OPT-1101 (USA2006) - Optical Fundamentals

Optical Fundamentals
OPT-1101
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2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Agenda
Introduction and Terminology
Optical Propagation and Fiber Characteristics
Attenuation and Compensation
Dispersion and Dispersion Compensation
Non Linearity
SM Optical Fiber Types
Simple SPAN Design
Summary
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Introduction
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Modern Lightwave Eras

10,000
Capacity (Gb/s)
1,000
100
Optical Networking
Wavelength Switching
Research Systems
10
Commercial Systems
1
Fiberization
Digitization
0
1985
SONET Rings and

DWDM Linear
Systems
1990
1995
2000
Year
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Optical Spectrum
IR
UV
125 GHz/nm
Visible
Light
Ultraviolet (UV)
Visible
850 nm
980 nm
1,310 nm
Infrared (IR)
Communication
wavelengths
850, 1310, 1550 nm
Low-loss wavelengths
Specialty wavelengths
980, 1480, 1625 nm
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1,480 nm
1,550 nm
1,625 nm
C = x
(Nanometers)
Frequency: (Nerahertz)
Wavelength:
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Terminology
Decibels (dB): unit of level (relative measure) X dB
is 10X/10
Decibels-milliwatt (dBm): decibel referenced to a
milliwatt
dBm used for output power and receive sensitivity
(absolute value)
dB used for power gain or loss (relative value)
X mW is 10log10(X) in dBm, Y dBm is 10Y/10 in mW
Wavelength (Lambda): length of a wave in a particular

medium; common unit: nanometers, 109m (nm)
Frequency (): the number of times that a wave is
produced within a particular time period
Wavelength x frequency = speed of light x = C
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TerminologyFiber Impairments
Attenuation = Loss of power in dB/km
Chromatic Dispersion = Spread of light pulse in
ps/nm-km
Optical Signal-to-Noise Ratio (OSNR) = Ratio of
optical signal power to noise power for the receiver
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ITU Wavelength Grid

The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) has divided the
telecom wavelengths into a grid; the grid is divided into bands;
the C and L bands are typically used for DWDM
ITU Bands
(nm)
1675
1625
1565
1530
S C L
1460
E
1360
1260
0 1
1530.33 nm
0.80 nm
195.9 THz
Channel Spacing = 100 GHz
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1553.86 nm
193.0 THz
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Bit Error Rate (BER)

BER is a key objective of the optical system design
BER = P(1)P(0 received for 1 transmitted) +
P(0)P(1 received for 0 transmitted)
Goal is to get from Tx to Rx with a BER < BER

threshold of the Rx
BER thresholds are on data sheets
Typical minimum acceptable rate is 1012
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Eye Diagram
Consider All Eight Possible
Combination of 3-Bit Sequence
Superimpose All Combinations

Eye Pattern
An eye diagram shows a relative performance of the signal

The opening of the eye provides valuable information about
the ability of the receiver to detect the signal correctly
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Eye Diagram
The vertical eye opening shows the ability to distinguish

between a 1 and a 0 bit
The horizontal opening gives the time period over which the
signal can be sampled without errors
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Eye Diagram
For a good transmission system, the eye opening
should be as wide and open as possible
Eye diagram also displays information such as
maximum signal voltage, rise and decay time of
pulse, etc.
Extinction ratio (ratio of a 1 signal to a 0 signal) is
also calculated from eye diagram
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Eye Mask Testing

It is difficult to measure a numeric value that can
describe the openness of the eye
A process called eye-mask testing is used
Eye Mask is a collection of polygons that
represents where the eye waveform cannot exist
Eye diagram is not allowed to
cross or intersect the mask
Minimum acceptable opening is
defined by the shape and size
of polygon
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Optical Power
Definition:
Optical Power Is the Rate at Which
Power Is Delivered in an Optical Beam
Optical Power Measurements:

Power is measured in watts; however, a convenient way to
measure optical power is in units of decibels (dB)
The power measured on a particular signal is measured
in dBm
The gain/loss measured between two points on a fiber is in dB
Power loss is expressed as negative dB
Power gain is expressed as positive dB
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Optical Power Budget
The Optical Power Budget is:

Optical Power Budget = Power Sent Receiver Sensitivity
Calculate using minimum transmitter power and

minimum receiver sensitivity
Attenuation/loss in the link, greater than the power
budget, causes bit errors (dB)
Allow for two to three dBm power loss budget; so if the
power budget is 15 dB, design for 12
Design networks with power budgets, not distances
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Optical Power BudgetExample

Transmitter maximum power = 2 dBm
Receiver sensitivity = 28 dBm
Transmitter
Receiver
2 dBm
28 dBm
Power Budget = 26 dB
Calculate
Power
= ??
Common
PowerBudget
Budgets
Short Reach (SR)
6 dB (75% Power Loss)
Intermediate Reach (IR)
13 dB (95% Power Loss
Long Reach (LR)
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26 dB (99.75% Power Loss)
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A Few Words on Optical Safety

Think optical safety at all times
Optical power is invisible to the human eye
Never stare at an optical connector
Keep optical connectors pointed away from
yourself and others
Glass (fiber cable) can cut and puncture
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Laser Classifications/Safety Icons

Class 1
Lasers that are incapable of causing damage when the beam is directed into the eye
under normal operating conditions. These include helium-neon lasers operating at
less than a few microwatts of radiant power.
Class 2
SR and IR Optics, Some LR
Lasers that can cause harm if viewed directly for second or longer. This includes
helium-neon lasers with an output up to 1 mW (milliwatt).
Class 3A
Many LR Optics, CWDM GBICS
Lasers that have outputs less than 5 mW. These lasers can cause injury when the
eye is exposed to either the beam or its reflections from mirrors or other shiny
surfaces. As an example, laser pointers typically fall into this class.
Class 3B
Some LR Optics, Amplifier Outputs
Lasers that have outputs of 5 to 500 mW. The argon lasers typically used in laser
light shows are of this class. Higher power diode lasers (above 5 mW) from optical
drives and high performance laser printers also fall into this class.
Class 4
Lasers that have outputs exceeding 500 mW. These devices produce a beam that is
hazardous directly or from reflection and can produce skin burn. Many ruby, carbon
dioxide, and neodymium-glass lasers are class 4.
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Protective Eyewear Available

Protective goggles or
glasses should be worn for
all routine use of Class 3B
and Class 4 lasers
Remember: eyewear is
wavelength specific, a pair
of goggles that effectively
blocks red laser light affords
no protection for green
laser light
Laser Safety Equipment Can Be
Investigated in Greater Detail at the
Following Link:
http://www.lasersafety.co.uk/frhome.html
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Some Final Words on Optical

Equipment Safety
Remember: Optical cabling is constructed from strands of glass,
about the size of a human hair. Never handle exposed fiber strands
unless you have the proper training. Fiber fragments that become
embedded under the skin can be extremely painful, and are very
difficult (in some cases impossible) to remove.
Remember: Optical equipment is typically powered from either
120vac or 48vdc. Always remove jewelry such as rings, watches,
bracelets, etc. when working with energized equipment. Care should
be taken to never come in contact with exposed electrical
connections or buswork.
Remember: Be careful not to damage equipment through ESD
(Electrostatic Discharge). Ensure that all equipment is properly
grounded, wrist straps are used when removing modules with active
components and always handle equipment modules by their edges.
Note: Many Companies Have Documented ESD Guidelines to Their Environment.
Please Consult Those Documents for Additional Detail as Appropriate.
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Optical Propagation in Fibers
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Analog Transmission Effects

Attenuation:
Reduces power level with distance
Dispersion and nonlinearities:

Erodes clarity with distance and speed
Signal detection and recovery is an analog problem
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Fiber Geometry
An Optical Fiber Is Made of Three Sections:
The core carries the
light signals
The cladding keeps the light
in the core
Core
Cladding
The coating protects

the glass
Coating
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Fiber Dimensions
Fiber dimensions are
measured in m
1 m = 0.000001 meters (10-6)
1 human hair ~ 50 m
Core
Cladding
(245 m)
(125 m)
Refractive Index (n)

n = c/v
n ~ 1.46
n (core) > n (cladding)
Coating
(862.5 m)
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Geometrical Optics
Light Is Reflected/Refracted at an Interface
1 = Angle of incidence
n2
n1
1r = Angle of reflection
2 = Angle of refraction
n2
1 1r
c
>
n1
cIs the Critical Angle
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2=90
n1 > n2
If Angle of Incidence Is Greater Than Critical Angle,

All the Light Will Reflect (Instead of Refract);
This Is Called Total Internal Reflection
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Propagation in Fiber
n2
0
n1
Cladding
Core
Intensity Profile
Light propagates by total internal reflections

at the core-cladding interface
Total internal reflections are lossless
Each allowed ray is a mode
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Different Types of Fiber

Multimode fiber
n2
Cladding
Core diameter varies

50 mm for step index
62.5 mm for
graded index
n1
Core
Bit rate-distance product

> 500 MHz-km
Single-mode fiber
n2
Cladding
Core diameter is about

9 mm
Bit rate-distance product
> 100 THz-km
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n1
Core
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Attenuation
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Attenuation in Fiber
Light loss in fiber is caused by two things
Absorption by the fiber material
Scattering of the light from the fiber
Light loss causes signal attenuation

Scattering
Rayleigh Scattering
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850 nm
Highest
1310 nm
Lower
1550 nm
Lowest
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Other Causes of Attenuation in Fiber

MicrobendsCaused by
small distortions of the fiber
in manufacturing
MacrobendsCaused by
wrapping fiber around a
corner with too small a
bending radius
Back reflectionsCaused
by reflections at fiber ends,
like connectors
Fiber splicesCaused by
poor alignment or dirt
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Optical Attenuation
Pulse amplitude reduction limits
how far
10 dBm
10 mW
Attenuation in dB=10xLog(Pi/Po)
0 dBM
1 mW
3 dBm
500 uW
10 dBm
100 uW
30 dBm
1 uW
Power is measured in dBm:

P(dBm)=10xlog(P mW/1 mW)
Examples
Pi
P0
T
T
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Attenuation Response at
Different Wavelengths
850nm Region
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1310 nm Region
1550 nm Region
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Attenuation: Compensated by
Optical Amplifiers
Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA) are the most
commonly deployed optical amplifiers
Commercially available since the early 1990s
Works best in the range 1530 to 1565 nm
Gain up to 30 dB (1000 photons out per photon in)
Optically transparent
Wavelength transparent
Input
Coupler
Bit rate transparent
Isolator
Output
1480 or 980 nm
Pump Laser
Erbium Doped Fiber
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The Photoelectric Effect in Erbium

Einstein Tells Us That the Photon
Generated by the Decay of the
Erbuim Ion Back to Its Fundamental
Excited State
State Will Be the Same Phase as the
Transition to a Lower Energy State Signal Photon that Triggered the
Stimulated Emission
Metastable State
Energy = h .
Pump Photon
at 980 nm
Energy = h .
+=
Amplified Telecom
Signal
Photon at 1550 nm
Telecom Signal
Photon at 1550 nm
Fundamental State
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Fundamental State
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Dispersion
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Types of Dispersion
Chromatic Dispersion
Different wavelengths travel at different speeds
Causes spreading of the light pulse
Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Single-mode fiber supports two polarization states
Fast and slow axes have different group velocities
Causes spreading of the light pulse
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A Snapshot on Chromatic Dispersion
Interference
Affects single channel and DWDM systems

A pulse spreads as it travels down the fiber
Inter-symbol Interference (ISI) leads to performance
impairments
Degradation depends on:
Laser used (spectral width)
Bit-rate (temporal pulse separation)
Different SM types
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Limitations from Chromatic Dispersion

Dispersion causes pulse distortion, pulse
smearing effects
Higher bit-rates and shorter pulses are less robust
to Chromatic Dispersion
Limits how fast and how far
10 Gbps
60 Km SMF-28
40 Gbps
4 Km SMF-28
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Combating Chromatic Dispersion

Use DSF and NZDSF fibers
(G.653 and G.655)
Dispersion compensating fiber

Transmitters with narrow spectral width
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Transmission Over SM Fiber

Without Compensation
Transmission Rate
Distance
2.5 Gb/s
980 km
10 Gb/s
60 km
40 Gb/s
4 km
Industry StandardNot Cisco Specific
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How Far can I Go Without Dispersion?
Distance (Km) =
Specification of Transponder (ps/nm)

Coefficient of Dispersion of Fiber (ps/nm*km)
A Laser Signal with Dispersion Tolerance of

3400 ps/nm Is Sent Across a Standard SM Fiber,
Which Has a Coefficient of Dispersion of 17 ps/nm*km
It Will Reach 200 Km at Maximum Bandwidth
Note that Lower Speeds Will Travel Farther

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Dispersion Compensation
Cumulative Dispersion
(ps/nm)
Total Dispersion Controlled

+100
0
100
200
300
400
500
No Compensation
With Compensation
Distance from Transmitter (km)
Dispersion Shifted Fiber Cable

Transmitter
Dispersion
Compensators
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Polarization Mode Dispersion

Caused by ovality of core due to:
Manufacturing process
Internal stress (cabling)
External stress (trucks)
Only discovered in the 90s

Most older fiber not characterized for PMD
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Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Ey
nx
Ex
Pulse as It Enters the Fiber
ny
Spreaded Pulse as It Leaves the Fiber
The optical pulse tends to broaden as it travels

down the fiber; this is a much weaker phenomenon
than chromatic dispersion and it is of some
relevance at bit rates of 10Gb/s or more
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Combating Polarization Mode Dispersion

Factors contributing to PMD
Bit rate
Fiber core symmetry
Environmental factors
Bends/stress in fiber
Imperfections in fiber
Solutions for PMD

Improved fibers
Regeneration
Follow manufacturers recommended installation techniques for the
fiber cable
PMD does not need compensation up to 10G in systems up

to about 1600km optical transmission, while compensation
is required for longer systems or 40G
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Nonlinearity
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From Linear to Non-Linear Propagation

As long as optical power within an optical fiber is
small, the fiber can be treated as a linear medium
Loss and refractive index are independent of the
signal power
When optical power levels gets fairly high, the fiber

becomes a nonlinear medium
Loss and refractive index depend on the optical power
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Effects of Nonlinearity
Self-Phased Modulation (SPM) and Cross Phase Modulation (XPM)
A Single Channels Pulses Are

Self-Distorted as They Travel (SPM)
Interference
Multiple Channels Interact as They Travel (XPM)
Interference
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Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)
1 2
Into Fiber
21-2 1
2 22-1
Out of Fiber
Channels beat against each other to form

intermodulation products
Creates in-band crosstalk that cannot be filtered
(optically or electrically)
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Four-Wave Mixing (FWM)
1 2
Into Fiber
21-2 1
2 22-1
Out of Fiber
If you have dispersion the beat signal will not fall

on a real signal
Hence some dispersion is really good
Dispersion (some) helps to prevent FWM
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FWM and Dispersion

Dispersion Washes Out FWM Effects
FWM Efficiency (dB)
D=0
10
20
D=0.2
30
D=2
40
D=17
50
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Channel Spacing (nm)
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The Three Rs of Optical Networking

The Options to Recover the Signal from
Attenuation/Dispersion/Jitter Degradation Are:
Pulse as It Enters the Fiber
Pulse as It Exits the Fiber
Re-Gen to Boost the Power
Re-Shape
DCU
Phase Variation
Re-Time
*Simplification
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Phase Re-Alignment*
O-E-O
t
ts Optimum
Sampling Time
ts Optimum
Re-gen, Re-Shape, and ts Optimum
Sampling Time Remove Optical Noise Sampling Time
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SM Optical Fiber Types
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Types of Single-Mode Fiber

SMF (standard, 1310 nm optimized, G.652)
Most widely deployed so far, introduced in 1986, cheapest
DSF (Dispersion Shifted, G.653)

Intended for single channel operation at 1550 nm
NZDSF (Non-Zero Dispersion Shifted, G.655)

LS
For WDM operation in the 1550 nm region only
TrueWave, FreeLight, LEAF, TeraLight, etc.
Latest generation fibers developed in mid 90s
For better performance with high capacity DWDM systems
MetroCor, WideLight
Low PMD ultra long haul fibers
TrueWave Is a Trademark of Lucent; TeraLight Is a Trademark of Alcatel;
FreeLight and WideLight Are Trademarks of Pirelli; MetroCor Is a Trademark of Corning
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Fiber Dispersion Characteristics

DS
NZDS-
NZDS+
SMF
Normal fiber
Non-Dispersion Shifted Fiber (NDSF) G.652
> 90% of deployed plant
Dispersion (in ps/nm- km)
25
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
DSF G.653
NZDSF G.655
15
20
1350 1370 1390 1410 1430 1450 1470 1490 1510 1530 1550 1570 1590 1610 1630 1650
Wavelength (in nm)

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Different Solutions for Different Fiber Types

SMF
(G.652)
DSF
(G.653)
NZDSF
(G.655)
Extended Band
(G.652.C)
Good for TDM at 1310 nm

OK for TDM at 1550
OK for DWDM (with Dispersion Mgmt)
OK for TDM at 1310 nm
Bad for DWDM (C-Band)
Good for DWDM (C + L Bands)
(Suppressed Attenuation in the OK for DWDM (with Dispersion Mgmt

Traditional Water Peak Region) Good for CWDM (> Eight wavelengths)
The Primary Difference Is in the Chromatic Dispersion Characteristics

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SPAN Design
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Span Design Limits

Attenuation
Source and receiver characteristics
Tx: 0dBm
Rx sensitivity: 28dBm
Dispersion tolerance: 1600ps/nm
OSNR requirements: 21dB
km
120
km
100
Span characteristics
Distance: 120km
Span loss: .25dB/km
(30dB total)
Dispersion: 18ps/nm*km
30dBm
m
20k
Tx
om
D
e
Tim
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Rx
25dBm
5dBm
0dBm
th
ng
e
l
ve
n
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Span Design Limits

Amplification
Tx: 0dBm
Distance: 120km
Span loss: .25dB/km
(30dB total)
km
120
Rx
km
100
13dBm
m
20k
8dBm
FA
ED
Bm
0d
Tx
Do
e
m
Ti
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6d
+12dBm
-6dBm
+17dBm
in
ma
th
ng
e
l
ve
n
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EDFA characteristics
Gain: 23dB (max = 17dBm
Noise figure: < 6dB
Max input: 6dBm
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Span Design Limits

Dispersion
Tx: 0dBm
Distance: 120km
Span loss: .25dB/km
(30dB total)
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Rx
km
100
2160ps/nm
m
20k
1800ps/nm
Tx
om
D
e
Tim
km
120
360ps/nm
0ps/nm
th
ng
e
l
ve
n
Wa omai
D
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Span Design Limits

Dispersion Compensation
F
D C B)
d
(10

Tx: 0dBm
km
120
23dBm
1560ps/nm
km
100
Distance: 120km
Span loss: .25dB/km
(30dB total)
Rx
13dBm
2160ps/nm
m
20k
8dBm
1800ps/nm
FA
ED
Bm
0d
Tx
a
om
D
e
Tim
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6d
+12dBm
360ps/nm
6dBm
+17dBm
0ps/nm
in
th
ng
e
l
ve
n
Wa omai
D
Gain: 23dB (Max +17dBm)
Noise figure: < 6dB
Max input: 6dBm
DCF characteristics
Dispersion: 600ps/nm
Loss: 10dB
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Span Design
Limits of Amplification (OSNR)
Tx: 0dBm
Distance: 60km x 4 Spans
Span loss: .25dB/km (15dB/span)
A
F
ED
FA
D
E
Bm
0d
Tx
m
Do
e
Tim
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m
60k
m
60k
FA
D
E
FA
ED
m
60k
m
60k
+17dBm
OSNR 21dB
th
ng
e
l
ve
n
Wa omai
D
Noise
Noise
Noise
Noise
Too Low
Noise
+17dBm
OSNR 27dB
Noise
+17dBm
OSNR
39dB
Noise
+17dBm
OSNR 15dB
Noise
+17dBm
OSNR 33dB
F
DC
F
DC
F
DC
F
DC
B
6d
Rx
FA
D
E
Noise
Gain: 23dB (Max +17dBm)
Noise
Noise figure: < 6dB

Max input: 6dBm
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Real Network Design Challenges

Complicated multi-ring designs
Multiple wavelengths
Any to any demand
Nonlinearities
Advanced modulation
Simulation and Network

Design Software Is Used
to Simplify Design
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Network Design Tools?

Concept to Creation Easier
GUI-based network
design entry
Any-to-any demand
Comprehensive analysis =
first-time success
Smooth transition from
design to implementation
Bill of materials
Rack diagrams
Step-by-step interconnect
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Summary
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Summary
Attenuation
Compensated by amplifiers
Dispersion
compensated by DCUs
OSNR
Limits of amplification
Multi-channel considerations
Non-linear effects
Use design software for advanced designs
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Q and A
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Recommended Reading
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OPT-1101 (USA2006) - Optical Fundamentals

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Optical Fundamentals

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Modern Lightwave Eras

SONET Rings and

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Wavelength (Lambda): length of a wave in a particular

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

ITU Wavelength Grid

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Bit Error Rate (BER)

Goal is to get from Tx to Rx with a BER < BER

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Superimpose All Combinations

An eye diagram shows a relative performance of the signal

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

The vertical eye opening shows the ability to distinguish

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Eye Mask Testing

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Optical Power Measurements:

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Optical Power Budget

The Optical Power Budget is:

Calculate using minimum transmitter power and

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Optical Power BudgetExample

6 dB (75% Power Loss)

Intermediate Reach (IR)

13 dB (95% Power Loss

Long Reach (LR)

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

26 dB (99.75% Power Loss)

A Few Words on Optical Safety

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Laser Classifications/Safety Icons

SR and IR Optics, Some LR

Many LR Optics, CWDM GBICS

Some LR Optics, Amplifier Outputs

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Protective Eyewear Available

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Some Final Words on Optical

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Optical Propagation in Fibers

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Analog Transmission Effects

Dispersion and nonlinearities:

Signal detection and recovery is an analog problem

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

The coating protects

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

Refractive Index (n)

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

cIs the Critical Angle

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.

If Angle of Incidence Is Greater Than Critical Angle,

Light propagates by total internal reflections

2006 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved.