington's policies have had a
negative effect on their view of the United States. A Eurobarometer poll found that a majority of Europeans believes
that Washington has hindered efforts to fight global poverty, protect the environment, and maintain peace. Such
attitudes undercut soft power, reducing the ability of the United States to achieve its goals without resorting to
coercion or payment. Skeptics of soft power (Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld professes not even to
understand the term) claim that popularity is ephemeral and should not guide foreign policy. The United States,
they assert, is strong enough to do as it wishes with or without the world's approval and should simply accept that
others will envy and resent it. The world's only superpower does not need permanent allies; the issues should

But the recent decline in U.S.

attractiveness should not be so lightly dismissed . It is true that the United States has recovered
determine the coalitions, not vice-versa, according to Rumsfeld.

from unpopular policies in the past (such as those regarding the Vietnam War), but that was often during the Cold
War, when other countries still feared the Soviet Union as the greater evil. It is also true that the United States'
sheer size and association with disruptive modernity make some resentment unavoidable today. But wise policies
can reduce the antagonisms that these realities engender. Indeed, that is what Washington achieved after World
War II: it used soft-power resources to draw others into a system of alliances and institutions that has lasted for 60
years. The Cold War was won with a strategy of containment that used soft power along with hard power.

The

United States cannot confront the new threat of terrorism without the
cooperation of other countries. Of course, other governments will often cooperate
out of self-interest. But the extent of their cooperation often depends on the
attractiveness of the United States. Soft power, therefore, is not just a matter of
ephemeral popularity; it is a means of obtaining outcomes the United States wants.
When Washington discounts the importance of its attractiveness abroad, it pays a
steep price. When the United States becomes so unpopular that being pro-American is a kiss of death in other
countries' domestic politics, foreign political leaders are unlikely to make helpful concessions (witness the defiance

when U.S. policies lose their legitimacy in the

eyes of others, distrust grows, reducing U.S. leverage in international affairs .
of Chile, Mexico, and Turkey in March 2003). And

Soft Power Solvency

(--) Incentives for offshore wind are key to US leadership in
renewable energy:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The offshore wind industry believes that government policies need to distinguish
between offshore wind energy and onshore wind energy in order to foster offshore
development and cost-reducing innovation. n43 The offshore wind industry desires
long-term incentives that will remain in place for at least ten years in order to
promote significant growth. n44 It also desires larger incentives and stronger
incentive structures modeled after those in Europe. n45 If the United States is
serious about becoming a world leader in offshore wind energy, and
renewable energy, it will not take these recommendations lightly.

Soft Power: Disease Extensions

(--) Diseases cause extinctionthis is becoming more and more
probable:
Chris Carrington, 8/7/2013 (staff writer, Scientists Warn Of Pandemic
Potential: First Case of H7N9 Human To Human Transmission Reported,
http://www.shtfplan.com/headline-news/scientists-warn-of-pandemicpotential-first-case-of-h7n9-human-to-human-transmissionreported_08072013, Accessed 8/3/2014, rwg)
There are numerous scenarios that we can discuss in the context
of civilization ending events. These include exo-planetary events like asteroid collisions and Xclass solar flares, as well as earth bound threats like nuclear war and viral contagion (naturally occurring or
SHTFplan Editors Note:

weaponized). They are outliers to be sure, but history proves that they can (and will) happen. And when they do, all

The possibility of an out of control viral contagion spreading to all

corners of the earth and wiping out large population centers is becoming more and
more probable.
hell breaks loose.

(--) Diseases risk extinction

South China Morning Post 96 ((Hong Kong) January 4, 1996
SECTION: Pg. 15 HEADLINE: Leading the way to a cure for AIDS BYLINE: Kavita
Daswani meets a scientist working on a super vaccine to fight AIDS and more
deadly viruses yet to come, l/n)
Despite the importance of the discovery of the "facilitating" cell, it is not what Dr Ben-Abraham wants to talk about.

There is a much more pressing medical crisis at hand - one he believes the world must be
alerted to: the possibility of a virus deadlier than HIV . If this makes Dr Ben-Abraham sound like a
prophet of doom, then he makes no apology for it. AIDS, the Ebola outbreak which killed more than 100 people in
Africa last year, the flu epidemic that has now affected 200,000 in the former Soviet Union - they are all, according
to Dr Ben-Abraham, the "tip of the iceberg". Two decades of intensive study and research in the field of virology
have convinced him of one thing:

in place of natural and man-made disasters or nuclear

warfare, humanity could face extinction because of a single virus, deadlier than HIV.
"An airborne virus is a lively, complex and dangerous organism ," he said. "It can come
from a rare animal or from anywhere and can mutate constantly. If there is no cure,
it affects one person and then there is a chain reaction and it is unstoppable. It is a
tragedy waiting to happen." That may sound like a far-fetched plot for a Hollywood film, but Dr Ben -Abraham said
history has already proven his theory. Fifteen years ago, few could have predicted the impact of AIDS on the world.
Ebola has had sporadic outbreaks over the past 20 years and the only way the deadly virus - which turns internal
organs into liquid - could be contained was because it was killed before it had a chance to spread. Imagine, he says,
if it was closer to home: an outbreak of that scale in London, New York or Hong Kong. It could happen anytime in the
next 20 years - theoretically, it could happen tomorrow. The shock of the AIDS epidemic has prompted virus experts

the threat of a deadly viral outbreak is

imminent", said Joshua Lederberg of the Rockefeller University in New York, at a recent conference. He added
that the problem was "very serious and is getting worse". Dr Ben-Abraham said: "Nature isn't benign. The
survival of the human species is not a preordained evolutionary programme.
Abundant sources of genetic variation exist for viruses to learn how to mutate and
evade the immune system." He cites the 1968 Hong Kong flu outbreak as an example of how viruses have
to admit "that something new is indeed happening and that

outsmarted human intelligence. And as new "mega-cities" are being developed in the Third World and rainforests
are destroyed, disease-carrying animals and insects are forced into areas of human habitation. " This

raises the
very real possibility that lethal, mysterious viruses would, for the first time, infect

humanity at a large scale and imperil the survival of the human race ,"
he said.

Soft Power: Proliferation Extensions

Proliferation Ensures Extinction
Utgoff, Deputy Director of the Strategy, Forces, and Resources Division of the Institute
for Defense Analysis, Survival, 2002 (Victor, Proliferation, Missile Defence and
American Ambitions, pgs. 87-88, SP)
Further, the large number of states that became capable of building nuclear weapons over the years, but chose not to, can be reasonably well explained
by the fact that most were formally allied with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Both these superpowers had strong nuclear forces and put
great pressure on their allies not to build nuclear weapons. Since the Cold War, the US has retained all its allies. In addition, NATO has extended its
protection to some of the previous allies of the Soviet Union and plans on taking in more. Nuclear proliferation by India and Pakistan, and proliferation
programmes by North Korea, Iran and Iraq, all involve states in the opposite situation: all judged that they faced serious military opposition and had
little prospect of establishing a reliable supporting alliance with a suitably strong, nuclear-armed state. What would await the world if strong protectors,

a few additional
states would begin to build their own nuclear weapons and the means to deliver them to distant targets, and these
initiatives would spur increasing numbers of the worlds capable states to follow suit. Restraint would seem ever less
especially the United States, were [was] no longer seen as willing to protect states from nuclear-backed aggression? At least

necessary and ever more dangerous. Meanwhile, more states are becoming capable of building nuclear weapons and long-range missiles. Many, perhaps
most, of the worlds states are becoming sufficiently wealthy, and the technology for building nuclear forces continues to improve and spread. Finally, it
seems highly likely that at some point, halting proliferation will come to be seen as a lost cause and the restraints on it will disappear. Once that
happens, the transition to a highly proliferated world would probably be very rapid . While some regions might be able to hold the line
for a time, the threats posed by wildfire proliferation in most other areas could create pressures that would finally overcome all
restraint. Many readers are probably willing to accept that nuclear proliferation is such a grave threat to world peace that every effort should be made
to avoid it. However, every effort has not been made in the past, and we are talking about much more substantial efforts now. For new and substantially
more burdensome efforts to be made to slow or stop nuclear proliferation, it needs to be established that the highly proliferated nuclear world that
would sooner or later evolve without such efforts is not going to be acceptable. And, for many reasons, it is not. First, the dynamics of getting to a
highly proliferated world could be very dangerous. Proliferating states will feel great pressures to obtain nuclear weapons and delivery systems before
any potential opponent does. Those who succeed in outracing an opponent may consider preemptive nuclear war before the
opponent becomes capable of nuclear retaliation . Those who lag behind might try to preempt their opponents nuclear programme or defeat
the opponent using conventional forces. And those who feel threatened but are incapable of building nuclear weapons may still be able to join in this
arms race by building other types of weapons of mass destruction, such as biological weapons.

Soft Power: Terrorism Extensions

Terrorists will use nuclear weapons triggering global nuclear
war and extinction
Mohamed Sid-Ahmed, 2004 (http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/705/op5.htm, 26 August - 1
September 2004)

What would be the consequences of a nuclear attack by terrorists? Even if it fails, it

would further exacerbate the negative features of the new and frightening world in
which we are now living. Societies would close in on themselves, police measures would be stepped up at
the expense of human rights, tensions between civilisations and religions would rise and ethnic conflicts would

It would also speed up the arms race and develop the awareness that a
different type of world order is imperative if humankind is to survive. But the still
more critical scenario is if the attack succeeds. This could lead to a third world war,
from which no one will emerge victorious. Unlike a conventional war which ends
when one side triumphs over another, this war will be without winners and losers.
When nuclear pollution infects the whole planet, we will all be losers.
proliferate.

Energy Dependence Advantage

Extensions

Energy Dependence Solvency Extensions

(--) Wind power decreases foreign fuel dependence:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Benefits of Offshore Wind Many of the most compelling benefits of offshore wind are similar to those of onshore

offshore wind has its own unique set of benefits . To start, wind power
generation can help meet the growing energy demand in the United States. The U.S.
wind, though

Energy Information Administration predicts that the demand for electricity in the United States will grow to 5.8

The more that wind power can help to meet

this demand, the more diversified the United States' energy portfolio will be, and
the less susceptible the nation will be to dependency on foreign fuel sources
and to price fluctuations in traditional fuels. 5 9 In addition, wind power benefits the United States
billion MWh in 2030, a 39 percent increase from 2005.

by creating a substantial number of jobs for building and operating the domestic wind energy facilities. 6 0 In an

Obama predicted
that if the United States "fully pursue[s] our potential for wind energy on land and
offshore," wind power could create 250,000 jobs by 2030 .61
April 2009 speech at the Trinity Structural Towers Manufacturing Plant in Iowa, President

Disad Answers
(--) Disads are non-unique: The Energy Department just gave
$150 million to fund offshore wind in Massachusetts
Bastasch 7/1/14 (Michael Bastasch, writer for the Daily Caller, 7/1/14, Feds Give Cape Wind
Project $150 Million Loan Guarantee, Daily Caller, http://dailycaller.com/2014/07/01/feds-give-capewind-project-150-million-loan-guarantee/#ixzz388kDOpx5, mgsk-sd)

The Energy Department has given a conditional $150 million loan to the Cape Wind
project in Massachusetts in a move to fund the first offshore wind farm in the United
States. Cape Wind will receive the $150 million loan after it secures $2.6 billion in financing, according to the
Energy Department. Once it has secured the balance of the funding, it will get taxpayer dollars to help
construct 130 wind turbines that will have a capacity of 360 megawatts of power . If
built, the Cape Wind Project could transform the fishing ports and manufacturing towns in Eastern
Massachusetts into a hub for a vibrant U.S. offshore wind industry , said Peter Davidson, executive
director of the DOEs loan program in a statement. The lessons that could be learned from this project can help
catalyze similar projects in other areas of the U.S. with excellent offshore wind resources. Massachusetts
Democrats hailed the loan as a boom to the state and a step in the right direction in fighting global warming.
Offshore

wind will not only provide a new, clean source of energy for the United States, it
will reduce American reliance on fossil fuel, mitigate climate change and jump start
a new U.S. industry that will create thousands of clean energy jobs , said
Massachusetts Gov. Deval Patrick. This funding will help Massachusetts make energy history and continue
our leadership as a clean energy jobs hub for the entire nation, said Sen. Ed Markey.

(--) Your disads are non-unique: Millions in grants for offshore

wind now will require continual congressional appropriations
Del FRANCO 12 National Wind Power Staff [Mark Del Franco,
DOE Offshore Wind Grants Provide Impetus To Get 'Steel In The Water',
http://www.nawindpower.com/e107_plugins/content/content.php?
content.10818#.UTebP6V2H04]
The DOE provided a major boost for the fledgling offshore wind industry by announcing
grants for seven U.S. offshore wind projects to ensure commercial operation in state and federal waters
by 2017.
The projects will receive up to $4 million to complete the engineering, design and permitting phase
of this award. The DOE will select up to three of these projects for follow-on phases that
focus on siting, construction and installation and aim to achieve commercial operation by 2017 . These
projects will receive up to $47 million over four years, subject to
Congressional appropriations, according to the DOE.

(--) Your disads are empirically denied: the federal

government already expanded production tax credits for wind
power through 2012:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)

The federal government appears to recognize the opportunities and benefits that wind power offers. In

February 2009,
Congress positioned wind power generation to continue its rapid growth 5 by
renewing production tax credits for wind power projects through 2012 . Congress also gave the
wind industry options for investment tax credits or U.S. Treasury Department grants for certain wind power projects placed in service by 2012.7
In addition, in July 2009, DOE announced up to $30 billion in loan guarantees for renewable energy projects, including wind power. President
Obama continues to promote renewable energy, including wind energy, as well. For example, in his 2010 State of the Union, the President spoke
repeatedly about the need for renewable energy investment. 9 DOE predicts that by 2030 the United States could get as much as 20 percent of its
electricity from wind, if the nation is able to overcome certain challenges to wind power progress today.' 0

(--) US provides massive support for wind power now:

Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Since 2006, the federal government has been providing significant support to wind
power, importantly in the form of tax incentives, which has allowed for record
growth for wind power in the United States .31 None of this growth has occurred
offshore, however. Technically speaking, wind is a type of solar energy. It is formed by the sun's uneven heating of the atmosphere, irregularities on
the Earth's surface, 32 and the Earth's rotation. A typical wind turbine has a horizontal axis with two or three blades attached, which sits atop a tower, usually over 300
feet high to capture wind at faster speeds. 3 3 When wind blows through the blades, they turn and convert the wind's kinetic energy into rotational shaft energy, a form
of mechanical power. 3 4

AT: Bird Disad

(--) Wind kills far less birds than other causes:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg
Wind turbines can present hazards to birds and bats including [c]ollisions with the
turbine blades, towers, power lines, or with other related structures, and electrocution on power
lines.207 Recent estimates put the annual U.S. avian death toll from onshore wind
turbines at 444,000,208 although that is far less than mortality caused by glass
windows, cars, motor vehicles, transmission lines, agriculture, communication
towers, or hunting.209 Given that there is no incidental take permit under the MBTA subjecting violators to
strict liabilityand that the Act protects virtually every species of bird in the United States, except for exotic or
invasive species . . . there may be no way to avoid take prohibited by the MBTA.

(--) Birds will be harmed more by warming than the plan:

Taber D. Allison, Terry L. Root, and Peter C. Frumhoff 2014 (American Wind
Wildlife Institute, Stanford University, Union of Concerned Scientists,
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1127-y/fulltext.html,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Rapid, large-scale expansion of low- and zero-carbon renewable energy sources is
essential for limiting the magnitude of global warming and its impacts on wildlife
(Clemmer et al. 2013). Expansion of renewable energy leads to concerns in the
conservation community over harm to wildlife populations from injury and death of
individual birds and bats or from fragmentation of species habitat (e.g., Arnett & Baerwald 2013;
Kiesecker et al. 2011). Threats to wildlife can be reduced by strategic siting and operation,
yet the threat of global extinctions rises the longer it takes to reduce carbon
emissions (e.g., Warren et al. 2013). Consequently, efforts to expand renewable energy at the needed scale
should factor in both (a) the potential for direct harm to species local populations and (b) the reduction in global
biodiversity loss from limiting global warming.

(--) Non-unique: far more birds are killed from other sources:
Roger Drouin, 1/6/2014 (staff writer,
http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2014/01/birds-bats-wind-turbines-deadlycollisions, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Hundreds of thousands of birds

and bats are killed by wind turbines in the US each year, including some protected
only a small fraction of the hundreds of
millions killed by buildings, pesticides, fossil-fuel power plants, and other human
causes, but its still worryingespecially as wind power is experiencing record growth.
species such as the golden eagle and the Indiana bat. That's

(--) The risk to birds is virtually nonexistent

Kowalski 6/23/14Kathiann M. Kowalski is an experienced journalist who writes on
a wide range of topics. To date, Kathi has written 25 books and more than 600
articles and stories. She welcomes the challenge of new assignments for print,
broadcast, and online media. Kathi obtained her Bachelor's degree in political
science from Hofstra University. Her law degree is from Harvard Law School, where
Kathi served on the Harvard Law Review. Kathi has been a Science Journalism Fellow
in the biomedical and environmental hands-on lab programs at MBL in
Massachusetts. She has also participated in workshops sponsored by the Society of
Environmental Journalists, the National Science Foundation, and the Institute for
Journalism & Natural Resources. In addition to writing, Kathi has spent 15 years
practicing law, with an emphasis on environmental issues, corporate matters, and
litigation. Kathi's writing has won multiple awards and honors
the American Bird Conservancy and Black Swamp Bird Observatory voiced
concerns to the Ohio Power Siting Board. The groups earlier efforts halted a wind turbine at Camp Perry, Ohio, because of its
location near migratory bird pathways. Now they want closer scrutiny of Icebreaker. We didnt exactly oppose it, says
Michael Hutchins, National Coordinator of the American Bird Conservancys Bird
Smart Wind Energy Campaign. What we did was call for all of the voluntary legal guidelines regarding the protection of birds to
be done. The southern shore of Lake Erie is incredibly important for bird migration,
Hutchins stresses. Among other things, Hutchins wants additional studies beyond
the avian risk assessment prepared for LEEDCo last fall by Curry & Kerlinger, an
environmental consulting firm based in New Jersey. Risks to birds are negligible,
the study says. Most notably, the Icebreaker turbines will be seven miles from
shore. Because very few birds fly directly across Lake Erie there, the study estimates
collision risks for Kirtlands Warbler at about 1 death every 500 years. Risks to the
Piping Plover would be five times lower, it says. LEEDCo consulted extensively with
fish and wildlife experts at the Ohio Department of Natural Resources, says Wagner.
We have done everything they asked us to do. Other types of electricity
generation affect birds too, notes Miller. If the fish are full of mercury because of
coal power plants, the birds are going to eat those fish, Miller says. Power lines,
pesticides, house cats, cars, and even buildings kill significantly more birds each
year than wind turbines, she adds. Nor are birds the only species that matter. We
need to look at the entire ecosystem and all the various species that are affected, Miller says. Ultimately, we need to move to
wind energy, she concludes. Our planet will be healthier, our lakes will be
healthier, and our birds will be healthier, if we can cut our reliance on coal and
nuclear and gas that are polluting our planet. The Sierra Club, Environment Ohio, and Ohio Environmental Council
This spring

are members of RE-AMP, which publishes Midwest Energy News. This entry was posted in News and tagged Ohio, wind by Kathiann M. Kowalski. Bookmark
the permalink.

(--) Wind industry will decrease bird deaths:

Roger Drouin, 1/6/2014 (staff writer,
http://www.motherjones.com/environment/2014/01/birds-bats-wind-turbines-deadlycollisions, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
The pressure is now on for wind energy companies to reduce bird and bat mortality.
Lindsay North, outreach manager for the American Wind Energy Association, which
lobbies for the industry, says wind developers are committed to "doing our best to

try to have the lowest impact on birds." The industry is collaborating with wildlife
researchers on promising technologies and approaches that are already being fieldtested, and on some experimental and even far-fetched ideas that could help
reduce mortality in the long term. "I am very optimistic we can make significant
progress," said biologist Taber Allison, director of research at the American Wind
Wildlife Institute, a nonprofit partnership of wind companies, scientists, and
environmental organizations such as the National Audubon Society and the Sierra
Club.

(--) Wind turbines kill very few birds:

Beth Buczynski, 12/12/2013 (staff writer, 4 Things That Kill More Birds
Than Wind Farms, http://www.care2.com/causes/4-things-that-kill-more-birds-thanwind-farms.html, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
the biggest threats are
to bald eagle and golden eagle populations (the two kinds of birds that prompted the fine in
Wyoming). Interestingly, I didnt find a single one that named wind energy development as
a major threat. In fact, when you compare the numbers, wind turbines are a relatively small
threat (responsible for about 13 deaths a year), and there are some easy things we can do to alert birds to this
Then I did a little bit of research, looking to bird conservation experts about what

new danger.

(--) Studies prove: offshore wind doesnt hurt species:

Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
In addition, opponents frequently cite offshore wind power's environmental costs . These
costs are site specific and can involve harm to plants and animals, and their habitats. 8 2 This harm includes
impacts on birds, which can involve disruption of migratory patterns, destruction of habitat, and bird deaths from
collision with the turbine blades. 8 3 However, these adverse impacts are generally less dramatic than those

A
recent, exhaustive study of the environmental impact of major offshore wind farms
in Denmark concluded that "offshore wind farms, if placed right, can be engineered
and operated without significant damage to the marine environment and
vulnerable species.,, 8 5 A final concern is that offshore wind farms are more expensive to build, and
associated with fossil fuel extraction and generation, and in a well-chosen site they can be negligible. 8 4

more difficult to install and maintain, than onshore wind farms. 8 6 The cost of an offshore wind project is estimated
to be at least 50 percent greater than the onshore equivalent. 8 7 Short- and long-term technical improvements
could help to lower offshore wind costs, however, and government assistance may help them occur more quickly.

AT: Environment DA
(--) Wind energy has minimal environmental impact:
Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
Furthermore,

it is well known that wind energy is one of the cleanest and most
environmentally friendly energy sources, and unlike fossil fuels, the wind will never be depleted. All forms
of energy production have an environmental impact, but the impacts of wind energy
are low, local, and manageable. These environ- mental impacts are negligible when
compared with conventional energy sources. The significance of wind energy originates from its friendly
behavior to the environment. Due to its clean, wind power is sought wherever possible for conversion to electricity with the hope that air
pollution from fossil fuels will be reduced [4]

AT: Electricity Prices DA

(--) Dependence on foreign imports of fossil fuels causes high
energy prices:
Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
The United States, which "generates approximately 20% of the global total of greenhouse gas emissions," relies on foreign
imports of finite fossil fuels in order to meet the country's ever-increasing demand
for electricity. n1 Dependence on foreign countries' fossil fuel resources has
contributed to high energy prices, national security issues and environmental risks. n2 "In its Annual Energy Outlook
2007, the U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates that U.S. electricity demand will grow by 39% from 2005 to 2030." n3

(--) Turn: the plan decreases electricity costs:

Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
In an effort to decrease its reliance on foreign countries and to help reduce carbon dioxide emissions, the United
States has turned to wind as a promising renewable energy resource. While the U.S. has been very successful in
utilizing land-based renewable wind energy, it has yet to produce electricity from offshore wind farms. n7 The
world's first offshore wind farm was built in 1991 off the coast of Vindeby, Denmark, n8 and "all fully operational
offshore wind farms are [currently located] in Europe." n9 In both coastal and offshore waters, wind is a powerful,

Because "60% of the U.S. [*219] population lives in

coastal states," n11 placing wind turbines offshore could help reduce electricity
transmission costs and avoid issues commonly associated with locating land-based wind turbines in close
dependable and infinite resource. n10

proximity to homes. n12

Average Price of Electricity Climbs to All-Time Record

Jeffery 7/29 Pulitzer Prize nominee

(Terence P. editor in chief of CNSNews.com, Average Price of

Electricity Climbs to All-Time Record,, http://cnsnews.com/news/article/terence-p-jeffrey/average-price-electricityclimbs-all-time-record, ASM)

For the first time ever, the average price for a kilowatthour (KWH)
of electricity in the United States has broken through the 14-cent mark,
climbing to a record 14.3 cents in June, according to data released last week by the Bureau of
CNSNews.com) -

Labor Statistics. Before this June, the highest the average price for a KWH had ever gone was 13.7 cents, the level it
hit in June, July, August and September of last year. The 14.3-cents average price for a KWH recorded this June is
about 4.4 percent higher than that previous record. Average Price for a KWH of Electricity Typically, the cost of
electricity peaks in summer, declines in fall, and hits its lowest point of the year during winter. In each of the first
six months of this year, the average price for a KWH hour of electricity has hit a record for that month. In June, it hit
the all-time record. Although the price for an average KWH hit its all-time record in June, the

seasonally

adjusted electricity price index--which measures changes in the price of electricity relative to a
value of 100 and adjusts for seasonal fluctuations in price-- hit its all-time high of 209.341 in
March of this year, according to BLS. In June, it was slightly below that level, at 209.144.

(--) Turn Denmark proves that OWP can substantially

decrease costs.
Vagus 7/31 (Stephen Vagus 7/31/14, http://www.hydrogenfuelnews.com/costwind-energy-continues-fall-denmark/8518897/, Journalist, SSN)
Denmark has reached an important milestone in wind energy. The country has been
embracing wind power for some time, distancing itself from coal and oil in the hopes
of becoming more energy sustainable and environmentally friendly. In the past, the
electrical power generated by the countrys wind turbines had been significantly
more expensive than the electricity produced through the consumption of fossilfuels. That may no longer be the case in the near future, as new wind turbines
become active. Energy produced by wind turbines is now less expensive than that
produced by fossil-fuels According to Denmarks government, the electricity
produced by wind turbines will be half the cost as the energy produced by fossilfuels by 2016. New wind projects are taking form throughout the country currently,
with several onshore wind energy systems expected to begin producing electricity
within the next year. Government officials note that wind power is already less
expensive than other forms of renewable energy , and its costs are beginning to fall
at a rapWind Energy Denmarkid pace.

(--) Electricity prices at all-time high

Hackbarth 8/1 (Sean, Blogger at U.S. Chamber of Commerce, Publisher at The
American Mind, 08-01-14, Average Price for Electricity Hits All-Time High,
https://www.uschamber.com/blog/average-price-electricity-hits-all-time-high, AS)

Take a look at your electrical

bill. You are probably paying more , as CNSNews.com reports: For the first time ever, the
average price for a kilowatthour (KWH) of electricity in the United States has broken
through the 14-cent mark, climbing to a record 14.3 cents in June, according to data
released last week by the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Before this June, the highest the average price for
a KWH had ever gone was 13.7 cents , the level it hit in June, July, August and September of last year.
The 14.3-cents average price for a KWH recorded this June is about 4.4 percent
higher than that previous record. The story also notes, In each of the first six months of this year, the
Here are a few energy-related items you might have missed this week. 1.

average price for a KWH hour of electricity has hit a record for that month. In June, it hit the all-time record.

(--) US electricity prices high now

Melvin 7/22 (Jasmin Melvin, correspondent for Platts McGraw Hill financial,
7/22/14, Some US consumers may see high power prices for next several winters,
http://www.platts.com/latest-news/electric-power/washington/some-us-consumersmay-see-high-power-prices-for-21952761//sd)

Electricity consumers in the US Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions could see higher-thanaverage prices for the next several winters if last winter's bitter cold is repeated until additional
natural pipeline capacity into the region is brought into service, competitive energy retail supplier ConEdison
Solutions said in a new report. ConEdison Solution, a unit of New York-based utility Consolidated Edison, said

the

polar vortexes that blasted the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic with sustained periods of brutal cold during the
2013-2014 winter led to a spike in the price generators paid for natural gas . The increase was
largely due to inadequate pipeline capacity, the report said. Gas-fired power generators, forced to buy
gas from the spot market to deal with shortages, paid prices that were in some cases 878% higher
than the 12-month average, the report said, adding that gas prices at the the Algonquin Gas Transmission
city-gates in New England hit a high of $75.48/MMBtu on January 22, compared with the 12-month average of
$8.60/MMBtu. Article continues below... Request a free trial of: Megawatt Daily Megawatt Daily Megawatt Daily
Megawatt Daily provides detailed coverage of power prices in major US and Canadian electricity markets, up-todate information about solicitations and supply deals, and information about complex state and federal power
regulations. Request a trial to Megawatt Daily Request More Information "Any proposed project to provide relief by
reducing pipeline constraints will likely take years to complete , so

consumers exposed to energy

markets over the next few winters should expect higher-than-average prices during
those months," the white paper said. "Whether prices will be higher or lower than this winter will depend on a
number of factors, including the severity and duration of cold weather." Last winter's cold also challenged the
reliability of the electric grid, prompting PJM Interconnection to issue several warnings and requests for curtailment
in January. Consumers were asked to conserve electricity and real-time power prices skyrocketed to $1,800/MWh
during certain hours, a 2,798% increase above the $64.33/MWh 12-month average, the report said. "The
unexpected extremes of the Polar Vortex reminded us that energy users need to be vigilant ," Richard
Rathvon, vice president at ConEdison Solutions, said in a statement Monday. "In a marketplace that often defies
prediction, the energy consumer needs to fully comprehend the range of risks and benefits that may be associated
with the contracts they sign." Consumers paying variable market-based prices for their electricity saw the biggest
spikes, but even some with fixed price contracts ended up paying more than expected .
Those served by "smaller, less-financially stable suppliers" that went out of business when the record-setting costs
hit "were dropped back to their utility's default service," and often had to pay prices above their fixed price
contract, the company said. Utilities usually pass cost increases through to consumers either as they are incurred or
in future periods, the report said. The report recommended that consumers understand the energy supply products
they purchase, including how risk is shared between them and supplier and whether their contract has fixed prices
or variable market-based prices. The report argued for energy supplier transparency, putting the responsibility of
informing consumers of their energy options and the differences, risks and benefits of those options on the supplier.

AT: Intermittency
(--) Intermittency is an issue for onshore, not offshore, wind
Salih, writer for Huffington Post, July 2 (2014) (Swarah, 07/02/2014,
Will Offshore Wind Pick up the Speed?, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/swarasalih/will-offshore-wind-pick-u_b_5549967.html, GHS//TG)
Offshore wind facilities could offer a cost-effective and efficient means of drawing a highly abundant source of energy for residential

Conventional wind facilities on land, while essential for the renewable energy sector,
are troubled by the intermittency of wind strength. Sometimes the wind may blow too slowly, or it may
and commercial use.

not blow at all, casting public doubt on the reliability of terrestrial wind farms. Critics and skeptics have referenced (and often over
exaggerated) this particular issue, making it more difficult to incentivize developers. With the production tax credit (PTC) out of
effect, investors may have less overall confidence in wind energy's continued growth. Yet

wind power has

maintained a steady growth rate. In 2013, wind supplied 4.13 percent of all electric capacity in the U.S., or
roughly 61,108 megawatts (MW) nationwide. Iowa and South Dakota had 27.4 and 26 percent, respectively, of their total energy
output coming from wind in 2013. Texas has the highest wind-generating capacity of all the states, with around 12,355 MW installed,
and holds six of the 10 largest wind farms in the U.S. However, this growth has still been slow, and depends heavily on the PTC,
which Congress allowed to expire four times in the past. This has put wind energy on what some experts call a "boom and bust"
cycle: in the year following each expiration, construction of wind facilities fell by over 50 percent relative to the previous year. The

However, the
wind blows constantly off the coasts, removing the intermittency factor. Countries like
Germany, England and the Netherlands generate hundreds of MW from this source. Yet there are no
lack of a tax credit, along with the intermittency and other factors, are roadblocks to the sector's development.

offshore wind facilities in the United States. In fact, the first offshore windmill was only installed last year. Studies indicate that the

The Department of Energy (DOE), for example, has

run multiple studies that conclude that if we implement sufficient incentivizing
measures now, and utilized all potential capacity, including in the Great Lakes,
offshore wind could provide the U.S. with over 4 million MW by 2030.
U.S. has simply failed to utilize potential capacity.

(--) Scientists have studied and prevented intermittency

Weaver 10 (Janelle, 04/05/2010, Chain of offshore Wind Turbines Could Power
Atlantic Seaboard, http://www.wired.com/2010/04/wind-power-chain/, science
writer and editor, PhD, GHS//TG)
By connecting stations together, the system could eliminate t he biggest downside of wind power:
intermittency. The concept is simple: If you spread out wind stations far enough, each one
will experience a different weather pattern. So its very unlikely that a slackening of
the wind would affect all stations at once. The result is steadier power. Were designing
transmission in a different way, according to meteorological principles, said marine-policy expert Willett Kempton of the University
of Delaware in Newark, co-author of the research, published April 5 in the Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences.

Kempton and a team of scientists analyzed five years of wind data from 11
meteorological stations buoys and towers off the Atlantic coast, from Florida to Maine. They found that
combining power from all stations with a transmission cable could prevent massive
power fluctuations.

AT: Politics Disad

(--) Offshore wind power has support from both sides of the
political aisle:
Ben Deninger (associate in the law firm Cole, Scott & Kissane) 20 14
(Texas Environmental Law Journal, May 2014, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed
7/22/2014, rwg)
The idea of an offshore wind farm seems like a perfect way to comply with the Massachusetts RPS;
however, nearly 12 years after the projects' initial phases, no turbines have been erected. n20 Despite wide
ranging support from environmental groups like the Sierra Club, as well as
expressions of political support from both sides of the aisle , the project has flowed
through various regulatory bodies and lawsuits incredibly slowly. Perhaps some of this is to be expected for the first
offshore wind farm in America, but according to Jim Gordon of EMI "most projects and most developers that would
get involved in a process like that would probably throw up their arms and walk away." n21 The project occupies
about 25 square miles with turbines 258 feet tall and blades reaching 440 feet at the peak of their rotation, with a
projected average capacity of 30%-40% of their maximum capacity of 468 MW. n22

(--) The plan would be palatable to Congress and give Obama a

win:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Further, it would give offshore wind proponents support in combating local opposition to projects. This revision
could come in tandem with revisions to the Energy Policy Act or as part of an entirely new energy agenda. President

Obama has repeatedly expressed interest in a new trajectory for energy policy
in the United States that focuses on climate change , energy efficiency, renewable energy, and
energy independence. 2 6 9 Congress could take advantage of this momentum to make
these related revisions to the CZMA as well. In fact, reform of an existing, familiar set of
regulations, like the CZMA, may be more palatable to Congress, and an easy first
step to take with regard to renewable energy.
Barack

(--) The plan would be popular with the public:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
With all the challenges facing offshore wind energy development, it would seem as though prospects for the future

motivated by a lack of space onshore, attractive policy

incentives, and increased public support for renewable energy, offshore wind
developers in Europe and the United States (in a more limited capacity) are now employing
creative ways to overcome or at least mitigate the impact of these challenges . If such
of the industry look bleak. Nevertheless,

progress continues to be made in all the most problematic areas of offshore financing, construction and operation, it
will not be long before offshore development catches up with, and perhaps even outpaces, onshore wind energy
development.

(--) The plan would be a win for Obama:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)

Despite all the latest activity in offshore wind development that has been seen in Delaware, Rhode Island and New

building offshore wind

farms. Plans to build the Cape Wind project in Massachusetts were first made public in 2001. Nevertheless, the
Jersey, those states were by no means the first in the United States to consider

project's development has been constantly delayed since a group of local residents backed by Senator Ted Kennedy
(among others) publicly opposed it due mainly to aesthetic and purported environmental and navigational
concerns. In 2007, the group filed a lawsuit challenging the state's decision to issue a final environmental report on
the project, and a judge refused to dismiss the suit. Later that year, the Cape Cod Commission rejected approval for
the wind farm on procedural grounds. The developer later sought to overturn that decision with the state Energy
Facilities Siting Board, but the Board is still reviewing that request. Between January and December 2008, the MMS,
the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and the Coast Guard all issued reports or statements finding that the
Cape Wind project would have little or no negative impact on the [*689] environment or navigation. United States
Representative James Oberstar, D-Minn., however, delayed the process once again by asking for more time to
consider these issues before release of the final MMS report. It was not until January 16, 2009 that the MMS was
able to issue its final report, in which it confirmed that the project would have minimal impact on the environment.
But it remains unclear when the MMS will issue its decision on whether to actually grant an approved lease to the

It is hoped that the Obama administration will help speed this process
given the President's stated commitment to promoting renewable energy development
in the United States, which he repeatedly addressed during his campaign.
project. n65

AT: Spending Disad

(--) Investments in offshore wind will decrease the cost of wind
turbines:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
New investments will positively influence innovation and new technologies to meet
offshore wind energy's growing needs. The industry will be better suited to develop
larger turbines at a lower cost. As the cycle continues and the industry becomes
more and more mature, offshore wind energy may someday gain a competitive
advantage over other renewable energies and traditional fossil fuels.

AT: Wind Requires Fossil Fuels

(--) Wind energy achievable and requires no Fossil Fuels
Fischetti 13 (Mark Fischetti, Science writer and Senior editor for Scientific
American, 4/15/14, How to Power the World without Fossil Fuels, Scientific
American,http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-to-power-the-world/, mgsksd)
Jacobson has gone out on the same limb. In 2009 he and co-author Mark Delucchi published a cover
story in Scientific American that showed how the entire world could get all of its energy fuel as well
as electricityfrom wind, water and solar sources by 2030 . No coal or oil, no nuclear or
natural gas. The tale sounded infeasibleexcept that Jacobson, from Stanford University, and Delucchi, from the University of
Three times now, Mark

California, Davis, calculated just how many hydroelectric dams, wave-energy systems, wind turbines, solar power plants and rooftop
photovoltaic installations the world would need to run itself completely on renewable energy. The article sparked a spirited debate
on our Web site, and it also sparked a larger debate between forward-looking energy planners and those who would rather preserve
the status quo. The duo went on to publish a detailed study in the journal Energy Policy that also called out numbers for a U.S.

This time Jacobson showed in

how New York States residential, transportation, industrial, and heating and
cooling sectors could all be powered by wind, water and sun, or WWS, as he calls it. His mix: 40
strategy. Two weeks ago Jacobson and a larger team, including Delucchi, did it again.
much finer detail

percent offshore wind (12,700 turbines), 10 percent onshore wind (4,020 turbines), 10 percent concentrated solar panels (387 power
plants), 10 percent photovoltaic cells (828 facilities), 6 percent residential solar (five million rooftops), 12 percent government and
commercial solar (500,000 rooftops), 5 percent geothermal (36 plants), 5.5 percent hydroelectric (6.6 large facilities), 1 percent tidal

New York would reduce

power demand by 37 percent, largely because the new energy sources are more
efficient than the old ones. And because no fossil fuels would have to be purchased or burned ,
consumer costs would be similar to what they are today, and the state would eliminate a huge portion of its
carbon dioxide emissions. New York State could end fossil fuel use and generate all of its energy from wind, water and
energy (2,600 turbines) and 0.5 percent wave energy (1,910 devices). In the process,

solar power, according to Mark Jacobson. The New York Times heralded the study as scientifically groundbreaking and practically
impossible. But this time Jacobson, a professor of civil and environmental engineering, is digging in. He took his analysis a step
further and found a surprising way to sell his plan. And hes close to finishing a similar study for California, which will lend more
depth to his vision. I asked Jacobson why hes out to change the world, how he answers his critics and what it will take for his plans
to get traction in government.

(--) Wind alternative energy requires no fossil fuels

Jacobson and Delucchi 10 (Mark Z. Jacobson and Mark A. Delucchi,
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering from Stanford University and
Institute of Transportation Studies from University of California, 12-30-10, Providing
all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part I:Technologies, energy
resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure and materials,
http://web.stanford.edu/group/efmh/jacobson/Articles/I/JDEnPolicyPt1.pdf, mgsk-sd)
estimates of global and U.S. end-use energy demand, by sector, in a world
powered entirely by WWS, with zero fossil-fuel and biomass combustio n. We have assumed that
all end uses that feasibly can be electrified use WWS power directly, and that the remaining end
Table 2 shows our

uses use WWS power indirectly in the form of electrolytic hydrogen (hydrogen produced by splitting water with

we assume that most uses of fossil fuels for heating/cooling

can be replaced by electric heat pumps, and that most uses of liquid fuels for transportation can be
replaced by BEVs. The remaining, non-electric uses can be supplied by hydrogen , which we
WWS power). As explained in Section 2

assume would be compressed for use in fuel cells in remaining non-aviation transportation, liquefied and

The hydrogen would

be produced using WWS power to split water ; thus, directly or indirectly, WWS powers the worldAs
combusted in aviation, and combusted to provide heat directly in the industrial sector.

shown in Table 2, the direct use of electricity, for example, for heating or electric motors, is considerably more
efficient than is fuel combustion in the same application. The use of electrolytic hydrogen is less efficient than is the
use of fossil fuels for direct heating but more efficient for transportation when fuel cells are used; the efficiency

difference between direct use of electricity and electrolytic hydrogen is due to the energy losses of electrolysis, and
in the case of most transportation uses, the energy requirements of compression and the greater inefficiencies of
fuel cells than batteries. Assuming that some additional modest energy-conservation methods are implemented
(see the list of demand-side conservation measures in Section 2) and subtracting the energy requirements of

all-WWS world would require 30% less end-use power

than the EIA projects for the conventional fossil-fuel scenario.
petroleum refining, we estimate that an

Counterplan Answers

States Counterplan Answers

(--) States cant solve the AFF:
A) Increased centralization and influence is necessary to solve
thats the 1ac Schroeder evidence
B) Federal incentives are necessary to provide cost
competitiveness for wind energythats the 1ac Giordano
evidence
(--) Federal jurisdiction & expertise are necessary to solve for
offshore wind:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
A. Federal Jurisdiction Federal jurisdiction begins more than three nautical miles from the shore, along the Outer

Analyses of offshore wind

capacity typically assume that wind farms will be built in federal waters, more
than five miles from the coast. 9 9 Thus, federal jurisdiction covers the generation
component of an offshore wind project, mainly the turbines. 0 0 This includes site
approval and permitting for project construction. 1 0 1 Section 388 of the Energy Policy Act of
Continental Shelf, and ends two hundred nautical miles out to sea. 9 8

2005 grants the Department of the Interior (DOI) primary authority over offshore wind farm approval and
permitting.102

Section 388 specifies that the Minerals Management Service (MMS), a branch

of DOI, controls the offshore wind facility permitting process ; the Secretary of the Interior makes
the final permitting decision.103 This grant of authority extends MMS's existing authority under the Outer
Continental Shelf Lands Act (OCSLA), which gives it management rights over the Outer Continental Shelf primarily

Because of MMS's experience with managing offshore oil

and gas extraction, Congress deemed it the proper body for offshore wind
permitting as well. 1 0 5 Opponents of the decision have been concerned with MMS's lack of experience with
for offshore fossil fuel extraction.

marine habitat regulation and protection. 1 0 6 Fortunately, MMS appears receptive to coordinating with other
agencies with relevant experience, like the Army Corps of Engineers, National Marine Fisheries Service, Coast
Guard, Department of Energy, and Environmental Protection Agency, as well as appropriate state actors.1 0 7

(--) State FIAT illegitimate:

A) Not anticipated in the literatureno one assumes all 50
states will act at the same timemeans no lit to answer
the counterplan.
B) Not reciprocalthey get 50 actors we get one.
C) Reason to reject the counterplan.
(--) Federal mandate key to offshore wind power:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)

Section 388 came in response to controversy over which federal agency had permitting authority during the early
stages of the Cape Wind project, which is described in more detail in Part IV. While Section 388 does not resolve all
of the issues relating to federal jurisdiction over offshore wind, 0 8 its designation of MMS as the primary permitting
agency marks Congress's first step toward a unified review process for offshore alternative energy.109 Nonetheless,

the current federal regulatory environment for offshore wind remains confusing . In
April 2009, President Obama took a first step toward remedying some of that confusion by announcing a
coordinated program, headed by DOI, for federal offshore renewable energy permitting. The program will cover not
only offshore wind power generation, but also other offshore renewable energy, such as electricity generated from

Despite this progress toward an improved federal regulatory

program, barriers to offshore wind power still exist, largely due to the absence of
a strong and effective federal mandate promoting offshore wind power
development and the powers that states retain over project siting."n
ocean currents.' 1 0

(--) Permutation: Do Both

Perm solves best Federal financial incentives are key:
Shott 14 (Corey Shott, Sr. Legislative Representative in Climate & Energy for National Wildlife
Federation, no date, Incentivizing Offshore Wind, National Wildlife Federation,
http://www.nwf.org/~/media/PDFs/Global-Warming/Offshore%20Wind/Incentivizing-Offshore-Wind-FactSheet.pdf, mgsk-sd)

Climate change, fueled by carbon pollution from burning fossil fuels for energy, is the single greatest
threat facing both wildlife and people across the globe. The National Wildlife Federation is
mobilizing our millions of members and partners in support of a rapid transition to clean energy
sources. America has massive offshore wind energy resources off our coastlines ,
presenting a substantial domestic clean energy opportunity we can no longer afford to ignore .
There are more than 1,000 offshore wind turbines producing local, clean energy overseas and not one spinning here
in the United States. If America is to get serious about transitioning to clean energy, this has to change. As the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) map shows, there are substantial wind resources off our Atlantic,
Gulf, and Pacific coasts, as well as in the Great Lakes. NREL has estimated as much as 212 GW of offshore wind
power available in shallow waters off our East Coast alone. Harnessing a fraction of Americas offshore wind
potential could power our homes, businesses, and vehicles with job-producing, clean energy. Up and down the
Atlantic coast, the federal Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) is working closely with States, offshore
wind developers, and key stakeholders to advance offshore wind development. Every state with significant offshore
wind resources has some taken some steps forward on offshore wind, including key research and policy
development to facilitate offshore wind development. NWF is working closely with all involved to ensure that
offshore wind development moves forward in a manner that is protective of our coastal and marine wildlife
resources. While there is much positive momentum occurring to identify and permit appropriate sites for offshore
wind development, this new industry faces tough challenges in competing with our heavily subsidized fossil fuel

Federal financial incentives are greatly needed to bring this massive, clean
domestic energy source to market. The National Wildlife Federation, in coordination with a diverse
group of clean energy industry, environmental, and conservation organizations call on Congress to provide
tax certainty for the industry in order to reduce the costs of future projects and bring the reality of a
thriving offshore wind industry to America .
energy sources.

(--) National policy key to solve states arent uniform,

investors dont believe the states cp, faster federal permitting
key to both more permits and access to the most up to date
wind technology.
Jackson, 13 (Derrick, An award-winning columnist for the Op-Ed section, known
for his nature photography, Bostons Museum of African American History, 3/2/2013,
Politics imperil offshore wind sweet spots,
http://bostonglobe.com/opinion/2013/03/02/sour-politics-imperil-offshore-windsweet-spots/wZHvvjxVMtZKx2Y42iRpII/story.html//sd)

Kyle Aarons, a fellow at the Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, said that despite Obamas high-profile
advocacy of renewable energy in his State of the Union address, only 30 states have adopted renewable energy
standards, and most states without them are Republican strongholds that soundly voted against Obama for

No two state policies are alike, and were not really anticipating much
progress on new states, Aarons said. I wouldnt say were stuck on renewables
overall. We have a lot of potential to still catch up. Onshore wind will still probably
do well, but without a national policy, I would imagine that offshore, being newer, will be
pretty slow. Rick Sullivan, Massachusetts secretary for energy and environmental
affairs, agreed, saying in a telephone interview that a national policy would likely
speed up offshore wind development. I think youd not only see more permits,
but faster permitting should allow developers to take advantage of the most up-todate wind technology out there rather than it taking years to put up something that
may be outdated, Sullivan said. Being outdated weighed heavily on the minds of participants at the offshore
president.

conference. While Cape Wind and Block Islands Deepwater Wind are finally poised to plunge their first platforms
into the water, Europe had a record year in offshore wind development, installing 369 turbines. Denmark

Investors at the conference said billions of

dollars are sitting on the sidelines as Americas wind potential waits for a national
policy. Deepwater Wind board manager Bryan Martin gave credit to Salazar for getting wind energy as far as he
has, but were tapped out on the state-by-state model . The White House and
Congress must tap into a national model, or the United States will remain on the
sidelines for good.
announced it now gets 30 percent of energy from wind.

(--) Conditionality is a voting issue:

A) Time skew: can make our offense disappear at no cost.
B) Strategy skew: cant read our best answers to the
counterplan.
C) Voting issue: letting them kick the counterplan only gives
them what they want.
(--) Federal coordination is necessary:
Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
While states may be in the best position to create marine spatial plans for adjacent
coastal waters, the federal government must provide legislation that would help
coordinate such planning in state and offshore waters in order to guarantee
interstate and intergovernmental coordination and consistency . The federal government
should consider creating new legislation for a federal Ocean Zone Management Act ("OZMA"), through which the
state and federal governments can utilize marine spatial planning in a manner that is consistent on both a state-tostate and national basis, and which accounts for conflicting user interests and cumulative impacts.

States Cant Solve AFF: 1ar Extensions

(--) You should view the counterplan through the lens of
optimalityif there is the tiniest risk it doesnt solve the whole
case you should vote to solve extinction
(--) Their solvency evidence is all genericit doesnt take into
account offshore wind
(--) Extend the Schroder evidence: you need increased
CENTRALIZATION to solvedividing power to the states ruins
solvency
(--) Federal incentives are key to cost competitivenessmeans
less windmills are built in a world of the Counterplan.
(--) Denmark provesstrong federal control key to offshore
wind power:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Not surprisingly, offshore

wind power development has been most successful in places with

a powerful, centralized government implementing a strong pro-offshore wind
power policy.237 Denmark in particular has been successful in its promotion of wind
power, especially offshore wind power. 2 3 8 By the end of 2006, Denmark was generating 20 percent of its electricity from 239 wind, both offshore and
onshore. Since 1991, Denmark has erected eight offshore wind farms, with a total capacity of 423 MW,240 meeting about 4.5 percent of Denmark's power needs.241
The Danish Energy Authority, the governmental agency that oversees energy facility construction, required the construction of the two largest Danish offshore wind
farms-Horns Rev and Nysted. 2 4 2 Its requirement resulted from a governmental action plan outlining the expansion of wind power in Denmark, which emphasized
the expansion of 243 offshore wind power in particular. The Danish government has promoted wind power generation for decades, and the Danish Energy Authority
serves as the centralized head of the Danish 244 government's offshore wind policy implementation. The Energy Authority is a "one stop shop" for the many parties
interested in offshore wind power 245 development2. It determines whether to pursue an Environmental Impact Assessment, which it then uses, along with relevant
legislation, to determine whether to allow offshore development. 2 4 6 At the same time, the government has worked to win support from a wide range of
stakeholders, including energy companies, industry, municipalities, 247 research institutions, nongovernmental organizations, and consumers. In localities around the
Horns Rev offshore wind farm, people expressed concerns before construction regarding the lack of local involvement in the process, the negative visual and aesthetic
impact of the project, and the resulting negative effect on tourism.248 After construction, and after no drop in tourism occurred, attitudes gradually shifted to neutral
or even somewhat positive towards the project.249 Denmark

offers a lesson in the power of constructed

offshore wind projects to change negative attitudes . 2 5 0 The same transformation
might be possible in the United States . In 2007, after nearly a year of negotiations, the Danish government committed to
increasing its wind power generation capacity by 1,300 MW by 2012, bringing its capacity to a total of 4,400 MW,251 or nearly 50 percent of Denmark's total power
needs.252 This increase will include 400 MW of new offshore generation on existing wind farms, Horns Rev and Nysted, and at least 400 MW of offshore generation
in new wind farms. 2 5 3 The Danish government's commitment to renewable energy, wind power, and, in particular, offshore wind power, fits into the European
Union's broad pro-renewable energy goals. Specifically, the EU aims to generate 21 percent of its electricity from renewable energy sources by 2010 as part of its
efforts to combat climate change and to reduce its dependence on coal, oil, and natural gas.254 A number of other EU countries also have strong offshore wind
programs.25 Although Denmark has traditionally been touted as the leader in offshore wind production, the United Kingdom recently overtook it with a total offshore
generation capacity of 590 MW.256

State CP: 1ar: Federal jurisdiction

(--) the counterplan cant solve at allExtend our Schroder
evidence
A) Federal jurisdiction is necessary to build more than 5 miles
off the coastyou also need the federal government for site
approval and permittingif they FIAT the counterplan does
these things thats utopian and destroys our lit base for
answersyou should reject those parts of the counterplan.
B) The federal government has the necessary expertise to
solvethe Minerals Management Service has experience in
managing offshore resourcesthe states have none of this.
(--) Feds are keyonly ones with access to the Outer
Continental Shelf:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
III CURRENT REGULATORY FRAMEWORK FOR OFFSHORE WIND Both state and federal governments share control

Geography determines the jurisdiction of

each: state governments control their respective Coastal Zones , from the 92 baseline of
their shores out three nautical miles, and the federal government controls the Outer
Continental Shelf beyond that. 9 3 Offshore wind turbines are typically located on the
Outer Continental Shelf; 9 4 thus, the federal government sites and permits
this component of an offshore wind project.95 To get the electricity to consumers on land, however,
over offshore wind project siting approval and permitting.

offshore wind projects must necessarily include transmission lines from the turbines, through state waters and onto
land. State governments control the siting and permitting of these transmission lines. 9 6

(--) Stronger federal intervention is necessary for offshore

wind power:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
On the other hand, there

are broader, positive effects of offshore wind power developmentsuch as energy security improvement and environmental benefits like climate
change mitigation-that imply a need for stronger federal intervention to balance
appropriately the costs and benefits of offshore wind. 116 The CZMA attempts to provide a formal
structure for such balancing, but it ultimately leaves the states with too much power , and the federal
government and offshore wind farm proponents with no formal federal encouragement or support.

(--) Federal government required for offshore windmultiple

federal obligations must be met:
Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
In addition to the two major requirements, other

federal statutes put potential obligations on

offshore wind developers. n51 For instance, the USACE, under the Clean Water Act
(CWA), may require permits for activities that may lead to the "discharge of dredged
or fill material" into any "navigable waters." n52 The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) states that water
resource projects, such as dams and levees, may require a Section 404 permit over waters of the United [*908] States. n53 Also, the
USACE must ensure that the offshore wind entrepreneurs are in compliance with
another federal environmental statute, the Marine Protection, Research, and
Sanctuaries Act of 1972. n54

(--) US support is key to investors:

Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
n3. Tom Moroney & Jim Efstathiou Jr., Obama Wind Farm Goals Threatened by Indian Rites, Kennedy's Parting Wish,
Bloomberg (Apr. 14, 2010, 9:00 PM), http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601130&sid=aYGGAST 8uKmc
(quoting Jack Clarke, Massachusetts Audubon Society public policy director: " Everyone

is waiting for Cape

Wind to break the ice. There would be few investors willing to put themselves at risk
if it didn't look like the U.S. was committed to renewable offshore energy.").

(--) States cant solvemost wind projects would be five miles

offshore:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
[*2029] Most proposed offshore wind projects , including Cape Wind, would be located more
than five miles offshore, in federal waters. n26 Thus, the electricity-generating
component of most offshore wind projects, the wind turbines themselves, are
subject to federal jurisdiction. State governments nevertheless play a role in the approval process of offshore wind projects
under the CZMA for two reasons. First, electricity generated by such projects must be transmitted to land through cables on the seabed, which
necessarily travel through the state's coastal zone. States therefore can exert control over the permitting process for the transmission-cable
component of an offshore wind project by providing for such a process in their CZMPs. Second, the CZMA provides a mechanism for states to
extend their role beyond the coastal zones through the process of federal consistency review. n27 Pursuant to federal consistency review, "each
Federal agency activity within or outside the coastal zone that affects any land or water use or natural resource of the coastal zone shall be carried
out in a manner which is consistent to the maximum extent practicable with the enforceable policies of approved State management programs."
n28 Under federal consistency review requirements, applications for a required federal license or permit to conduct an activity in or outside the
coastal zone must include "a certification that the proposed activity complies with the enforceable policies of the state's approved program." n29
A state then has the opportunity to review the application, and either concur or object to the applicant's certification. n30 In this manner, the
CZMA seeks to encourage state involvement in the management of coastal resources even outside each state's coastal zone. n31 The Secretary of

Commerce, however, ultimately controls final approval of any such federal license or permit, and may overrule a state's objection by finding that
"the activity is consistent with the objectives of [the CZMA] or is otherwise necessary in the interest of national security." n32

(--) Federal government has the power to overrule the states

on issues of offshore wind powerCounterplan solves zero of
the case:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
The Cape Wind story demonstrates that the siting of offshore wind projects
leads to a unique interplay between federal and state interests. The Cape Wind
turbines will be located entirely in federal waters, but electricity transmission cables
will run under state waters and lands to connect to the local power grid . n4 The
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) provides the primary mechanism for balancing
federal and state interests in U.S. coastal resources . n5 Under the regime set up by the CZMA, states are
[*2025]

given broad discretion to create their own Coastal Zone Management Plans (CZMPs) regulating the use of resources within state waters, defined
as those waters within three miles of the shoreline. n6 The federal government retains regulatory and permitting authority over all federal waters
beyond three miles of the shoreline; however, the mechanism of federal consistency review extends state power further, beyond their coastal
zones, by allowing states to review and sometimes overrule federal actions and permits in federal waters when the activity affects the state's
coastal zone. n7 Nevertheless,

the federal government retains ultimate permitting

authority; the U.S. Secretary of Commerce can overrule a state's protest by
finding that a permit is consistent with the objectives of the CZMA or otherwise in the interest of
national security. n8

(--) Federal leadership keyMMS has expertise:

Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
D. Implications for Other Types of Offshore Development and the Potential for Mutual Benefits Despite offshore wind
power's lack of success, offshore production of conventional fuels has been very successful in the United States. In
the two decades preceding 2003, almost 25 percent of the nation's natural gas production and almost 30 percent of
its oil production came from offshore. 2 8 1 Conventional offshore production is environmentally risky, however, and
requires extensive environmental permitting from a variety of agencies. 2 8 2 Indeed, offshore drilling has been
subject to substantial, ongoing controversy, related especially to the environmental damage it causes. 28 Similarly,
importing liquefied natural gas via ship and pipeline through coastal states into the United States has raised
environmental as well as safety concerns. 2 8 4 Nonetheless, this industry is also expected to increase as the
nation's demand for natural gas increases and its supplies diminish. 2 8 5 The proposed revision to the CZMA
should not impact the regulation and development of these conventional resources as it refers explicitly to offshore

The existing oil and gas industry, however, 286 will likely
have a role in the development of offshore wind energy. These industries and
related industries, for example, the submarine cable industry and the offshore maintenance industry, have
experience in siting, building, operating, and maintaining offshore structures. 287
Indeed, Congress recognized this in granting MMS, the agency that has traditionally
overseen offshore oil and gas development, permitting authority over offshore renewable
energy facilities, including offshore wind facilities . 2 8 8 Offshore wind power develop- ment may be able to
renewable energy development.

learn and profit from this existing knowledge base, and the possibility exists for combined offshore oil or gas and
renewable projects.

Permutation Extensions
(--) Extend our perm to do bothit combines the effectiveness
of incentives with state flexibility
(--) Federal incentives key to offshore wind power:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
CONCLUSION A revised CZMA would provide a promising solution to the problems that offshore wind energy and
other offshore renewable energy sources have faced in the United States. Specifically, offshore wind power
development has faced repeated failures due to the mismatch between local costs and national benefits, and the
absence of a regulatory framework to reconcile them. While it may come too late to make a difference for Cape
Wind, a new CZMA could still ensure success for offshore wind power in other locations around the United States.
Still, to be truly effective, revising the CZMA needs to be just one step in a broader offshore wind or renewable
energy program. While a new CZMA would address problems related to offshore wind farm siting, this is just one

as with all renewable

energy sources, the importance of positive federal government policies and
incentives, such as the production tax credits mentioned previously, are key to
offshore wind power's success. Under the Obama administration, which seems especially receptive to
barrier that offshore wind power development needs to overcome. For example,

renewable energy promotion, the United States has the exciting opportunity to make great strides with offshore
wind power development and renewable energy overall. Indeed, although Congress has struggled, it continues to
debate various climate change legislative proposals, many of which relate closely to renewable energy
promotion.290 President Obama also continues to stress the 291 importance of renewable energy to the future of
the United States. Denmark exemplifies how successful offshore wind power development can be under the
influence of a government with a positive outlook on renewable energy production that pervades multiple agencies
and programs in the government.292 Indeed, President Obama has acknowledged Denmark and its successes in his
efforts to promote offshore wind power.293 Furthermore, an overarching pro- renewable policy could instigate the
development of various renewable technologies-including offshore wind power, which has seen substantial success
in not only Denmark, but in other EU countries.294 Even without firm policies in place and no projects yet built,
offshore wind project proposals are sprouting up across the United States. As of the end of 2008, eleven projects
had been proposed in New Jersey, Rhode Island, Delaware, New York, Georgia, Texas, Ohio, and Maine; combined,
these projects represent a total of 2,075 MW of capacity.295 MMS has granted or is 296 expected to grant federal
approval to most of these projects. Eleven more projects were in earlier stages of development at the end of 2008.
29 Despite these promising signs, all these projects stand to face the same obstacles as the Cape Wind project as
long as the current regulatory framework remains in effect. With revisions to the CZMA, Congress can help make
sure these projects move forward, and pave the way for more in the future.

(--) Perm Experts say federal support and state-level

framework are vital
Sims 13 (Douglass Sims, Center for Market Innovation from Natural Resources Defense Council
(NRDC), 2-2014, Fulfilling the Promise of U.S. Offshore Wind, NRDC,
http://www.nrdc.org/business/files/offshore-wind-investment.pdf, mgsk-sd)

Federal incentives in the form of tax credits and accelerated depreciation are a vital part of creating these conditions, and
the recent extension of these benefits by Congress is welcome news.7 But federal support , while
necessary, has so far not been sufficient. For investment to flow to the offshore wind sector,
states also must implement policies that ensure that projects have: (1) certainty that they will receive sufficient
revenues for the energy, capacity, and other attributes they generate, and (2) sufficient access to affordable debt capital at a
time when the capacity of private sector banks to fund large projects is limited. The good news is that the emerging, state-led U.S.
offshore wind policy model contains the building blocks to satisfy these conditions. The United States has a successful
track record of deploying massive amounts of capital into onshore wind, cultivated by supportive policies like state renewable portfolio standards and
federal tax credits. But we can learn from Germany, which, up until recently, had difficulty attracting offshore wind investment relative to neighbors like
Denmark, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. Frustrated by the lack of completed projects, yet convinced of the potential of offshore wind, Germany

tweaked its initially unsuccessful offshore wind investment policies in the recent past and investment started to flow. The United States can do the same.
Germany successfully addressed the revenue problem by revising its rules to ensure that any qualifying offshore wind project is entitled to a long-term
tariff that is sufficient to attract investment, but it did so in a way that also ensures that the public (ratepayers and taxpayers) get maximum value for
their money. Germany also reduced the cost and increased the availability of debt capital by creating an innovative program whereby a public bank will
match the debt provided by private banks, ensuring that projects will go forward and lowering the overall financing costs. Why should we feel confident
that this strategy will work in the United States? States routinely benefit from the experience of other states and countries that have faced similar
challenges about what does and does not work in attracting investment to new sectors, such as the offshore wind sector. While it is true that every policy
must be adapted to local conditions, it is also true that investors do not substantively change their investment requirements when they invest in a new
jurisdiction. On the contrary, investors look for places to make investments that have policy conditions that are as close as possible to those where they
have successfully invested in the past. So, whatever the differences in form among different countries or states, successful offshore wind policies must be
similar in function to attract similar types and levels of private investment. The polices that Germany put in place to unlock offshore wind are instructive to
U.S. states because they are designed to attractand are attractingthe same investors that the states want to attract: commercial banks and project
developers. It is these investors that finance, build, own and/ or operate power plants in coastal states, so policies must be designed to fit requirements of
this market while minimizing impacts on ratepayers. The German story is not a fairy tale, however. After perfecting its investment policies to stimulate an
unprecedented level of domestic offshore wind financing in 2011, major failures in transmission policy resulted in a lackluster 2012. This paper focuses on
the German policy successes and the lessons they present for the United States and also briefly examines the very unsuccessful German approach to
transmission as a cautionary tale that should not be replicated in the United States. In sum, the United States can quickly tap into this unparalleled
resource if we take the lead by: (1) ensuring revenue certainty through strategically refining the innovative Offshore Wind Renewable Energy Certificate
(OREC) programs, such as those adopted in New Jersey, and under consideration in Maryland, and (2) leveraging the resources of commercial banks to

federal policy such as the investment tax

play a vital role. However, a solid state-level framework that supports
financing is a necessary condition to truly launch the sector.
make available sufficient levels of low-cost debt available through co-lending programs. Supportive
credit and accelerated depreciation also

(--) The status quo has too much state control which prevents
federal solutions to wind power:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
A.

The Coastal Zone Management Act: Attempting to Reconcile Local Interests with National Priorities The
overarching goal of the CZMA is "to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible, to restore or enhance,
the resources of the Nation's coastal zone for this and succeeding generations."I 1 7 The CZMA mentions
the development of energy facilities in the Coastal Zone, but its language is vague, and generally requires
only that states undertake "adequate consideration of the national interest" in siting energy facilities, and
"give consideration" to any applicable national or interstate energy plan or program. 1 1 8 The CZMA also
mentions energy with regard to funding for development: " The

national objective of attaining

a greater degree of energy self-sufficiency would be advanced by providing
Federal financial assistance to meet state and local needs resulting from new
or expanded energy activity in or affecting the coastal zone ."I19 However, the CZMA
does not mention offshore wind energy or renewable energy at all. Although the CZMA acknowledges the
"national interest in the effective management, beneficial use, protection, and development of the coastal
zone,"l20 it allows states substantial discretion over their coastal zone management through CZMPs, which
the Secretary of Commerce oversees.1 2 1 As noted previously, the Submerged Lands Act defines state
coastal zones as three miles from the shoreline.1 2 2 The CZMA mechanism of federal consistency review
extends state power further, past their coastal zones, by allowing states to review and sometimes overrule
federal actions and permits in federal waters.' 2 3 Before the CZMA was promulgated, the coastal zone had
long been subject to decentralized management.1 2 4 The CZMA continues this tradition with its own
approach to federalism, explicitly encouraging cooperation between local, state, and federal levels of
government in their management of coastal resources.125 Specifically, under the CZMA, each state makes
its own CZMP. 126 The CZMA provides a variety of policy considerations for states to incorporate into their
management programs. Prioritizing construction of certain facilities, specifically energy facilities, in states'
coastal zones is one of several listed considerations.' 2 7 Others include protecting natural resources;
minimizing the loss of life and property to flooding and sea level rise; improving coastal water quality;
allowing public recreational access to the coast; restoring urban waterfronts and preserving coastal
features; coordinating and simplifying governmental management procedures for coastal resources;
consulting and coordinating with federal agencies; giving timely and effective notice for public and local
participation in governmental decision making; comprehensive planning for marine resource preservation;
and studying sea level rise and land subsidence.128 The Secretary of Commerce examines states' CZMPs,
making sure they are in accordance with the CZMA's policy considerations and other mandates, and any
other federal regulations. 129in particular, the CZMA requires that states adequately consider the national
interest in "siting of facilities such as energy facilities which are of greater than local significance. In the

case of energy facilities, the Secretary shall find that the State has given consideration to any applicable
national or interstate energy plan or program."' 3 0 Once approved by the Secretary of Commerce,
however, state CZMPs are subject to very little federal constraint under the CZMA, leaving states with
nearly complete discretion within their coastal zones. State control is expanded by federal consistency
review, 1 3 1 a mechanism unique to the CZMA. Consistency review allows a state to review a federal
agency activity or permit within or outside of the coastal zone for compatibility with the state's CZMP when
the activity or permit affects the state's coastal zone.1 3 2 Under this mechanism, the federal agency must
submit a "consistency determination" (for an activity) or "consistency certification" (for a permit) to the
state before moving forward with the project.1 3 3 For federal permits, which would be more relevant to
offshore renewable development than federal actions, the state then has the opportunity to concur with or
object to the agency's certification.1 3 4 "No license or permit shall be granted by the Federal agency until
the state . . . has concurred with the applicant's certification."' 3 5 Thus, a coastal state's control extends
beyond its own coastal zone into federal waters, as it has the ability to review-and potentially block-any
project that affects their coastal zone. In the end, however, the Secretary of Commerce-by her own
initiative or in response to an appeal-can overrule the state's protest by finding that a permit is consistent
with the objectives of the CZMA or otherwise in the interest of national security.1 3 6 Since the passage of
the CZMA in 1972 until March 2010, states had filed 141 appeals with the Secretary protesting federal
permits affecting their coastal zones.' 3 7 States settled their issues with the federal government in 64
instances, or 45 percent of these cases.' 3 8 The Secretary dismissed or overrode state appeals in 32
instances, or 23 percent of these cases.' 3 9 Of the remaining 45 appeals that the Secretary considered for
their substance, the Secretary overrode the state's objection in 14 cases, or 31 percent of the time, and
accepted the state's objection in 30 cases, or 67 percent of the time.1 4 0 Only 19 of the 45 appeals
related to energy facilities, but all of these related to oil or natural gas projects; the Secretary overrode
these appeals about half of the time.141 Although states do not choose to use their federal consistency
review power over federal permits frequently, as these numbers show, it is nonetheless a powerful tool

Ultimately, the CZMA, with its focus on

decentralized, state control over coastal-zone management, leaves the
federal government and offshore wind proponents with minimal recourse in
their struggle to develop offshore wind projects . The CZMA allows states near-complete
that extends their power beyond their coastal zones.

control over their coastal zones through their CZMPs, with almost no role for the federal government in

Because electricity
transmission lines must necessarily run through states' coastal zones to
reach consumers, states therefore have significant control over offshore wind
projects. Through federal consistency review, their direct control can even extend into federal waters;
promoting offshore wind energy (or any kind of renewable energy).

though states have not often employed this process, the Secretary of Commerce has seemed willing to

Given a policy of such strong local control, and

the absence of a firm federal mandate for offshore wind power development,
local interests have been able to stall both federal and state permitting
processes, often through litigation. Proponents of offshore wind have little federal support,
give them some deference when they do.

and no guaranteed source of state support, on which to rely. Cape Wind presents a compelling and
frustrating illustration of this problem.

Privates Counterplan Answers

(--) FIAT Abuse
A) Infinite Regressionthe neg can fiat any number of private
actorsBill Gates CP, Walmart CP, etc. Unfair for the AFF
because we cant predict all the private actors.
B) No rational decision maker can choose between the federal
government and privateshurts logical decision-making skills
C) Its object FIATPrivates wont invest nowthat is the heart
of the AFF advantages.
D) Counter-interpretation: incentivizing private funding is fine
not private actionreason to reject the counterplan.
(--) Perm: do both--Federal regulatory revision is necessary to
solve the caseprivates can invest all they want, but states
and local governments will shut them down without the plan:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Despite the aforementioned challenges, offshore wind remains important to the United States' energy future. Its
many benefits make it an ideal choice to meet some of the country's growing electricity demand, especially as the
United States begins to realize the severity of the threats from both climate change and its dependence on foreign
fuels. 8 9 In addition to the environmental and economic benefits that offshore and onshore wind power provides,
the proximity of offshore wind to U.S. electricity demand and the resulting lower transmission costs are crucial. 9 0
The many benefits of offshore wind outweigh its primarily local environmental and aesthetic costs, most of which

a primary
obstacle to offshore wind power development is the lack of a regulatory framewor k
can be minimized with careful planning and community relations. In spite of these compelling drivers,

with which to reconcile the local costs with the regional and national benefits. 9 1 The current regulatory framework

Until the federal govern- ment puts a revised framework in

place, such as the revised CZMA proposed in Part V, states and local groups fixated on
immediate, local costs will retain the ability to stall and even block offshore
wind power development. Without federal regulatory revision, offshore wind
will not realize its full promise.
is described in the next Part.

(--)Government support necessary for tech to help with the

cost of offshore wind projects:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
In addition, opponents frequently cite offshore wind power's environmental costs. These costs are site specific and
can involve harm to plants and animals, and their habitats. 8 2 This harm includes impacts on birds, which can
involve disruption of migratory patterns, destruction of habitat, and bird deaths from collision with the turbine
blades. 8 3 However, these adverse impacts are generally less dramatic than those associated with fossil fuel
extraction and generation, and in a well-chosen site they can be negligible. 8 4 A recent, exhaustive study of the

environmental impact of major offshore wind farms in Denmark concluded that "offshore wind farms, if placed right,
can be engineered and operated without significant damage to the marine environment and vulnerable species.,, 8
5 A final concern is that offshore wind farms are more expensive to build , and more difficult to
install and maintain, than onshore wind farms. 8 6 The cost of an offshore wind project is estimated to be at least

Short- and long-term technical improvements

could help to lower offshore wind costs, however, and government assistance may
help them occur more quickly.
50 percent greater than the onshore equivalent. 8 7

(--) Government backing and support key to offshore wind

energy production:
Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
[*682] Other countries, such as Denmark (which was the first in the world to develop a commercial offshore wind
farm and currently has the greatest amount of installed offshore capacity) and Germany (which has long supported
renewable energy by means of a highly favorable feed-in tariff) have implemented similarly aggressive policy
measures and objectives to help stimulate offshore wind development, and both have approved moderate to large-

increased government
backing and support has inspired greater private sector confidence in the
offshore wind industry, thus allowing many of the challenges that are currently
preventing its growth to gradually be overcome .
scale projects for construction in the immediate future. Not surprisingly, this

(--) Government subsidies necessary for renewable energy:

Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
After years of fossil fuel dominance, the world has had enough. n1 From the United States' perspective, foreign oil
dependence has threatened national security n2 and caused innumerable environmental disasters. n3 Renewable
energy has the potential to provide clean and possibly unlimited energy to those who harness the power of the sun

Unfortunately, renewable energy production is expensive and inefficient

compared to oil and gas, and renewable energy companies often rely on
government subsidies to make the projects viable. n5
or wind. n4

Onshore Wind Counterplan Answers

(--)Extend our Thaler evidencewind speeds over water are
stronger and more consistent than over landproviding a
solvency deficit to the counterplan.
(--) Permute: Do BothDoubles the solvency for warming.
(--) Offshore wind power solves better than onshore:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Furthermore, wind power does not involve any of the additional environmental costs associated with nuclear power
or fuel extraction for traditional electricity generation, such as coal mining and natural gas extraction.67 Wind
power generation also does not require the water necessary to cool traditional coal, gas, and nuclear generation

offshore wind power has certain attributes that give it added

benefits compared to onshore wind. Wind tends to be stronger and more
consistent offshore-both benefits when it comes to wind power generation . 6 9 70 This
units.68 Moreover,

is largely due to reduced wind shear and roughness on the open ocean. Wind shear and roughness refer to effects

While
long grass, trees, and buildings will slow wind down significantly, water is
generally very smooth and has much less of an effect on wind speeds . 7 2 In addition,
because offshore wind projects face fewer barriers-both natural and manmade-to
their expansion, offshore developers can take advantage of economies of scale
and build larger wind farms that generate more electricity . 7 3 Importantly, offshore wind
also could overcome the problems that onshore wind faces regarding the
distance between wind power generation and electricity demand . That is, although
the United States has considerable onshore wind resources in certain areas, mostly
in the middle of the country, they are frequently distant from areas with high
electricity demand, mostly on 74 the coasts, resulting in transmission problems. By
contrast, offshore resources are near coastal electricity demand centers . 7 5 In fact,
of the landscape surrounding turbines on the quality of wind and thus the amount of electricity produced.

twenty-eight of the contiguous forty-eight states have coastal boundaries, and these same states use 78 percent of

Thus, offshore wind power generation can effectively serve

major U.S. demand centers and avoid many of the transmission costs faced by
remote onshore generation. 7 7 If shallow water offshore potential (less than about 100 feet in depth) is
the United States' electricity. 7 6

met on the nation's coasts, twenty-six of the twenty-eight coastal states would have sufficient wind resources to
meet at least 20 percent of their electricity needs, and many states would have enough to meet their total
electricity demand. B. Costs of Offshore Wind Whereas many of the benefits of offshore wind power are national or
even global, the costs are almost entirely local. The downsides to offshore wind that drive most of the opposition to
offshore wind power are visual and environmental. Opponents to offshore wind projects complain about their
negative aesthetic impacts on the landscape and on local property values. 7 9 They also make related complaints
about negative impacts on coastal recreational activities and tourism. However, studies have failed to show
statistically significant negative aesthetic or property-value impacts, despite showing continued expectations of
such impacts.

(--) Offshore wind is better than onshore wind3 reasons:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
In the race to find viable forms of renewable energy, offshore wind energy presents an attractive option that has
been implemented with some success in Europe but remains in the early stages of development in the United

Offshore wind's appeal stems from the fact that it uses essentially the same technology as
onshore wind power, which is already considerably developed and widely deployed around the world, but
with some notable advantages. For instance, unlike their onshore counterparts, offshore wind
farms generally enjoy stronger and more constant breezes that can generate
greater amounts of electricity than is available with onshore wind farms. In addition, since offshore
wind turbines are not subject to the same constraints in terms of space, transport of
components for assembly, and aesthetics as those onshore, they tend to be larger and
more efficient. Another major advantage is that electricity generated by offshore
wind is transmitted directly to the coast, where most large population centers are
located, and thus does not have to be carried indirectly across long distances from
remote areas, as is often the case with onshore wind.
States.

Onshore Wind Doesnt Solve 1ar

(--) View the counterplan through the lens of optimalityany
risk it doesnt solve the case means you should vote to solve
extinction.
(--) Extend our Thaler evidencewind blows faster offshore
which means more energy is producedbetter solving warming
and other advantages.
(--) Extend our Schroeder evidencethere are multiple
advantages to offshore wind:
A) Wind is stronger and more consistent offshoreproducing
better electricity.
B) Long grass and trees slow down onshore windmaking it
less effective
C) There are less barriers to building at seaallowing a better
economy of scale
(--) Offshore wind produces more electricity:
Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
Wind power, as a renewable source of energy, produces no emissions and is an excellent alternative in
environmental terms to conventional electricity production based on fuels such as oil, coal or natural gas. At

the vast majority of wind power is generated from onshore wind farms.
However, their growth is limited by the lack of inexpensive land near major
population centers and the visual pollution caused by large wind turbines. Comparing with
onshore wind power, offshore winds tend to flow at higher speeds than onshore winds,
thus it allows turbines to produce more electricity. Estimates predict a huge increase in
present,

wind energy development over the next 20 years. Much of this development will be offshore wind energy. This
implies that great investment will be done in offshore wind farms over the next decades. For this reason, offshore
wind farms promise to become an important source of energy in the near future. In this study, history, current
status, investment cost, employment, industry and installation of offshore wind energy in Europe are investigated in
detail, and also compared to its onshore counterpart.

(--) Multiple advantages to offshore wind compared to onshore

wind:
Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
Offshore wind turbines are less obtrusive than turbines on land, as their apparent size and noise can be
mitigated by distance. Because water has less surface roughness than land (especially deeper
water), the average wind speed is usually considerably higher over open water . Capacity
factors are considerably higher than for onshore and nearshore locations which allow offshore turbines to use

installing wind turbines offshore has several

advantages over onshore development. Onshore, difficulties in transporting large
shorter towers, making them less visible. In addi- tion,

components and opposition due to various siting issues , such as visual and noise impacts,
can limit the number of acceptable loca- tions for wind farms . Offshore locations can take
advantage of the high capacity of marine shipping and handling equipment, which far exceeds the lifting

On land, larger wind farms tend to be in

somewhat remote areas, so electricity must be transmitted over long power lines to
cities. Offshore wind farms can be closer to coastal cities and require relatively
shorter transmission lines, yet they are far enough away to reduce visual and noise impacts [7]
requirements for multi-megawatt wind tur- bines.

(--) Offshore wind has multiple advantages to onshore wind:

Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
There are many advantages of offshore wind energy, compared to its onshore
counterpart. Offshore wind power is more complex and costly to install and maintain but also has several key advan- tages. Winds
are typically stronger and more stable at sea, resulting in significantly higher
production per unit installed. Wind turbines can also be bigger than on land because it is easier to transport very large turbine
components by sea. Installing wind turbines suf- ficiently far from the shore can nearly eliminate the issues of visual impact and noise. This
makes it possible to use different designs for the turbines, improving their efficiency. This also makes huge areas available for the installation of
large wind farms. As

transportation and erection are made at sea, there is virtually no limit

on the size of the turbines that can be installed, as opposed to limits imposed by
road restrictions onshore. Also, offshore wind farms can be installed close to major
urban centers, requiring shorter transmission lines to bring this clean energy to
these high energy cost markets [9] . Advantages of offshore wind power can be
summarized as [10] : availability of large continuous areas, suitable for major
projects, elimination of the issues of visual impact and noise, higher wind
speeds, which generally increase with distance from the shore, less turbulence, which allows the turbines
to harvest the energy more effectively and reduces the fatigue loads on the turbine,
lower wind-shear, thus allowing the use of shorter towers.

Offshore wind turbines will produce more energy than onshore

turbines:
Erica Schroeder, J.D., University of California, Berkeley, School of Law,
2010 (California Law Review, 2010, Turning Offshore Wind On,
http://scholarship.law.berkeley.edu /cgi/viewcontent.cgi?
article=1069&context=californialawreview; Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
The actual electricity output of a wind turbine is reflected in its capacity factor, or the percentage of its maximum
output or capacity that a turbine actually produces in a year. Wind turbines typically have capacity factors of 20 to
40 percent. 3 8 Thus, the turbine that could theoretically generate an annual maximum of 15,768 MWh would

Although the United States only

has wind turbines on land, offshore wind turbines have the potential to be larger
and to produce more energy than onshore turbines. The Zond Z-750, a typical onshore wind
actually generate somewhere between 3,153 and 6,307 MWh annually.

turbine used in projects during the late 1990s, has a 208-foot tower, blades that span 79 feet, and a rotor diameter
of 164 feet. 3 9 True to its name, the Z-750 can generate 750 kW at its peak output. 4 0 This falls in the middle of
the range in capacity for onshore, utility-scale turbines, which range from 100 KW to several MW.41 As of 2007, the
average size for an onshore wind turbine was 1.65 MW. 4 2 Offshore wind turbines can get significantly larger and
more powerful, typically ranging from 2.0 to 3.6 MW, with a 260-foot tower and a rotor diameter of approximately
295 to 350 feet. Turbines with capacities as large as 5 MW have been installed offshore,44 and in 2008, a wind
developer purchased an offshore turbine with an impressive 7.5 MW capacity. 4 5 Turbines are typically grouped
together to form larger wind farms. 4 6

Turbines as efficient as those in the ocean cant be built on

land
Oceana 10(Untapped Wealth: Offshore Wind Can Deliver Cleaner, More
Affordable Energy and More Jobs Than Offshore Oil
http://oceana.org/sites/default/files/Offshore_Wind_Report.pd, Oceana is the largest
international ocean conservation and advocacy organization. Oceana works to
protect and restore the worlds oceans through targeted policy campaigns.Oceana
bases its policy campaign goals on science to achieve concrete and measurable
results through targeted campaigns that combine policy, advocacy, science, law,
media, and public pressure to prevent collapse of fish populations, marine mammals
and other sea life caused by industrial fishing and pollution. Campaigns are
designed to produce clear, identifiable policy changes within a 35 year timeframe.
September 2010. AED)
offshore winds are stronger and steadier than onshore winds; thus, more
electricity is generated and offshore wind energy is more consistent (less variable)
than onshore wind farms.8 All of these factors could expedite a transition to a clean
energy economy, while at the same time reducing electricity costs. Additionally, offshore winds are
Additionally,

stronger and steadier than onshore winds; thus, more electricity is generated and offshore wind energy is more consistent (less variable) than onshore wind farms.8 All of these factors
could expedite a transition to a clean energy economy, while at the same time reducing electricity costs. Offshore wind offers more than just clean electricity. It also can be a major
source of jobs. Manufacturing, installing, operating, and maintaining offshore wind farms can provide thousands of local jobs in coastal states. These include positions that require unique
engineering, manufacturing and maritime expertise. For example, offshore wind production requires oceanographic and ecological expertise. Experts in these fields would be needed to
collect and analyze data on areas of interest to offshore wind developers. New or retrofitted heavy manufacturing facilities would need to be built in the United States to supply offshore
turbines. Installing offshore turbines also would require maritime expertise and ships, similar to those needed by the offshore oil and natural gas industry. Specialized undersea cables
would be needed to transmit electricity from the farm to the shore. Manufacturing and installation needs in each of these areas these would create additional jobs. As a result, a variety
of long-term jobs would be created by offshore wind energy development, including electricians, meteorologists, welders, and operators among other general maintenance laborers.

Due to their size, offshore wind turbines (which currently tend to be much larger
than onshore turbines) must be built in coastal areas so that they can be shipped
out to sea. Offshore turbines are too large to transport by train or tractor trailer.
Several European ports have been revitalized due to increased investments in
offshore wind in Europe9 and similar benefits could be achieved in the United States
if the U.S. begins to invest in this growing industry.

NEPA Counterplan Answers

NEPA counterplan leads to long delays and blocks offshore
wind solvency:
Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg)
Undoubtedly, NEPA is the most onerous statute for offshore wind developers,
requiring detailed environmental review of major [f]ederal actions significantly affecting
the quality of the human environment.159 NEPA also created the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) which
has the power to promulgate regulations for the implementation of NEPA.160 The CEQ regulations define major as
significant,161 and federal action to include any federal licensing or permitting process (e.g., section 10 permits
under the Rivers and Harbors Act) and therefore encompass the vast majority, if not all, offshore wind projects.162
Not surprisingly, the broad scope of the Actand the potential for time-consuming litigation163makes NEPA a
crucial component of any successful offshore wind development.164 The NEPA process generally begins with a
determination as to whether a categorical exclusion applies.165 If a categorical exclusion applies, further NEPA
review is not required;166 if a categorical exclusion does not apply, the project developer must conduct an
environmental assessment (EA) that discusses the need for the proposal, alternatives, and environmental
impacts.167 Any project other than a small-scale pilot will likely require an EA, which generally requires a year or
more to complete and be approved.168 A consulting agencyBOEM in the case of offshore windthen reviews the
EA.169 If the consulting agency determines that the proposed action will not significantly affect the environment,
the agency issues a finding of no significant impact (FONSI).170 However, if the consulting agency determines,
based on the EA, that the project will significantly affect the environment, an environmental impact statement (EIS)
usually taking three to four years to completeis required.171 Broadly, an EIS must detail: (i) the environmental
impact of the proposed action, (ii) any adverse environmental effects which cannot be avoided should the proposal
be implemented, (iii) alternatives to the proposed action, (iv) the relationship between local short-term uses of
mans environment and the maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity, and (v) any irreversible and
irretrievable commitments of resources involved in the proposed action should it be implemented.172

The

lengthy NEPA process imposes a significant time and financial burden , as demonstrated
by the Cape Wind project. In 2001, Cape Wind Associates first submitted its proposal to develop the Cape Wind
project in federal waters off the coast of Massachusetts.173 An EIS was required, and the final Record of Decision on

Throughout this
process, citizen groups opposing the project initiated numerous court challenges
based on alleged NEPA violations and other grounds, further augmenting an already
time-consuming and costly process.175
the EIS was not issued, nor was the commercial lease issued by BOEM, until 2010.174

NEPA increases costs & delays:

Jeffrey THALER 12 Visiting Professor of Energy Policy, Law
& Ethics, University of Maine School of Law and School of
Economics (Jeff Thaler, FIDDLING AS THE WORLD BURNS: HOW CLIMATE
CHANGE URGENTLY REQUIRES A PARADIGM SHIFT IN THE PERMITTING OF
RENEWABLE ENERGY PROJECTS, Jeff Thaler University of Maine School of
Law September 17, 2012 Environmental Law, Volume 42, Issue 4,
http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2148122, Accessed
7/27/2014, rwg

If oil shale, tar sands, natural gas, and cell and transmission towers are important enough to warrant greater federal
control to expedite their development, then so too is legislation to amend NEPA and the OCSLA to provide clear
federal policy encouraging the development of offshore wind energy projects, both generally and by streamlining

Under NEPA and the OCSLA, projects

are killed through delays in the BOEM and other permitting or leasing regimes, or at
least their costs are significantly increased.251 NEPA and the OCSLA should be amended to
and standardizing the permitting and licensing processes.250

impose agency consultation and review deadlines. There must be binding time limits for each step of the NEPA and
BOEM processesfor example, the Department of Energy (DOE), the Corps, or other lead agency must turn around
the draft EA or EIS within a specific number of days, or else waive amendments or revisions. Likewise, consulting
agencies must be required to submit any comments within a specified number of days, or be precluded from
commenting.252 Precedent for such waivers exists in the CZMA.

AT: Cars Counterplan

Expansion of renewable energy must come from the power
sector:
Taber D. Allison, Terry L. Root, and Peter C. Frumhoff 2014 (American Wind
Wildlife Institute, Stanford University, Union of Concerned Scientists,
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-014-1127-y/fulltext.html,
Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Limiting the magnitude of warming to ~2 C will require swift and deep reductions in
heat-trapping emissions. Assuming comparable actions by other nations, the U.S. would have a carbon
budget equivalent to emitting no more than ~170-200 Gigatons of carbon dioxide between 2012 and 2050, a level

A
large proportion of these reductions will come from the power sector, and meeting
this emissions goal will require extensive expansion of renewable energy
(Fawcett et al. 2009; Clemmer et al. 2013). Staying within the U.S. carbon budget, for example,
will require expansion of land-based wind energy from 60 GW in 2012 to 330440 GW in 2050,
and offshore wind expansion from zero currently to 25100 GW; estimates for solar energy in 2050 range
consistent with the goal of reducing U. S. emissions by 83 % below 2005 levels by mid-century (NRC, 2010).

from 160260 GW for photovoltaic and 2080 GW for concentrated solar (Clemmer et al. 2013).

Negative

Disad Links

Politics Disad Links

Wind power angers both Republicans and Democrats:
Alan Neuhauser, (staff writer) 7/17/2014 (US News & World Report,
http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2014/07/17/dead-air-end-to-tax-credits-takes-bigbite-out-of-wind-power, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
This time around, it was a coalition of Republicans and conservative
Democrats, many backed by the fossil fuel industry, that killed the incentive.
Arguing that wind's precipitous rise and fall demonstrates the industry is wholly reliant on
government handouts, they asserted that wind producers simply cannot turn a
profit without help, and therefore are not worthy of further government support.

Spending Disad Links

Offshore wind costs tons of money:
Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
Turbine installation and maintenance also presents a [*675] formidable challenge to
offshore wind development. With all the specialized equipment, vessels (such as crane and
jack-up ships), and personnel required to erect and maintain wind turbines in the harsh
conditions offshore, the initial construction and long term operating costs of offshore
wind farms far exceed those of onshore wind farms. These costs increase
substantially the farther offshore the turbines are placed and the deeper the water
in which their foundations are laid. As with offshore turbines themselves, there is also currently a supply shortage of
suitable vessels and trained personnel for turbine, foundation, and undersea electrical cable installation and maintenance that further delays the
completion of offshore wind projects, and prevents them from keeping pace with onshore wind project development. Part of this shortage is due
to the fact that many of the vessels and personnel are also currently being used by the offshore oil and gas industry, which receives somewhat
more preferential treatment by offshore marine construction companies largely because it is a more established industry. n8

Electrical connections for offshore wind are very costly:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
A major portion of the installation and operating costs of offshore wind farms goes
toward the electrical connections both among the turbines within the farm, and
from the farm to the electrical grid onshore . Although the cables within the farm are not always buried, the cable
from the farm to shore, which can run a distance of anywhere from 8-50km, must be buried beneath the seafloor so as to avoid interference with
fishing and shipping. n9 Burying

and maintaining this cable requires specialized equipment,

vessels, and personnel, which as mentioned above, are costly and in short supply. n10

Offshore wind is incredibly costly:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
Perhaps the greatest challenge that has prevented the widespread development of
offshore wind energy is its cost. The costs associated with nearly every aspect of
the construction, operation and maintenance of offshore wind farms are significantly
higher than the cost of onshore installations. Starting with the turbines themselves, the need to
"marinize" the machinery to protect it against offshore conditions can add up to
20% to unit costs. n15 Similarly, the construction and installation of offshore turbines' specialized foundations can account for up to
30% of total turbine costs (and even more in deeper water), while only making up about 7% of the cost of onshore units. n16 The cost of
connecting offshore wind farms to onshore electricity networks , which increases the farther offshore
the installations are located, accounts for between 17-34% of the total cost . For onshore wind farms, only about
5% of the total cost goes toward network [*678] connection. n17 Maintenance also adds a hefty sum to the cost of offshore wind given the
harshness of the marine environment (which often prevents or delays required repairs), and the lack of specialized maintenance equipment and
personnel. This expense increases with the lost production capacity of an offshore installation which has units that are out of commission and
awaiting maintenance. n18 In absolute terms, all these costs translate to an estimated [euro] 2,300 per MW installed for offshore wind versus
[euro] 1,300 per MW installed for onshore wind. n19

Counterplans

Onshore Wind CounterplanNet Benefit: Spending

Offshore wind power is more expensive than onshore wind
power.
Mehmet Bilgili, (Electrical and Energy Department, Adana Vocational High
School, Cukurova University), 2011. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews 15 (2011) 905915.
Offshore wind turbine is still around 50% more expensive than onshore wind
turbine. The higher offshore capital costs are due to the larger structures and
complex logistics of installing the towers. The costs of offshore foundations,
construction, installations and grid connection are significantly higher than onshore.
For exam- ple, installing the entire offshore turbine is generally 20% more expensive
and towers and foundations cost more than 2.5 times the price of a similar onshore project. Offshore costs depend largely on weather and wave
conditions, water depth and distance from the coast [23].

Onshore wind project is cheaper than offshore wind:

Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
Whether offshore wind projects in the United States will have the same level of
success as in Europe is questionable. The United States has a significant offshore
wind resource potential, but it also has vast onshore resources that can be accessed
more cheaply. Unlike Europe, the United States benefits from the Great Plains, where the wind resource is ample and the population
density low. Nonetheless, there are regions of the country, such as the Northeast, where land for onshore wind is difficult to obtain and
transmission constraints favor more localized development. Hence the interest in states such as Delaware, Rhode Island and New Jersey in
offshore wind.

Offshore wind energy is incredibly expensive:

Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Cost is probably the biggest obstacle for the offshore wind energy industry. Wind
energy projects are more expensive than other common forms of electricity
generation like coal-fired power plants. n19 Expensive offshore wind energy projects
present a challenge when it comes to finding financing for their construction and
maintenance. n20 Despite these economic challenges, development of offshore
wind is still extremely attractive because of the potential energy source available.
n21

Spending is a net benefit to the counterplan:

Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
Based on limited data from completed offshore wind projects in Europe, the U.S.
Offshore Wind Collaborative estimates that a fully installed offshore wind farm will
cost as much as $ 4600 per [*1153] kilowatt of installed electric capacity. n22 That
amount is almost twice as expensive as an onshore wind farm. n23 The higher price
tag for offshore wind projects results from extra "costs related to turbines,
installation, O&M [operation and maintenance], support structures, electrical infrastructure, and

engineering and management." n24 More costs arise because offshore wind turbines must be equipped to handle more
severe weather conditions than their onshore counterparts. For example, monopile foundations require stronger, more expensive materials in
order to withstand storms, waves, and the sea air. n25 Costs are also higher because offshore wind projects must be larger than onshore projects in
order to offset additional costs of cabling and installation in deeper water far from shore. n26 These added costs reduce the number of potential
investors because, absent government financial incentives, offshore wind energy cannot compete on a cost-per-kilowatt-hour basis with
traditional fossil fuels. n27

Federalism Link
Offshore wind development violates federalism:
Andrew Campbell, 2013 (Houston Law Review, Winter 2013,
COMMENT: YOU DON'T NEED A WEATHERMAN TO KNOW WHICH WAY THE
WIND BLOWS?*: AN ARGUMENT FOR OFFSHORE WIND DEVELOPMENT IN THE
GULF OF MEXICO** Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
The GLO has developed a prominent campaign to attract offshore wind entrepreneurs to the Gulf of Mexico. n19 The

GLO cites the

federal government's absence from the Texas leasing process as a catalyst for
successful offshore wind development. n20 However, lurking beneath the GLO's claim
is an extensive permitting and regulatory regime that implicates many federal
regulations and statutes. For instance, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) conducts multiple environmental inquiries
before allowing offshore wind farm construction in Texas. n21 As a result of this overlapping jurisdiction,
offshore wind development inevitably invokes federalism conflicts between the
federal and state governments. n22

Privates CP
Private sector key to technologies to enhance offshore wind:
Michael P. Giordano, 2010 (University of Richmond Law Review, March
2010, Accessed 7/27/2014, rwg)
DOE recognizes that the advancement of offshore wind energy will require
"technologies that are substantially different from those employed in land-based
installations," and technology must "be tailored to U.S. offshore requirements, which
differ from those in the European North Sea environment." n65 Such an endeavor
will require the attention of stakeholders from public, private, and nonprofit
organizations in order to help the United States harness its vast offshore wind
resources.

States Counterplan
Text: The federal government will give coastal states
regulatory and permitting authority over proposed offshore
wind energy projects and the states will provide adequate
financing for offshore wind.
(--) The counterplan solves better than the casefosters
competition and leads to wind energy development in the most
desirable, least costly, locations:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
[*2047] This

Note proposes to invert the current CZMA power structure as it pertains to

state and federal roles in the context of offshore wind energy. Under this proposed
plan, coastal states would be given regulatory and permitting authority over
proposed offshore wind energy projects, even beyond the traditional three-mile
boundary of state control. Whereas under the current CZMA scheme states retain a "negative" veto power
over federal permits issued in contravention of a state's CZMP, under this proposal the states would have "positive"
control over the initial decision of whether to issue a permit to an offshore wind energy project. This proposal would
not involve a dramatic change in course for the states, because a coastal state's offshore wind energy policy would
continue to be embodied in each state's existing CZMP. Furthermore, whereas under the current system the federal
government retains both the authority to issue permits and the ultimate authority to overrule a state's protest,
under this proposal the federal government would have only a "negative" power to review and overrule state
permitting actions. Thus, the federal government would continue to retain the ultimate authority to overrule a state
permit issuance if it is in violation of federal regulations or if doing so would be otherwise in the interest of national
security. n156 In short, the federal government would be handing regulatory and permitting power over offshore
wind energy project siting to the states, while retaining the power to overrule siting decisions that are inconsistent
with existing federal regulations. Lastly, allocating regulatory and permitting authority to the states would not
abrogate the federal government from incentivizing offshore wind energy. To the extent the federal government
continues to have an interest in promoting the development of offshore wind energy projects, it would be free to do
so through its present tax incentive scheme. The federal government currently employs several tax incentive
programs, including the option of a production tax credit per kilowatt hour of electricity produced from wind energy
facilities n157 and an investment tax credit for placing a wind energy facility into service before the end of 2012.
n158 A policy of promoting offshore wind energy focused through tax incentives would result in more consistency
and integrity in the permitting and siting process than under what seems to be the Administration's current policy of
merely lowering the diligence of agency [*2048] review, as observed by the D.C. Circuit Court in its overruling of the
FAA's endorsement of the Cape Wind project. n159 C. Benefits of the Proposal Federal control over the regulatory
process under the CZMA has not been a successful method of promoting the efficient development of offshore wind
facilities. Shifting

control over the regulatory and permitting processes from the federal
government to the individual coastal states has the potential to more efficiently
allocate the United States' offshore wind energy resources in two ways . First, with
regulatory and permitting authority in the hands of the states, lobbying efforts
would be engaged in an environment of more direct political accountability: the
state legislatures. Likewise, local opposition to permitting decisions would be mounted in only one forum: the state courts.
Second, allowing states to craft their own offshore wind energy regulatory practices
could foster competition among them to encourage project development where it is
most desired, or stated equivalently, where it is least costly.

States Counterplan Solvency Extensions

Devolving wind power to the states best solves the case:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
While in general the federal government has significant interests in retaining regulatory control over federal waters, within

the
context of offshore wind energy there may be significant benefits to allowing
greater state control over the permitting process. First, opposition from citizen groups, like that faced by the
Cape Wind project, may be more efficiently addressed by allowing more localized control of regulations and permitting. Second, granting
states complete control over permitting may increase competition among states to
attract offshore wind energy developers and lead to a more efficient and desirable
allocation of offshore wind energy facilities throughout the United States .

Giving states primary control over wind power lowers costs

and barriers for future offshore wind energy projects:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Thus, using Cape Wind as a case study, this Note analyzes the current regulatory scheme for offshore wind projects
and the balance of federal and state control in the context of these recent developments in local opposition to the

The Note proposes a regulatory solution that would "invert" the

current CZMA power scheme by placing the primary permitting authority in the
hands of coastal states. This, in turn, would lower the costs and barriers to
entry for future offshore wind energy projects in the United States and lead to a
more efficient allocation of our offshore wind energy resources . Part I provides an
Cape Wind project.

explanation of the current regulatory scheme [*2028] under the CZMA and the Outer Continental Shelf Renewable
Energy Program (OCSREP). Part II provides a brief history of the Cape Wind project up to the final approval of the
project by the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI). Part III describes the two recent impediments faced by the
Cape Wind project: the lawsuit filed by the Aquinnah Wampanoag Tribe and the D.C. Circuit's rejection of the FAA's
approval of the project. Finally, Part IV evaluates the balance of federal and state interests envisioned by the CZMA
and the OCSREP, ultimately arguing for a revision to the CZMA that would increase local control over project siting
and lead to a more efficient allocation of offshore wind facilities by allowing states to compete for projects.

Counterplan better solves for local opposition:

Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Previous scholarship has argued for a federal mandate for wind power development, to "counteract narrow-minded
state and local opposition." n160 But this brute force strategy doesn't solve the "problem" of local opposition; it
bulldozes over it and assumes that such opposition is uninformed, or at least myopic, and therefore unworthy of
consideration.

The experience of Cape Wind has shown that whatever its motives, local

opposition can present a very real barrier to offshore wind development. The
proposal here to shift control of offshore wind permitting to the states would more
efficiently integrate local concerns into the development process.

Counterplan solves for democratic accountability:

Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
What results under the current system is an imbalance of power where the federal
government controls regulation of an inherently local concern, leading to an
inefficient allocation of offshore wind resources. The proposal here would correct
this imbalance by shifting permitting power to the states. This in turn would
enhance democratic accountability. n171 As Justice Sandra Day O'Connor observed in New York v. United States,
"where Congress encourages state regulation rather than compelling it, state
governments remain responsive to the local electorate's preferences; state officials
remain accountable to the people." n172 With more direct political accountability, each state's permitting scheme would
more accurately reflect the collective interests of its citizens in promoting offshore wind energy, likely reducing the occurrence and magnitude of
local opposition to permitting decisions. In addition, any such local opposition that does occur would be focused in only one forum: the state
courts. This proposal would free up federal agencies to deal only with concerns of national magnitude, and only after localized [*2051] concerns
are resolved at the state level, making federal involvement more worthwhile and preserving those resources. Thus, granting states control over
permitting decisions would allow for more efficient management of local opposition.

States Counterplan: Federal Control Bad

Federal control off offshore wind causes delays in project
completion:
Ben Deninger (associate in the law firm Cole, Scott & Kissane) 20 14
(Texas Environmental Law Journal, May 2014, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed
7/22/2014, rwg)
Wind projects further off Texas's shore may have a different - federal - landlord . As
mentioned earlier, the state waters of all other states besides Texas (except the gulf coast of Florida) only extend
seaward approximately three miles. n139 The rest of the submerged [*97] land controlled by the United States is

After examining the regulatory timeline of

the Cape Wind project, it is clear that the complexities of federal regulation can lead
to delays in project completion - much like too many cooks in the kitchen leads
to delays in a timely meal.
referred to as the outer continental shelf (OCS). n140

States CounterplanAT: Race to the Bottom

(--) No race to the bottom in the offshore wind area:
Timothy H. Powell (J.D. Boston University School of Law)
2012 (Boston University Law Review, December, 2012, REVISITING
FEDERALISM CONCERNS IN THE OFFSHORE WIND ENERGY INDUSTRY IN LIGHT
OF CONTINUED LOCAL OPPOSITION TO THE CAPE WIND PROJECT,
Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/21/2014, rwg)
Allowing states to control the permitting process pursuant to their existing CZMPs would also
foster competition between the states, leading to a more efficient allocation of
offshore wind energy facilities. Through the political process, state legislatures can craft their own policies reflecting their
citizens' interests in pursuing offshore wind energy. In turn, firms wishing to develop offshore wind projects would be incentivized to do business
in states with more favorable policies toward development. In this manner, allowing individual states to encourage, or to discourage, the
development of offshore wind projects would improve efficiency and social welfare by incentivizing project allocation in the lowest cost area.

There need not be any concern of a "race to the bottom" among the states , whereby states
wanting desperately to attract offshore wind could so degrade their CZMPs as to render the resulting offshore wind projects somehow dangerous
to humans or the environment. All

onshore wind energy facilities are currently subject to state

permitting control, as are any offshore wind energy facilities that may be located
entirely within three miles of a state's coastline. Furthermore, under the proposal
here the federal government would still undertake a consistency review, and
offshore wind projects would be subject to the same federal regulations applicable
to all onshore and offshore wind projects currently under full state permitting authority.

Solvency Neg

Wind power cant solve

Intermittency prevents wind from being an effective source of
power:
Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
Once an offshore wind farm goes online, another major challenge involves the integration of the power it generates
into onshore electricity networks to effectively meet demand. Electricity generated by offshore turbines must be

wind is an
intermittent resource, and often it does not match electricity demand. During periods
upgraded in [*676] order to be compatible with onshore delivery systems. In addition,

when the wind happens to be strong, and an offshore farm generates more electricity than is required, the operator
of the electricity network may require the wind farm to be curtailed since there is no way of storing it for future use.

when the wind happens to be weak, and an offshore farm cannot

generate sufficient electricity to meet demand, thermal and hydroelectric plants
(primarily since they have stored energy capacity that can be used whenever the need arises) must be
available to provide the necessary backup power. As of yet, no offshore grid has been built to
On the other hand,

interconnect multiple offshore wind farms and decrease reliance on conventional generating plants as sources of

the intermittency of wind energy, combined with the costs and burdens of
is yet another factor that has
slowed the widespread development of offshore installations . n11
backup power. Consequently,

integrating offshore wind generated electricity with the onshore grid

Long Time-Frame
The plan has a six year time-frame:
Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
In addition to the NEPA environmental review process and the CZMA consistency determination, fifteen other
federal regulations must also be complied with in order for MMS to approve an offshore wind energy proposal. n91
To complicate matters, these seventeen federal regulations are administered by nine different federal agencies and

Due to the abundance of federal

and state agencies involved with the regulatory process for offshore wind energy
projects, there are many occasions for proposal approval to be stalled or completely
halted. n93 Unlike the five-year oil and gas leasing process, the final rules provide no mandatory timeline for
renewable energy projects on the OCS. n94 Consequently, commentators estimate that the
current regulatory process will take a minimum of six years to authorize the
development of renewable energy projects on the OCS. n95
additional state regulations also apply to each project proposal. n92

Birds Turn
Offshore wind kills birds:
Ed Feo (Milbank Tweed Hadley & McCloy law firm) 2009 (Roger Williams
University Law Review, Summer 2009, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/2014, rwg)
Although offshore

wind turbines themselves do not release pollutants into the air or sea, their installation and
operation may pose risks to the marine environment. For instance, the anchoring of
the turbines' foundations and undersea cables causes sediment and noise
disturbances on the seabed and may result in the loss of habitats for marine life . And
when the turbines become operational, the rotation of their blades may pose
hazards to migratory birds, and may cause underwater vibrations that can affect fish and marine mammals. n12

Economy NEG
Wont create jobs in the US:
Jacqueline S. Rolleri (law degree, Roger Williams University) 2010 (Roger
Williams University Law Review, Spring 2010, Lexis/Nexis, Accessed 7/22/14,
rwg)
In addition to lacking a mandatory timeline, the United States does not have
manufacturing plants designed to produce offshore wind turbines and armored
submarine cables. n116 Of the total costs for an offshore wind farm, turbines
account for about 45% of all costs, and armored submarine cables, all of which are
made overseas, account for about 12% of all costs. n117 European turbine
manufacturers have expressed their disinterest in building an offshore wind turbine
manufacturing facility in the United States unless there are "advance orders for 100
turbines a year - for ten years." n118 Deepwater Wind suggests that until the U.S. is
able to provide the needed security to European manufacturers, American dollars
will be spent overseas instead of domestically where the money could be going to
American workers by creating thousands of jobs. n119

Warming NEG
Global warming does not cause extinction IPCC agrees (NEG)
Bastasch 14 (Michael Bastasch, 3-24-2014, IPCC runs from claims that global
warming will cause mass extinctions, http://dailycaller.com/2014/03/24/ipcc-runsfrom-claims-that-global-warming-will-cause-mass-extinctions/, Reporter at The Daily
Caller News Foundation, smt)
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is distancing itself from past claims
that global warming could cause mass extinctions. A leaked IPCC draft report says
that there is very little confidence that the models currently predict accurately the
risk of extinction. The leaked report, obtained by Germanys Der Spiegel newspaper, says that an
acute lack of data have added to doubts over past claims made by climate
scientists of mass extinctions in the future. [B]iological findings have increased
doubt over the expected species extinction, says the IPCC. In its 2007 climate assessment, the
IPCC said that there was a medium confidence that 20 to 30 percent of plant and animal species were at risk of going extinct if
global temperatures rose between 1.5 and 2.5 degrees Celsius this century. If temperatures rose by 3.5 degrees Celsius the IPCC
predicted significant extinctions would occur between 40 and 70 percent of species. Environmental groups have also warned of
mass extinctions due to global warming. The Nature Conservancy says that one-fourth of Earths species will be headed for
extinction by 2050 if the warming trend continues at its current rate. The group adds that polar bears may be gone from the
planet in as little as 100 years and that several U.S. states may even lose their official birds as they head for cooler climates
including the Baltimore oriole of Maryland, black-capped chickadee of Massachusetts, and the American goldfinch of Iowa. But Der
Spiegel reports that the IPCC is shying away from such claims and gives no concrete numbers for how many plant and animal

While the IPCC does say that the pace of global

warming is making it hard for some species to adapt, the lack of basic data makes it
impossible for there to be any hard evidence to back up this claim. Zoologists actually
fear that the focus on global warming has drawn attention away from issues that
actually cause extinctions, like destruction of natural habitats .
species could be at risk if global temperatures increased.

The studies behind climate change are manipulated NASA

and NOAA proves.
Delingpole and Eastwood 14 (James Delingpole and Kit Eastwood, 6-23-14,
Global Warming 'Fabricated' By NASA And NOAA,
http://www.breitbart.com/Breitbart-London/2014/06/23/Global-warming-Fabricatedby-NASA-and-NOAA, an English columnist and novelist who has written for The
Times, The Daily Telegraph, and The Spectator. He is executive editor for the London
branch of Breitbart.com, smt.)
Scientists at two of the worlds leading climate centres - NASA and NOAA - have been caught out
manipulating temperature data to overstate the extent of the 20th century "global
warming". The evidence of their tinkering can clearly be seen at Real Science, where blogger Steven Goddard has
posted a series of graphs which show "climate change" before and after the
adjustments. When the raw data is used, there is little if any evidence of global
warming and some evidence of global cooling. However, once the data has been
adjusted - ie fabricated by computer models - 20th century 'global warming' suddenly looks much
more dramatic. This is especially noticeable on the US temperature records. Before 2000, it was generally
accepted - even by climate activists like NASA's James Hansen - that the hottest
decade in the US was the 1930s. As Hansen himself said in a 1989 report: In the U.S. there has been little
temperature change in the past 50 years, the time of rapidly increasing greenhouse gases in fact, there was a slight cooling
throughout much of the country.

However, Hansen subsequently changed his tune when, sometime after 2000,

the temperatures were adjusted to accord with the climate alarmists' fashionable
"global warming" narrative. By cooling the record-breaking year of 1934, and
promoting 1998 as the hottest year in US history, the scientists who made the
adjustments were able suddenly to show 20th century temperatures shooting up where before they looked either flat or declining. But as Goddard notes, the Environmental Protection
Agency's heatwave record makes a mockery of these adjustments. It quite clearly shows that the US heat waves of the 1930s were
of an order of magnitude greater than anything experienced at any other time during the century - far more severe than those in the

These adjustments, however, are not limited to the US

temperature data sets. Similar fabrications have taken place everywhere from Iceland to Australia.
1980s or 1990s which were no worse than those in the 1950s.

The fact that supposedly reputable scientists can make these dishonest adjustments and get away with it is, notes long-time sceptic
Christopher Booker, one of the more remarkable anomalies of the great climate change scam. When I first began examining the
global-warming scare, I found nothing more puzzling than the way officially approved scientists kept on being shown to have
finagled their data, as in that ludicrous hockey stick graph, pretending to prove that the world had suddenly become much hotter

Any theory needing to rely so consistently on fudging the

evidence, I concluded, must be looked on not as science at all, but as simply a rather
alarming case study in the aberrations of group psychology.
than at any time in 1,000 years.