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  • From The: Encyclopædia Britannica

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    Ying-jie Chen
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    Affirmative action began as a government policy in the 1960s under President Johnson to address long-standing discrimination against minority groups and women in employment and education. It involved preferences and set-asides to improve opportunities. While the Supreme Court initially allowed some affirmative action programs, it began imposing restrictions in the late 1970s and ruled that quotas were unconstitutional. Opposition grew through the 1990s, culminating in bans on racial preferences in several states. The Supreme Court has continued to review affirmative action policies and place limits while also reaffirming its potential constitutionality under certain circumstances.

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    Affirmative Action

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    Affirmative Action

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    Affirmative action began as a government policy in the 1960s under President Johnson to address long-standing discrimination against minority groups and women in employment and education. It involved preferences and set-asides to improve opportunities. While the Supreme Court initially allowed some affirmative action programs, it began imposing restrictions in the late 1970s and ruled that quotas were unconstitutional. Opposition grew through the 1990s, culminating in bans on racial preferences in several states. The Supreme Court has continued to review affirmative action policies and place limits while also reaffirming its potential constitutionality under certain circumstances.

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    10 Ansichten1 Seite

    From The: Encyclopædia Britannica

    Hochgeladen von

    Ying-jie Chen
    Affirmative action began as a government policy in the 1960s under President Johnson to address long-standing discrimination against minority groups and women in employment and education. It involved preferences and set-asides to improve opportunities. While the Supreme Court initially allowed some affirmative action programs, it began imposing restrictions in the late 1970s and ruled that quotas were unconstitutional. Opposition grew through the 1990s, culminating in bans on racial preferences in several states. The Supreme Court has continued to review affirmative action policies and place limits while also reaffirming its potential constitutionality under certain circumstances.

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    von 1

    ARTICLE fromthe EncyclopdiaBritannica

    affirmativeaction,intheUnitedStates,anactiveefforttoimproveemploymentoreducationalopportunitiesformembers
    ofminoritygroupsandforwomen.Affirmativeactionbeganasagovernmentremedytotheeffectsoflongstanding
    discriminationagainstsuchgroupsandhasconsistedofpolicies,programs,andproceduresthatgivepreferencesto
    minoritiesandwomeninjobhiring,admissiontoinstitutionsofhighereducation,theawardingofgovernmentcontracts,
    andothersocialbenefits.Thetypicalcriteriaforaffirmativeactionarerace,disability,gender,ethnicorigin,andage.
    AffirmativeactionwasinitiatedbytheadministrationofPresidentLyndonJohnson(196369)inordertoimprove
    opportunitiesforAfricanAmericanswhilecivilrightslegislationwasdismantlingthelegalbasisfordiscrimination.The
    federalgovernmentbegantoinstituteaffirmativeactionpoliciesunderthelandmarkCivilRightsActof1964andan
    executiveorderin1965.Businessesreceivingfederalfundswereprohibitedfromusingaptitudetestsandothercriteria
    thattendedtodiscriminateagainstAfricanAmericans.AffirmativeactionprogramsweremonitoredbytheOfficeof
    FederalContractComplianceandtheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC).Subsequently,affirmative
    actionwasbroadenedtocoverwomenandNativeAmericans,Hispanics,andotherminoritiesandwasextendedto
    collegesanduniversitiesandstateandfederalagencies.
    Bythelate1970stheuseofracialquotasandminoritysetasidesledtocourtchallengesof
    affirmativeactionasaformofreversediscrimination.ThefirstmajorchallengewasRegentsof
    theUniversityofCaliforniav.Bakke(1978),inwhichtheU.S.SupremeCourtruled(54)that
    quotasmaynotbeusedtoreserveplacesforminorityapplicantsifwhiteapplicantsaredenieda
    chancetocompeteforthoseplaces.Althoughthecourtoutlawedquotaprograms,itallowed
    collegestouseraceasafactorinmakingcollegeadmissionsdecisions.Twoyearslatera
    fragmentedcourtuphelda1977federallawrequiringthat10percentoffundsforpublicworksbe
    allottedtoqualifiedminoritycontractors.
    TheSupremeCourtbegantoimposesignificantrestrictionsonracebasedaffirmativeactionin1989.Inseveraldecisions
    thatyear,thecourtgavegreaterweighttoclaimsofreversediscrimination,outlawedtheuseofminoritysetasidesin
    caseswherepriorracialdiscriminationcouldnotbeproved,andplacedlimitsontheuseofracialpreferencesbystates
    thatwerestricterthanthoseitappliedtothefederalgovernment.InAdarandConstructorsv.Pena(1995),thecourtruled
    thatfederalaffirmativeactionprogramswereunconstitutionalunlesstheyfulfilledacompellinggovernmentalinterest.
    OppositiontoaffirmativeactioninCaliforniaculminatedinthepassagein1996oftheCaliforniaCivilRightsInitiative
    (Proposition209),whichprohibitedallgovernmentagenciesandinstitutionsfromgivingpreferentialtreatmentto
    individualsbasedontheirraceorsex.TheSupremeCourteffectivelyupheldtheconstitutionalityofProposition209in
    November1997byrefusingtohearachallengetoitsenforcement.LegislationsimilartoProposition209was
    subsequentlyproposedinotherstatesandwaspassedinWashingtonin1998.TheSupremeCourtalsoupheldalower
    courtrulingthatstruckdownasunconstitutionaltheUniversityofTexassaffirmativeactionprogram,arguinginHopwood
    v.UniversityofTexasLawSchool(1996)thattherewasnocompellingstateinteresttowarrantusingraceasafactorin
    admissionsdecisions.Afterwardtherewerefurtherlegislativeandelectoralchallengestoaffirmativeactioninmanyparts
    ofthecountry.IntheBollingerdecisions(2003),twolandmarkrulingsinvolvingadmissionstotheUniversityofMichigan
    anditslawschool,theSupremeCourtreaffirmedtheconstitutionalityofaffirmativeaction(Grutterv.Bollinger),thoughit
    ruledthatracecouldnotbethepreeminentfactorinsuchdecisionsasitstruckdowntheuniversitysundergraduate
    admissionspolicythatawardedpointstostudentsonthebasisofrace(Gratzv.Bollinger).Tenyearslater,inFisherv.
    UniversityofTexasatAustin,theSupremeCourtremandedanappealscourtdecisionthathadrejectedachallengetoan
    affirmativeactionprogrammodeledontheprogramapprovedinGratz,findingthatthelowercourthadnotsubjectedthe
    programtostrictscrutiny,themostdemandingformofjudicialreview.

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