Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
FOREWORD
iii
PREFACE
UNIT-1 : Introduction
Analytical methods
10
Heating devices
11
16
16
18
19
Boring a cork
20
22
22
Filtration
22
25
Weighing technique
30
34
38
40
43
38
46
47
UNIT-5 :
50
53
54
56
58
61
63
UNIT-6 :
Titrimetric Analysis
65
65
66
66
67
69
74
75
79
80
81
81
82
86
UNIT-7 :
87
92
93
93
99
99
101
102
105
106
109
111
114
PROJECTS
116
APPENDICES
129
xi
UNIT-1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
INTERNATIONAL
HAZARD SYMBOLS
Do not heat the test tube containing solution with its mouth
towards yourself or your neighbour as the spurting of
content may harm you or your neighbour (Fig 1.1). Do not
heat the test tube continuously in one position. Keep it moving
and shaking while heating so that heating is uniform.
Clean every piece of apparatus as soon as the work is finished
and keep these at proper place. A dirty seat and apparatus
indicate careless habit and it hinders successful performance
of the experiment.
Keep the doors and windows open and the exhaust fan
on while working in the laboratory, so that poisonous
vapours are quickly sucked out and flow of fresh air is
facilitated.
INTRODUCTION
If you will follow the Dos and Donts outlined above, your
experience of learning basic scientific techniques will surely
be full of joy.
INTRODUCTION
Test Tubes
Test tubes of different volumes are available but usually for this
level of chemistry practical work, test tubes of 125 mm (length)
15 mm (diameter), 150 mm (length) 15 mm (diameter) and 150
mm (length) 25 mm (diameter) are used. Test tubes are available
with or without rim around the mouth. Test tubes of smaller width
are used for carrying out reactions, which do not require heating
or when heating is required for a short period. Only one third of
the test tube should be filled while carrying out a reaction.
The test tube of bigger diameter is called boiling tube. It is used
when large volume of solution is required to be heated. Test tube
holder is used to hold a test tube while heating a mixture or
solution in it. Test tube stand should be used to keep test tubes
containing solutions in the upright position (Fig.1.4).
Flasks
Mostly round bottom and conical flasks (also called Erlenmeyer
flask) are used in chemistry laboratory. These are available in
various capacities ranging from 5 mL-2000 mL. Choice of the
size and type depends upon the amount of solution to be
handled and the type of reaction to be carried out. Generally,
for heating or refluxing a reaction mixture contained in a round
bottom flask, direct flame / sand bath / water bath, is used.
Conical flasks are employed for carrying out certain reactions
at room temperature or lower temperatures. These are specially
used for carrying out volumetric titrations.
INTRODUCTION
Beakers
Beakers of various capacities ranging from 5 mL to 2000 mL are
available and are employed for the purpose of preparing
solutions, for carrying out precipitation reactions and for
evaporation of solvents etc.
Separating Funnels
These are used for separating immiscible liquids. Separating
funnels of various sizes and shapes are available (Fig. 1.5).
Condensers
Condensers are used to condense the vapour back to the liquid
phase. Generally two types of condensers are used in the
laboratory, (a) air condensers and (b) water condensers. Air
condenser is shown in Fig.1.6 (a). Length and diameter of the glass
tube of air condensers vary. There is a rapid transfer of heat from
the hot vapour to the surrounding air and vapour condenses.
Water condenser has an inner tube surrounded by an outer
jacket [Fig.1.6 (b)] with an inlet and an outlet for circulating water.
Inlet is connected to the tap. Heat is transferred from hot vapour
to the surrounding water.
For refluxing and distillation of solutions or liquids with high
boiling point, air condensers are used. For low boiling liquids water
condensers are used.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.6 : (a) Air condenser
(b) Water condensers
10
INTRODUCTION
11
BUNSEN BURNER
(A) Parts of Bunsen Burner
1. The Base
Heavy metallic base is connected to a side tube called gas tube.
Gas from the source enters the burner through the gas tube and
passes through a small hole called Nipple or Nozzle and enters
into the burner tube under increased pressure and can be burnt
at the upper end of the burner tube.
If the air vent is closed and the gas is ignited, the flame will be
large and luminous (smoky and yellow in colour). The light emitted
by the flame is due to the radiations given off by the hot carbon
particles of partially burnt fuel. The temperature of the flame in
this situation is low. If adjustment of sleeve on vent is such that
gas mixed with air is fed into the flame, the flame becomes less
12
INTRODUCTION
luminous and finally turns blue. When the flow of air is correctly
adjusted, the temperature of the flame becomes quite high. This
is called non-luminous flame. Various zones of flame are shown
below in Fig. 1.13.
Three distinctly visible parts of the Bunsen flame are described
below:
13
14
INTRODUCTION
The tube becomes very hot and it may produce burns on touching.
This may melt attached rubber tube also. If it happens, put off the
burner and cool it under the tap and light it again by keeping the
air vent partially opened.
SPIRIT LAMP
If Bunsen burner is not available in the laboratory then spirit
lamp can be used for heating. It is a devise in which one end of a
wick of cotton thread is dipped in a spirit container and the other
end of the wick protrudes out of the nozzle at upper end of the
container (Fig. 1.14). Spirit rises upto the upper end of the wick
due to the capillary action and can be burnt. The flame is non
luminous hence can be used for all heating purposes in the
laboratory. To put off the lamp, burning wick is covered with the
cover. Never try to put off the lighted burner by blowing at
the flame.
15
UNIT-2
BASIC LABORATORY
TECHNIQUES
2.1 CUTTING
OF
GLASS TUBE
AND
GLASS ROD
Material Required
Soda-glass tube
Soda-glass rod
Triangular file
: 15 cm long
: 15 cm long
: One
Procedure
(i)
Place the glass tube or the glass rod on the table and press it with your left
hand.
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Keep the lower end of a triangular file with its sharp edge
perpendicular to the tube to be marked and pull it towards
you to make a single deep scratch on the glass tube or the
glass rod at a desired length (Fig. 2.1 a).
Keep thumbs of your hands on both sides, very close and
opposite to the scratch as shown in Fig. 2.1 b and break the
glass tube or rod by applying pressure from your thumbs
in a direction away from you (Fig. 2.1 c). Break the tube/
rod by holding it with a cloth so that hands are not harmed.
If the glass tube does not break, make a deeper scratch at
the point marked earlier and make a fresh attempt.
Trim any jagged edge by striking with a wire gauge (Fig. 2.2 a).
Heat the freshly cut edge of the tube gently in the flame to
make the edges round and smooth (Fig. 2.2 b). This is called
fire polishing. For fire polishing, first continuously warm the
cut end in the Bunsen flame and then rotate it back and
forth until the edge is rounded. Too much heating may distort
the rounded edge (Fig. 2.2 c).
(a)
(b)
(c)
The cut
end
(b)
Properly
Overheated
rounded edge
end
after fire
polishing
(c)
17
Precautions
(a)
(b)
Make a single deep scratch at the desired length with one stroke of the file.
To avoid injury, carry out the filing and breaking of the glass tube/rod away
from the face as far as possible and hold the glass tube / rod with the help of a
piece of cloth to avoid injury to hands.
Discussion Questions
(i)
(ii)
Why is it required to round off the freshly cut edges of the glass tube or the
glass rod?
2.2 BENDING
OF A
GLASS TUBE
Material Required
Glass tube
Triangular file
:
:
20-25 cm long
One
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(a)
(b)
18
(c)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
Avoid heating the glass tube only on one side, rather rotate it while heating.
Select a glass tube of appropriate length (nearly 30 cm long) to keep your hands
safe from heat.
To avoid flattening of the glass tube while bending, carry out the process slowly.
Discussion Questions
(i)
(ii)
2.3 DRAWING
OUT A
JET
Material Required
Glass tube
Triangular file
Sand paper
:
:
:
20-25 cm long
One
As per need
19
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(b)
(a)
(c)
Fig. 2.6 : (a) Heating the tube to draw a jet (b) Before cutting (c) After cutting
Precaution
While drawing a jet, pull apart the two ends of the red-hot tube slowly so that it
becomes thin uniformly.
Discussion Questions
(i)
(ii)
Why is the glass tube of small diameter chosen for drawing out a jet?
20
:
:
As per need
One
Glycerine solution
(Shelf reagent)
As per need
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(v)
Mark the rubber cork on both its sides at the place where a
hole is to be drilled (Fig. 2.7 a).
Choose a borer of diameter slightly smaller in size than
that diameter of the tube to be inserted in the hole (Fig. 2.7 b).
Place the rubber cork on the table with its smaller end in the
upward direction as shown in Fig. 2.7 c.
Hold the cork in position with the left hand and put a suitable
borer, lubricated by dipping in water or glycerine, at the
place where the hole is to be drilled (Fig. 2.7 c). By lubricating
the borer with water or glycerine a smooth hole is drilled.
Now hold and push the borer vertically in the downward
direction, and drill the hole by rotating the borer and
simultaneously apply the pressure gently.
For making two holes in the same cork, keep appropriate
distance between the holes and use borers of proper size.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2.7 : (a) Marked cork (b) Choosing the borer (c) Boring process
Precautions
(a)
(b)
Make a mark on both sides of the cork and select borer of proper size.
To obtain a smooth hole, drill half the hole from one side and another half from
the other side of the cork.
Discussion Questions
(i)
(ii)
Why should the diameter of the borer be less than the diameter of the tube to be inserted
in the hole?
21
IN A
BEAKER
OR A
FLASK
(ii)
2.7 FILTRATION
Filtration involves separation of a solid from a liquid by passing
the liquid through a porous material. In filtration, the porous
filtering material can be a piece of cloth, paper, sintered glass,
asbestos and so on. Filters of various pore sizes are available. If a
filter paper has large pores, the liquid will pass through it more
easily, and the filtration will be fast. However, solid particles of
small size may also pass through the filter. Therefore, choice of the
method of filtration and the filtering material depends on particle
size of material to be retained on the filter paper.
22
Material Required
Funnel
Beaker
Funnel stand
Glass rod
Filter paper
:
:
:
:
:
One
Two
One
One
As per need
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
Fold the filter paper to fit in the funnel as shown in Fig. 2.10.
For this, fold the circular filter paper in half, tear off a small
piece of paper from the corner and once again fold it.
Open the folded filter paper into a cone by keeping three
folds on one side and one on the other such that the torn off
corner is outside. Fit the cone into the funnel. Take care that
filter paper cone fits in one cm below the rim of the funnel.
Fig. 2.10 : Folding the filter paper and placing it in the funnel
(iii)
(iv)
23
Precautions
(a)
(b)
The stem of the funnel should touch the side of the beaker in which filtrate is
collected so that falling drops do not cause splashing.
Filter paper cone should not be filled more than two-thirds. If level of the liquid
being filtered rises above the cone, then some unfiltered solution may pass into
the beaker kept below the funnel to collect the filtrate.
Note : (i) For quick filtration, a fluted filter paper may be used with advantage. The ordinary paper is folded into
6 or 16 folds instead of 4 and the folds are then turned alternately inwards and outwards. On opening
the paper we get a cone of fluted filter paper with series of ridges meeting at the apex. Filtration is
rapid due to the large surface available for filtration (Fig. 2.12).
Fig. 2.12 : Folding the filter paper to get a fluted filter paper cone
(ii) For separating the solid from the liquid, filtration should be done in two stages. First, almost whole
of the liquid should be poured out carefully down a stirring rod (Fig. 2.11). When only a few millilitres
of the mixture remain in the beaker, it should be poured into the funnel after swirling the beaker
gently. The sides of the beaker are then rinsed with a stream of water and the content is again
poured into the funnel. Rinsing is repeated till the beaker and the stirring rod is clean. It is better to
pour down a solid liquid mixture along a glass rod (Fig. 2.11). However, care should be taken that
paper is not punched by the stirring rod.
24
IMPROVISATION
If you do not have a Buchner funnel or if you have very small amount of substance to be
filtered, try following improvised apparatus for suction filtration. Take a glass rod and check
that it passes through the stem of the funnel freely. Flatten one end of the glass rod by
heating it in a bunsen burner flame and then pressing it against the glazed tile. The flat
portion of the rod will now fit into the upper part of the stem of the funnel.
Cut the length of the rod to a small size so that it forms a button with a small stem. Fit the
button in the funnel as shown in the figure below.
Cut a small circular piece of filter paper of the size such that it covers the flat button and
just touched the sides of the funnel. Moisten the filter paper and use this improvised funnel
in place of a Buchner funnel. Try using shirt button in place of this button.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.14 : (a) Water forming curved surface in the glass apparatus
(b) Noting the reading
25
26
After rinsing, the solution is filled in the burette with the help
of a funnel above zero mark. Stopcock is then opened wide and
the solution is allowed to run through the nozzle till there are no
air bubbles in it (Fig. 2.18).
27
(b)
28
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
29
30
(a)
(b)
31
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 2.25 : (a) Weight box (b) Fractional weights (c) Rider and
(d) Forceps
One
Weight box
One
One
One
Procedure
Following steps are followed while using a chemical balance:
(i) Level the balance with the help of leveling screws and plumb
line.
(ii) Ensure that the beam is horizontal. Adjust the pointer at
zero point with the help of screws provided on both sides of
the beam. If it is adjusted on releasing the beam arrest, the
pointer moves equal divisions on both the sides of the zero
of the base scale.
32
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Using Rider
Maximum weight that can be weighed with the help of rider is
10 mg and the weight of the rider itself is 10 mg (i.e. 0.01g). It can
be easily placed in the grooves of the balance beam (Fig. 2.26).
When placed at the terminal position of the beam, which is marked
10, it will weigh 10 mg (i.e 0.01g). Principle of moment is applied
for weighing by using the rider. Weight is equal to the arm length
from the centre of the beam multiplied by the weight of the rider.
Length of the beam from the centre to one side of the beam is
taken as unit length.
On both sides from the centre, the balance beam is divided
into ten equal parts through equidistant marks, each of which
corresponds to 1/10 of the length of the beam. Hence, each big
1
0.01g = 0.001 g or 1 mg weight. Each
division corresponds to
10
big division is further divided into five parts. Thus, each small
division corresponds to only 1/5 milligram i.e. 0.2 mg or 0.0002 g.
Thus, the rider placed at the 4.2 mark will weigh 0.0044 g
(i.e. 4 0.001 + 2 0.0002 = 0.0044 g) (Fig. 2.26).
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
Pans must be properly cleaned before and after weighing. Chemicals should never
be placed directly on the pans for weighing.
Always release the beam gently.
Avoid overloading the balance.
Always transfer the weights from one place to another with the help of forceps.
Do not allow the weights to get spoiled by corrosion.
Never weigh a hot/cold object on the balance.
Always keep weights on the right pan and object on the left pan of the balance
(if you are a right handed person).
33
(h)
(i)
(j)
Discussion Questions
(i) How is an analytical balance different from a physical balance?
(ii) On what principle, is weighing by using rider based?
(iii) What is the maximum weight that can be weighed on a chemical balance?
(iv) Which weights are called fractional weights?
(v) Why are forceps always used for handling the weights?
(vi) The rider rests at a reading of 3.4 on the left side of the beam. What contribution does this
make to the weight of the material being weighed when weights are placed on the right
pan?
(vii) Can you weigh 0.0023 g using chemical balance? Give reason for your answer.
EXPERIMENT 2.1
Aim
Oxalic acid
Theory
A solution of exactly known concentration is considered to be a
standard solution. There are various ways of expressing the
concentration of a standard solution. Standard solution of an acid/
base is used to determine the unknown concentration of a solution
of bases / acids by volumetric analysis. For example, a standard
solution of oxalic acid can be used to determine the unknown
concentration of an alkali solution. The strength of a standard
solution is usually expressed in moles per litre. The formula of
hydrated crystalline oxalic acid is
34
and its molar mass is 126 g. If 126 g of oxalic acid is present in one
litre of the solution, it is known as one molar (1.0 M) solution.
For the preparation of one litre of 0.1 M oxalic acid solution, we
126
=12.6g of hydrated oxalic acid. Therefore, for preparing
require
10
250 mL of 0.1 M oxalic acid solution, we require:
12.6 g 250 mL
= 3.1500 g of hydrated oxalic acid.
1000 mL
In general for preparing a solution of required molarity, the amount
of substance to be weighed can be calculated by using the formula
given below :
Molarity (M) =
Material Required
:
:
:
:
:
One
One
One
One
One
Oxalic acid
: As per need
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Oxalic acid
35
(iv)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
36
The pan of the balance should be cleaned before and after weighing.
Never touch the weights with hand. Use forceps to transfer weights from the weightbox to the pan of the balance.
Always use spatula to transfer the reagent from the bottle on to the watch glass.
Stopper the reagent bottle immediately after withdrawing the substance.
Always use distilled water to prepare the standard solution.
Always check the adjustment of the balance before weighing the substance.
Care should be taken while weighing the chemicals. These should not be spilled
on the pan of the balance.
Watch glass/weighing bottle and funnel should be washed several times by using
small amounts of distilled water each time.
While making the solution, water should be added carefully so that the lower
part of the meniscus just touches the etched mark of the measuring flask.
To ensure uniform composition of the solution, stopper the flask and shake it
carefully and thoroughly.
Discussion Questions
(i)
What is the formula and the basicity of hydrated oxalic acid and anhydrous oxalic acid?
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
37
UNIT-3
PURIFICATION AND
CRITERIA OF PURITY
EXPERIMENT 3.1
Aim
Purification of sample of any one of the following Potash alum, Copper sulphate
or Benzoic acid by crystallisation.
Theory
Crystallisation is one of the techniques for the purification of an impure compound
particularly when the original crude material obtained after a reaction is in a
very impure condition. First step of the process involves choosing a single solvent
or a mixture of solvents, which dissolves the crude material readily when hot,
but only to a small extent when cold. The crude substance is then dissolved in
the minimum amount of boiling solvent to obtain a saturated solution. Insoluble
impurities are removed by filtering the hot solution. It is then checked for
crystallisation point and then cooled slowly when the solute crystallises out leaving
the greater part of impurities in the solution. The crop of crystals is collected by
filtration and the process is repeated until the crystals of pure substance are
obtained. Sometimes during cooling minute quantity of the substance (solid which
is being purified) is added to the solution to facilitate the initial crystallisation.
This is called seeding. The added tiny crystal acts as a nucleus for the growth
of new crystals. Growth of crystals depends upon the conditions in which
crystallisation is carried out. For obtaining good crystals, rapid cooling should
be avoided because it results into small or disfigured crystals.
Purity of crystals is often judged from the colour of the crystals. For example,
pure crystals of alum, copper sulphate and benzoic acid are white, blue and
Material Required
:
:
:
:
:
:
One
One
One
One
One
One
Potash alum,
Copper sulphate
and Benzoic acid
: As per need
Procedure
(i) Take 30-50 mL distilled water in a beaker and prepare a
saturated solution of potash alum/copper sulphate in it at
room temperature by adding the impure solid sample in
small amounts with stirring. Stop adding the solid when it
does not dissolve further. To prepare saturated solution of
benzoic acid use hot water.
(ii) Filter the saturated solution so prepared and transfer the
filtrate into a porcelain dish. Heat it on a sand bath till nearly
th of the solvent is evaporated. Dip a glass rod into the
solution, take it out and dry it by blowing air from the
mouth. If a solid film deposits on the rod, stop heating.
(iii) Cover the porcelain dish with a watch glass and keep the
content of the dish undisturbed for cooling.
(iv) When crystals are formed, remove the mother liquor (liquid
left after crystallisation) by decantation.
(v) Wash the crystals of potash alum and copper sulphate, thus
obtained first with very small quantity of alcohol containing
small amount of cold water to remove the adhering mother
liquor and then with alcohol to remove moisture. Wash the
crystals of benzoic acid with cold water. Benzoic acid is
soluble in alcohol. Do not use alcohol to wash its crystals.
(vi) Dry the crystals between the folds of a filter paper.
(vii) Store the dry crystals thus obtained at a safe and dry place.
(viii) Repeat steps (ii-vii) for obtaining maximum amount of pure
substance.
Copper sulphate
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
39
Discussion Questions
(i) Which one of the following formula is correct representation
of potash alum(phitkari)? Explain.
+
3+
EXPERIMENT 3.2
Aim
Determination of melting point of a solid organic compound.
Theory
The kinetic energy of molecules of a substance increases on heating.
When it becomes high enough to overcome the attractive forces
operating between the molecules, the lattice structure of the solid
breaks, the solid melts and comes into the liquid state. Melting
point of a substance is the temperature at which solid state of a
substance begins to change into the liquid state, when the pressure
is one atmosphere.
40
Material Required
Thieles tube
/Kjeldhals flask/beaker
Thermometer
Capillary tubes
Iron stand with clamps
:
:
:
:
One
One
As per need
One
Liquid paraffin
: As per need
/Conc. H2SO4
Organic Compound
(Naphthalene/
p-Dichlorobenzene/
p-Toluidine)
: As per need
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
p-Dichlorobenzene
p-Toluidine
Naphthalene
Hazard Warning
41
Beaker
Kjeldahls flask
Fig. 3.1 : (b) Different apparatus used for determining melting point
This temperature is the melting point of the solid. If you
have taken Kjeldahl flask, heat it by revolving the flame
around the bottom of the flask to ensure uniform heating.
For this, hold the burner in your hand and also keep a
sand bath below the flask while heating. It will prevent
spilling of acid in case of accident. Repeat the experiment
with other solids.
42
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Note :
Keep the lower end of the capillary tube and the thermometer at the same level.
Capillary tube should not be very thick.
Packing of the powder should be uniform without any big air gaps in between
the solid particles.
Thieles tube should be heated at the side arm by using a low flame.
The cork of the Thieles tube or Kjeldhal flask holding the thermometer should
have a side groove so that vapours can escape through it during the process of
heating to prevent bursting of the tube or flask.
Never fill the bulb of Kjeldahl flasks more than half.
Paraffin can be safely heated upto 220C. Therefore for determination of melting point of a substance
possessing melting point higher than this, conc. H2SO4 may be used which can be heated upto 280C.
Sulphuric acid has been suggested for use but is not recomended. Silicone oils are most satisfactory
liquids and can be used in place of sulphuric acid.
Discussion Questions
(i) Why do pure solids possess sharp melting point?
(ii) What is the effect of impurities on the melting point of a solid?
(iii) Why is the melting point of benzamide more than acetamide?
(iv) Can any other liquid be used in place of liquid paraffin to determine the melting point?
(v) Can we heat the capillary directly for the determination of melting point?
(vi) Why is liquid paraffin filled in the Thieles tube/Kjeldahls flask?
(vii) Why is Thieles tube heated at the side arm?
EXPERIMENT 3.3
Aim
Determination of boiling point of a liquid organic compound.
Theory
The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure,
which the surface of the liquid experiences. At 1.013 bar
atmospheric pressure the boiling point of the liquid is termed as
normal boiling point. Different liquids have different boiling point.
The difference in the boiling points of liquids is essentially due to
the difference in the intermolecular forces operating between the
molecules of the liquid.
43
Material Required
:
:
:
:
:
Concentrated H2SO4
One
One
One
One
One
Organic liquid : 1 mL
Liquid paraffin/
: As per need
Conc. H2SO4
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
44
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Record the temperature as the boiling point at which brisk and continuous
evolution of the bubbles starts from the lower end of the capillary dipped in the
liquid organic compound.
Keep the lower end of the ignition tube and the thermometer bulb at the same
level.
Heat the side arm of the Thieles tube gently.
Boiling point of the liquid filled in Thieles tube should be 50-60C higher than
that of the liquid, of which boiling point is to be determined.
Discussion Questions
(i)
Suggest a suitable liquid, which can be filled in the Thieles tube for the determination of
the boiling point of carbon tetrachloride?
(ii)
In place of liquid paraffin, can any other liquid be used for the purpose of determination of
boiling point?
(iii)
Suppose boiling point of a liquid in Delhi is 100C. At hill station, will it be the same or
different? Give reasons.
(iv)
(v)
How would the boiling point of water vary with the addition of equimolar quantities of
urea, potassium chloride and potassium sulphate?
(vi)
Why do different isomers of alcohol represented by the formula C4H10O differ in their boiling
points?
Do you know?
Learning technique of crystallisation is not only important from the point of view of
purification of compounds but also from the point of developing large single crystals; because
studies on single crystals have shown them to have many optical and electrical properties
of great use. For example, slices from large crystals of silicon containing traces of certain
impurities are used in making solar batteries used for the operation of instruments in
satellites. Frequency control in radar, television and radio is done by making use of slices of
some crystals. Also, use of crystals of some compounds is made in microphones and
earphones. You can now realize how important it is for chemist to learn these techniques.
45
UNIT4
CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIUM
(IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
IN
SOLUTION)
A+B
C+D
According to the law of mass action, rate of forward reaction, r1, will be directly
proportional to the product of concentrations of A and B and the rate of backward
reaction, r2, will be directly proportional to the products of concentrations of C
and D.
Thus, r1 = k1[A][B] and r2 = k 2 [C][D]
where k1 and k2 are the rate constants for the forward and the backward
reactions respectively and [A], [B], [C] and [D] are the molar concentrations of A,
B, C and D respectively.
At equilibrium, r1 will be equal to r2
k1 [A][B] = k 2 [C][D]
k1
k2
[C][D]
[A][B]
k1
Putting k = Kc we have
2
Kc =
[C][D]
[A][B]
EXPERIMENT* 4.1
Aim
Study of shift in equilibrium in the reaction of ferric ions and
thiocyanate ions by increasing the concentration of any one of
these ions.
Theory
The equilibrium reaction between ferric chloride and potassium
thiocyanate is conveniently studied through the change in the
intensity of colour of the solution.
3+
2+
[Fe(SCN)] (aq)
(Blood red colour)
Material Required
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Two
One
Six
Four
Two
One
One
Ferric chloride
Potassium thiocyanate
:
:
0.100g
0.100g
* The very nature of the experiment is purely qualitative. therefore, preparation of solution in terms of molarity has
not been stressed.
47
Procedure
Ferric chloride
Hazard Warning
48
(x) Compare the colour intensity of the solution in each boiling tube
with the colour intensity of reference solution in boiling tube a.
(xi) Take another set of four clean boiling tubes. Add 2.5 mL of
blood red solution to each of the boiling tubes from the
burette. Repeat the experiment by adding 1.0 mL, 2.0 mL,
3.0 mL and 4.0 mL of potassium thiocynate solution from
burette B to the boiling tubes b, c, d, and e respectively
followed by addition of 16.5 mL, 15.5 mL, 14.5 mL and
13.5 mL of water respectively to these test tubes. Again
compare the colour intensity of the solution of these test tubes
with reference equilibrium solution in boiling tube a.
(xii) Record your results in tabular form as in Tables 4.1 and 4.2.
(xiii) You may repeat the observations with different amounts of
potassium thiocyanate and ferric chloride solution and
compare with the reference solution.
Table 4.1 : Equilibrium shift on increasing the concentration of ferric ions
Boiling Tube
Volume of ferric
chloride solution taken
in the system in mL
Change
in
colour
intensity as matched
with reference solution in
boiling tube a
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Direction of shift in
equilibrium
Equilibrium
position
Boiling Tube
Volume of thiocyanate
solution taken in the
system in mL
Change
in
colour
intensity as matched
with reference solution in
boiling tube a
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Direction of shift in
equilibrium
Equilibrium
position
49
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Discussion Questions
(i)
Explain why representing the ionic reaction between ferric and thiocyanate ions as given
in the text viz.
3+
2+
2+
+ H2O.
(ii)
Does the constancy in colour intensity indicate the dynamic nature of equilibrium? Explain
your answer with appropriate reasons.
(iii)
What is equilibrium constant and how does it differ from the rate constant?
(iv)
It is always advisable to carry out the present experiment with dilute solutions. Why?
(v)
What will be the effect of adding solid potassium chloride to the system at equilibrium?
Verify your answer experimentally.
(vi)
EXPERIMENT 4.2
Aim
Study of the shift in equilibrium in the reaction between
2+
Theory
In the reaction between [Co (H2O)6]
displacement reaction takes place.
2+
[Co(H2O)6] + 4Cl
Pink
50
2+
[CoCl4] + 6H2O
Blue
Hydrochloric acid
K=
[[CoCl 4 ] ]
2+
Acetone
Hazard Warning
Material Required
Alcohol
:
:
:
:
:
:
One
Three
Three
Six
One
One
Acetone/alcohol
Concentrated
hydrochloric acid
Cobalt chloride
60 mL
:
:
30 mL
0.6000 g
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
51
(vi)
from A to D and 0.5 mL, 1.0 mL, 1.5 mL, 2.0 mL and 2.5 mL
concentrated HCl respectively in the test tubes A to E so that
total volume of solution in the test tubes is 4 mL.
Note the gradual change in colour of pink solution to light
blue with increasing amounts of hydrochloric acid. Record
your observations in tabular form (Tables 4.3 and 4.4).
Test
tube
Volume of acetone
Volume of CoCl2
Volume of water
Colour
added in mL
solution added in mL added in mL
of mixture
1.
1.0
3.0
0.0
2.
0.8
3.0
0.2
3.
0.6
3.0
0.4
4.
0.4
3.0
0.6
5.
0.2
3.0
0.8
Sl.
No.
Test
tube
1.
0.5
1.5
2.0
2.
1.0
1.5
1.5
3.
1.5
1.5
1.0
4.
2.0
1.5
0.5
5.
2.5
1.5
0.0
Colour
of mixture
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
Discussion Questions
(i)
What will be the effect of increasing the temperature of the reaction mixture at equilibrium?
(ii)
Can an aqueous solution of sodium chloride replace concentrated HCl? Verify your answer
experimentally.
(iii)
Why should the total volume of the solution in each test tube be kept same?
52
UNIT-5
PH AND PH
CHANGE
IN
AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
water molecules and H and OH ions. The conductivity experiments prove that
even pure water ionises to some extent although it has very low conductivity. On
this basis it can be concluded that ionic equilibrium exists in pure water also.
This ionic equilibrium can be represented as
OU
H2O(l)
H (aq) + OH (aq)
Since H+ ion cannot have independent existence in water because of its positive
charge and small ionic radius, a better representation of this equilibrium is
2H2O(l)
K=
[H3 O ] [OH ]
2
[H2 O]
Kw = [H3O ] [OH ]
Kw is self ionisation constant of water or simply ionization constant of water.
14
It remains constant at constant temperature. At 25C value of Kw is 1.010 .
Thus, it is quite evident that at a given temperature in any aqueous solution,
+
this product i.e. [H3O ] [OH ] remains constant whether acidic, alkaline or neutral
in nature. If dissolution of a substance shifts the equilibrium in such a way that
at equilibrium the hydronium ion concentration is more than hydroxyl ion
concentration then the solution is acidic in nature. If dissolution of a substance
EXPERIMENT 5.1
Aim
To determine the pH of some fruit juices.
Theory
Several dyes show different colours at different pH. These act as
acid-base indicators. Solution of a mixture of dyes can be used to
obtain approximate pH value of a solution. A solution of a mixture
of dyes can be obtained to measure pH values from zero to 14. It
is called universal indicator. Some universal indicators can
measure the pH change of even 0.5. In fact, dyes themselves are
weak acids or bases. Colour change occurs as a result of change
in the structure of dye due to acceptance or release of protons.
Different forms of a dye have different colours and hence, colour
change is observed when pH of the solution changes. A standard
chart for the colour change of the universal indicator with pH is
supplied with the indicator paper or solution and the comparison
of observed colour change with the chart provides a good estimate
of the pH of the solution.
54
PH AND PH
Material Required
Four
Glass droppers
Four
Test tubes
Four
pH chart
One
Fruit juice
: Lemon,orange,
apple,pineapple
pH papers/universal
indicator solution
:
As per need
Procedure
(i) Procure fresh juices of lemon, orange, apple and pineapple
in separate beakers of 100 mL capacity each.
(ii) Transfer nearly 2 mL of the fresh juice (20 drops) with the
help of a separate dropper for each juice in four different
test tubes marked 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
(iii) Add two drops of the universal indicator in each test tube
and mix the content of each test tube thoroughly by shaking.
(iv) Match the colour appearing in each test tube with the
standard pH chart.
(v) Record your observations in Table 5.1.
(vi) Repeat the experiment using pH papers to ascertain the pH
of different juices and match the colour in each case with
the one obtained with universal indicator.
(vii) Arrange the pH value of the four juices in increasing order.
pH
Inference
Lemon
Orange
Apple
Pineapple
Result
Increasing order of pH value of juices is ____________.
55
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Discussion Questions
(i)
(ii)
If we dilute each of the juices, what effect is likely to be observed on the pH values?
(iii)
On mixing any two juices, would the pH alter or remain the same? Verify your answer
experimentally.
(iv)
EXPERIMENT 5.2
Aim
To observe the variation in pH of acid/base with dilution.
Theory
Hydrogen ion concentration per unit volume decreases on dilution.
Therefore, change in pH is expected on dilution of the solution.
Material Reqiured
Boiling tubes
Glass droppers
Test tubes
:
:
:
Eight
Four
As per need
: 20mL
: 20mL
: 20mL
: As per need
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
56
PH AND PH
H2SO4
HCl
Hazard Warning
(v) Take 5mL of diluted HCl from boiling tube C in boiling tube
D and add 15 mL water to it.
(vi) Cut a pH paper into small pieces and spread these on a clean
glazed tile.
(vii) Take out some solution from boiling tube A with the help of
a dropper and pour one drop on one of the pieces of pH
paper kept on the glazed tile. Compare the colour of the pH
paper with the standard chart.
(viii) Similarly test the pH of solutions of boiling tubes B, C, and
D respectively and record your results as in Table 5.2.
(ix) Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of solution B, C
and D.
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
57
Colour
NaOH
H2SO4
pH
Colour
pH
Colour
pH
A
B
C
D
Result
(i)
(ii)
Precautions
(a)
(b)
Add equal number of drops of the universal indicator to equal amounts of solution
in each of the boiling tubes.
Match the colour of the solution with pH chart carefully.
Discussion Questions
(i)
What trend is observed in the variation of pH with dilution for acidic as well as for basic
solutions?
(ii)
(iii)
If any two acidic solutions (say A and C) are mixed, what would happen to the pH of the
mixture? Verify your answer experimentally.
(iv)
For each acidic solution, whether we use HCl or H2SO4, pH is same to a reasonably good
extent, even though HCl is 0.1M, and H2SO4 is 0.05M. How do you explain this result?
(v)
Will the pH of 0.1M acetic acid be the same as that of 0.1M hydrochloric acid? Verify your
result and explain it?
EXPERIMENT 5.3
Aim
To study the variation in pH by common ion effect in case of weak
acids and weak bases.
58
PH AND PH
Theory
It is a known fact that the ionisation in the case of either a weak acid
or a weak base is a reversible process. This can be represented as:
(1) HA
H +A
(2) BOH
B + OH
(weak acid)
(weak base)
Material Required
Beakers (100 mL)
: Four
: Two
Test tubes
: Four
pH chart
: One
Sodium ethanoate
Ammonium chloride
Ethanoic acid (1.0 M)
Ammonia solution (1.0 M)
pH paper and
universal indicator
:
:
:
:
2g
2g
50 mL
50 mL
As per need
Procedure
(i) Take four 100 mL beakers and mark them as A, B, C and D.
(ii) Transfer 25 mL of 1M ethanoic acid in beaker A and 25 mL
of (1M) ammonia solution in beaker B.
(iii) Similarly transfer 25 mL of (1 M) ethanoic acid in beaker C
and 25 mL of (1.0 M) ammonia solution in beaker D. Now
add 2 g sodium ethanoate in beaker C and dissolve it.
Likewise add 2 g of ammonium chloride in beaker D and
dissolve it by shaking the content of the beaker thoroughly.
(iv) Take approximately 2 mL (20 drops) of the solution from
beakers A, B, C and D respectively into test tubes marked
as 1, 2, 3 and 4.
(v) In each of the test tubes add 2 drops of universal indicator
solution. Shake the content of the test tubes well and match
the colour in each case with the standard pH chart.
(vi) Record your observations as given in Table 5.3.
(vii) Compare pH of the solution in test tubes 1 and 3 and record
the change in pH.
(viii) Similarly compare pH of the solution in test tubes 2 and 4
and record the change in pH.
Ammonia solution
Ethanoic acid
Ammonium chloride
59
Composition of the
system
CH3COOH in water
CH3COOH + CH3COONa
NH4OH+NH4Cl
Colour
of pH paper
pH
Result
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(e)
Try only weak acid/weak base and its salt for the study of the common ion effect.
Handle the bottle of ammonium hydroxide with care.
Add equal number of drops of the universal indicator in each of the test tubes.
Store pH papers at a safe and dry place.
Discussion Questions
(i)
The addition of sodium acetate to acetic acid increases the pH whereas, the addition of
NH4Cl to aqueous NH3 solution (NH4OH) decreases the pH of the system. How do you
explain these observations?
(ii)
Suggest suitable replacement for CH3COONa for system 3 and NH4Cl for system 4.
(iii)
Suggest other pairs of weak acid and its salt and weak base and its salt to carry out the
present investigations.
(iv)
In salt analysis/mixture analysis, point out the situations where the variation in pH is
carried out by common ion effect.
(v)
How do buffer solutions resist change in the pH? Explain with a suitable example.
60
PH AND PH
EXPERIMENT 5.4
Aim
To study the change in pH during the titration of a strong acid
with a strong base by using universal indicator.
Theory
It is assumed that strong acids and strong bases are completely
dissociated in solution. During the process of neutralisation,
H+ ions obtained from the acid combine with the OH ions produced
by base and form water. Therefore, when a solution of strong acid
is added to a solution of strong base or vice versa, the pH of the
solution changes. As the titration proceeds, initially there is slow
change in the pH but in the vicinity of the equivalence point there
is very rapid change in the pH of the solution.
Material Required
Burette
:
Beakers (250 mL)
:
Conical flask (100 mL) :
Dropper
:
pH chart
:
One
Two
One
One
One
Hydrochloric acid
(0.1 M)
Sodium Hydroxide
solution (0.1 M)
Universal indicator
: 25 mL
: 50 mL
: As per requirement
Procedure
(i)
Hydrochloric acid
(ii)
Sodium hydroxide
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
61
Volume of NaOH
added in lots (mL)
1.
2.
12.5
12.5
3.
10.0
22.5
4.
2.3
24.8
5.
0.1
24.9
6.
0.1
25.0
7.
0.1
25.1
8.
0.1
25.2
9.
0.1
25.3
10.
0.1
25.4
11.
0.5
25.9
pH
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
To get good results perform the reaction with solutions of strong acid and strong
base of same concentration.
Handle the bottle of acid and base with care.
Use small amount of indicator.
Result
Write down your result on the basis of data.
Discussion Questions
(i)
What trend of pH change will you observe in the neutralisation of strong acid with strong
base?
(ii)
Do you expect the same trend of pH change for neutralisation of weak acid (acetic acid)
with a strong base (sodium hydroxide)?
(iii)
In which pH range should the indicator show colour change if the hydrochloric acid is to be
neutralised by sodium hydroxide? Give answer after looking at the graph of the experiment.
(iv)
Explain how does the study of pH change help in choosing the indicator for neutralisation
reaction.
62
PH AND PH
EXPERIMENT 5.5
Aim
To study pH of solutions of sodium chloride, ferric chloride and
sodium carbonate.
Theory
Salts of strong acid and strong base form neutral solutions while
salts of weak acid/base and strong base/acid are basic and acidic
respectively in nature. Salts of weak acid/base with strong base/
acid are hydrolysed in water while salts formed by neutralization
of strong acid and strong base do not hydrolyse in solution. You
have already learnt about this in your chemistry textbook.
Material Required
Boiling tubes
Test tubes
Glass droppers
: Three
: Three
: Three
pH paper/universal indicator :
0.1 M NaCl solution
:
:
0.1 M FeCl3 solution
:
0.1 M Na2CO3 solution
As per need
As per need
As per need
As per need
Procedure
(i)
(ii)
63
Test tube 1
Test tube 2
Test tube 3
NaCl
FeCl3
Na2CO3
Result
Write down the result on the basis of your observations.
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Discussion Questions
(i)
(ii)
Why are the salts of strong acid and strong base not hydrolysed? Explain.
(iii)
(iv)
What is the effect of dilution on pH of salt solution? Verify and explain your results.
64
UNIT-6
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
(ii)
Standard Solution
A solution of exactly known concentration is called standard
solution. Any substance, which is stable at room temperature and
does not react with solvent in which it is dissolved, can be directly
weighed to prepare its standard solution. Description and
preparation of these solutions is given below:
66
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Phenolpthalein
Phenolpthalein is a weak acid, therefore it does not dissociate in
the acidic medium and remains in the unionised form, which is
colourless.
HPh
ZZZX
YZZ
Z
H + Ph
Unionised
Ionised
Colourless
Pink
Ionised and unionised forms of phenolphthalein are given below :
(Colourless in acid)
(Pink in alkali)
67
H + OH
ZZZX
YZZ
Z
H + Ph
+
Na + OH
H2O
Methyl orange
Methyl orange is a weak base and is yellow in colour in the unionised
form. Sodium salt of methyl orange is represented as follows:
Choice of Indicator
In the titration of strong acid and a weak base, methyl orange is
chosen as indicator. When titration between strong base and weak
acid is to be performed then phenolphthalein is a good indicator.
In this case alkali is dropped from the burette and acid is taken in
the tiration flask. Colour of the solution taken in the titration flask
68
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
EXPERIMENT 6.1
Aim
Determination of the concentration (strength) of a given sodium
hydroxide solution by titrating it against a standard solution of
oxalic acid.
Theory
In the titration of a strong acid with a strong base, the amount of
acid and base becomes chemically equivalent at the end point and
the chemical reaction is called neutralization reaction. Near the
end point there is a sudden change in the pH of the solution. If
after end point even a small amount of base/acid is added the
solution would become slightly alkaline or acidic respectively. In
the titration between oxalic acid (weak acid) and sodium hydroxide
(strong base), following reaction takes place:
...(4)
69
Material Required
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
One
One
One
One
One
One
One
Oxalic acid
: As per need
Sodium hydroxide
solution
: As per need
Phenolphthalein
indicator
: As per need
Procedure
Oxalic acid
Sodium Hydroxide
70
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Note : Adjust the flow of liquid by the thumb and two
fingers held around the stop cock with a slight
inward pressure on the plug to prevent leakage.
Swirl the liquid during the titration.
(viii) Read the lower meniscus of the solution in the burette again
and record it as final reading.
(ix) Repeat the procedure until three concordant readings are
obtained. Record your readings as in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 : Titration of sodium hydroxide vs oxalic acid solution
Sl. No.
Volume of oxalic
acid solution
taken in conical
flask each time
V1mL
Burette readings
Initial
reading
(x)
Final
reading
(y)
Volume of sodium
hydroxide solution
used
V2 mL = (yx) mL
Concordant
reading in
mL
71
Calculations
Molarity of NaOH solution can be calculated by using the equation:
Oxalic acid Sodium hydroxide
a1 M1V1
a2 M2V2
Result
Concentration of NaOH solution is g/L.
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
72
Always rinse the burette with the solution, which is to be taken in it.
Remove the air gap if any, from the burette before titrating the solution. Make
sure that the nozzle of burette is also filled.
Never forget to remove the funnel from the burette before noting the readings of
the burette and ensure that no drop is hanging from the nozzle of the burette.
Always read the lower meniscus for all transparent solutions and upper meniscus
for coloured solutions.
To note the burette readings place the eye exactly at the level of the meniscus.
Never hold the pipette at the bulb.
Never use the pipette and burette with a broken nozzle.
Never suck a strong acid or an alkali with the pipette.
Always keep the lower end of the pipette dipped in the liquid while sucking the
liquid.
Do not blow out the last drop of the solution from the jet end of the pipette into
the flask.
The concentration (strength) of the solution must be calculated up to the fourth
place of decimal.
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Discussion Questions
(i) Why are the burette and the pipette rinsed with the solution with which these are filled?
(ii) What is an indicator? Which indicator is used in the titration of oxalic acid vs sodium
hydroxide? Can the titration be performed by using some other indicator?
(iii) Why should one read the lower meniscus in the case of colourless and transparent solutions
and the upper meniscus for solutions of dark colour?
(iv) Explain the term end point?
(v) What do you mean by 1.0 M solution?
(vi) Why should the last drop of the solution not be blown out of a pipette?
(vii) Explain the term basicity of an acid and acidity of a base?
(viii) For titrating NaOH vs HCl, phenolphthalein and methyl orange, both are suitable indicators.
Why?
(ix) What is meant by the term , concordant readings?
(x) Can one take oxalic acid solution in the burette and sodium hydroxide solution in the
titration flask? Point out the limitations of doing so if any.
KNOW
THIS ALSO
The complete neutralisation is possible only when the amount of alkali is in equivalent
proportion to the amount of acid. Therefore, at the end point equivalent mass of acid dissolved
in volume V1 of solvent should be equal to the equivalent mass of the base dissolved in
Volume V2 of solvent. If N1 and N2 are equivalent masses of acid and base respectively dissolved
(i)
in per litre of solution then N1V1 = N2V2
Equivalent mass of acids and bases is given by the following expression:
Equivalent mass of acid =
molar mass
(ii)
basicity
molar mass
acidity
... (iii)
The number of gram equivalent mass of solute dissolved in one litre of the solution is
called the normality of the solution. For acids and bases
Normality (N)=
w
N V
... (v)
73
Equivalent mass =
Molar mass
a
From equations (v) and (vi) we can write
w
N
Or
But
(vi)
Molar mass
V
a (w/Molar mass )
V
w/Molar mass
Therefore, N = a M
(vii)
Equation (vii) is the expression for the relationship between normality and molarity.
.... (viii)
By using equation (vii) in equation (i) we have a1M1V1 = a2M2V2
Where a1 and a2 are basicity and acidity of acid and base respectively and M1 and M2 are
the molar masses of acid and base respectively. Thus we see that equation (i) can also be
used to calculate the strength of the solution. Equation (viii) can be used for making the
solution by dilution. For solutions of the same substance a1 = a2. Therefore for using equation
(viii) for dilution of solution
...(ix)
M1V1 = M2V2
Therefore, to obtain V2 volume of a solution of molarity M2 from a solution of molarity M1,
the volume V1 of the solution of molarity M1 which is required for dilution, can be calculated
from equation (ix). (V2V1) volume of solvent will be required to be added to V1 volume of the
solution of molarity M1.
EXPERIMENT 6.2
Aim
Preparation of 0.1 M standard solution of sodium carbonate.
Theory
Sodium carbonate has characteristics nearer to the primary
standards therefore its standard solution can be made by direct
weighing.
To prepare 0.1 M Na2CO3 solution, 10.6000g of sodium
carbonate should be dissolved per litre of the solution (Molar mass
1
of sodium carbonate is 106 g mol ).
Therefore, to prepare 100 mL of 0.1M Na2CO3 solution 1.0600 g
of sodium carbonate is dissolved in minimum quantity of water
and the solution is diluted to exactly 100 mL by adding water to it.
74
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Material Required
One
One
One
One
Sodium carbonate
: As per need
Procedure
Follow the same procedure as in Experiment 2.1.
EXPERIMENT 6.3
Aim
Determination of the strength of a given solution of dilute
hydrochloric acid by titrating it against a standard solution of sodium
carbonate.
Theory
The strength of hydrochloric acid is determined by titrating it against
a standard solution of sodium carbonate. The following reaction
takes place:
Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2 NaCl + CO2 + H2O
In this titration, methyl orange, a weak base (yellow in the
unionised form) is used as an indicator.
In this experiment also, the titration follows the usual course,
i.e., the proton furnished by the addition of the acid first neutralises
sodium carbonate solution. When the entire sodium carbonate
solution is neutralised, the last drop of the acid added from the burette
produces the pinkish red colour change, which is the end point.
The concentration (strength) of the unknown solution is
calculated in g/L. It is calculated from the molarity of the solution.
Here, the molarity equation is written as
Base
Acid
a1M1V1 = a2M2V2
where, a1 and a2 are the acidity and basicity of the alkali and the
acid respectively. M1 and M2 are the molarities, V1 and V2 are the
volumes of the base and acid respectively used to neutralise each
other.
75
Material Required
One
One
One
One
One
One
One
Hydrochloric acid
Sodium carbonate
Methyl orange solution
: As per need
: As per need
: As per need
Procedure
(A)
Hydrochloric acid
(B)
Sl. No.
76
Volume V1 of
Na2CO3 solution
taken in the
conical flask
each time in mL
Burette readings
Initial
reading
(x)
Final
reading
(y)
Volume of HCl
solution used
V2 mL = (yx) mL
Concordant
reading
in mL
TITRIMETRIC ANALYSIS
Calculations
Calculate the strength of HCl solution by using the equation
HCl solution
Na2CO3 solution
=
a2M2V2
a1M1V1
where M 1 and V1 are the molarity and volume of sodium carbonate solution
a1 = 2
a2 is the number of moles of H (aq) ions supplied by one mole of the acid
(i.e. the basicity of HCl).
a2 = 1
1
Molar mass of Na2CO3 = 106 g mol , Molar mass of HCl = 36.5 g mol ,
Concentration (Strength) of HCl solution in g/L = Molarity Molar mass
Result
The concentration (strength) of the given HCl solution is _______g/L.
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
77
KNOW
THIS ALSO
Discussion Questions
(i) Which indicator is used in the titration of sodium carbonate against hydrochloric acid and
what is the colour change at the end point?
(ii) How will you prepare 250 mL of 0.05 M solution of sodium carbonate?
(iii) Though sodium carbonate is a salt yet its aqueous solution is weakly alkaline in nature.
Explain why?
(iv) How can you determine the acidity of sodium carbonate solution?
(v) Why is methyl orange not an Arrhenius base?
(vi) How can you titrate a solution of the mixture of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 against HCl?
(vii) What is the difference between an end point and an equivalence point?
(viii) Can you directly prepare standard solution of HCl, HNO3 and H2SO4 ?
78
UNIT-7
SYSTEMATIC QUALITATIVE
ANALYSIS
2
NaCl, Cu and Na+ ions are cations and SO4 and Cl ions are anions. Qualitative
analysis is carried out on various scales. Amount of substance employed in
these is different. In macro analysis, 0.1 to 0.5 g of substance and about 20 mL
of solution is used. For semimicro analysis, 0.05 g substance and 1 mL solution
is needed while for micro analysis amount required is very small. Qualitative
analysis is carried out through the reactions which are easily perceptible to our
senses such as sight and smell. Such reactions involve:
NALYSIS
EXPERIMENT 7.1
Aim
To detect one cation and one anion in the given salt from the following ions:
2+
2+
3+
3+
3+
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
Cations - Pb , Cu , As , Al , Fe , Mn , Ni , Zn , Co , Ca , Sr , Ba ,
+
2+
Mg , NH 4
2
SO 4 , NO2 , NO3 , Cl , Br , I , PO 4 , C2 O 4 ,
CH3COO .
(Insoluble salts to be excluded)
Theory
Two basic principles of great use in the analysis are:
(i) the Solubility product and
(ii) the Common ion effect
When ionic product of a salt exceeds its solubility product, precipitation takes
place. Ionic product of salt is controlled by making use of common ion effect
which you have studied in the textbook of chemistry.
Material Required
80
Boiling tube
Test tubes
Measuring cylinder
Test tube stand
Test tube holder
Delivery tube
Corks
Filter paper
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
As per need
As per requirement
One
One
One
One
As per need
As per need
Reagents
As per need
Procedure
(a)
Observations
Gas evolved
A colourless, odourless gas is evolved
with brisk effervescence, which turns
lime water milky.
CO2
H2S
SO2
NO2
CH3COOH vapours
Possible Anion
Carbonate ( CO3 )
Sulphide (S )
Sulphite ( SO 3 )
Nitrite ( NO 2 )
Acetate, (CH3COO )
81
2-
Confirmatory (wet) tests for anions are performed by using water extract when
salt is soluble in water and by using sodium carbonate extract when salt is
2
insoluble in water. Confirmation of CO3 is done by using aqueous solution of
the salt or by using solid salt as such because sodium carbonate extract contains
carbonate ions. Water extract is made by dissolving salt in water. Preparation of
sodium carbonate extract is given below.
Anion
2
Carbonate ( CO3 )
Sulphide (S )
*Sulphite ( SO3 )
(a)
(b)
Nitrite ( NO 2 )
(a)
(b)
Like CO2 sulphur dioxide also turns lime water milky. But CO2 is odourless gas and SO2 has a
characteristic smell.
82
(a)
Acetate (CH3COO )
(b)
**
Prepareation of neutral Ferric Chloride : Add dilute NaOH solution to ferric chloride solution drop by drop with
shaking until a small but permanent precipitate of ferric hydroxide is obtained. Filter the precipitate and use
the filtrate for analysis.
Hydrogen
sulphide
(b)
With warm dilute H2SO4 a sulphide gives hydrogen sulphide gas which
smells like rotten eggs. A piece of filter paper dipped in lead acetate
solution turns black on exposure to the gas due to the formation of
lead sulphide which is black in colour.
Na2S + H2SO4
Na2SO4 + H2S
(CH3COO)2Pb + H2S
PbS
+
Lead sulphide
Black precipitate
2CH3COOH
If the salt is soluble in water, take the solution of salt in water make it
alkaline with ammonium hydroxide and add sodium nitroprusside
solution. If it is insoluble in water take sodium carbonate extract and
add a few drops of sodium nitroprusside solution. Purple or violet
83
On treating sulphite with warm dil. H2SO4, SO2 gas is evolved which is
suffocating with the smell of burning sulphur.
Na2SO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
The gas turns potassium dichromate paper acidified with dil. H2SO4, green.
Barium
compounds
Potassium
permanganate
(b)
K2SO4
(i)
(ii)
On treating a solid nitrite with dil. H2SO4 and warming , reddish brown
fumes of NO2 gas are evolved. Addition of potassium iodide solution to
the salt solution followed by freshly prepared starch solution and
acidification with acetic acid produces blue colour. Alternatively, a filter
paper moistened with potassium iodide and starch solution and a few
drops of acetic acid turns blue on exposure to the gas due to the
interaction of liberated iodine with starch.
(i)
84
(ii)
If the salt smells like vinegar on treatment with dil. H2SO4, this indicates
the presence of acetate ions. Take 0.1 g of salt in a china dish and add
1 mL of ethanol. Then add about 0.2 mL of conc. H2SO4 and heat. Fruity
85
(b)
Acetate gives deep red colour on reaction with neutral ferric chloride
solution due to the formation of complex ion which decomposes on
heating to give Iron (III) dihydroxyacetate as brown red precipitate.
3+
Gas/vapours evolved
Possible anions
HCl
Chloride, (Cl )
Br2 vapours
Bromide, (Br )
I2 vapours
Iodide, (I )
NO2
Nitrate, ( NO 3 )
CO and CO2
Oxalate, ( C2 O 4 )
86
Confirmatory tests for the anions which react with concentrated sulphuric
acid are given in Table 7.4.
Anion
Chloride (Cl )
(a)
(b)
(c)
Bromide (Br )
(a)
(b)
(c )
Iodide ( I )
(a)
(b)
87
*Nitrate ( NO 3 )
Oxalate ( C2 O 4 )
(b)
Manganese
dioxide
Silver nitrate
(b)
(c)
If on treatment with warm conc. H2SO4 the salt gives a colourless gas
with pungent smell or and if the gas which gives dense white fumes
with ammonia solution, then the salt may contain Cl ions and the
following reaction occurs.
NaCl + H2SO4
NaHSO4
+
HCl
Sodium
Hydrogen chloride
hydrogen sulphate Colourless gas
HCl + NH3
NH4Cl
Ammonium chloride
White fumes
If a salt gives effervescence on heating with conc. H2SO4 and MnO2 and
a light greenish yellow pungent gas is evolved, this indicates the presence
of Cl ions.
MnO2 + 2NaCl + 2H2SO4 Na2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O + Cl2
Salt solution acidified with dilute HNO3 on addition of silver nitrate
solution gives a curdy white precipitate soluble in ammonium hydroxide
AgCl + 2NH4OH
NaNO3
Ag Cl
Silver chloride
(White precipitate)
[Ag(NH3)2 ]Cl
Diammine silver (I)
chloride
+ 2H2O
* This test can also be performed by adding first ferrous sulphate solution and then conc. H2SO4 .
88
(d)
Chromyl
chloride
Lead
chromate
PbCrO4
+ 2CH3COONa
Lead chromate
(Yellow precipitate)
Acidify the second part with dilute sulphuric acid and add small amounts of
amyl alcohol and then 1 mL of 10% hydrogen peroxide solution. On gentle shaking
2
organic layer turns blue. CrO4 ion formed in the reaction of chromyl chloride
with sodium hydroxide reacts with hydrogen peroxide to form chromium pentoxide
(CrO5) (See structure) which dissolves in amyl alcohol to give blue colour.
2
CrO4 + 2H + 2H2O2
Cr O5
+ 3H2O
Chromium
pentoxide
evolved in excess, this indicates the presence of Br ions. The fumes get intensified
on addition of MnO2. Bromine vapours turn starch paper yellow.
2NaBr + 2H2SO4 Br2 + SO2 + Na2SO4 + 2H2O
2NaBr + MnO2 + 2H2SO4 Na2SO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O + Br2
(a)
Bromine
very toxic by
inhalation
corrosive
*
**
3+
Chromyl chloride test should be performed with minimum amount of substance to avoid pollution by Cr ions.
In place of carbon tetrachloride or chloroform, carbon disulphide or dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) can also be used.
89
(b)
Acidify the sodium carbonate extract of the salt with dil. HNO3. Add
silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution and shake the test tube. A pale yellow
precipitate is obtained which dissolves in ammonium hydroxide with
difficulty.
NaBr + AgNO3
NaNO3
+ AgBr
Silver bromide
Pale yellow precipitate
Iodine,
harmful by
inhalation
and contact
with skin
If on heating the salt with conc. H2SO4 , deep violet vapours with a
pungent smell are evolved. These turns starch paper blue and a violet
sublimate is formed on the sides of the test tube, it indicates the presence
Chlorine,
toxic by
inhalation
Chloroform,
harmful and
toxic by
inhalation
(c)
Acidify sodium carbonate extract of the salt with dil.HNO3 and add
AgNO3 solution. Appearance of a yellow precipitate insoluble in excess
of NH4OH confirms the presence of iodide ions.
NaI + AgNO3
AgI
+
silver iodide
(Yellow precipitate)
90
NaNO3
If on heating the salt with conc. H2SO4 light brown fumes are evolved
then heat a small quantity of the given salt with few copper turnings or
chips and conc. H2SO4. Evolution of excess of brown fumes indicates
the presence of nitrate ions. The solution turns blue due to the formation
of copper sulphate.
NaNO3 + H2SO4
NaHSO4 + HNO3
Copper
sulphate
Nitric
acid
2NO + O2
2NO2
(Brown fumes)
(b)
Oxalates
91
Acidify sodium carbonate extract with acetic acid and add calcium chloride
solution. A white precipitate of calcium oxalate, insoluble in ammonium
oxalate and oxalic acid solution indicates the presence of oxalate ion.
CaCl2 + Na2C2O4
CaC2O4
+ 2NaCl
Calcium oxalate
(White precipitate)
(b)
KMnO4 test
Filter the precipitate from test (a). Add dil. H2SO4 to it followed by dilute
KMnO4 solution and warm. Pink colour of KMnO4 is discharged:
CaC2O4 + H2SO4
CaSO4
+ H2C2O4
Calcium sulphate
Oxalic acid
Ion
2
Sulphate ( SO 4 )
(a)
(b)
of SO 4 ion.
3
Phosphate ( PO4 )
92
(a)
(b)
2NaCl
PbSO4
+ 2CH3COONa
Lead sulphate
(White precipitate)
Add conc. HNO3 and ammonium molybdate solution to the test solution
containing phosphate ions and boil. A yellow colouration in solution
or a canary yellow precipitate of ammonium-phosphomolybdate,
(NH4)3[P (Mo3O10)4] is formed. Each oxygen of phosphate has been
replaced by Mo3O10 group.
93
Cations Indicated
Fe2+, Fe3+
Cu2+
Ni2+
Co2+
Mn2+
Take about 0.1 g of the dry salt in a clean and dry test tube.
Heat the above test tube for about one minute and observe the colour of
the residue when it is hot and also when it becomes cold. Observation of
changes gives indications about the presence of cations, which may not be
taken as conclusive evidence (see Table 7.7).
Table 7.7 : Inferences from the colour of the salt in cold and on heating
Colour when cold
Inference
Blue
White
Cu2+
Green
Fe2+
White
Yellow
Zn2+
Pink
Blue
Co2+
3. Flame Test
The chlorides of several metals impart characteristic colour to the flame because
they are volatile in non-luminous flame. This test is performed with the help of a
platinum wire as follows :
(i) Make a tiny loop at one end of a platinum wire.
(ii) To clean the loop dip it into concentrated hydrochloric acid and hold it in a
non-luminous flame (Fig. 7.3).
(iii) Repeat step (ii) until the wire imparts no colour to the flame.
(iv) Put 2-3 drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid on a clean watch glass
and make a paste of a small quantity of the salt in it.
(v) Dip the clean loop of the platinum wire in this paste and introduce the loop
in the non-luminous (oxidising) flame (Fig. 7.3).
(vi) Observe the colour of the flame first with the naked eye and then through
a blue glass and identify the metal ion with the help of Table 7.8.
94
Inference
Cu2+
Crimson red
Purple
Sr2+
Apple green
Bluish green
Ba2+
Brick red
Green
Ca2+
95
2NaBO2
+
B 2 O3
Sodium metaborate Boric anhydride
On treatment with metal salt, boric anhydride forms metaborate of the metal
which gives different colours in oxidising and reducing flame. For example, in
the case of copper sulphate, following reactions occur.
CuSO4 + B2O3
Non-luminous flame
Cu(BO2)2 +
Cupric metaborate
Blue-green
SO3
2Cu(BO2 )2 + 2NaBO2 + C
2CuBO 2 + Na 2 B4 O7 + CO
or (ii) Cupric metaborate may be reduced to metallic copper and the bead appears
red and opaque.
2Cu(BO2 )2 + 4NaBO2 + 2C
Luminous flame
The preliminary identification of metal ion can be made from Table 7.9.
96
Heating in reducing
(luminous) flame
Colour of the salt bead
Inference
In cold
In hot
In cold
In hot
Blue
Green
Red opaque
Colourless
Cu2+
Reddish brown
Violet
Grey
Grey
Ni2+
Light violet
Light violet
Colourless
Colourless
Mn2+
Yellow
Yellowish brown
Green
Green
Fe3+
(b)
(a)
Fig. 7.6 : (a) Making charcoal cavity (b) Heating salt in the cavity
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Moisten the salt in the cavity with one or two drops of water, otherwise
salt/mixture will blow away.
Use a blowpipe to heat the salt in a luminous (reducing) flame and
observe the colour of oxide/ metallic bead formed in the cavity both
when hot and cold [ Fig. (7.6 b)]. Obtain oxidising and reducing flame as
shown in Fig. 7.7 a and b.
Always bore a fresh cavity for testing the new salt.
(a)
Fig. 7.7 : Obtaining oxidising and reducing flame (a) Oxidising flame (b) Reducing flame
97
CuCO3
CuO + C
Heat
CuCO3 + Na 2 SO4
CuO + CO2
Heat
Cu
+ CO
Red colour
In case of ZnSO4 :
ZnSO4 + Na 2 CO3
ZnCO3
Heat
Heat
ZnCO3 + Na 2 SO4
ZnO
CO2
Inference
Pb2+
As3+
Brown residue
Cd2+
Zn2+
Heat
2CoO + 4NO2 + O2
98
Group Analysis
(I) Analysis of Zero group cation (NH4+ ion)
(a)
(b)
Take 0.1 g of salt in a test tube and add 1-2 mL of NaOH solution to
it and heat. If there is a smell of ammonia, this indicates the presence
of ammonium ions. Bring a glass rod dipped in hydrochloric acid
near the mouth of the test tube. White fumes are observed.
Pass the gas through Nesslers reagent. Brown precipitate is obtained.
+
99
Mercury
Salts
HgO.Hg(NH2)I
+
Basic mercury (II)
amido-iodine
(Brown precipitate)
7KI + 2H2O
For the analysis of cations belonging to groups I-VI, the cations are precipitated
from the original solution by using the group reagents (see Table 7.11) according to
the scheme shown in the flow chart given below:
The separation of all the six groups is represented as below:
Flow Chart*
Original Solution
Dil.HCl
If no precipitate is formed
Precipitate, Group I
2+
(Pb ) as chloride
Precipitate, Group II
(Pb2+, Cu2+, As3+)
as sulphides
If no precipitate
Precipitate, Group IV
Pass H2S
Precipitate, Group V
(Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+)
as carbonates
100
Mg 2+
Cations*
Group zero
NH4
Group Reagent
None
2+
Group-I
Dilute HCl
Pb
2+
2+
3+
Pb , Cu , As
Group-II
3+
3+
Group-III
Al , Fe
Group-IV
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
2+
Co , Ni , Mn , Zn
Group-V
Ba , Sr , Ca
Group-VI
Mg
2+
None
Observation
2.
3.
2+
ions
Lead is precipitated as lead chloride in the first group. The precipitate is soluble
in hot water.
1. On adding potassium iodide (KI) solution, a yellow precipitate of lead
2+
iodide is obtained which confirms the presence of Pb ions.
PbCl2
+
(Hot solution)
2KI
PbI2
+ 2KCl
Yellow precipitate
* Here only those cations are given which are in the syllabus.
101
2.
Na2[Pb(OH)4]
Na2CrO4
Sodium tetra
hydroxoplumbate (II)
3.
Hydrogen
sulphide
102
2+
2+
If no precipitate is
formed, add excess of
ammonium hydroxide
solution. A blue solution
is obtained, acidify it
with acetic acid and add
potassium ferrocyanide
solution. A chocolate
brown precipitate is
formed.
103
+ 2OH + SO 4
Tetraamminecopper (II)
sulphate (Deep blue)
(b)
The blue solution on acidification with acetic acid and then adding
potassium ferrocyanide [K4Fe(CN)6 ] solution gives a chocolate colouration
due to the formation of copper ferrocyanide i.e.Cu2[Fe(CN)6].
[Cu(NH3)4] SO4 + 4CH3COOH CuSO4 + 4CH3COONH4
2CuSO4 + K4[Fe(CN)6]
Potassium
hexacyanoferrate (II)
Cu2[Fe(CN)6]
+ 2K2SO4
Copper
hexacyanoferrate (II)
(Chocolate brown precipitate)
+ 3 (NH4)2S2
2 (NH4)3As S4 + S
Yellow ammonium
sulphide
104
H3AsO4
Arsenic acid
+ 12(NH4)2 MoO4
Ammonium
molybdate
Brown precipitate
3+
Fe
Dissolve the precipitate in dilute HCl
and divide the solution into two parts.
(a) To the first part add potassium
ferrocyanide solution [Potasium
hexacyanoferrate (II)]. A blue
precipitate/colouration appears.
(b) To the second part add potassium
thiocyanate solution. A blood red
colouration appears.
105
In the second test when blue litmus is added to the solution, a red
colouration is obtained due to the acidic nature of the solution. On addition
of NH4OH solution drop by drop the solution becomes alkaline and
aluminium hydroxide is precipitated. Aluminium hydroxide adsorbs blue
colour from the solution and forms insoluble adsorption complex named
lake. Thus a blue mass floating in the colourless solution is obtained. The
test is therefore called lake test.
3+
(b)
KFe[Fe(CN)6]
+ 3KCl
(Soluble prussian blue)
2+
Fe + SCN [Fe(SCN)]
Blood red colour
(V) Analysis of group-IV cations
If group-III is absent, pass H2S gas in the solution of group-III for a few
minutes. If a precipitate appears (white, black or flesh coloured), this indicates
106
(b) Neutralise
the
second part with
a m m o n i u m
hydroxide solution
and add potassium
ferrocyanide
solution. A bluish
white precipitate
appears.
Black precipitate
2+
2+
(Ni , Co )
Dissolve the precipitate in
aqua regia. Heat the
solution to dryness and
cool. Dissolve the residue
in water and divide the
solution into two parts.
(a) To the first part of the
solution add ammonium
hydroxide solution till it
becomes alkaline. Add
a few drops of dimethyl
glyoxime and shake the
test tube. Formation of
a bright red precipitate
confirms the presence
2+
of Ni ions.
(b) Neutralise the second
part with ammonium
hydroxide solution.
Acidify it with dilute
acetic acid and add
solid potassium nitrite.
A yellow precipitate
confirms the presence
2+
of Co ions.
107
(a)
(b)
Na2ZnO2 +
Sodium zincate
2H2O
MnO(OH)2
Hydrated manganese dioxide
(Brown colour)
2+
108
109
(b)
BaCrO4
+ 2CH3COOK
Barium chromate
(yellow precipitate )
Flame test Take a platinum wire and dip it in conc. HCl. Heat it strongly
until the wire does not impart any colour to the non-luminous flame.
Now dip the wire in the paste of the (GroupV) precipitate in conc. HCl.
Heat it in the flame. A grassy green colour of the flame confirms the
presence of Ba2+ ions.
2+
SrSO4
+ 2CH3COONH4
Strontium
sulphate
(White precipitate)
(b)
2+
Flame test Perform the flame test as given in the case of Ba . A crimson
2+
red flame confirms the presence of Sr ions.
2+
Solution of the fifth group precipitate in acetic acid gives a white precipitate
with ammonium oxalate solution.
CaCO3 + 2CH3COOH (CH3COO)2 Ca + H2O + CO2
(CH3COO)2Ca + (NH4)2C2O4 (COO)2Ca
+ 2CH3COONH4
Ammonium
Calcium oxalate
oxalate
(White precipitate)
(b)
110
Flame test Perform the flame test as mentioned above. Calcium imparts
brick red colour to the flame which looks greenish-yellow through blue glass.
If groupV is absent then perform the test for Mg ions as given below.
Chemistry of Confirmatory Tests of GroupVI cations
2+
2-
ZZZX
NH4 + CO 3 YZZ
Z NH3 + HCO 3
The concentration of carbonate ions required to produce a precipitate is
not attained. When disodium hydrogenphosphate solution is added and
the inner walls of the test tube are scratched with a glass rod, a white
crystalline precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate is formed which
2+
indicates the presence of Mg ions.
2+
Note :
Some times
precipitate of
magnesium
ammonium
phosphate
appears
after some
time.
So
warm the
solution and
scrach the
sides of test
tube after
a d d i n g
s o d i u m
hydrogen
phosphate
solution.
Precautions
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
111
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
Discussion Questions
(i) What is the difference between a qualitative and a quantitative analysis?
(ii) Can we use glass rod instead of platinum wire for performing the flame test? Explain
your answer.
(iii) Why is platinum metal preferred to other metals for the flame test?
(iv) Name the anions detected with the help of dilute H2SO4?
(v) Why is dilute H2SO4 preferred over dilute HCl while testing anions?
(vi) Name the anions detected by conc. H2SO4.
(vii) How is sodium carbonate extract prepared ?
(viii) What is lime water and what happens on passing carbon dioxide gas through it?
(ix) Carbon dioxide gas and sulphur dioxide gas both turn lime water milky. How will you
distinguish between the two?
(x) How will you test the presence of carbonate ion?
(xi) What is the composition of dark brown ring which is formed at the junction of two layers
in the ring test for nitrates?
(xii) Name the radical confirmed by sodium nitroprusside test.
(xiii) What is chromyl chloride test ? How do you justify that CrO2Cl2 is acidic in nature?
(xiv) Why do bromides and iodides not give tests similar to chromyl chloride test?
(xv) Describe the layer test for bromide and iodide ions.
112
How can one prevent the precipitation of GroupIV radicals, with the second group
radicals?
(xxiii)
Why is it essential to boil off H2S gas before precipitation of radicals of groupIII?
(xxiv)
Why is heating with conc. nitric acid done before precipitation of groupIII?
(xxv)
(xxvi)
Why is NH4OH added before (NH4)2CO3 solution while precipitating groupV cations?
(xxvii)
Why do we sometimes get a white precipitate in groupVI even if the salt does not
2+
contain Mg radical?
(xxviii)
(xxix)
(xxx)
(xxxi)
Why are the groupV radicals tested in the order Ba2+, Sr2+ and Ca2+ ?
(xxxii)
(xxxiii)
(xxxiv)
Why is the reagent bottle containing sodium hydroxide solution never stoppered?
(xxxv)
(xxxvi)
113
SPECIMEN RECORD
OF
SALT ANALYSIS
Aim
To analyse the given salt for one anion and one cation present in it.
Material required
Boiling tubes, test tubes, test tube holder, test tube stand, delivery tube, corks,
filter papers, reagents
Sl. No.
Experiment
Observation
Inference
2+
2+
2+
2+
1.
White
Cu , Fe , Ni ,Co ,
2+
Mn are absent.
2.
No specific smell.
S , SO3 , CH3COO
may be absent.
3.
(i) CO 3
may
be
Br
may
be
absent.
2+
(ii) Zn
may
be
absent.
4.
5.
6.
No effervescence and
evolution of vapours.
CO 3 , SO 3 , S , NO 2 ,
7.
No gas evolved.
Cl , Br , I , NO3 , C2O4
are absent.
8.
No yellow precipitate
PO4 absent.
114
(ii) No
particular
change in colour of
the residue is
observed
when
heated and when
cooled.
2+
2+
2+
Ca , Sr , Ba
may be absent.
Cu
2+
CH3COO absent.
9.
SO4
10.
NH4 absent.
11.
12.
No white precipitate
formed.
GroupI absent.
13.
No precipitate formed.
GroupII absent.
14.
No precipitate formed.
GroupIII absent.
15.
No precipitate formed.
GroupIV absent.
16.
No precipitate formed.
GroupV absent.
17.
White precipitate.
Mg
present.
2+
confirmed.
Result
The given salt contains:
Anion
: SO4
Cation : Mg
2+
115
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
ARRANGEMENT OF REAGENTS IN THE LABORATORY
Laboratory assistants must see that the reagent bottles on each shelf are properly arranged, labelled and
contain sufficient quantity of the freshly prepared reagents.
1. Reagents to be placed on the shelf of each seat
Reagents kept in narrow-mouthed stoppered bottles
1. Ammonium carbonate
2. Ammonium hydroxide
3. Hydrochloric acid (dil.)
4. Hydrochloric acid (conc.)
5.
6.
7.
8.
Lime water
Nitric acid (dil.)
Sulphuric acid (dil.)
Sulphuric acid (conc.)
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Lead acetate
Magnesium sulphate
Mercuric chloride
Methyl orange
Nesslers reagent
Phenolphthalein
Potassium chromate
Potassium dichromate
Potassium ferricyanide
Potassium ferrocyanide
Potassium iodide
Potassium permanganate
Rectified spirit
Silver nitrate
Sodium hydrogenphosphate
Sodium nitroprusside
Stannous chloride
Starch solution
Universal indicator
Solids
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ammonium chloride
Borax
Ferrous sulphate
Fusion mixture
Manganese dioxide
Oxalic acid
Potassium chromate
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Potassium dichromate
Sodium carbonate
Sodium hydrogencarbonate
Sodium hydroxide
Sodium nitrate
Sodium nitroprusside
Sodium peroxide
(b) Metals
1.
2.
Copper
Tin
3. Zinc granules
4. Zinc powder
(c) Papers
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
129
APPENDIX II
LIST OF CHEMICALS AND APPARATUS FOR CHEMISTRY LABORATORY
Grade*
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Alum (potash)
Aluminium chloride
Aluminium sulphate
Ammonium acetate
Ammonium carbonate
Ammonium ceric nitrate
Ammonium chloride
Ammonium molybdate
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium oxalate
Ammonium phosphate
Ammonium sulphate
Ammonium thiocyanate
Arsenious oxide
Barium chloride
Barium nitrate
Bismuth nitrate
Boric acid
Bromine (liquid)
Cadmium carbonate
Cadmium chloride
Cadmium nitrate
Calcium carbonate
Calcium chloride
Calcium hydoxide
Calcium hydrogenphosphate
anhydrous
Calcium nitrate
Calcium oxide
Chlorine water
Cobalt nitrate
Copper carbonate
Copper sulphate
Copper turnings
Cupric acetate
Cupric nitrate
Disodium tetraborate
Ferric alum
Ferric chloride
Ferrous ammonium sulphate
Ferrous sulphate
Ferrous sulphide
Hydrochloric acid (conc.)
Hydrogen peroxide
Iodine
Iron filings
Lead acetate
Lead chloride
Lead nitrate
Liquor ammonia
Litmus solution
Magnesium bromide
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium chloride
Magnesium ribbon
Magnesium sulphate
Manganese dioxide
Manganese sulphate
Marble chips
* L. R. = Laboratory reagent
A. R. = Analytical reagent
130
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
Mercuric chloride
Methyl orange
Methyl red
Nickel (II) nitrate
Nitric acid (conc.)
pH paper and chart
Potash alumns
Potassium bromide
Potassium chromate
Potassium dichromate
Potassium ferricyanide
Potassium ferrocyanide
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium iodate
Potassium iodide
Potassium nitrate
Potassium nitrite
Potassium permanganate
Potassium sulphate
Potassium thiocyanate
Schiffs reagent (or Fuchsin)
Silver nitrate
Sodium acctate
Sodium bromide
Sodium carbonate
Sodium chloride
Sodium dihydrogenorthophosphate
Sodium dihydrogenphosphate
Sodium hydrogencarbonate
Sodium hydroxide (flakes)
Sodium metabisulphite
Sodium metal
Sodium nitrate
Sodium nitrite
Sodium nitroprusside
Sodium oxalate
Sodium peroxide
Sodium potassium tartarate
(Rochelles salt)
Sodium sulphate
Sodium tartarate
Sodium thiosulphate
Stannous chloride
Starch (soluble)
Sulphanilic acid
Sulphur
Sulphuric acid, (commercial)
Tin metal
Universal indicator solution/paper
Uranyl zinc acetate
Zinc acetate
Zinc carbonate
Zinc chloride
Zinc metal (granulated)
Zinc oxide
Zinc sulphate
Grade
L.R.
A.R.
A.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
APPENDIX II
Sl. No. Organic Chemicals
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
Acetaldehyde
Acetanilide
Acetic acid (ethanoic acid)
Acetic anhydride
Acetone
Acetyl chloride
Amyl alcohol
Aniline
Benedicts reagent
Benzene
Benzoic acid
Benzyl alcohol
Benzyaldehyde
Butanol
Carbon disulphide
Carbon tetrachloride
Castor oil
Chloroform
Citric acid
Congo red (direct azo dye)
Diazoaminobenzene
p-dichlorobenzene
Diethyl ether
Dimethyl glyoxime
2, 4-Dinitro phenyl hydrazine
Diphenylamine
Eriochram Black-T
Ethyl acetate
Ethyl alcohol
Ethylamine
Ethylene diamine tetraacetic
acid disodium salt
Fehlings solutions (A & B)
Formaldehyde
Grade
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
AR.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
A.R.
L.R.
L.R.
Formic acid
Fructose
Glucose
Glycerol
Lactose
Linseed oil
Liquid paraffin
Malachite green (basic dye)
Maltose
Machine oil
Methyl alcohol
Methyl orange (acidic dye)
Mustard oil
Naphthalene
1-Naphthylamine
1-Naphthol
2-Naphthol
Ninhydrin
Oxalic acid
Petroleum ether (6080)
Phenol
Phenolphthalein
Phenyl hydrazine hydrochloride
Phthalic acid
Phthalic anhydride
Pyridine
Pyrogallol
Resorcinol
Salicylic acid
Succinic acid
Sucrose
Thiourea
p-Toluidine
Urea
18.
2.
19.
3.
20.
4.
21.
6.
22.
7.
Boiling tubes
23.
8.
24.
9.
25.
10.
26.
11.
12.
27.
13.
Funnel (8 cm diameter)
28.
14.
Glass droppers
15.
17.
Liebigs condenser
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
L.R.
1.
16.
Grade
29.
30.
Thieles tube
31.
32.
131
Miscellaneous Articles
Sl. No. Item Description
132
1.
Agar agar
34.
2.
35.
Porcelain dish
3.
Beehive shelf
36.
4.
Blow pipe
37.
5.
Blue glass
38.
6.
Bunsen burner
39.
7.
Burette brush
40.
Ring clamp
8.
41.
9.
Calorimeter
42.
Rubber tubing
43.
Sand paper
44.
Sand bath
45.
Spatula (plastic)
46.
Spirit
47.
Spirit lamp
48.
Stop watch
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
Thistle funnel
55.
Triangular file
10.
Capillary tube
11.
Charcoal black
12.
Chemical balance
13.
Clamp
14.
Connecting wires
15.
Copper plate
16.
Cork
17.
18.
Cork opener
19.
20.
21.
Fractional weights
22.
Funnel stand
23.
24.
Glass rod
56.
25.
Glass tube
57.
Trough
26.
Glass wool
58.
Wash bottle
27.
59.
Water bath
28.
Ignition tube
60.
29.
Iron stand
61.
Wax (paraffin)
30.
62.
31.
63.
32.
Pair of tongs
64.
Woulf bottle
33.
Platinum wire
65.
Zinc plate
APPENDIX III
PREPARATION OF COMMON LABORATORY REAGENTS
I. Concentration acids
Name
Approximate
Specific
Approximate
Percentage
concentration
gravity
amount
by weight
1.
17.6 M (17.6 N)
1.06
1.06 g/mL
99.5%
2.
11.7 M (11.7 N)
1.19
0.426 g/mL
36.0%
3.
15.6 M (15.6 N)
1.42
0.998 g/mL
69.5%
4.
18 M (36.0 N)
1.84
1.76 g/mL
98.0%
Concentration
Method of preparation
1.
5 M (5 N)
2.
5 M (5 N)
3.
5 M (5 N)
4.
2.5 M (5 N)
III. Bases
Name
Concentration
Method of preparation
1.
15 M (15 N)
As supplied
2.
2 M (2 N)
Sodium hydroxide
5 M (5 N)
3.
Concentration
Molar mass
Method of preparation
1.
Ammonium acetate
2 M (2 N)
77
2.
Ammonium chloride
5 M (5 N)
53.5
3.
Ammonium carbonate
1.7 M (3.5 N)
96
133
Ammonium molybdate
5.
Ammonium oxalate
0.5 M (1 N)
142
6.
Ammonia sulphate
1 M (2 N)
132
7.
Barium chloride
BaCl2.2H2O
0.5 M (0.5 N)
244
8.
Bromine water
approx. saturated
160
9.
Calcium chloride
0.5 M (0.5 N)
219
71
249.5
291
14%
0.15 M (0.075 N)
1%
14. Diphenylamine
0.5%
0.3 M (N)
358
0.33 M (1 N)
270
254
0.5 M (N)
0.02 M (0.04 N)
134
0.25 M (0.5 N)
272
APPENDIX III
24. Nesslers reagent
0.25 M (0.5 N)
194
0.15 M (1 N)
294
0.15 M (0.5 N)
368
0.2 M (0.5 N)
329
0.5 M (0.5 N)
166
0.06 M (0.3 N)
158
0.5 M (0.5 N)
97
32. Phenolphthalein
1%
0.1 M
5 M (5 N)
82
36. Starch
0.25 M (0.5 N)
6 N
226
135
Alcohol (1:1)
2.
3.
Alkaline -naphthol
4.
Barfoed reagent
5.
Benedicts solution
6.
7.
8.
2,4dinitrophenylhydrazine reagent
(i)
(ii)
9.
*Fehlings solution A
10.
*Fehlings solution B
11.
Hydroxylamine hydrochloride
12.
Molischs reagent
13.
Ninhydrin reagent
14.
Potassium permanganate
15.
Schiffs reagent
16.
Seliwanoffs reagent
17.
18.
Tollens reagent
To 1 mL
hydroxide
hydroxide
hydroxide
reagent.
*Before use, mix equal volumes of Fehlings solution A and Fehlings solution B.
136
APPENDIX IV
SOME USEFUL TABLES
Symbol
Value
9.81 ms2
amu
1.66053 1027 Kg
Avogadro constant
NA
Boltzmann constant
1.38062 1023 J K1
Electronic charge
1.602192 1019 C
Faraday cosntant
Gas constant
8.314 J K1 mol1
Ice-point temperature
Tice
273.150 K
Vm
Permittivity of a vaccuum
E0
8.854185 1012
Kg1 m3s4 A2
Plank constant
6.62620 1034 J s
Rydberg constant
Rw
1.973731 107 m1
101325 N m2
2.997925 108 m s1
273016 K
mp.C
bp.C
Density/
Kg m
(298 K)
Refractive
104
103
index (nD)
Viscosity/
Surface
(293 K)
N s m2)
Tension/
(298 K)
N m1
(293 K)
Acetic acid
16.7
117.9
1044.0
1.3716
11.55
27.8
94.7
56.1
785.0
1.3588
3.16
23.7
6.3
184.1
1022.0 (293)
1.5863
3.71
42.9
122.4
249.0
1266.0 (288)
1.504 (405)
76.5
1584.0
1.4601
8.8
26.95
Acetone
Aniline
Benzoic acid
Chlorobenzene
45.2
132.0
1106.0
1.5241
7.97
33.56
Chloroform
63.5
61.7
1480.0
1.4459
5.42
27.14
Cyclohexane
Di-ethyl ether
Ethyl acetate
6.6
80.7
774.0
1.42662
9.8
25.5
116.2
34.51
714.0
1.3526
2.22
17.01
82.4
77.1
900.0 (293)
1.3723
4.41
23.9
114.1
78.3
785.0
1.3611
10.6
22.75
Glycerol
18.07
290.0
1264.4
1.4746
942.0
63.4
Hexane
95.3
68.7
655.0
1.37506
2.94
18.43
Methanol
Ethanol
97.7
64.5
787.0
1.3288
5.47
22.61
Napthalene
80.3
218.0
1180.0
1.4003 (297)
Phenol
40.9
181.8
1132.0
1.5509
Toluene
95.1
110.6
862.0
1.4961
5.50
28.5
137
Form slightly
soluble compounds
(solubility less than 0.1 M)
Name
of
Anion
Symbol
nitrate
NO3
Most cations
None
acetate
CH3COO
Most cations
Ag+
chloride
Cl
Most cations
bromide
Br
Most cations
iodide
I,
Most cations
sulphate
SO4 ,
Most cations
chromate
CrO4
Most cations
sulphide
S2,
2+
2+
2+
OH ,
carbonate
CO3
phosphate
PO4
138
APPENDIX V
ELEMENTS, THEIR ATOMIC NUMBER AND MOLAR MASS
Element
Actinium
Aluminium
Americium
Antimony
Argon
Arsenic
Astatine
Barium
Berkelium
Beryllium
Bismuth
Bohrium
Boron
Bromine
Cadmium
Caesium
Calcium
Californium
Carbon
Cerium
Chlorine
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Curium
Dubnium
Dysprosium
Einsteinium
Erbium
Europium
Fermium
Fluorine
Francium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Hassium
Helium
Holmium
Hydrogen
Indium
Iodine
Iridium
Iron
Krypton
Lanthanum
Lawrencium
Lead
Lithium
Lutetium
Magnesium
Manganese
Meitneium
Mendelevium
Symbol
Atomic
Number
Molar
mass/
(g mol1)
Element
Ac
Al
Am
Sb
Ar
As
At
Ba
Bk
Be
Bi
Bh
B
Br
Cd
Cs
Ca
Cf
C
Ce
Cl
Cr
Co
Cu
Cm
Db
Dy
Es
Er
Eu
Fm
F
Fr
Gd
Ga
Ge
Au
Hf
Hs
He
Ho
H
In
I
Ir
Fe
Kr
La
Lr
Pb
Li
Lu
Mg
Mn
Mt
Md
89
13
95
51
18
33
85
56
97
4
83
107
5
35
48
55
20
98
6
58
17
24
27
29
96
105
66
99
68
63
100
9
87
64
31
32
79
72
108
2
67
1
49
53
77
26
36
57
103
82
3
71
12
25
109
101
227.03
26.98
(243)
121.75
39.95
74.92
210
137.34
(247)
9.01
208.98
(264)
10.81
79.91
112.40
132.91
40.08
251.08
12.01
140.12
35.45
52.00
58.93
63.54
247.07
(263)
162.50
(252)
167.26
151.96
(257.10)
19.00
(223)
157.25
69.72
72.61
196.97
178.49
(269)
4.00
164.93
1.0079
114.82
126.90
192.2
55.85
83.80
138.91
(262.1)
207.19
6.94
174.96
24.31
54.94
(268)
258.10
Mercury
Molybdenum
Neodymium
Neon
Neptunium
Nickel
Niobium
Nitrogen
Nobelium
Osmium
Oxygen
Palladium
Phosphorus
Platinum
Plutonium
Polonium
Potassium
Praseodymium
Promethium
Protactinium
Radium
Radon
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Rutherfordium
Samarium
Scandium
Seaborgium
Selenium
Silicon
Silver
Sodium
Strontium
Sulphur
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Thulium
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Ununbium
Ununnilium
Unununium
Uranium
Vanadium
Xenon
Ytterbium
Yttrium
Zinc
Zirconium
Symbol
Atomic
Number
Hg
Mo
Nd
Ne
Np
Ni
Nb
N
No
Os
O
Pd
P
Pt
Pu
Po
K
Pr
Pm
Pa
Ra
Rn
Re
Rh
Rb
Ru
Rf
Sm
Sc
Sg
Se
Si
Ag
Na
Sr
S
Ta
Tc
Te
Tb
Tl
Th
Tm
Sn
Ti
W
Uub
Uun
Uuu
U
V
Xe
Yb
Y
Zn
Zr
80
42
60
10
93
28
41
7
102
76
8
46
15
78
94
84
19
59
61
91
88
86
75
45
37
44
104
62
21
106
34
14
47
11
38
16
73
43
52
65
81
90
69
50
22
74
112
110
111
92
23
54
70
39
30
40
Molar
mass/
(g mol1)
200.59
95.94
144.24
20.18
(237.05)
58.71
92.91
14.0067
(259)
190.2
16.00
106.4
30.97
195.09
(244)
210
39.10
140.91
(145)
231.04
(226)
(222)
186.2
102.91
85.47
101.07
(261)
150.35
44.96
(266)
78.96
28.08
107.87
22.99
87.62
32.06
180.95
(98.91)
127.60
158.92
204.37
232.04
168.93
118.69
47.88
183.85
(277)
(269)
(272)
238.03
50.94
131.30
173.04
88.91
65.37
91.22
The value given in parenthesis is the molar mass of the isotope of largest known half-life.
139
APPENDIX VI
SOME USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS
= 1.8(C) + 32
C =
F 32
1.8
Force: 1 newton (N) = 1 kg m/s 2 , i.e.,the force that, when applied for 1 second, gives a
1-kilogram mass a velocity of 1 metre per second.
** The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water from 14.50C to 15.50C.
Note that the other units are per particle and must be multiplied by 6.022 1023 to be strictly
comparable.
*
140
APPENDIX VII
STANDARD POTENTIALS AT 298 K IN ELECTROCHEMICAL
Reduction half-reaction
E J /V
Reduction half-reaction
+3.0
Pu4+ + e Pu3+
+0.97
F2 + 2e 2F
+2.87
+0.96
O3 + 2H+ + 2e O2 + H2O
+2.07
2Hg2+ + 2e Hg 2+
2
+0.92
S2O8 + 2e 2SO4
+2.05
+0.89
Ag+ + e Ag+
+1.98
Hg2+ + 2e Hg
+0.86
Co3+ + e Co2+
+1.81
+0.80
+1.78
Ag+ + e Ag
+0.80
Au+ + e Au
+1.69
Hg 2+
2 +2e 2Hg
+0.79
Pb4+ + 2e Pb2+
+1.67
Fe3+ + e Fe2+
+0.77
+1.63
+0.76
Ce4+ + e Ce3+
+1.61
+0.62
+1.60
+1.51
MnO4 + e MnO42
+0.56
Mn3+ + e Mn2+
+1.51
I2 + 2e 2I
+0.54
Au3+ + 3e Au
+1.40
I3 + 2e 3I
+0.53
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl
+1.36
Cu+ + e Cu
+0.52
+1.33
O3 + H2O + 2e O2 + 2OH
+1.24
+0.45
O2 + 4H+ + 4e 2H2O
+1.23
O2 + 2H2O + 4e 4OH
+0.40
+1.23
+0.36
+1.23
[Fe(CN)6]3 + e [Fe(CN)6]4
+0.36
Pt2+ + 2e Pt
+1.20
Cu2+ + 2e Cu
+0.34
Br2 + 2e 2Br
+1.09
+0.27
E J /V
141
+0.27
S + 2e S2
0.48
Bi3+ + 3e Bi
+0.20
In3+ + e In2+
0.49
+0.17
U4+ + e U3+
0.61
Cu2+ + e Cu+
+0.16
Cr3+ + 3e Cr
0.74
Sn4+ + 2e Sn2+
+0.15
Zn2+ + 2e Zn
0.76
AgBr + e Ag + Br
+0.07
Cd(OH)2 + 2e Cd + 2OH
0.81
Ti4+ + e Ti3+
0.00
2H2O + 2e H2 + 2OH
0.83
2H+ + 2e H2
Cr2+ + 2e Cr
0.91
Fe3+ + 3e Fe
0.04
Mn2+ + 2e Mn
1.18
O2 + H2O + 2e HO2 + OH
0.08
V2+ + 2e V
1.19
Pb2+ + 2e Pb
0.13
Ti2+ + 2e Ti
1.63
In+ + e In
0.14
Al3+ + 3e Al
1.66
Sn2+ + 2e Sn
0.14
U3+ + 3e U
1.79
AgI + e Ag + I
0.15
Sc3+ + 3e Sc
2.09
Ni2+ + 2e Ni
0.23
Mg2+ + 2e Mg
2.36
V3+ + e V2+
0.26
Ce3+ + 3e Ce
2.48
Co2+ + 2e Co
0.28
La3+ + 3e La
2.52
In3+ + 3e In
0.34
Na+ + e Na
2.71
Tl+ + e Tl
0.34
Ca2+ + 2e Ca
2.87
PbSO4 + 2e Pb + SO2
4
0.36
Sr2+ + 2e Sr
2.89
Ti3+ + e Ti2+
0.37
Ba2+ + 2e Ba
2.91
Cd2+ + 2e Cd
0.40
Ra2+ + 2e Ra
2.92
In2+ + e In+
0.40
Cs+ + e Cs
2.92
Cr3+ + e Cr2+
0.41
Rb+ + e Rb
2.93
Fe2+ + 2e Fe
0.44
K+ +e K
2.93
In3+ + 2e In+
0.44
Li+ + e Li
3.05
142
APPENDIX VIII
LOGARITHMS
Sometimes, a numerical expression may involve multiplication, division or rational powers of large
numbers. For such calculations, logarithms are very useful. They help us in making difficult calculations
easy. In Chemistry, logarithm values are required in solving problems of chemical kinetics, thermodynamics,
electrochemistry, etc. We shall first introduce this concept, and discuss the laws, which will have to be
followed in working with logarithms, and then apply this technique to a number of problems to show
how it makes difficult calculations simple.
We know that
23 = 8, 32 = 9, 53 = 125, 70 = 1
In general, for a positive real number a, and a rational number m, let am = b,
where b is a real number. In other words
the mth power of base a is b.
Another way of stating the same fact is
logarithm of b to base a is m.
If for a positive real number a, a 1
am = b,
we say that m is the logarithm of b to the base a.
b
We write this as lo g a = m ,
log being the abbreviation of the word logarithm.
Thus, we have
log 2 8 = 3,
Since 2
log 3 9 = 2,
Since 3
log
125
= 3,
=8
=9
= 125
=1
Since 5
5
log 7 1 = 0,
Since 7
Laws of Logarithms
In the following discussion, we shall take logarithms to any base a, (a > 0 and a 1)
First Law: loga (mn) = logam + logan
Proof: Suppose that logam = x and logan = y
Then ax= m, ay = n
Hence mn = ax.ay = ax+y
It now follows from the definition of logarithms that
loga (mn) = x + y = loga m loga n
m
= loga m logan
n
143
a
a
=a
xy
Therefore
log a
m
n
= x y = log a m log a n
Third Law :
loga(mn) = n logam
Proof : As before, if logam = x, then ax = m
Then
( )
= a
x n
=a
nx
since 101 = 10
log10 100 = 2,
log10 10000 = 4,
log10 0.01 = 2,
log10 0.001 = 3,
since 103 =
and log101 = 0
0.001
since 10 = 1
The above results indicate that if n is an integral power of 10, i.e., 1 followed by several zeros or
1 preceded by several zeros immediately to the right of the decimal point, then log n can be easily found.
If n is not an integral power of 10, then it is not easy to calculate log n. But mathematicians have
made tables from which we can read off approximate value of the logarithm of any positive number
between 1 and 10. And these are sufficient for us to calculate the logarithm of any number expressed
in decimal form. For this purpose, we always express the given decimal as the product of an integral
power of 10 and a number between 1 and 10.
144
APPENDIX VIII
25.2
25.2 =
10 = 2.52 10
10
1038.4
1038.4
10
1.0384
10
1000
= log m + p log 10
= p + log m
Here p is an integer and as 1 < m < 10, so 0 < log m < 1, i.e., m lies between 0 and 1. When log
n has been expressed as p + log m, where p is an integer and 0 log m < 1, we say that p is the
characteristic of log n and that log m is the mantissa of log n. Note that characteristic is always an
integer positive, negative or zero, and mantissa is never negative and is always less than 1. If we can
find the characteristics and the mantissa of log n, we have to just add them to get log n.
Thus to find log n, all we have to do is as follows:
1. Put n in the standard form, say
p
n = m 10 , 1 < m <10
145
..
7853
7924
7993
..
..
..
7860 7868
7931 7935
8000 8007
..
..
..
7875
7945
8014
..
..
..
7882 7889
7954 7959
8021 8028
..
..
..
7896
7966
8035
..
..
..
7803 7810
7973 7980
8041 8048
..
..
..
7817
7987
8055
..
..
1
1
1
..
..
1
1
1
..
..
2
2
2
..
..
3
3
3
..
..
4
3
3
..
..
4
4
4
..
..
5
5
5
..
..
6
6
6
..
..
6
6
6
..
Now suppose we wish to find log (6.234). Then look into the row starting with 62. In this row, look
at the number in the column headed by 3. The number is 7945. This means that
log (6.230) = 0.7945*
But we want log (6.234). So our answer will be a little more than 0.7945. How much more? We look
this up in the section on Mean differences. Since our fourth digit is 4, look under the column headed
by 4 in the Mean difference section (in the row 62). We see the number 3 there. So add 3 to 7945. We
get 7948. So we finally have
log (6.234) = 0.7948.
Take another example. To find log (8.127), we look in the row 81 under column 2, and we find 9096.
We continue in the same row and see that the mean difference under 7 is 4. Adding this to 9096, and
we get 9100. So, log (8.127) = 0.9100.
146
APPENDIX VIII
In the antilog table, the entry under column 7 in the row .53 is 3443 and the mean difference for the
last digit 2 in that row is 2, so the table gives 3445. Hence,
antilog (.5372) = 3.445
Now since log n = 2.5372, the characteristic of log n is 2. So the standard form of n is given by
n = 3.445 10
or n = 344.5
Illustration 1
If log x = 1.0712, find x.
Solution: We find that the number corresponding to 0712 is 1179. Since characteristic of log x is 1, we
have
x = 1.179 101
= 11.79
Illustration 2
If log x = 2.1352, find x.
Solution: From antilog tables, we find that the number corresponding to 1352 is 1366. Since the
characteristic is 2 i.e., 2, so
2
x = 1.366 10 = 0.01366
Find
(1.23)
11.2 23.5
3
Solution: Let x =
(1.23) 2
11.2 23.5
147
3
2
3
2
(1.23) 2
11.2 23.5
Now,
log 1.23 = 0.0899
3
2
Find
(71.24) 56
7
(2.3) 21
5
(71.24) 56
Solution: Let x =
(2.3) 21
(71.24)5 56
Then log x =
log
7
2
(2.3) 21
1
2
5
2
log 71.24 +
1
4
log 56
log 2.3
1
4
log 21
5
2
log (1.8527) +
= 3.4723
x = 2967
148
1
4
(1.7482)
7
2
(0.3617)
1
4
(1.3222)
LOGARITHMS
Table 1
N
10
0000 0043
0086
0128
0170
11
0414 0453
0492
0531
0569
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
0792 0828
1139 1173
1461 1492
1761 1790
2041 2068
2304 2330
2553 2577
2788 2810
0864
1206
1523
1818
2095
2355
2601
2833
0899
1239
1553
1847
2122
2380
2625
2856
9
8
13
12
17
16
21 26
2O 24
30
28
34 38
32 36
0212
0374
5
4
0607
0755
4
4
8
7
12
11
16
15
20
18
23
22
27
26
31 35
29 33
0969
3
3
7
7
11
10
14
14
18
17
21
20
25
24
28 32
27 31
1303
1430
3
3
6
7
10
10
13
13
16
16
19
19
23
22
26 29
25 29
1614
3
3
6
6
9
9
12
12
15
14
19
17
22
20
25 28
23 26
1903
3
3
6
6
9
8
11
11
14
14
17
17
20
19
23 26
22 25
2175
2279
3
3
6
5
8
8
11
10
14 16
13 16
19
18
22 24
21 23
2430
3
3
5
5
8
8
10
10
13
12
15
15
18
17
20 23
20 22
2672
2765
2
2
5
4
7
7
9
9
12 14
11 14
17
16
19 21
18 21
2900
2
2
4
4
7
6
9
8
11
11
13
13
16
15
18 20
17 19
0934
1271
1584
1875
2148
2405
2648
2878
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
3010
3222
3424
3617
3802
3979
4150
4314
4472
4624
3032
3243
3444
3636
3820
3997
4166
4330
4487
4639
3054
3263
3464
3655
3838
4014
4183
4346
4502
4654
3075
3284
3483
3674
3856
4031
4200
4362
4518
4669
3096
3304
3502
3692
3874
4048
4216
4378
4533
4683
3118
3324
3522
3711
3892
4065
4232
4393
4548
4698
3139
3345
3541
3729
3909
4082
4249
4409
4564
4713
3160
3365
3560
3747
3927
4099
4265
4425
4579
4728
3181
3385
3579
3766
3945
4116
4281
4440
4594
4742
3201
3404
3598
3784
3962
4133
4298
4456
4609
4757
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
4
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
11
10
10
9
9
9
8
8
8
7
13
12
12
11
11
10
10
9
9
9
15
14
14
13
12
12
11
11
11
10
17
16
15
15
14
14
13
13
12
12
19
18
17
17
16
15
15
14
14
13
30
31
32
33
34
4771
4914
5051
5185
5315
4786
4928
5065
5198
5328
4800
4942
5079
5211
5340
4814
4955
5092
5224
5353
4829
4969
5105
5237
5366
4843
4983
5119
5250
5378
4857
4997
5132
5263
5391
4871
5011
5145
5276
5403
4886
5024
5159
5289
5416
4900
5038
5172
5302
5428
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
5
5
5
7
7
7
6
6
9
8
8
8
8
10
10
9
9
9
11
11
11
10
10
13
12
12
12
11
35
36
37
38
39
5441
5563
5682
5798
5911
5453
5575
5694
5809
5922
5465
5587
5705
5821
5933
5478
5599
5717
5832
5944
5490
5611
5729
5843
5955
5502
5623
5740
5855
5966
5514
5635
5752
5866
5977
5527
5647
5763
5877
5988
5539 5551
5658 5670
5775 5786
5888 5899
5999 6010
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
3
3
3
5
5
5
5
4
6
6
6
6
5
7
7
7
7
7
9
8
8
8
8
10
10
9
9
9
11
11
10
10
10
40
41
42
43
44
6021
6128
6232
6335
6435
6031
6138
6243
6345
6444
6042
6149
6253
6355
6454
6053
6160
6263
6365
6464
6064
6170
6274
6375
6474
6075
6180
6284
6385
6484
6085
6191
6294
6395
6493
6096
6201
6304
6405
6503
6107
6212
6314
6415
6513
6117
6222
6325
6425
6522
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
8
7
7
7
7
9 10
8
9
8
9
8
9
8
9
45
46
47
48
49
6532
6628
6721
6812
6902
6542
6637
6730
6821
6911
6551
6646
6739
6830
6920
6561
6656
6749
6839
6928
6471
6665
6758
6848
6937
6580
6675
6767
6857
6946
6590
6684
6776
6866
6955
6599
6693
6785
6875
6964
6609
6702
6794
6884
6972
6618
6712
6803
6893
6981
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
6
6
5
5
5
7
7
6
6
6
8
7
7
7
7
9
8
8
8
8
149
LOGARITHMS
Table 1 continued
150
50
51
52
53
54
6990
7076
7160
7243
7324
6998
7084
7168
7251
7332
7007
7093
7177
7259
7340
7016
7101
7185
7267
7348
7024
7110
7193
7275
7356
7033
7118
7202
7284
7364
7042
7126
7210
7292
7372
7050
7135
7218
7300
7380
7059
7143
7226
7308
7388
7067
7152
7235
7316
7396
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
6
6
8
8
7
7
7
55
56
57
58
59
7404
7482
7559
7634
7709
7412
7490
7566
7642
7716
7419
7497
7574
7649
7723
7427
7505
7582
7657
7731
7435
7513
7589
7664
7738
7443
7520
7597
7672
7745
7451
7528
7604
7679
7752
7459
7536
7612
7686
7760
7466
7543
7619
7694
7767
7474
7551
7627
7701
7774
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
60
61
62
63
64
7782
7853
7924
7993
8062
7789
7860
7931
8000
8069
7796
7768
7938
8007
8075
7803
7875
7945
8014
8082
7810
7882
7952
8021
8089
7818
7889
7959
8028
8096
7825
7896
7966
8035
8102
7832
7903
7973
8041
8109
7839
7910
7980
8048
8116
7846
7917
7987
8055
8122
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
65
66
67
68
69
8129
8195
8261
8325
8388
8136
8202
8267
8331
8395
8142
8209
8274
8338
8401
8149
8215
8280
8344
8407
8156
8222
8287
8351
8414
8162
8228
8293
8357
8420
8169
8235
8299
8363
8426
8176
8241
8306
8370
8432
8182
8248
8312
8376
8439
8189
8254
8319
8382
8445
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
70
71
72
73
74
8451
8513
8573
8633
8692
8457
8519
8579
8639
8698
8463
8525
8585
8645
8704
8470
8531
8591
8651
8710
8476
8537
8597
8657
8716
8482
8543
8603
8663
8722
8488
8549
8609
8669
8727
8494
8555
8615
8675
8733
8500
8561
8621
8681
8739
8506
8567
8627
8686
8745
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
75
76
77
78
79
8751
8808
8865
8921
8976
8756
8814
8871
8927
8982
8762
8820
8876
8932
8987
8768
8825
8882
8938
8993
8774
8831
8887
8943
8998
8779
8837
8893
8949
9004
8785
8842
8899
8954
9009
8791
8848
8904
8960
9015
8797
8854
8910
8965
9020
8802
8859
8915
8971
9025
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
80
81
82
83
84
9031
9085
9138
9191
9243
9036
9090
9143
9196
9248
9042
9096
9149
9201
9253
9047
9101
9154
9206
9258
9053
9106
9159
9212
9263
9058
9112
9165
9217
9269
9063
9117
9170
9222
9274
9069
9122
9175
9227
9279
9074
9128
9180
9232
9284
9079
9133
9186
9238
9289
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
85
86
87
88
89
9294
9345
9395
9445
9494
9299
9350
9400
9450
9499
9304
9355
9405
9455
9504
9309
9360
9410
9460
9509
9315
9365
9415
9465
9513
9320
9370
9420
9469
9518
9325
9375
9425
9474
9523
9330
9380
9430
9479
9528
9335
9385
9435
9484
9533
9340
9390
9440
9489
9538
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
4
4
4
90
91
92
93
94
9542
9590
9638
9685
9731
9547
9595
9643
9689
9736
9552
9600
9647
9694
9741
9557
9605
9652
9699
9745
9562
9609
9657
9703
9750
9566
9614
9661
9708
9754
9571
9619
9666
9713
9759
9576
9624
9671
9717
9763
9581
9628
9675
9722
9768
9586
9633
9680
9727
9773
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
95
96
97
98
99
9777
9823
9868
9912
9956
9782
9827
9872
9917
9961
9786
9832
9877
9921
9965
9791
9836
9881
9926
9969
9795
9841
9886
9930
9974
9800
9845
9890
9934
9978
9805
9850
9894
9939
9983
9809
9854
9899
9943
9987
9814
9859
9903
9948
9997
9818
9863
9908
9952
9996
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
4
4
4
ANTILOGARITHMS
Table 2
N
00
.01
.02
.03
.04
.05
.06
.07
.08
.09
1000
1023
1047
1072
1096
1122
1148
1175
1202
1230
1002
1026
1050
1074
1099
1125
1151
1178
1205
1233
1005
1028
1052
1076
1102
1127
1153
1180
1208
1236
1007
1030
1054
1079
1104
1130
1156
1183
1211
1239
1009
1033
1057
1081
1107
1132
1159
1186
1213
1242
1012
1035
1059
1084
1109
1135
1161
1189
1216
1245
1014
1038
1062
1086
1112
1138
1164
1191
1219
1247
1016
1040
1064
1089
1114
1140
1167
1194
1222
1250
1019
1042
1067
1091
1117
1143
1169
1197
1225
1253
1021
1045
1069
1094
1119
1146
1172
1199
1227
1256
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
.10
.11
.12
.13
.14
.15
.16
.17
.18
.19
1259
1288
1318
1349
1380
1413
1445
1479
1514
1549
1262
1291
1321
1352
1384
1416
1449
1483
1517
1552
1265
1294
1324
1355
1387
1419
1452
1486
1521
1556
1268
1297
1327
1358
1390
1422
1455
1489
1524
1560
1271
1300
1330
1361
1393
1426
1459
1493
1528
1563
1274
1303
1334
1365
1396
1429
1462
1496
1531
1567
1276
1306
1337
1368
1400
1432
1466
1500
1535
1570
1279
1309
1340
1371
1403
1435
1469
1503
1538
1574
1282
1312
1343
1374
1406
1439
1472
1507
1542
1578
1285
1315
1346
1377
1409
1442
1476
1510
1545
1581
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
.20
.21
.22
.23
.24
1585
1622
1660
1698
1738
1589
1626
1663
1702
1742
1592
1629
1667
1706
1746
1596
1633
1671
1710
1750
1600
1637
1675
1714
1754
1603
1641
1679
1718
1758
1607
1644
1683
1722
1762
1611
1648
1687
1726
1766
1614
1652
1690
1730
1770
1618
1656
1694
1734
1774
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
.25
.26
.27
.28
.29
1778
1820
1862
1905
1950
1782
1824
1866
1910
1954
1786
1828
1871
1914
1959
1791
1832
1875
1919
1963
1795
1837
1879
1923
1968
1799
1841
1884
1928
1972
1803
1845
1888
1932
1977
1807
1849
1892
1936
1982
1811
1854
1897
1941
1986
1816
1858
1901
1945
1991
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
.30
.31
.32
.33
.34
.35
.36
.37
.38
.39
1995
2042
2089
2138
2188
2239
2291
2344
2399
2455
2000
2046
2094
2143
2193
2244
2296
2350
2404
2460
2004
2051
2099
2148
2198
2249
2301
2355
2410
2466
2009
2056
2104
2153
2203
2254
2307
2360
2415
2472
2014
2061
2109
2158
2208
2259
2312
2366
2421
2477
2018
2065
2113
2163
2213
2265
2317
2371
2427
2483
2023
2070
2118
2168
2218
2270
2323
2377
2432
2489
2028
2075
2123
2173
2223
2275
2328
2382
2438
2495
2032
2080
2128
2178
2228
2280
2333
2388
2443
2500
2037
2084
2133
2183
2234
2286
2339
2393
2449
2506
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
.40
.41
.42
.43
.44
.45
.46
.47
.48
2512
2570
2630
2692
2754
2818
2884
2951
3020
2518
2576
2636
2698
2761
2825
2891
2958
3027
2523
2582
2642
2704
2767
2831
2897
2965
3034
2529
2588
2649
2710
2773
2838
2904
2972
3041
2535
2594
2655
2716
2780
2844
2911
2979
3048
2541
2600
2661
2723
2786
2851
2917
2985
3055
2547
2606
2667
2729
2793
2858
2924
2992
3062
2553
2612
2673
2735
2799
2864
2931
2999
3069
2559
2618
2679
2742
2805
2871
2938
3006
3076
2564
2624
2685
2748
2812
2877
2944
3013
3083
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
.49
3090 3097
3105
3112
3119
3126
151
ANTILOGARITHMS
Table 2 continued
152
.50
.51
.52
.53
.54
.55
.56
3162
3236
3311
3388
3467
3548
3631
3170
3243
3319
3396
3475
3556
3639
3177
3251
3327
3404
3483
3565
3648
3184
3258
3334
3412
3491
3573
3656
3192
3266
3342
3420
3499
3581
3664
3199
3273
3350
3428
3508
3589
3673
3206
3281
3357
3436
3516
3597
3681
3214
3289
3365
3443
3524
3606
3690
3221
3296
3373
3451
3532
3614
3698
3228
3304
3381
3459
3540
3622
3707
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
.57
.58
.59
3715 3724
3802 3811
3890 3899
3733
3819
3908
3741
3828
3917
3750
3837
3926
3758
3846
3936
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
8
.60
.61
.62
.63
.64
.65
.66
.67
.68
.69
3981
4074
4169
4266
4365
4467
4571
4677
4786
4898
3990
4083
4178
4276
4375
4477
4581
4688
4797
4909
3999
4093
4188
4285
4385
4487
4592
4699
4808
4920
4009
4102
4198
4295
4395
4498
4603
4710
4819
4932
4018
4111
4207
4305
4406
4508
4613
4721
4831
4943
4027
4121
4217
4315
4416
4519
4624
4732
4842
4955
4036
4130
4227
4325
4426
4529
4634
4742
4853
4966
4046
4140
4236
4335
4436
4539
4645
4753
4864
4977
4055
4150
4246
4345
4446
4550
4656
4764
4875
4989
4064
4159
42S6
4355
4457
4560
4667
4775
4887
5000
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
5035
5152
5272
5395
5521
5649
5781
5916
6053
6194
5047
5164
5284
5408
5534
5662
5794
5929
6067
6209
5058
5176
5297
5420
5546
5675
5808
5943
6081
6223
5070
5188
5309
5433
5559
5689
5821
5957
6095
6237
5082
5200
5321
5445
5572
5702
5834
5970
6109
6252
5093
5212
5333
5458
5585
5715
5848
5984
6124
6266
5105
5224
5346
5470
5598
5728
5861
5998
6138
6281
5117
5236
5358
5483
5610
5741
5875
6012
6152
6295
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
9
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
.80
.81
.82
.83
.84
6310
6457
6607
6761
6918
6324
6471
6622
6776
6934
6339
6486
6637
6792
6950
6353
6501
6653
6808
6966
6368
6516
6668
6823
6982
6383
6531
6683
6839
6998
6397
6546
6699
6855
7015
6412
6561
6714
6871
7031
6427
6577
6730
6887
7047
6442
6592
6745
6902
7063
1
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
11
11
11
11
12 13
12 14
12 14
1314
13 15
.85
.86
.87
.88
.89
7079
7244
7413
7586
7762
7096
7261
7430
7603
7780
7112
7278
7447
7621
7798
7129
7295
7464
7638
7816
7145
7311
7482
7656
7834
7161
7328
7499
7674
7852
7178
7345
7516
7691
7870
7194
7362
7534
7709
7889
7211
7379
7551
7727
7907
7228
7396
7568
7745
7925
2
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
5
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
16
16
16
.90
.91
.92
.93
.94
7943
8128
8318
8511
8710
7962
8147
8337
8531
8730
7980
8166
8356
8551
8750
7998
8185
8375
8570
8770
8017
8204
8395
8590
8790
8035
8222
8414
8610
8810
8054
8241
8433
8630
8831
8072
8260
8453
8650
8851
8091 8110
8279 8299
8472 8492
8670 8690
8872 8892
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
4
6
6
6
6
6
7
8
8
8
8
9
9
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
13
13
14
14
14
15
15
15
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
.95
.96
.97
.98
.99
8913
9120
9333
9550
9772
8933
9141
9354
9572
9795
8954
9162
9376
9594
9817
8974
9183
9397
9616
9840
8995
9204
9419
9638
9863
9016
9226
9441
9661
9886
9036
9247
9462
9683
9908
9057
9268
9484
9705
9931
9078
9290
9506
9727
9954
2
2
2
2
2
4
4
4
4
5
6
6
7
7
7
8
8
9
9
9
10
11
11
11
11
12
13
13
13
14
15
15
15
16
16
17
17
17
18
18
19
19
20
20
20
9099
9311
9528
9750
9977
PROJECTS
BACKGAROUND INFORMATION
ABOUT INVESTIGATORY PROJECTS
INTRODUCTION
The expansion of scientific knowledge and consequently the change in the system
of education has led to a modification in the methods of instruction. Today the
stress is laid on inquiry approach and discussion method instead of the age-old
lecture method of teaching. A new dimension in the teaching of science has been
added by including the project-work at the higher secondary level. Teaching
through project work is an individualized instructional technique. It provides an
opportunity to the student to define a problem, to plan his/her work, to search
appropriate resources, to carry out his/her plans, and to draw conclusions. This
way, students are exposed to the fundamental scientific principles, methods and
processes and get a first hand knowledge about the various phases involved in a
scientific investigation. Thus the project work helps to: (a) stimulate interest in
science; (b) arouse scientific curiosity; (c) develop independent critical thinking;
(d) provide experience of using various tools and techniques in the field of science
and (e) develop self-confidence. The modern trend in the teaching of science
therefore encourages more project work.
Any kind of investigation; formulated, designed and carried out in the library,
laboratory, in the field, or at home constitutes an investigatory project. A project
may be as simple as collection of samples of minerals and it may be as difficult as
developing an original indigenous process for the production of a chemical. Some
of the projects can be completely theoretical and involve only the library work.
Others may involve the experimental work to be carried out in the laboratory.
The experimental work in science exposes the students to a number of scientific
instruments, tools, techniques and intellectual skills.
SELECTION OF PROJECTS
Projects should usually be selected by the students. The idea of a project originates
from studying a subject in the classroom, reading the reports of various projects,
science news, popular science articles from science journals etc. Sometimes the
idea of a science project may strike during classroom discussion on topics, which
may require testing, quantifying and interpreting. Some of the science journals
for getting the ideas for a project are : (a) Journal of Chemical Education;
(b) Chemistry Education; (c) Education in Chemistry; (d) New Scientist; (e) School
MANAGING TIME
Central Board of Secondary Education has allocated ten periods
for the project work. A student can start the project right in the
beginning of the academic year and can carry it out in phases and
submit the report of the project at the end of the year.
TECHNICAL
AND
ACADEMIC GUIDANCE
117
LABORATORY FACILITIES
The selection of the project should be such that as far as possible,
the material (apparatus, instruments, chemicals, etc.) needed for
the project-work is easily available. Student may purchase the
affordable chemical or an apparatus (improvised or original) if it is
not available in the laboratory, and the student is very curious to
take up the project and wants to do it. The students should be
discouraged from taking highly expensive projects. An effective
project-work requires an integrated approach rather than a subject
specific approach.
The project work in the laboratory requires a bigger and separate
space. Arrangements should be made in such a way that at a given
time all the students are not involved in doing the laboratory work.
Some students should carry out the work of collecting references in
the library while others should design experiments.
Problems may arise in carrying out the long term experiments
like corrosion, fermentation etc. in the laboratory. It is suggested
to have a separate bench in the laboratory, where long term
experiments can be set up. For storing the samples of certain
chemicals and apparatuses relevant to the project-work, cardboard boxes, with students name written on them can be used.
Empty bottles, if available, can also serve the purpose of storing
the chemicals.
118
PROJECT 1
Title
To test the contamination of water by bacteria by checking the
sulphide ion concentration and find out the cause of contamination.
Objective
To check the bacterial contamination in samples of water collected
from different sources by determining sulphide ion concentration.
Background Information
Sulphide ions are present in water when anaerobic bacteria
decompose organic matter or reduce sulphates. These are found
in stagnent water. Generally pollutants from paper mills, gas works,
tanneries, sewage works and other chemical plants are responsible
for the growth of such bacteria.
Brief Procedure
Collection of Samples
Sulphides are readily oxidised, therefore care should be taken at
the time of sampling to exclude air by flushing it with nitrogen or
carbon dioxide. But the best way is to fix the sample immediately
after collection. This can be done by adding small volume of
cadmium-zinc acetate solution. For this take 80 mL of water and
add cadmium-zinc acetate solution 20 mL to obtain a total volume
of about 100 mL. To make Cd-Zn acetate solution dissolve 50 g
cadmium acetate and 50 g zinc acetate in 1.0 L of water. If collected
sample is acidic in nature, then first neutralize it with little excess
of alkali.
Titration of Fixed Solution
Take 100 mL fixed solution in a titration flask, add 20 mL 0.025 M
iodine solution and immediately add 15 mL, (1:1) HCl and mix. Titrate
the excess iodine against 0.05 M Na2S2O3, adding starch solution
as indicateor towards the end point. Calculate the amount of
sulphide ions in the original samples from the amount of iodine
used in the reaction with H2S. Subtract the values of blank titration
if available from the calculated values.
119
PROJECT 2
Title
To study the methods of purification of water.
Objectives
To study level of purity achieved by using different methods
of purification.
To study advantages and disadvantages of using different
method for purification.
To know about specific uses of pure water.
Background Information
Purity of water obtained from different natural sources is different.
The type of contamination and impurity present depends upon
the source from which water is obtained. Besides drinking
purposes, we require pure water for various other purposes e.g.
in chemical analysis. There are various methods for the purification
of water. these remove impurities and contamination to different
extent. There are some advantages and disadvantages in using
these methods. Comparison of various methods of purification will
provide an idea about obtaining water of specific purity for a
specific purpose.
Brief Procedure
Students may find out level of puriety achieved by various
techniques in use, for the purification of drinking water. They can
survey the literature and visit industries etc. to find out uses of
water of specific purity. Students may work in groups for the study
of various aspects of the project.
Note : Another aspect of the project may be to study different methods of
purification of water taken from different sources such as river, well,
bore-well, municipality etc.
PROJECT 3
Title
Testing the hardness, presence of iron, fluoride, chloride etc. in
drinking water obtained from different regions and a study of the
cause of presence of these ions above permissible limits.
120
Objectives
To test the total hardness, iron, fluoride and chloride etc. in
different samples of water.
To collect information about local sources of above ions in
water.
To study the effect of these ions on health if present beyond
permissible limits.
To find out whether any such problem exists in the locality
and around.
Background Information
Quality of drinking water has direct relationship with the
human health and life. If iron, fluoride, chloride etc. are
present in water above permissible limits, they may cause
several health problems. For example, if fluoride is present
above permissible limit, people of the region may suffer from
fluorosis. Hardness of water is due to the presence of calcium
and magnesium ions. It is well known fact that hard water is
not fit for laundary purposes. Thus, it is very important to
know the ions and their amount present in water.
Brief Procedure
Students may collect samples of water from different sources. They
can detect the presence of different ions by usual methods of
analysis. Total hardness of water can be estimated by standard
PROJECT 4
Title
Investigation of the foaming capacity of different washing soaps
and the effect of addition of sodium carbonate on their foaming
capacity.
Objective
To study the foaming capacity of soaps and the effect of addition
of sodium carbonate on their foaming capacity.
121
Brief Procedure
Weigh 1 gram of a sample of soap and dissolve it completely in
100 mL of distilled water. Take 10 mL of the soap solution in a
boiling tube close the mouth of the boiling tube with the help of a
cork and shake the solution making 20 regular strokes so that
foam increases uniformly. Measure the length of the boiling tube
up to which the foam rises. Similarly, perform the experiment with
other soap solutions.
Dissolve 0.5g of sodium carbonate in 50 mL of each of the
above soap solutions separately. Now take 10 mL of a solution in
a boiling tube and shake it equal number of times (e.g. 20 regular
strokes). Measure the length up to which foam appears. Similarly,
perform the experiment with other soap solutions. Record the
observations in a tabular form.
Compare the height upto which foam produced rises in different
soap solutions with and without the presence of Na2CO3 and draw
conclusions.
PROJECT 5
Title
Study of the acidity of different samples of tea leaves and reasons
for the variation in colour of tea prepared from these leaves.
Objective
To estimate the concentration of acids present in different tea
samples and the effect of addition of acids or bases on the colour
of tea extract.
Brief Procedure
(a) Estimation of Concentration of Acids Present in Tea
Weigh 10 grams of the sample of tea leaves and prepare the extract
of each sample separately in 200 mL of distilled water. For this,
boil different samples of tea leaves with distilled water 8 for a fixed
time period.
Take 5mL of tea extract in a conical flask and dilute it with 20
mL of distilled water. Shake the solution well for homogenous
mixing and then titrate it against M/50 NaOH solution using
phenolphathalein as an indicator. Similarly, titrate other tea
122
PROJECT 6
Title
Study the rates of evaporation of different liquids
Objective
To study the relationship between the rates of evaporation of different
liquids and their chemical constitution.
Brief Procedure
Take five clean and dry weighing tubes and mark them as A, B, C, D
and E. Weigh each weighing tube with its stopper. Now pour 10 mL
of different liquids (ethanol, ether, tetrachloromethane, acetone etc.)
in different weighing tubes. Weigh each weighing tube again and
find the mass of the liquid taken in each weighing tube.
Remove the stoppers of the weighing tubes and keep them at
room temperature for one hour. After exactly one hour, close the
mouth of all the weighing tubes with their stoppers and weigh them
again one by one.
Calculate the loss in mass of each liquid. The temperature and
the surface area should be the same for the evaporation of each
liquid. Determine the rate of evaporation of each liquid in grams of
liquid evaporated per second. Relate the difference in rates of
evaporation of liquids with their chemical constitution and variation
in intermolecular/intra-molecular interactions.
123
PROJECT 7
Title
Study the effect of acids and alkalies on the tensile strength of
fibres
Objective
To study the effect of acids on the tensile strength of different types
of fibers.
Brief Procedure
The tensile strength of a fibre is measured by noting the minimum
weight required just to break the thread. It may be done as follows:
Take a thread of about 20 cm length and tie its one end with a
ring fixed on the iron stand and the other end with a hanger which
carries the weights. Increase the weight on the hanger and find
out the minimum weight required to just break the thread. Repeat
the experiment with threads of equal length and thickness but of
different materials (eg. cotton, wool, silk, terylene etc.). These
weights are the measure of tensile strength of the fibre.
The effect of acids and alkalies on the tensile strength of fibres
can be determined by dipping them separately in dilute HC1 or
dilute NaOH solution of equal strengths for equal intervals of time.
After a small but fixed interval of time, the fibres are removed from
the solution, washed with water and dried. Then minimum weight
required to just break these threads are determined. These weights
are the measures of the tensile strengths of fibres after treatment
with acid or alkali. Interpret your observations in terms of chemical
constitution of the material of fibre.
PROJECT 8
Title
Study of the acids and mineral contents of vegetables and fruits.
Objective
(a)
(b)
124
Brief Procedure
(a) Acid Content
Take out the juice of a few fruits and vegetables (apple, orange, amla,
lemon, raddish, cane sugar etc.) by crushing them. Keep the juice
samples in different containers. Determine the pH of different samples
of juices. Determine their acid content by titrating a known quantity
of juice with M/100 potassium hydroxide solution using
phenolphthalein as an indicator. In case of dark coloured juices,
dilute them with enough distilled water to get sharp end point during
titration.
Compare the acid contents of juices by comparing their acid
values. Acid value of vegetables and fruits is the number of milligrams
of potassium hydroxide required for neutralizing the acids present
in one gram of vegetable/fruit.
(b) Tests for Iron, Carbohydrate (starch and sugar), Protein
and Fats
Test the vegetables and fruit juices for the presence of iron. Heat the
vegetable juice with concentrated HNO3 for some time and perform
the test for iron. Carbohydrate (starch, sugar), protein and fats can
be tested by the usual tests.
Background Information
Some liquids like honey or Mobil oil flow very slowly while others
like water or kerosene flow rapidly. Liquids that flow slowly are
known as viscous liquids while others that flow rapidly are known
as non-viscous liquids. The resistance offered by a liquid to flow is
known as viscosity. It is related to intermolecular forces existing in a
liquid. Different liquids have different values of viscosity due to the
existence of different magnitudes of intermolecular forces. The
comparison of viscosities of various homologues and isomers in a
particular homologous series would give an idea about the
magnitude of intermolecular forces existing in them.
125
Objectives
The objectives of this project are to establish a relationship between
(a) viscosity and molecular masses; and (b) viscosity and nature of
carbon chain in organic compounds.
Principle Involved
Hazard Warning
d1 t1
d2 t2
Material required
Ostwald viscometer, stop-watch, beaker (250 mL), pipette, graduated cylinder, kerosene,
petrol, diesel, methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, propyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, butyl
alcohol, isobutyl alcohol, tert butyl alcohol and amyl alcohol.
Brief Procedure
The viscometer was washed, rinsed with alcohol and dried.
10 mL of the liquid under investigation was filled in it and the time
required for the flow of liquid between two marks of viscometer was
noted with the help of a stop watch. These observation were recorded
in Tables I and II. The viscosities of various liquids were calculated
by the formula discussed under the heading principles involved.
126
Time of flow
(seconds)
Density
(g/mL)
Viscosity
(millipoise)
1.
Water
13.5
10.08
2.
Petrol
8.5
0.8
6.4
3.
Kerosene Oil
22.0
16.4
4.
Dilesel Oil
48.0
18.0
Table 2 : Data for the viscosity vs molecular mass relationship of various compounds
Sl. No.
1.
Water
18
180
10.08
2.
Methanol
32
136
0.79
7.6
3.
Ethanol
46
258
0.78
14.4
4.
Propan-1-ol
60
391
0.8
21.9
5.
Propan-2-ol
60
546
0.79
30.6
6.
Butan-1-ol
74
612
0.81
34.3
7.
Butan-2-ol
74
686
0.80
38.4
8.
2-Methlprapan-1-ol
74
1406
0.79
78.8
9.
Pentan-1-ol
88
784
0.817
43.9
Note : * If the homologues/isomers of alcohols are not available, other suitable compounds, which
are available or are easily manageable can be used for this study.
** Time of flow recorded in the tables are specific for a viscometer and should not be taken as
standard values.
Conclusion
As seen from the Table 1, the viscosities of various hydrocarbon
fractions, i.e. petrol, kerosene and diesel oil are on an average 6.4,
16.4 and 18.0 respectively. Since the molecular mass of these
fractions increases from petrol to diesel oil, this indicates that
viscosity increases with increase in molecular mass. The
intermolcular attractions tend to increase with increase in molecular
mass.
127
Precaution
The viscometer should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before use.
References
KEENAN, C.W.; WOOD, J.H. General Chemistry IVth Edition., Harper
and Row Publishers Inc. New York.
128