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The head loss H in a pipe of given length can be related to the discharge Q by a correlation of the
general form: h = r Qm
Where:
r is a pipe resistance coefficient and the exponent m is a constant. The values to be assigned to r
and m depend on the flow equation being used (i.e. Darcy-Weisbach equation, Colebrook-White
equation, The Hazen-Williams equation).
Network analysis
In any pipe network the number of unknown flows corresponds to the number of pipes in the
network and their evaluation involves the solution of an equal number of simultaneous equations.
These governing equations are of two types:
1. Continuity equations: the algebraic sum of the flows at any node must be zero (flows
into and away from each node must balance).
Consider a pipe network having P pipes and N nodes. The continuity or node equations are of the
general form: Qij + Ei = 0 for any node i
Where:
Qij refers to flow from node i to node j, the subscript j representing nodes connected to
node i.
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Ei is the external supply/demand at node i. The sign convention adopted in this text is that
flow towards a node is considered as positive, flow away from a node is assigned a
negative value
2.
Loop equations: the integrated head loss around any loop must be zero.
Where:
hij = rijQijm is the head loss in the pipe connecting nodes i and j and the summation covers all
pipes which comprise the loop. The sign convention adopted here is that head loss associated
with clockwise flow is considered positive and head loss associated with anticlockwise flow is
considered negative.
Boundary conditions
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The following figures show example of three-loop pipe network indicated supply and demand
values and example of node equations.
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E = H = P/g +Z + V2/2g
Where:
P/g = pressure head: represents the energy per unit weight stores in the fluid due to
pressure under which the fluid is,
Z = elevation head: represent the potential energy
V2/2g = velocity head: represent kinetic energy
E = H= Total head or Energy.
Each term, although ordinarily expressed in meters, represents Newton-meters of energy per
Newton of flowing fluid.
4.3.1
HGL in a piping system is formed by the locus of points located a distance P/g (= p/) above the
centre of the pipe, or P/g + Z above a pre-selected datum. It is a line representing the total head
available to the fluid - minus the velocity head and can be expressed as:
HGL = Z + P/g is the static or piezometric head or hydraulic grade line (HGL), which
represents the level to which a liquid will rise in a piezometric tube.
4.3.2
EGL is formed by the locus of points a distance V2/2g above the HGL, or the distance V2/2g +
p/ + z above the datum. It is a line that represents the total head available to the fluid and can be
expressed as:
EGL = H = p / + v2 / 2 g + Z
For a fluid flow without any losses due to friction (major losses) or components (minor losses),
the energy line would be at a constant level. In a practical world the energy line decreases along
the flow due to losses. A turbine in the flow reduces the energy line and a pump or fan in the line
increases the energy line.
Y3WEE & Y4 CE, S1-2012
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The following hints are useful for drawing HGL and EGL.
As the velocity goes to zero, the HGL and the EGL approach each other. Thus, in a
reservoir, they are identical and lie on the surface.
The EGL and HGL slope downward in the direction of the flow due to the head loss in the
pipe. The greater the loss per unit length, the greater the slope. As the average velocity in
the pipe increases, the loss per unit length incr
increases.
A sudden change occurs in the HGL and the EGL whenever a loss occurs due to a sudden
geometry change as represented by a valve or a sudden enlargement, or reduction.
A jump occurs in the HGL and the EGL whenever useful energy is added to the fluid as
a
occurs with a pump, and a drop occurs if useful energy is extracted from the flow, as in
the presence of a turbine.
At points where the HGL passes through the centerline of the pipe, the pressure is zero. If
the pipe lies above the HGL, there is a vacuum in the pipe, a condition that is often
avoided, if possible, in the design of piping systems; an exception would be in the design
of a siphon.
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Y3, S1-2011
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4.4 HYDRAULIC LOSSES
In any real moving fluid, energy is dissipated due to friction; turbulence dissipates even more
energy for high Reynolds number flows. Head loss is divided into two main categories, "major
losses" associated with energy loss per length of pipe, and "minor losses" associated with bends,
fittings, valves, etc.
For relatively short pipe systems, with a relatively large number of bends and fittings, minor
losses can easily exceed major losses. In design, major losses are estimated by using empirical
formulas or equationa and minor losses are usually estimated from tables using coefficients or a
simpler and less accurate reduction of minor losses to equivalent length of pipe.
4.4.1
Major losses
Major losses or head loss due to friction may be computed from the following formulae:
Darcy-Weisbach formula
Hazen Williams formula
Manning's formula
Combined Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equation
Weisbach first proposed the equation we now know as the Darcy-Weisbach formula or DarcyWeisbach equation:
Therefore,
.
Where:
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
f = friction factor. Some book use
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = average velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s)
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Q = flow rate (m3/s)
The friction factor f generally varies from 0.02 for new smooth pipes to 0.075 for old rough
pipes. However, f depends upon Reynolds number Re = VD/
VD/ and the relative roughness k/D.
For old pipes, . !! "
'
$%
This formula relates velocity of flow, hydraulic mean radius and hydraulic gradient.
Mannings formula
$' (
&
For circular pipes, R = D/4, where D is the diameter.
. ')*
$' (
&
Or the slope S = hf/L
&
.*
.'
&
'
'
(
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n = Mannings coefficient of roughness
As we have seen in Darcy-Weisbach, f depends upon Reynolds number Re and the relative
roughness k/D which can be expressed by Colebrook-White equation. This was plotted by Mood
(1944). So the value of f can be obtained by using Moody diagram.
The friction factor could be fund from The Moody Chart. The Moody Chart or sometimes the
Friction Factor Chart enables a user to plot the Reynolds number and the Relative Roughness of
the pipe and to establish a reasonably accurate value of the friction factor for turbulent flow
conditions.
The Moody Chart encouraged the use of the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor and this quickly
became the method of choice for hydraulic engineers. The development of the personnel
computer from the 1980s onwards reduced the time needed to perform the friction factor and
head loss calculations, which in turn has widened the use of the Darcy-Weisbach formula to the
point that all other formula are now largely unused.
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Moody chart: Friction factor as a function of Reynolds number and relative roughness for round pipes
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Illustrative example 4.5
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The most common method used to determine these head losses or pressure drops
where
KL means (local) loss coefficient. Although KL is dimensionless, it is not correlated in the
literature with the Reynolds number and roughness ratio but rather simply with the raw size of
the pipe. Almost all data are reported for turbulent-flow conditions.
The table below shows the values of KL for different fittings
Fitting
Valves:
KL
Fitting
Elbows:
KL
10
0.3
1.5
0.15
0.2
0.26
0.7
2.1
0.2
17
0.4
infinity
Tees:
0.2
0.9
Flanged
0.2
1.0
Threaded
1.5
2.0
Square Connection
0.5
Square Connection
1.0
Rounded Connection
0.2
Rounded Connection
1.0
1.0
1.0
N.B: for
Where V1 and V2 are respectively the velocity of flow in small and big diameter
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