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ChorioamnionitisMedication
Author:MichaelPSherman,MD,FAAPChiefEditor:TedRosenkrantz,MDmore...
Updated:Apr2,2014

MedicationSummary
Earlydelivery,supportivecare,andantibioticadministrationforthemotherwithchorioamnionitisarediscussedin
MedicalCare.Theantibioticsusedmostoftentotreatmotherswithacutechorioamnionitisarealsodiscussed. [1]
Thetreatmentofbacterialvaginosishasalsobeendiscussedabovehowever,antibiotictherapyforthisconditionis
oftennotsuccessful. [185,186]
Thetreatmentofthepotentiallysepticneonateiscomplex.Anoverviewofthetreatmentforearlyonsetneonatal
infectionissummarizedinMedicalCare.

Maternalantibioticsforchorioamnionitis
Thestandarddrugtreatmentinthemotherwithchorioamnionitisincludesampicillinandanaminoglycoside(ie,
usuallygentamicin),althoughclindamycinmaybeaddedforanaerobicpathogens. [1]Clindamycinmayalsobeused
ifthemotherisallergictopenicillin,althoughsomeexpertsproposeuseofacephalosporin.Incasesinvolving
prematurelabororpremature,prelaborruptureofmembranes,penicillinorampicillinisfrequentlyadministeredas
achemotherapeuticagenttopreventgroupBstreptococcal(GBS)colonizationofthefetus.Theuseofpenicillin
aloneissuggestedforGBSchemoprophylaxisduringtheintrapartumperiod.Usingpenicillinratherthanampicillin
mayavoidcolonizationofthefetuswithampicillinresistantEcoli.Therationaleforampicillinusewhenmaternal
chorioamnionitisissuspectedisthatampicillinwouldtreatGBS,Haemophilusspecies,manyenterococcistrains,
andLmonocytogenes.
FormoreinformationonintrapartumantibioticusetopreventGBS,seetheMedscapeReferencetopicBacterial
InfectionsandPregnancy.
ClindamycinmaytreatSaureusandanaerobes.Gentamicinprovidesbroadspectrumcoverageagainstgram
negativebacteria.Theseantibioticsshouldbegivenintravenously.Thedrugsmentionedabovearegenerallysafe
formotherandfetus.Anabsolutecontraindicationtouseoftheseantibioticsisaknownallergicreactiontothem.
Renalfunctionmustalwaysbeconsideredwhenusingantibiotics,especiallyaminoglycosides.
Ifaurinarytractinfectionispresent,theappropriateantibioticorcombinationofantibioticsshouldbeusedtotreat
thespecificbacteriumisolatedfromtheurine.
Erythromycinisinfrequentlyusedinwomenallergictopenicillin.Itsabilitytoenterurogenitalsecretionshasbeen
questioned,especiallyinthetreatmentofUreaplasmaurealyticumrelatedorMycoplasmahominisrelated
colonizationinpregnantwomen.AneffectivetreatmentofUreaplasmaorMycoplasmainfectionsinmothersortheir
infantsisneededbecausethesepotentialpathogenscausesubstantialmorbidityandevenmortalityinthepreterm
neonate. [62,187]
OftheinvasiveGBSstrainsthatwereisolatedinonestudy,resistancetoeitherclindamycinorerythromycinwasin
excessof20%,whereascolonizingisolatesofGBShadresistanceinmorethan40%ofcases. [188]Areportfrom
theCDCnotedthat,of4882isolatesofGBS,15%and32%wereresistanttoclindamycinanderythromycin,
respectively. [189]ThissuggeststhaterythromycinorclindamycinusedaschemoprophylaxistopreventGBSinfection
inneonatesisproblematicinwomenwithpenicillinallergy.
Dosagesofantibioticstotreatmaternalchorioamnionitisarenotprovidedbecausethisisapediatricreview
addressingmaternalchorioamnionitisasitaffectsthenewborninfant.

Supportive,immune,andantibiotictherapyofearlyonsetbacterialinfection
Anextensivediscussionofthemanagementofsepticneonatesisnotpossibleinthisarticlebutisavailableinother
MedscapeReferencechapters(seeNeonatalSepsis).Criticalpointstoensureintactsurvivaloftheneonateare
mentionedforcompleteness.Forexample,ventilatormanagementandsurfactantreplacementtherapycanbeused
totreattheneonatewithcongenitalbacterialpneumonia,butacompletediscussionofthetechniquesinvolvedin
thistherapyarecoveredinotherarticles.Physiciansandnursesattendingthedeliveryofanewbornwhosemother
issuspectedofhavingchorioamnionitisshouldbereadytoperformafullresuscitation,includingintubation,
providingpositivepressureventilation,andtreatmentofhypovolemia,shock,andrespiratoryand/ormetabolic
acidosis.LowApgarscoresmaybeanotherindicatorofsepsis.
Afterinitialstabilizationofaneonatewithpotentialinfectioninthedeliveryroom,attentionisdirectedtowardthe
followingvariablesthatinfluencesurvival:
Warmth,monitoringofvitalsigns,andmaintenanceoffluid,electrolytebalance,andcorrectionofsignificant
metabolicacidosis
Managementofthecirculation,includingcorrectionofhypovolemiaandenhancementofcardiacperformance
withinotropicdrugsifsepsisrelatedmyocardialdysfunctionisnoted
Glucosehomeostasis
Treatmentofrespiratorydistressthatmayentailsurfactantreplacement(forpneumonia,respiratorydistress
syndrome)anddifferentmodesofassistedventilation(Inhalednitricoxidemaybeconsideredasatherapyin
thepresenceofpulmonaryhypertension.)
Assessmentandtreatmentofthrombocytopeniaandcoagulopathy,ifpresent
Theaforementionedelementsofsupportivecareareessentialtoreducingmorbidityandmortality.Whenmyocardial

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dysfunction,cardiovascularcollapse,andseverepulmonaryhypertensionarenotreversible,extracorporeal
membraneoxygenation(ECMO)maybealifesavingintervention.Incriticallyillsepticneonatesthatarenearterm
orterm,theimportanceofearlyreferralforECMOcannotbeoverstated.
Pulmonaryhypertensioncancomplicatethemanagementofneonatalsepsis,andinhalednitricoxidemayreverse
thiscomplication.TheuseofinhalednitricoxideinanonECMOfacilitymaybeproblematic.Thisisparticularlytrue
ifthesepticneonatedeterioratesandmustbetransferredtoanECMOfacilitywhileoninhalednitricoxidetherapy.
ThereferringfacilitymaynothavethecapabilitytoprovideinhalednitricoxideduringtransporttotheECMOfacility.
Inthiscircumstance,theseriouslyillinfantmaybecomecriticallyillwiththecessationofinhalednitricoxidetherapy
duringtransport.Therefore,guidelinesforreferraltoanECMOcentershouldbeestablishedforeachneonatalICU
(NICU)basedonthecenter'sownresourcesandabilitytosafelytransportsuchinfants.
Guidelinesforimmunotherapyinearlyonsetsepsis(EOS)arenotwellestablished.Treatmentsusedinclude
administrationofgranulocyteorgranulocytemacrophagecolonystimulatingfactors(eg,filgrastim,sargramostim)
intravenousadministrationofimmunoglobulinG(IgG), [184]particularlyifahightiterIgGantibodyisspecifically
directedagainstthebacterialpathogenandleukocytetransfusionsfordepletionofneutrophilsinthebonemarrow
storagepool.Despiteresearchoneachoftheseimmunotherapies,noagreementregardingtheirusehasbeen
reached.Aneonatologist,pediatricinfectiousdiseasesubspecialist,orbothshouldbeconsultedifimmunotherapyis
contemplated.
Antibiotictherapyforearlyonsetbacterialinfectionoftheneonateusuallyincludestheadministrationofapenicillin
(ie,ampicillinismostoftenusedforadditionalcoverageagainstHaemophilusspecies,enterococci,andlisteriosis)
andanaminoglycoside(ie,usuallygentamicin).Generally,gentamicinprovidesamplecoverageagainstgram
negativebacteriathatcauseEOS.Thethirdgenerationcephalosporinsshouldbeusedaspartoftheantibiotic
regimenifresistantEcoliissuspectedbasedonmaternalhistory,amnioticfluidcultures,andtheclinicalpicture.
Cefotaximehasbeenadvocatedbyexpertswhenmeningitisissuspectedorwhenanasphyxiatedinfantoran
extremelypreterminfantisbeingtreatedandsevererenaldysfunctionmayoccur.
Antibioticadministrationinnewbornsisbasedonbirthweightcriteriaandgestationalageatbirth.Dosesof
antibioticschangeaspostnatalageincreaseandrenalfunctionimproves.Administrationofaminoglycosidesshould
includechangesindosingbasedonpharmacokinetics.
Finaldecisionsaboutantibioticsshouldbebasedonpositivecultureresultsfromappropriateanatomicsites.Ifrenal
dysfunctionispresent,antibioticdosagesshouldbeadjustedduringthecourseoftheiradministration.Thisis
particularlytrueforaminoglycosideadministrationinextremelyprematurenewbornsandinnewbornswithurogenital
anomalies.
Recommendationsontheappropriateantibioticdosecanbefoundinsoftcoverneonatologytextbooks(ie,
Neonatology:Management,Procedures,OnCallProblems,Diseases,andDrugsorManualofNeonatalCare)and
classictextbooksofneonatalperinatalmedicine.Specifictextbooksaboutantibioticuseinpediatricpatients,
includingneonates(ie,Nelson'sPocketbookofPediatricAntimicrobialTherapy),havealsobeenwritten.Forthis
article,theNEOFAX2009wasusedforselectingthedoseperkilogramandthedosingintervalforspecific
antibiotics.ThereviewonantibioticstotreatEOSisnotexhaustive.
Lastly,thephysicianmustconsiderthedurationofantibiotictherapy.Thisisparticularlytruewhendecidingthe
durationofantibiotictreatmentforwellappearingtermneonates.Intheeraofmanagedcare,inwhichcost
reductionsaretypical,discontinuingantibioticsinhealthytermneonateswithin2448hoursofinitiatingtherapyis
probablysafe.Withcurrentbacteriologictechniques,morethan9095%ofneonatalbloodculturesbecomepositive
within48hoursofthetimetheyarecultivated.AnegativeCreactiveprotein(CRP)resultwhenreviewedat48
hoursafterbirthsuggestsantibiotictreatmentcanbestopped.
Inneonateswithproveninfection,thewellbeingoftheinfectednewbornshouldguidethedurationofantibiotic
therapy.Thebacteriumcausingtheinfectionandthesiteoftheinfectionalsoinfluencethedurationofantibiotic
therapy.Forexample,bacterialpneumoniaisoftentreatedfor710dayswithantibiotics.Bacteremiaisoften
treatedwithantibioticsfor1014days.Thisdurationisbasedonthepotentialforrecurrencewithshortercoursesof
treatment(ie,10daysofantibioticsisoftenconsideredaminimumforGBSassociatedbacteremia).
Cerebrospinalfluid(CSF)infectionsmayrequireantibiotictherapyfor24weeksbasedonthebacteriumresponsible
fortheinfection,findingsonananalysisofCSFindicatingtheresolutionofinfection,andthepresenceof
complicationsassociatedwithmeningitis.ForuncomplicatedGBSrelatedinfectionsoftheCSF,2weeksmaybe
sufficientothergrampositiveandallgramnegativebacteriaoftenrequire34weeksofantibiotictherapy.Surgical
interventionsforlocalizedCNSinfections(eg,aninfectiousepiduralcollection,brainabscess)orthepresenceof
postinfectioushydrocephalusmayindicateantibiotictherapyneedstobeprovidedforaslongas46weeks.
Thefollowinginformationreviewstheantibioticsthatarecommonlyusedtotreatearlyonsetbacterialinfectionsin
theneonate.Theantibioticscoveredarenotexhaustive.Forexample,theuseofazithromycintotreatcongenital
pneumoniacausedbyUrealyticumorMycoplasmaisnotreviewed.Areportthatusedazithromycintotreatpregnant
womenrevealedthisantibioticwaslesseffectivecomparedwithotherantimicrobials. [190]Issuesrelatedto
infectionscausedbythesemicrobesandotherspecialbacteriainneonatesmayrequireconsultationwitha
neonatologistorapediatricinfectiousdiseasessubspecialist.

AntibioticAgents
ClassSummary
Empiricantimicrobialtherapymustbecomprehensiveandshouldcoveralllikelypathogensintheclinicalsetting.
AntibioticcombinationsareusuallyrecommendedforseriousGramnegativebacillaryinfections.Thisapproach
ensurescoverageforabroadrangeoforganismsandpolymicrobialinfections.Inaddition,itpreventsresistancein
bacterialsubpopulationsandprovidesadditiveorsynergisticeffects.Onceorganismsandsensitivitiesareknown,
theuseofantibioticmonotherapyisthenrecommended.Theexceptionwouldbebacteriathatcouldattainahighly
resistantplasmidagainstantimicrobials. [191]Informationaboutantimicrobialsusedtotreatneonatesandthesource
forthisreviewisNEOFAX2009. [192]
AqueouscrystallinepenicillinGisconsideredthefirstlineagentforGBS.Ampicillinmaybeused,however,recent
concernsurroundsampicillinresistantEcoliinfections.Othermodifiedpenicillinssuchasoxacillinornafcillin
(antistaphylococcal),netilmicin(antipseudomonalorotherGramnegativeentericbacteria),andpiperacillin
(antipseudomonal)arenottypicallyusedasfirstlineantibioticsfortreatmentofearlyonsetneonatalinfections.The

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aforementionedmodifiedpenicillinsaredesignedtotreatinfectionscausedbypenicillinresistantbacteriathatcan
expressbetalactamase.Thesemodifiedpenicillinsareusuallyreservedforthetreatmentofpostnatallyacquired
infectionsinhospitalizedneonates.Methicillinresistantstaphylococcalinfectionshaveemergedinpregnantwomen,
andneonateswithEOSwhohavethesestaphylococciarereportedsuchinfectionsrequiretreatmentwith
vancomycin.
Viewfulldruginformation

PenicillinG,aqueouscrystalline(Pfizerpen)
AqueouscrystallinepenicillinG(penG)administeredIVistheDOCforGBSbacteremiaormeningitis.PenGis
alsoknownasbenzylpenicillin.DonotconfusepenGwithbenzathineorprocainepenicillinusedonlyforIM
injectionspenGistheoriginalantibioticinthepenicillinclassandinhibitssynthesisofthebacterialcellwall.PenG
mayprovideadequatecoverageforSpneumoniaewhenitisacauseofearlyonsetbacterialinfectioninneonates
(infrequent)butthisbacteriumcanalsohaveresistancetopenG.
Viewfulldruginformation

Ampicillin
Amorebroadspectrumaminopenicillinusedformanyyearsaseitheradefinitiveoraprophylactictherapyforearly
onsetbacterialinfectionofneonates(ie,GBSandsusceptibleEcoli).Mayprovideadditionalcoverageagainst
Haemophilusspecies,manyenterococci,otherstreptococci,Listeriamonocytogenes,andalimitednumberof
susceptiblegramnegativeentericbacteria.IndicatedforneonatalbacteremiaormeningitisduetoGBS.

Cefotaxime(Claforan)
Athirdgenerationcephalosporinwithenhancedpotencyagainstmanygramnegativebacteria.Generallyconsidered
inactiveagainstenterococci,Listeria,andmoststrainsofpseudomonadsandbacteroides.Someexpertsconsider
thisantibioticthepreferredtherapyforneonatalmeningitiscausedbygramnegativebacteriaifthebacteriumis
sensitivetoit(andinconjunctionwithanaminoglycoside).ThispreferenceisbasedonmoreeffectiveCNS
penetrationofcefotaxime.Indicatedwhenaminoglycosidesmaybecontraindicated(eg,significantrenalfailure)or
whenaminoglycosidesmayhaveenhancedtoxicity.
Viewfulldruginformation

Gentamicin
Gentamicinisoneoftheaminoglycosideantibiotics(ie,amikacin,netilmicin,andtobramycin).Generally,
gentamicinhasactivityagainstPseudomonasaeruginosa,whereaskanamycindoesnot.Firstchoiceforprophylactic
ordefinitivetherapyofearlyonsetbacterialinfectionsinneonatesbecauseithasbroadactivityagainstmanygram
negativebacilli.Amikacinandtobramycinareusuallyreservedtotreatnosocomialinfectionscausedbygram
negativebacteriathatareresistanttogentamicin.
Aminoglycosidesshouldnotbeusedalonetotreatinfectionspotentiallycausedbygrampositivebacteria.Thus,a
penicillinisalwaysincludedinthetreatmentofearlyonsetbacterialinfectionsinneonates.Furthermore,toprevent
theemergenceofhighlyantibioticresistantgramnegativebacteria,nosocomialinfectionsinhospitalizedneonates
shouldneverbetreatedwithanaminoglycosidealone.Asecondantibioticshouldbeadministeredinadditiontothe
aminoglycoside,anditsmechanismofactionthatcausesmicrobialdeathshouldbedifferentfromthatofthe
aminoglycoside.
Thisantibiotichasablackboxwarning.Elevatedbloodconcentrationsofaminoglycosidesmaycause
significantinjurytothekidneyandthevestibular/auditorynerve.Concurrentuseoffurosemideorotherloopdiuretics
anduseofvancomycincanincreasenephrotoxicity.Thus,peakandtroughlevelsofaminoglycosidesinneonatal
seramustbemeasurediftheiruseisgoingtoexceedaninitialperiodofprophylaxis(ie,48hafterbirth)toexclude
sepsis.
Aminoglycosidesdemonstrateconcentrationdependentkillingofbacteria,suggestingapotentialbenefitrelatedto
higherserumconcentrationsthatareachievedwithlessfrequentdosing(eg,oncedailyadministration).

ContributorInformationandDisclosures
Author
MichaelPSherman,MD,FAAPProfessor,DepartmentofChildHealth,UniversityofMissouriColumbia
SchoolofMedicineNeonatologist,Women'sandChildren'sHospitalProfessorEmeritus,Departmentof
Pediatrics,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,SchoolofMedicine
MichaelPSherman,MD,FAAPisamemberofthefollowingmedicalsocieties:AmericanAcademyof
Pediatrics,AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,AmericanAssociationofImmunologists,
AmericanPediatricSociety,AmericanSocietyforMicrobiology,AmericanThoracicSociety,EuropeanSocietyfor
PaediatricResearch,PediatricInfectiousDiseasesSociety,PerinatalResearchSociety,SocietyforPediatric
Research,andWesternSocietyforPediatricResearch
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.
Coauthor(s)
NaomiFLauriello,MDAssistantProfessorofNeonatology,UniversityofMissouriWomen'sandChildren's
Hospital
NaomiFLauriello,MDisamemberofthefollowingmedicalsocieties:AmericanAcademyofPediatrics
Disclosure:MedIQHonorariaSpeakingandteaching
KatsufumiOtsuki,MD,PhDAssociateProfessor,Chief,DepartmentofObstetricsandGynecology,Showa
UniversityKotoToyosuHospital,Japan
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.

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SpecialtyEditorBoard
TedRosenkrantz,MDProfessor,DepartmentsofPediatricsandObstetrics/Gynecology,DivisionofNeonatal
PerinatalMedicine,UniversityofConnecticutSchoolofMedicine
TedRosenkrantz,MDisamemberofthefollowingmedicalsocieties:AmericanAcademyofPediatrics,
AmericanMedicalAssociation,AmericanPediatricSociety,ConnecticutStateMedicalSociety,EasternSociety
forPediatricResearch,andSocietyforPediatricResearch
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.
MaryLWindle,PharmDAdjunctAssociateProfessor,UniversityofNebraskaMedicalCenterCollegeof
PharmacyEditorinChief,MedscapeDrugReference
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.
ArunKPramanik,MD,MBBSProfessorofPediatrics,LouisianaStateUniversityHealthSciencesCenter
ArunKPramanik,MD,MBBSisamemberofthefollowingmedicalsocieties:AmericanAcademyofPediatrics,
AmericanThoracicSociety,NationalPerinatalAssociation,andSouthernSocietyforPediatricResearch
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.
CarolLWagner,MDProfessorofPediatrics,MedicalUniversityofSouthCarolina
CarolLWagner,MDisamemberofthefollowingmedicalsocieties:AmericanAcademyofPediatrics,American
ChemicalSociety,AmericanMedicalWomen'sAssociation,AmericanPublicHealthAssociation,American
SocietyforBoneandMineralResearch,AmericanSocietyforClinicalNutrition,MassachusettsMedicalSociety,
NationalPerinatalAssociation,andSocietyforPediatricResearch
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.
ChiefEditor
TedRosenkrantz,MDProfessor,DepartmentsofPediatricsandObstetrics/Gynecology,DivisionofNeonatal
PerinatalMedicine,UniversityofConnecticutSchoolofMedicine
TedRosenkrantz,MDisamemberofthefollowingmedicalsocieties:AmericanAcademyofPediatrics,
AmericanMedicalAssociation,AmericanPediatricSociety,ConnecticutStateMedicalSociety,EasternSociety
forPediatricResearch,andSocietyforPediatricResearch
Disclosure:Nothingtodisclose.
AdditionalContributors
Researchbytheauthor,MichaelSherman,issupportedbyNIHgrantR44HD057744andagrantfromthe
GerberFoundation.TheauthorappreciatesthereviewofthemanuscriptundertakenbyJanSherman,RN,NNP,
PhD,andherhelpfulrecommendationsforimprovement.

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