Notes 1 - Shear Strength

Shear Strength of Soils
Geotechnical Engineering 367 Dr Mohamed Shahin
Curtin University Page 1
Introduction
Shear strength of soils is the soil ability to resist sliding along internal surfaces
within a soil mass. These internal surfaces are called slip surfaces or failure
surfaces. The shear strength of soils is thus one of the most important aspects that
geotechnical engineers must be able to calculate properly because if the applied
stress exceeds the shear strength of soils, failure occurs. The principal design
situations addressed by geotechnical engineers regarding the shear strength of soils
are the bearing (or load-carrying) capacity of foundations, earth pressures on
retaining walls and stability of slopes. The failure modes that govern these
situations are shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Modes of failure for different geotechnical engineering structures (Wesley, 2010)
Concept of Shear Strength

The shear strength (or resistance) of soils is the result of two main components:
frictional strength and cohesive strength.
The frictional strength is similar to the classic sliding friction between solid
bodies from basic statics or physics. In Figure 2(a), consider two blocks sliding
over each other on a horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction between the
two blocks is . The upper block is subjected to a constant normal force, N, and
the force, F, is producing sliding that will be resisted by a force T that is equal to
the normal force, N, multiplied by the friction coefficient , i.e. T = N . If A is
the overall contact area of the two blocks, the shear strength, s, may be written
as:
T N
s n
(1)
A A
where, n is the normal stress.
If the two blocks are made of the same material, as the case with soils (see
Figure 2b), the coefficient of friction, , may be replaced by the soil friction
angle, , and Equation (1) can be re-written as:
s n tan
(2)
N or n
n
F or
T or s
s
(a)
(b)
Figure 2: Illustration of friction resistance
The basic concept of friction as explained previously can be applied to soils

that are purely granular in nature (e.g. sands and gravels). The friction resistance
in such soils is produced by the interlocking of the soil particles.
In cohesive soils, however, there is very little, if any, interlocking between

particles and the resistance to shear is developed primarily due to cohesion or
cohesive strength. Cohesion is the molecular forces of attraction between soil
particles and is analogous to that which would be exhibited between two sticky
surfaces. Cohesion is usually described by the variable c.
In mixed grained soils, the resistance is a combination of the separate resistance
of cohesion and friction, and the Mohr-Coulomb general expression, which is
world widely used, can give the relationship between the soil shear strength at
failure and the two resisting components of friction and cohesion, as follows:
s c n tan
(3)
where:
s
= shear strength of soil;
c
= soil cohesion;
= soil friction angle; and

n = normal stress on the plane of sliding.
If the shear stress on any plane within a soil mass exceeds the value given in
Equation (3), movement (or yield) will occur on that plane. The parameters c and
are called the shear strength parameters.
If a series of laboratory tests are carried out in which a number of soil specimens
are subjected to different values of normal stresses (e.g. n1, n2, n3), the
specimens will fail at different values of shear stresses (1, 2, 3) and the results
can be represented graphically as shown in Figure 3. The straight line in Figure
3 is called the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope and is mathematically
represented by the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion expressed in Equation (3).
s c n tan
(n2, 2)
(n1, 1)
(n3, 3)
n tan
s
c
s c n tan
n
Figure 3: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope and criterion
The significance of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope shown in Figure 3 can

be explained as follows (see Figure 4):
If the normal stress and shear stress on a plane in a soil mass are such they
plot as point A, shear failure will not occur along that plane.
At point B, shear failure will occur along the plane.
A state of stress on a plane represented by point C cannot exist because it
plots above the failure envelope and shear failure in a soil would have
occurred already.
C
B
n
Figure 4: Significance of Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
In general, the shear strength for different kinds of soils, as determined by the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, can be illustrated graphically as in Figure 5.
For clean sands or gravels
s n tan
For mixed-grained soils
s c n tan
For pure clays and silts
sc
Figure 5: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes for different types of soil
The previous discussion has been made on consideration of total stresses where
the pore water pressures are not considered. As described in Geotechnical
Engineering 268, soil behaviour is rather governed by the effective stresses. This
is to say that at any plane passing through a fully saturated soil, the total normal
stress, n, applied to the plane is, in general, the sum of two components: stress
carried by the solid particles, n, and pore water pressure in the voids, u, that is:
n 'n u
or
'n n u
(4)
This implies that, in terms of effective stresses, Equation (3) of the MohrCoulomb failure criterion should be rewritten as follows:
s c' 'n tan '
(5)
where:
s = shear strength of soil;
c = soil cohesion in terms of effective stress;
= soil friction angle in terms of effective stress;
n = effective normal stress on the plane of sliding; and
u = pore water pressure on the plane of sliding.
Drained versus Undrained Shear Strength

To obtain the shear strength on a plane within a soil mass in terms of the
effective stress, we simply need the shear strength parameters c and , as can
be seen in Equation (5). This shear strength is also the drained shear strength on
this plane, provided that the soil is sheared sufficiently slow that any pore water
pressures generated by the shearing process is dissipated as shearing occurs.
The situation with respect to the undrained shear strength on the same plane is
more complicated. The undrained shear strength is by definition the strength
available on the plane when it is sheared to failure under undrained conditions,
as the case in which an embankment is built quickly above a fully saturated
ground clay. In this case, the total stress condition applies and Equation (3) can
be used to obtain the shear strength, provided that the shear strength parameters c
and are obtained. However, the values of c and are not of practical relevance
because in undrained condition, the soil behaves as if it has no frictional
component of shear strength and the values of c and become:
c (or cu) = su (undrained shear strength of soil)
(or u) = 0
In reality, however, the soil still has a frictional component of shear strength
dependent on its value.
Measurement of Shear Strength Parameters

There are several methods for determining the shear strength parameters of
soils, discussed here are the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Direct shear test;

Triaxial compression test;
Unconfined compression test; and
Vane shear test.
The first three tests are conducted in the laboratory, whereas the fourth test can
be carried out either in the laboratory or in the field. The above tests are made
on representative samples of soil with loading and drainage conditions
approximating those in the field, where possible.
Great care should be taken in obtaining, packaging and transporting the soil
samples from the site to the laboratory so that the in-situ structure, density and
moisture content can be preserved.
Direct Shear Test

The direct shear test is probably the oldest and simplest shear strength test which is
normally used for cohesionless soils, but can also be used for cohesive soils.
The apparatus is shown in Figure 7(a) and basically consists of a metal specimen
container, or shear box (60 mm square), which is separated horizontally in two
halves. One half is fixed, and the other is either pulled or pushed. The soil specimen
(generally is about 25 to 30 mm high) is placed into the shear box surrounded by
porous stones at the top and bottom to allow for drainage. A normal (vertical) load,
P, is applied to the specimen in the shear box through a rigid loading cap. The
specimen is allowed to consolidate under this load, which is kept constant during the
test. Once the soil has been fully consolidated, a horizontal force, T, is applied by
moving one half of the box relative to the other until the specimen fails under shear.
During deformation, the horizontal shearing force, T, is measured as well as the
lateral deformation, L, and vertical deformation, h. The test is carried out for a
number of applied normal stresses, n (where n = P/A and A is the initial crosssectional area of the sheared specimen) and the shear stresses, , at each normal stress
are measured. The shear stress is calculated as the shearing force, T, divided by the
corrected cross-sectional area of the sheared specimen, Ac = L (L L) and L is the
initial length of sheared specimen.
The following plots are drawn from the results of the test:
(a) shear stress, = T/Ac, versus shear strain, s = L /L (Figure 7b);
(b) vertical displacement, h, versus lateral displacement, L (Figure 7c); and
(c) shear stress, , versus normal stress, n (Figure 7d).
P
= T/Ac
h
L
Soil
sample
Porous
stones
E
Test 3 (at n3 = P3/A)

s = L/L
Schematic diagram
Dilation
(b)
h
Compression
n1
n2
n3
(c)
Test 3
3
2
Test 2
Test 1
Photo by ELE International

(a)
n1
n2
n3
(d)
Figure 7: Direct shear test: (a) apparatus; (b) and (c) test results; (d) Mohr-Coulomb diagram
From Figure 7b, Youngs modulus of elasticity, E, at different normal stresses

can be obtained, and from the results of the maximum shear stresses, the shear
strength parameters are determined, as shown in Figure 7d.
Depending on the equipment used, the shear test can be either stress-controlled
or strain-controlled. In stress controlled tests, the shear force is applied in equal
increments until the specimen fails. After the application of each incremental
load, the shear displacement is measured from the horizontal dial gauge. In
strain-controlled tests, a constant rate of shear displacement is applied to one half
of the box by a motor that acts through gears. The resisting shear force of the
soil corresponding to any shear displacement can be measured by a horizontal
proving ring or load cell.
Usually drained tests are performed in the direct shear box apparatus. For
cohesionless soils, the test can be performed quickly since water does not
significantly affect the strength. For cohesive soils, the rate of shearing must be
chosen to prevent the build up of excess pore water pressures. Since there are no
excess pore water pressure and the pore pressure is approximately zero, the total
and effective stresses will be identical and thus, the effective shear strength
parameters c and are obtained.
Advantages and disadvantages of direct shear test

Whilst the direct shear test is very simple, it suffers from a number of
limitations, including:
Drainage cannot be controlled and pore water pressures cannot be measured,
thus, undrained tests are not possible;
Failure is forced along a predetermined plane;
Shear stress along the failure plane is not uniform, stress concentrations exist,
and failure occurs progressively from the edges towards the centre; and
Despite these limitations, the test is useful because of its simplicity, relatively
low cost and ease of sample preparation.
Worked Example (1)

A series of three direct shear tests has been conducted on a saturated soil using a
shear box of cross-sectional area of 100 cm2. The tests were performed slowly
enough to produce drained conditions under applied vertical loads of 1, 2 and 4
kN. Failure occurred at shear loads of 0.7, 1.1 and 2.0 kN. Determine the shear
strength parameters of this soil. [Answers: c = 30 kPa and = 22o]
Triaxial Compression Test

A more useful test than the direct shear is the triaxial test, which is the most reliable and
widely used shear strength test that is suitable for almost all types of soils. As shown in
Figure 8(a), the test consists of a cylindrical soil specimen (about 38 mm in diameter and 76
mm high), and on special occasions, larger diameter samples are used. The specimen is
wrapped with an impermeable rubber membrane, and o-rings are used at the top and bottom
to provide a watertight seal, thus allowing drainage from only the top and bottom sides of
the soil sample. The membrane prevents the cell water from penetrating the pores of the soil.
The sample is placed on a metal pedestal (with provisions for drainage and pore water
pressure measurements) and is encased inside a plastic cylindrical chamber that is filled with
water.
The specimen is first saturated and then subjected to equal all-round confining (cell)
pressure, 3 (see Figure 8b) by the compression of water in the chamber and this cell
pressure is usually held constant during the test. To cause shear failure, an axial load P (see
Figure 8a) is steadily applied to the specimen through a vertical loading ram until failure
occurs. The axial load P causes axial stress d = P/Ac (Ac is the corrected cross-sectional
area of soil specimen) known as the principal stress difference or deviator stress (see Figure
8b). The stresses at failure applied to the soil specimen will then be the horizontal cell (or
confining) pressure 3 and vertical stress 1. These stresses are principal stresses since there
is no shear stress applied on the planes of 1 and 3. In calculating the deviator stress, d,
the change in the cross-sectional area of soil specimen during the test must be taken into
account as follows:
Ac Ao
(1 v )
(1 a )
(6)
where, A is the initial cross-sectional area of the soil specimen; a = L/L is the vertical
strain; and v = V/V or (a + 2l) is the volumetric strain. l = D/D is the lateral strain,
and L, L, V, V, D and D are, respectively, the vertical deformation, initial length,
volume change, initial volume, lateral deformation and initial diameter of the soil
specimen (see Fig. 8c).
The test is performed a number of times on several specimens of the same soil using
different initial cell pressures, 3, and the corresponding deviator stresses, d, are
determined (see Figure 9a) so that the axial stresses at failure are calculated, i.e. 1 = 3
+ d. The results are used to obtain the shear strength parameters using the Mohrs
circles of stress, as will be explained later. The relationship between the axial strain, a,
and volumetric strain, v, are also used to get an idea of whether the soil is contracting or
dilating during shearing (an example of a contracting soil is shown in Figure 9b).
Drainage can be permitted via porous stones placed on top and bottom of the soil
specimen and through tubes connected to the top and base of the specimen. The pore
water pressure can be measured via pressure gauges connected to the tubes. There are
basically three types of triaxial test which are commonly assigned by a two-letter
symbol. The first letter refers to what happens before shearing (i.e. whether the
specimen is consolidated or not), and the second letter to the drainage during shearing.
These tests include:
ConsolidatedDrained
CD
ConsolidatedUndrained
CU
UnconsolidatedUndrained
UU
CD or CU test is carried out to determine the effective shear strength parameters c and
, while the UU test is carried out to determine the undrained shear strength of soil, su
or cu. The three tests will be explained in detail later.
Axial load, P
Rubber
membrane
Cell water
O-ring
Porous stones
Soil
Plastic
cylindrical
chamber
Drainage and
back pressure
Cell pressure
Photo by ELE International
(a)
A
Ac
3 1
L
L
(b)
3
d 1
D/2
D/2
(c)
Figure 8: Triaxial compression (a) test apparatus; (b) stress system; (c) change in sample dimensions at failure
d
d-3
Test 3 at 3-3
d-2
Test 2 at 3-2
d-1
Test 1 at 3-1
Dialation (-ve)
(a)
Compression (+ve)
a
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
(b)
Figure 9: Triaxial compression test results (a) deviator stress versus axial strain; (b) volumetric
strain versus axial strain
Mohrs Circle of Stress

To obtain the Mohr-Coulomb failure line using the triaxial test results (and thus the values
of the shear strength parameters), it is normal practice to make use of a graphical solution
known as the Mohr circle of stress. Figure 10 shows state of stress on a soil element within
a soil mass where the major and minor principal stresses are acting in the vertical and
horizontal directions, respectively. Generally, the principal stress with the largest
magnitude is denoted 1 and called the major principal stress, and the smallest principal
stress is denoted 3 and called the minor principal stress. The stress in the third dimension
is the intermediate principal stress, 2 , and is neglected in our analysis since most problems
in geotechnical engineering exhibit two-dimensional (plane strain) conditions. The state of
stress in Figure 10 is similar to that of a soil specimen in a triaxial test. We now need to
know the stress state on any plane making an angle to the horizontal since failure cannot
occur on either the vertical or horizontal plane. The stresses acting on the plane EE making
an angle to the horizontal consist of two components: a stress perpendicular to the plane,
known as the normal stress, n, and a stress acting parallel to the plane, known as the shear
stress, . These stresses can be obtained by analysing the equilibrium condition of the soil
element and considering the stresses acting on the faces of the triangle FHG and applying
simple statics, as follows:
3
F
E
3
H
C
Figure 10: Illustration of stress state at a point in a soil mass

Resolving forces normal to the plane FG gives:
n FG 1FH cos 3GH sin

Dividing through FG gives:
n 1
FH
GH
cos 3
sin
FG
FG
Therefore:
n 1 cos 2 3 sin 2
Now:
cos 2 2 cos 2 1
and
cos 2 1 2 sin 2
Rearranging gives:
1 3 1 3
cos 2
2 2
(7)
Resolving forces parallel to the plane FG gives:
FG 1FH sin 3GH cos

Dividing through FG will give:
FH
GH
1
sin 3
cos
FG
FG
or
( 1 3 ) sin cos
Since sin2 = 2 sin cos, therefore:
1 3
sin 2
2
(8)
In Equation (9), when = 45o, = max =1/2(13)

A simple graphical solution using the Mohrs circle of stress can be used to
obtain the stresses of the analytical Equations 7 and 8, as follows (refer to
Figure 11):
Draw the perpendicular axes x and y to represent n and , respectively, and
mark off OA = 3 (the minor principal stress); and OB = 1 (the major principal
stress).
Draw a circle of diameter AB whose centre lies on the x-axis at C (only half of
the circle is needed because of symmetry around the horizontal axis).
Draw a line making an angle to the horizontal from Point A to intersect the
circle at Point P. We will examine the magnitudes of OD and PD, as follows:
OD OC CD
OA OB
CP cos 2
2
That is:
1 3 1 3
cos 2
2 2
(9)
Also:
PD CP sin 2
OB OA
sin 2
2
Thus:
1 3
sin 2
2
(10)
Equations 9 and 10 are identical to those obtain from the analytical derivation of
Equations 7 and 8. Thus the distance OD gives the value of n and DP gives the
value of on a plane inclined at an angle from the horizontal. Note that the
maximum shear stress, max, can be also obtained from the Mohrs circle, as
indicated in Figure 11.
max
2
C
1
Soil element
Mohr Circle
Figure 11: Graphical representation of stress using Mohrs circle
Mohr circles of stress as explained previously can be used for plotting the
triaxial test results from which the shear strength parameters can be obtained.
By doing a series of triaxial tests at different cell pressures, we can plot a series
of Mohr circles as shown in Figure 12. The tangent to these circles defines the
Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope. No state of stress can exist which would be
represented by a circle that crosses this line as failure would occur before this
could happen. The intercept of the failure envelope to y-axis gives the soil
cohesion, c, and the inclination of the failure envelope to x-axis gives the soil
friction angle, .
Test 3
Test 2
Test 1
c
3
3 1
Figure 12: Graphical representation of triaxial test results using Mohrs circles of stress
There are situations where it is useful to express the Mohr-Coulomb failure

criterion in terms of principal stresses. This involves obtaining a relationship
between the principal stresses at failure, 1 and 3, and shear strength
parameters c and . This relationship can be obtained by referring to the Mohr
circle in Figure 13. In the triangle ACD:
sin
DC
AC
however: DC
1 3
2
and
AC AB BC c cot
1 3
2
Substituting the values of DC and AC gives:

sin
( 1 3 ) / 2
c cot ( 1 3 ) / 2
Rearranging yields:
sin
( 1 3 ) / 2
c cot ( 1 3 ) / 2
Which from the trigonomeric identities leads to:
1 3 tan2 (45 / 2) 2c tan(45 / 2)

(11)
Also, from Figure 13, the sum of the interior angles of triangle ACD is 180o
and thus: (180o 2f) + 90o + = 180o, therefore, the angle of failure plane
to the horizontal can be expressed as:
f 45
(12)
1
3
3
f
c
B
2 f
f
C
Soil element
Figure 13: Mohr circle and failure envelope for an element of soil
Worked Example (2)

In the figure below, determine the effective shear and normal stresses applied on
the failure surface of a soil element located at point (A), and check the stability of
the soil element against shear failure assuming that the applied vertical and
horizontal stresses are principal stresses. [Answer: FoSagianst shear failure = 2.4]
c = 20 Kpa
= 30o
d = 15 kN/m3
sat = 18 kN/m3
Ko = 0.5
5m
4m
50o
A
Potential shear surface
Consolidated-Drained Test (CD)
This test is used to obtain the effective shear strength parameters c and . In this
test, the soil specimen is first fully saturated by applying simultaneous increments
of cell pressure (by compression of cell water) and back pressure (by compression
of water inside the soil sample), while the drainage valves are open. This process
will ensure that the air which may be present inside the voids is dissolved. The
effectiveness of the saturation process shall be checked by closing all drainage
valves, increasing the cell pressure by a small amount, c, and measuring the
consequent excess pore pressure, uc. Skemptons parameter B is then determined
(B = uc/ c), and if the specimen is fully saturated, B should be close to 1. A
value of B 0.95 is accepted and when B < 0.95, the above saturation process
shall be repeated until B 0.95 is reached.
With all drainage valves open, the required confining pressure, 3, is applied and
the consequent excess pore water pressure, u3, is allowed to dissipate over time
until consolidation occurs. The full consolidation will take place when u3 becomes
zero (Figure 14a), and then the C part of the CD test is complete.
The next phase of the test is shearing the soil specimen to failure. This phase
starts with keeping the drainage valves open, and applying an increasing axial
deviator stress d = 1 3 until the specimen fails. d is calculated by dividing the
axial deviator load by the corrected area of soil sample obtained from Eq. (6). The
axial deviator load should be applied very slowly so that no excess pore water
pressure develops during shearing. The vertical and horizontal stresses on the
sample are then the effective major and minor principal stresses (i.e. 1 = 1 and
3 = 3), as shown in Figure 14b. Once shearing is done, the D part of the CD
test is complete.
Changing 3 allows several tests of this type to be conducted on samples of

the same soil and the effective shear strength parameters (c and ) can be
determined by plotting the Mohr circles at failure, as shown in Figure 14c.
The CD test simulates the condition where a soil has been consolidated due
to some prior loading, and then loaded to failure so slowly so that pore water
pressures will not develop or will dissipate quickly. In this case, the soil
strength parameters needed for design are c and , and the analysis is
referred to as the effective stress analysis or long-term stress analysis.
Practical example is an embankment constructed slowly subsequent to
consolidation under its original weight.
The CD test on clay takes several days which leads to practical problems in
the laboratory such as leakage of valves, seals, and the membrane that
surrounds the sample. An alternative method is the CU test where the
induced pore water pressure can be measured.
d
3
u3 = 0
3 = 3
1 = 1
3 = 3
ud = 0
1 = 1
d
(b) Part D
(a) Part C
c
3
1 3
(c)
Figure 14: Schematic diagram of the stress conditions of the CD test with typical Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope
Consolidated-Undrained Test (CU)

This test is an alternative quicker way of obtaining the effective shear strength
parameters, c and . In this test, the consolidation phase (part C of the test)
is done as in the CD test. The shearing phase is started by applying an
increased deviator stress, d, until failure occurs. During this phase, the
drainage from the specimen is prevented and an excess pore water pressure, ud,
is developed and measured, thus, both the total and effective stresses at failure
can be determined as follows (see Figure 15b):
Minor total principal stress = 3

Major total principal stress = 1 = 3 + d
Minor effective principal stress = 3 = 3 ud
Major effective principal stress = 1 = 1 ud
Note that : d = 1 3 = 1 3
3
u3= 0
(a) Part C
d
3
3 3
1 1
3 3
ud 0
3
1 1
d
(b) Part U
Figure 15: Schematic diagram of the stress conditions of the CU test

The deviator stress, d , at failure and corresponding excess pore water pressure,
ud , are used to determine the Skemptons pore water pressure parameter A as
follows:
A = ud/d
The Skemptons parameter A indicates whether the soil specimen during
shearing will compress or dilate. Normally consolidated clays and loose sands
tend to contract and give A value close to 1, whereas overconsolidated clays and
dense sands tend to dilate and give very low or negative A value. The following
A values can be used as a guide:
A > 0.5 (soil that contracts during shearing)
A < 0.5 (soil that dilates during shearing).
Several tests of this type are to be conducted on samples of the same soil and
the effective shear strength parameters, c and , are determined by plotting
Mohrs circles at failure, as shown in Figure 16.
It should be noted that during the undrained shearing, the sample water content
remains unchanged as drainage is not allowed, thus, there would be no volume
change in the soil specimen. This will exhibit zero volumetric strain v and
Equation (7) for the calculation of the corrected area of sheared specimen
simplifies to:
Ac
A
(1 a )
(13)
Effective stress circles

Total stress circles
c
3 3
ud1
3 1
3 3
ud2
ud3
Figure 16: Typical Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes for the CU test
Unconsolidated-Undrained Test (UU)

In this test, the soil specimen is subjected to a cell pressure, 3, while drainage
from the soil specimen is not permitted during the application of 3. Without
being allowed to consolidate, the specimen is sheared to failure by the
application of deviator stress, d, with no drainage is allowed (see Figure 17).
Since drainage is not permitted at any stage, the test can be performed very
quickly (usually takes about 10 to 20 minutes).
d
3
u3 0
3
(a) First U Part
3 3
ud 0
1 1
3 3
3
1 1
d
(b) Second U Part
Figure 17: Schematic diagram of the stress conditions of the UU test
The pore water pressure is not measured in this test, thus, only the total stresses
are known and only a total stress plot is possible as shown in Figure 18. It can
be seen that the cohesion is undrained, cu, and is equal to the undrained shear
strength, su = (13)/2, and the friction angle is undrained , u , and is zero.
A special feature of this test is that an increased cell pressures, 3, will not
increase the undrained shear strength, su , or the effective stresses, 1 and 3 ,
but rather will only increase the pore water pressures. This is because water is
not permitted to dissipate from the specimens and since all samples will have the
same density and moisture content during the test, all samples will have the same
strength. If we were to measure the pore water pressure in each test and then
calculate the effective stresses and plot the effective stress circles, we would find
that these circles coincide, as shown in Figure 18. For this reason, only one test
is sufficient to perform a UU test.
The UU test simulates a situation where a construction (e.g. embankment or
foundation) is build on a soft deposit over a short period of time (a few weeks).
ud3
Effective stress circles

coincide in one circle
ud2
ud1
Failure envelope u = 0.0

Total stress circles
s u = cu
3
1 3
Figure 18: Typical Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope for a UU test

Advantages and Disadvantages of Triaxial Test

The triaxial test has a number of significant advantages, including:
Drainage, that is, pore water pressure can be controlled and measured
Different combinations of cell pressure and axial stress that simulate field
conditions can be applied, and failure can occur anywhere in the specimen
Specimens are subjected to (approximately) uniform stresses and strains
This test is by far the most popular shear strength test, and whilst it overcomes
many of the limitations of the direct shear test, it is complex and requires
expensive equipment.
Worked Example (3)

The results shown in the table below were obtained at failure in a series of
consolidated-undrained triaxial tests (with pore water pressure measurement) that
are carried out on fully saturated soil specimens of 40 mm in diameter and 89 mm
in height. Determine the values of the shear strength parameters.
[Answer s: c = 17 kPa and = 29o]
Cell pressure
(kPa)
Deviator force
(N)
Vertical deformation
(mm)
Pore pressure
(kPa)
30
128.1
3.1
6.6
80
194.7
4.9
32.3
140
254.0
7.8
72.8
Unconfined Compression Test

This test is one of the quickest and simplest shear strength tests, and is a
special case of the unconsolidated-undrained test in which the all-round
pressure is equal to the atmospheric pressure, i.e. 3 = 0 (see Figure 19a).
The test is an undrained test and carried out on samples that can stand
without any lateral support, hence, it is applicable to cohesive soils only.
Specimens of height to diameter ratio of 2 are normally used and subjected
to a rapid vertical stress, d = 1, until failure occurs. The vertical stress at
any stage of loading can be obtained by dividing the vertical load, P, by the
cross-sectional area of the sample.
During the test, the cross sectional area increases with the increase in
compression and may be computed at any stage of loading as follows (refer
to Figure 19b):
A
Ac
(1 L / L)
(14)
A
Ac
L
L
(b)
(a)
d = 1
qu
su = cu = qu/2
Failure envelope u = 0.0
cu
(c)
3 = 0.0
(d)
1 = qu
Figure 19: Unconfined compression tests (a) photo of the test equipment by ELE International;
(b) sample dimensions during test; (c) stress-strain curve; (d) Mohr circle
By computing the normal stress, 1, and axial strain, a = L/L, at different

stages of loading, stress-strain curve may be plotted (Figure 19c). The peak
value of the stress-strain curve is taken as the unconfined compressive
strength, i.e. qu= 1-failure. The corresponding Mohr-Coulomb failure
envelope is illustrated in Figure 19d, where it can be seen that the slope of
the failure envelope is horizontal, i.e. u = 0 and the undrained shear
strength is calculated as:
su cu qu / 2
(15)
Theoretically, the unconfined compression test should lead to the same value
of cu as this obtained from the UU triaxial test if:
The specimen is 100% saturated, otherwise, compression of the air in the voids
will occur and will cause a decrease in void ratio and increase in strength; and
The specimen is sheared rapidly to failure so that the undrained condition
exists. If the time to failure is long, evaporation and surface drainage will lead
to higher strength.
Worked Example (4)

During unconsolidated-undrained triaxial test on a soil specimen, the minor and
major principal stresses at failure were 96 kPa and 187 kPa, respectively. What
will be the deviator load at failure for a specimen of the same soil that has a
diameter = 50 mm and height = 100 mm which is tested in the unconfined
compression apparatus. The axial deformation of the soil sample at failure in the
unconfined compression test was 6.5 mm. [Answer: P = 191 N]
Vane Shear Test

The vane shear test (Figure 20) is widely used for cohesive soils, particularly
sensitive clays. The test consists of a steel rod having, at one end, four small
projecting blades (or vanes) parallel to its axis, and situated at 90o around the rod
(see Figure 20a). The vane is inserted into the soil and a torque, T, is applied
until the soil fails, thus, generating a cylinder of soil. At failure, the applied
torque will be equal to the resisting moment caused by the shear at the surface of
the generating cylinder, therefore:
su
4T
(2d 2 h 0.67d 3 )
(16)
where, T = applied torque; d = diameter of vane; and h = length of vane

(see Figure 20b).
Bjerrum (1973) back computed a number of embankments failure on soft clays
in which the vane undrained shear strength was used and concluded that the
vane shear tended to be too high and should be corrected for the design
purposes, as follows:
su (design) su (vane)
(17)
where, is a reduction factor that has been related to the plasticity index,
Ip, as in Figure (20c).
T
d
(b)
(a)
(c)
Figure 20: The vane shear test (a) photo of the vane device; (b) schematic diagram of the vane;
(c) vane shear correction curve of Bjerrum (1973)
Worked Example (5)

At a depth of 6 m below the ground surface on a certain site, a vane shear test
gave a torque value of 6040 N.cm. The vane was 10 cm high and 7 cm across
the blades. A sample of the same soil was taken to the laboratory and was
found to have LL = 66 and PL = 16. Estimate the design shear strength of this
soil according to Bjerrum (1973). [Answer: su = 51.2 kPa]
Shear Strength Characteristics of Sands

The characteristics of dry and saturated sands are the same provided that there
is zero excess pore water pressure in the case of saturated sands.
Typical examples of the shear strength characteristics for loose and dense
sands are given in Figure 21.
d
Peak
Dense
Loose
Residual
Ultimate
Loose
Dilation
(a)
(c)
e
Loose
Dense
v
Contraction
Dense
Dense
Loose
(d)
(b)
Figure 21: Typical shear test results for sands

Figure 21(a) shows the deviator stress versus axial strain relationship for dense and loose
sands. It can be seen that dense sand reaches a peak stress and then the stress decreases
with increasing strain to an ultimate or residual value. This behaviour is known as worksoftening and similar to the behaviour of brittle materials. The relatively sharp peak
associated with dense sands is related to the degree of interlocking between the soil
particles, which must be overcome in the shearing process. Once this interlocking is
overcome, the shear stress necessary to continue the shear strain is reduced to the ultimate
value. On the other hand, loose sands show a work-hardening behaviour which is similar
to the behaviour of ductile materials.
Figure 21(b) shows the relationship between the volumetric strain, v, and axial strain, a.
As can be seen, a soil can exhibit expansion (dilation), or contraction (densification). As
shearing takes place in a loose sand, the material becomes more dense, as one would
expect. Initially, upon shearing, a dense sand increases in density, or decreases in
thickness, but upon continued shearing, the soil dilates. This is due to the fact that, for
shearing to continue, at high densities, the soil grains must ride over the adjacent grains,
causing a corresponding increase in specimen thickness.
Figure 21(c) shows typical Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes for sands. As expected, the
effective internal angle of friction, , increases with increasing density. Notice too that
for both the loose and dense sands, the failure envelopes pass through the origin. This is a
typical characteristic for clean sands since c = 0.
Figure 21(d) shows the relationship between the void ratio, e, and axial strain. As shearing
takes place, the void ratio of loose sand decreases indicating an increase in density, as
expected. Initially the dense sand increases in density slightly, but upon further shearing,
dilates for the same reason mentioned previously. Notice that as shearing continues, both
loose and dense sands approach the same level of void ratio. This is known as the critical
void ratio, or the critical state.
Shear Strength Characteristics of Clays

Clay soils are said to be cohesive soils and unlike sands, their behaviour rely on
the moisture content and more importantly soil stress history, i.e. whether the
soil is normally consolidated or over-consolidated. A normally consolidated clay
is the one which its current effective vertical stress is equal to its preconsolidation pressure (i.e. the maximum effective vertical stress the soil had in
its entire life). Over-consolidated clay is the one which is currently applied to an
existing effective vertical stress that is less than the pre-consolidation pressure.
Figure (22) shows typical results of triaxial tests carried out on normally and
overconsolidated clays from which the following observations can be made:
In Figure 22(a), it can be seen that normally consolidated clays exhibit behaviour
similar to that of loose sands, whereas overconsolidated clays show behaviour
similar to that of dense sands.
Figure 22(b) shows that normally consolidated clays contract during shearing
while overconsolidated clays expand, or dilate, during shearing.
d
Peak
Overconsolidated
Residual
Ultimate
Normally consolidated
(a)
Dilation
Overconsolidated
v
Contraction
a
Normally consolidated
(b)
Figure 22: Typical shear test results for clays
For some clays, the strength in a remoulded or disturbed condition is much

less than that in an undisturbed condition at the same moisture content. A
parameter known as sensitivity is used to indicate the amount of strength
lost by a clay soil as a result of disturbance. The degree of sensitivity, St,
may be defined as the ratio of the undrained shear strength in an
undisturbed state, su(undisturbed) to that in a remoulded state, su(remoulded) as
follows:
St
su (undisturbed )
(18)
su ( remoulded)
The degree of sensitivity of low sensitive clays ranges from 2 to 4,

however, for medium to high sensitive clays, St may range from 4 to 16.
Clays with St greater than 16 turn to viscous fluids upon remoulding and
are known as quick clays. This behaviour occurs because these clays have
a very delicate structure that is disturbed when they are remoulded.
Stress Path in Triaxial Testing

The behaviour of soils in the field depends on many factors, including the
magnitude of induced stress, the way the stress changes and the history of
loading (whether due to natural reasons such as erosion and sedimentation, or as
a result of human changes such as excavation). It is therefore desirable to trace
the stress of an element of soil throughout its loading history by applying similar
stress changes during the laboratory test on a soil specimen. To keep track of
loading progress of a soil element/sample, the Mohr circles can be used,
however, an infinite number of Mohr circles would be required, leading to
inconvenient representation diagram. A more convenient way of stress
representation is called the stress path.
In the stress path, the state of stress is represented by stress points that
corresponds to the highest points on the Mohr circles, and the continuous line
connecting the stress points is the stress path, as shown in Figure 23. The stress
path points have coordinates t and s given by:
t
1 3
1 3
(19)
(20)

Stress path points
t = (1 3)
3 1
s = (1 +3)
t = t
Stress path
s or s
Figure 23: Mohr circle of stress and corresponding stress points and stress path
It should be noted that t and s may be defined in terms of the total or effective
stresses. If we adopt the normal convention of a prime indicating effective
stress, then t = t and s = s u .
A simple case to illustrate the stress path in conventional triaxial test is when
3 remains constant as 1 is increased, as shown in Figure 24. In this case, the
corresponding stress path is a straight line making an angle of 45 o from the
horizontal.
t
Figure 24: (a) successive Mohr circles; (b) corresponding stress pass for constant 3 and increasing 1
The stress path plots for a set of triaxial tests can be used to determine the shear strength
parameters, without having to draw the Mohr circles. The line drawn through the set of
points representing the appropriate failure criterion gives the stress path failure envelope,
which it is referred to as the Kf line. The inclination of the Kf line to x-axis and its
intercept with y-axis can be used to obtain the shear strength parameters. Figure 25 shows
the stress path of three consolidated-undrained triaxial tests in terms of the total stress
(TSP) and effective stress (ESP). For each test, the horizontal distance between the failure
points represents the excess pore water pressure at failure, ud. The inclination and
intercept of the ESP failure envelope can be used to obtain c and , as follows:
' sin 1 (tan )

c'
(21)
a
cos '
(22)
Kf line
t = t'
ud3
u
d
3
ud2
d
2
ud1
Total stress path (TSP)
d
1
Effective stress path (ESP)
a
450
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
s or s
Figure 25: Stress path and failure envelope for a set of consolidated undrained triaxial tests
Worked Example (6)

Consider the following triaxial test on a specimen of clean sand with 5 separate
measurements of 1, 3 and ud at failure. Plot the total and effective stress paths
and obtain the effective shear strength parameters.
[Answers: c = 0.0 and = 22.6]
1 (kPa)
3 (kPa)
ud (kPa)
300
300
100
350
300
165
380
300
200
396
300
224
398
300
232
References:
Bjerrum, L. (1973). Problems of soil mechanics and construction on soft
clays Proceedings of the 8th International conference on Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering, 3, Moscow.
Wesley, L. D. (2010). Fundamentals of soil mechanics for sedimentary and

residual soils John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New Jersey.

Notes 1 - Shear Strength

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Shear Strength of Soils

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Concept of Shear Strength

The basic concept of friction as explained previously can be applied to soils

In cohesive soils, however, there is very little, if any, interlocking between

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= soil friction angle; and

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The significance of the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelope shown in Figure 3 can

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For clean sands or gravels

For mixed-grained soils

For pure clays and silts

Figure 5: Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes for different types of soil

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s c' 'n tan '

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Drained versus Undrained Shear Strength

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Measurement of Shear Strength Parameters

Direct shear test;

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Direct Shear Test

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Test 2 (at n2 = P2/A)

Test 1 (at n1 = P1/A)

Photo by ELE International

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From Figure 7b, Youngs modulus of elasticity, E, at different normal stresses

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Advantages and disadvantages of direct shear test

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Worked Example (1)

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Triaxial Compression Test

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Photo by ELE International

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Mohrs Circle of Stress

Figure 10: Illustration of stress state at a point in a soil mass

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Resolving forces normal to the plane FG gives:

n FG 1FH cos 3GH sin

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Resolving forces parallel to the plane FG gives:

FG 1FH sin 3GH cos

In Equation (9), when = 45o, = max =1/2(13)

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