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Chapter one
INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

What is Research?
Re means again & search means find out something. Research means searching
again & again to find or discover new thing.
Advanced learners Dictionary of current English lays down the meaning of
research as A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge.
Redmen & Mory define Research as a systemized effort to gain new
knowledge.
So, research is a process of finding solution of a specific problem after a
thorough study & analysis of the situational factors.
From the above definition discussion we see that, research is a

Systematic process
Investigation new knowledge
Study of problem
Formulation of solution

The above discussions prove that research is the systematic approach that is
concerned with generalizations & formulation of theory.
Objective of Research
The purpose of research is to find out the answer of the question through
scientific procedure. So, research is the application of scientific procedure. Each
research has its own purpose. The main objective of research is to find out the
truth which is hidden. The objective of research are given below

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1. To gain familiarity: Its objective is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon &
to achieve new insights into it.
2. To represent the characteristics: Another objective of research is to portray
accurately the characteristics of a particular, individual, situation or group.
3. To determine the frequency: Research work is undertaken to determine the
frequency which some occurs and with which it is associated with something
else.
4. To test hypothesis of casual relationship between variables: The research
work is undertaken by the people or researcher to test a hypothesis of a casual
relationship between variables.
5. To find out truth which is hidden: The task of research is to truth which is
not uncovered by anyone till now.
What makes the people to understand research? / Motivation of research.
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the
following
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4. Desire to be of service to society.
5. Desire to get respectability.
6. Desire to understand causal relationship.
Types of research
Basically research is two types
1. Basic/Pure/Fundamental research
2. Applied research

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1. Pure research/ Fundamental research: Research done chiefly to enhance
the understanding of certain problem that commonly occur in organization
setting & seek method of solving them is called pure research.
2. Applied research: Research done with the intention of applying the result of
the findings to solve specific problems currently being experienced in the
organization is called applied research. Ex: A particular product is not selling
well. So the manager can think about or try to find the reason about it & try to
solve.
Further more research can be divided in to the following types
1. Descriptive Vs Analytical: Descriptive include survey to find out the
situation or state of affairs. The main characteristics of this method are that the
research has no control over the variables. It can only report what has happened
or what is happening.
Analytical research is used the fact & information for a critical result.
2. Quantitative Vs qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of the amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed
in terms of quantity. Ex: What percentage of peoples white in our country?
Qualitative research cannot measure the amount. It concerned with qualities
phenomena that means phenomena related to quality or kind. It is important in
the behavioral science. Ex: Why people are white?
3. Conceptual Vs Empirical: Conceptual is related to some abstract ideas or
theory. Mainly Philosophers use these to develop new concepts or interpret
existing ones generally use it.
Empirical research is that when certain variable effect to other variable. It is
data based research coming up with conclusion, which is capable of being
verified by observation or experiment.
Research methodology

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Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a thorough study
and analysis of the situational factors. Methodology refers the way to solve the
problem.
So, research methodology is a way to systematically solve the problem. There
may be a lot of alternative way to solve the problem, which way the researcher
follow and what are the logic behind that are the main study in research
methodology.
Research process
Actually research methodology is the process which includes the series of
actions these are as follows1. Formulating/defining the research problem: problems may be two types.
At first it is needed to define the problem which accurately occurs. The
symptom of the problem must be identified, because symptoms give the alert of
problem. Fever is not a diseases but it is the symptom of diseases. Symptom is
occurred due to the problem.
2. Review the literature: Carefully read the reading materials, other research
work, academic journals, and books and try to get some data. This will provide
data to form hypothesis.
3. Developing the hypothesis: Get some knowledge about the problems. That
means, estimate the problems and solutions. Hypothesis may be right or wrong.
Actually it is the result of first two steps. It will give the idea about the problem.
4. Preparing the research design: Conceptual structure on which the research
is conducted. Build up a framework of the research. Every research/further
research can find the solution of that limitation. It is the blue print of the
research. It fixes up the research objective and the validity of that objective.
5. Collection of data: Various types of data are needed to do research. These
data are may be collected from various sources.
6. Analysis of data: Statistical analysis of data is needed to find out result or
solution of the problem. It is needed to test the validity and significance of data
and prepare situational analysis of the research.

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7. Report writing: On the basis of findings a formal report is prepared showing

the process, design, results. It may include comments of researcher regarding
the problem. Write the report and mention the future scope of research on this
research objective, subject matter, opportunities, limitations, conclusions etc are
mentioned here.

Scientific research or investigation

Scientific research has the focused goal of problem solving and pursues/follows
a step by step logical, organized and rigorous/accurate method to identify
problem, gather data, and draw valid conclusion there from.
Scientific research is not based on hunches/guess, experience
intuition/perception alone but on purposive and rigorous/accurate.

and

furthermore, scientific investigation tends to be more objectives than subjective

and it helps managers to highlight the most critical factors in the workforce that
need specific attention as to avoid minimize on solve problem.
Issues of business research
1. Accounting: Budget, tax, tax recovery etc are the subject matter of
accounting research.
2. Finance: Operation, financial situation, leverage and stock exchange etc are
the subject matter of Finance research.
3. Management: Employee attitude, turnover, lower production etc are the
subject matter of management research.
4. Marketing: Promotion, new product development, customer feedback etc
are the subject matter of marketing research.
Criteria of a good research

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To be a good research it must contain the following matters1. Good research in systematic: It means research have to have some specified
steps, specified sequence and above all a well defined set of rules.
2. Good research in logical: The research rules have some logical reasoning
and have some logical process of induction and deduction.
3. Good research in empirical: Research has to relate with one or more aspect
of a real situation and deals with concrete data.
4. Good research is replicable: Research results to be verified by replicating
the study and building a sound basis of decision.
The hallmarks of scientific research
1. Purposiveness: The research work must have some definite purpose or aim.
2. Rigor: Every research work must have a sound theoretical background and
methodology.
3. Testability: The hypothesis which is taken can be taken with the help of
different data.
4. Replicability: A research can be done by different people in different time.
The similar result will come if the circumstance are the same.
5. Precision and confidence: Precision refers the closeness of the findings.
Confidence refers that the hypothesis which is taken is closely correct.
6. Generalizability: The findings of the research must be generalized to all.
7. Objectivity: The researches have to conduct on the basis of facts not on
fictions or emotions.
8. Parsimony: simplicity in explaining the problems and the application of
solutions to problems.

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Chapter two
RESEARCH DESIGN

Definition of research design.

A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.
In the other words, decision regarding what, when, how, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.
Research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing
research project. It specifies the details of the producers necessary for obtaining
the information needed to structure and solve marketing research problem.
.............N.K.Malhotra
Important consideration for research design
Research design is based on some consideration. These are....
1. What is the study about?
2. Why is the study being made?
3. Where will the study be carried out?
4. What type of data is required?
5. Where can the required data be found?

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6. What periods of time will the study include?
7. What will be the sample design?
8. What techniques of data collection will be used?
9. How will the data be analyzed?
10. In what style will the report be prepared?
Different part of research design.
Research design may be categorized into four categories...
1. Sample design: A sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population. In
sample design all the items are required as universe or population.
2. Observational design: It relates to the conditions under which the
observation is to be made.
3. Statistical design: It concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed.
4. Operational design: It deals with the techniques by which sampling,
statistical and observational design can be carried out.
Important features of research design.
1. Specifying the sources and types of information: It is a plan that specifies
the sources and type of information relevant to the research problem.
2. Specifying the approach: It is a strategy specifying which approach will be
used for gathering and analyzing the data.
3. Including the time and cost budget: It also includes the time and cost
budget since most studies are done under this two constrains.
The research design contains.

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1. A clear statement: A clear statement of research problem should be
contained.
2. Data collection procedures: Procedures and techniques to be used for
collecting data.
3. The population to be studied: Population to be studied or the subject under
the research whom will be used to collect information must be contained.
4. Methods of analyzing data: Methods to be used in processing and analyzing
data must be contained.
Chapter three
RESEARCH PROBLEM

Defining the research problem.

A research problem refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in
the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a
solution for the same.
The components of a research Problem.
1. Individual or group: There must be an individual or a group which has some
difficulty or the problem.
2. Specific objective: There must be some objectives to be attained at. If one
wants nothing, one cannot have a problem.
3. Alternative way: There must be alternatives means for obtaining the
objectives one wishes to attain.
4. Doubt about the alternative: There must remain some doubt in the mind of
a researcher with regard to the concerning the relative efficiency of the possible
alternatives.

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5. Environment: There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty
pertains.
Techniques involved in defining a research problem.
1. Statement of the problem in a general way: Just define the problem
broadly or in a general way
2. Understand the nature of the problem: understand the origin of the
problem from where the problem is arisen and the nature of the problem clearly.
3. Surveying the available literature: surveying all available literature
concerning the problem. Here the problem is examined. The researcher can take
help from the business report, magazine, govt. report, periodical report etc.
3. Developing the ideas through discussion: Here the researcher discuss with
his colleagues and other concerned persons who have enough experience in the
same area.
5. Rephrasing the research problem: Rephrasing the research problem into a
working proposition. Here researcher collects the information about the
problem.

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Chapter four
RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Definition of research proposal

After research design, budgeting and scheduling a written proposal must be
formulated. It gives a time schedule and budget for completing the research.
Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in
the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to
evaluate the proposed study.
Research proposal gives a preview when a study will be undertaken and how it
will be conducted for the approval of the authority.
All research proposals must address the following questions:
1. What you plan to accomplish?
2. Why you want to do it?
3. How you are going to do it?

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Finally the above discussion we can say that a research proposal is intended to
convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have
the competence and the work-plan to complete it.
Discuss the content or elements of research proposal.
While preparing a research proposal, we need to consider the following the
elements....
1. Problems or objectives: It includes....
What exactly you want to study?
Why is it worth studying?
Does it have practical significant?
Does it contribute to construct social theories?
2. Literature review: It includes....
What have others said about this problem?
What theories address it and what they say?
Any research has been done previously?
Any flaws in existing research that you feel you can remedy?
3. Subject for study: It includes....
Whom and what will you study in order to collect data?
Will it be appropriate to select a sample?
Any negative effect to other study or will not do harm to other research?
4. Measurement: It includes....
What are the key variables of measurement?
How you will define it and measure it?
What will be sampling?
5. Data collection method: It includes....
How will you actually collect the data for your study?
Will you conduct an experiment or a survey?
6. Analysis of data: Indicate briefly any analytic tools you will have available
and expect to use. (E.g. NUDIST, AQUAD, SAS. SPSS. SYSTAT.)
7. Schedule: Setting time schedule for accomplishing the several stages of
research.

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8. Budget: When you ask someone to cover the costs of your research, you
need to provide a budget that specifies where the money will go.
How will you prepare a research proposal? Or steps of research proposal.
The research proposal contains the essence of the project and serves as a
contract between the researcher and management. The research proposal covers
all phases of research process. It describes the research problem, the approach,
the design, how the data will be collected, analyzed and reported. Steps are...
1. Executive summary.
2. Back ground.
3. Problem definition or objectives of the research.
4. Approach to the problem.
5. Research design.
6. Data collection or field work.
7. Data analysis.
8. Reporting.
9. Cost and time schedule.
10. Appendix.
Difference between research proposal and research design
Although a research proposal contains a summarized research design, but there
are some distinctions between these two terms, these are as follows...
Subject
Research proposal
matter
1 Definition Research proposal is one kind
of agreement between the
researcher and the authority.
2 Part
Research proposal is the part of
a total research project.
3 Necessity
A research proposal is needed
to start a research.

Research design
Research design is the
conceptual structure within
which research is conducted.
Research design is included in
a research proposal.
Research design is needed for
facilitating the smooth sailing
(running) of the various
research operations.

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4 Agreement Research proposal ensure that
the researcher and management
agreed about the nature of the
project.
5
Aid to
Research proposal helps the
research researcher conceptualize and
execute the research design.
6 Scope of There is no scope of redesign
redesign
the research proposal after
starting the research.
7 Face
Research proposal helps the
frustration researcher to re-energize if any
frustration comes forward in
research.

Research design does not such

kind of agreement, its only
provide a planning for
research to the researcher.
Research design helps to
execute the research operation.
Research design can be
redesign with the consent of
authority.
Research design helps the
researcher to do the research
effectively and efficiently.

Chapter five
VARIABLES

Variables
A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values
can differ at various times for the same object or person, or at the same time for
different objects or persons, such as Production unit, absenteeism, and
motivation.
Types of variables
1. The dependent variable / criterion variable: A dependent variable is one
that is influenced by the independent variable

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2. The independent variable / predictor variable: An independent variable is
one that influences the dependent variable in either a positive or negative way
3. The moderating variable: The moderating variable is one that has a strong
contingent/ conditional effect on the independent variable dependent variable
relationship. That is, the preference of a third variable (The moderating
variable) modifies the original relationship between the independent variable
and dependent variable.
Workers ability

Production unit

Dependent variable

Independent variable

Managerial supervision

Moderating variable

4. The intervening variable: An intervening variable is one that surfaces

between the times the independent variables start operating to influence the
dependent variable and the time their impact felt on it.

Time:

T1

Work force

Independent variable

T2
Creative synergy

Intervening variable

Managerial expertise

T3
Organizational effectiveness

Dependent variable

Moderating variable

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From this chapter, Probable question: Define variable and explain the
relationship among the independent, dependent, moderating and intervening
variable.

Chapter six
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK AND
HYPOTHESIS

Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework is the function on which the entire research project is
based. It is a logically developed, described, and elaborated network of
association among the variables deemed relevant to the problem situation and
identified through processes.
The components of theoretical framework

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A good theoretical framework identifies and labels the important variables in

the situation that are relevant to the problem defined. It logically describes the
inter-connections among those variables. There are 5 basic features that should
be incorporated in any theoretical framework.
1. Identified and labeled the variable: The variable considered relevant to the
study should be clearly identified and labeled in the discussion.
2. Relation of variables: The discussion should state how two or more
variables are related to one another
3. Indication of relationship of variables: If the nature and direction of the
relationships can be theorized on the basis of the findings of the previous
research, then there should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the
relationships would be positive or negative.
4. Explanation about existence of relationship: There should be a clear
explanation of why we would expect these relationships to exist. The arguments
could be drawn from previous research findings.
5. Presence of a schematic diagram: a schematic diagram of theoretical
framework should be given so that researcher can see easily comprehend the
theorized relationships.
Definition of Hypothesis
A hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured/imagined relationship
between two more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement.
Relationships are conjectured on the basis of network of associations
established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study. By
testing hypotheses and conforming the conjectured relationships, it is expected
that solutions can be found to correct the problem encountered. As an example
If the pilots are given adequate training to handle midair crowded situations, air
safety violations will be reduced
Statements of hypothesis: formats

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1. If-Then statements: Ex- If employees are healthier, and then they will take
sick leave less frequently.
2. Directional and non-directional hypothesis: Ex-The greater the stress
experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of employees.
3. Null and alternate hypothesis: The null statement is expressed as no
(significant) relationship between two variables or no (significant) difference
between two groups. The alternate hypothesis which is opposite of the null, is a
statement expressing a relationship between two variables or indicating
differences between them.

Chapter seven
MEASUREMENT & SCALING

What do you mean by measurement and scaling?

Measurement: Measurement means assigning members or other symbols to
characteristics of objects according to certain pre-specified rules.
Scaling: Scaling may be considered as extension of measurement. It involves in
creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located.

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Types of scaling
There are four types of primary scales of measurement. These are as follows1. Nominal scale: A scale where numbers are used to level or tag the objects for
identifying them. For example- social security numbers, football players
numbers, brand numbers.
2. Ordinal numbers: Here numbers are used to indicate the relative positions
of the objects but the extents of differences are not indicated here. For examplecricket team rankings, preference rankings, market positions etc.
3. Interval scale: An interval scale contains all the information of an ordinal
scale but it also allows ones to compare the differences between objects. The
difference between any two adjacent scale values is identical to the difference
between any other two adjacent values of an interval scales. There is a constant
or equal interval between scales values. For example- temperature (Fahrenheit
centigrade).
4. Ratio scale: A ratio scale possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal
and interval scale. It allows the researcher to identify or classify objects, rank
order the objects and compare intervals or differences. For example- length,
weight, age, income, costs, sales etc.

Scaling techniques/ types of scaling techniques

The scaling techniques commonly Scaling
employed
in marketing research can be
techniques
classified into comparative and non-comparative scales.
Comparative scales

Non-comparative scales

Paired comparison
Rank
scales
Constant sum
Q-sort
scaling
& other procedure
Continuous rating
Itemized
scales rating scales
Order scales
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Semantic scale
Staple scale
Likert scale

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1. Comparative scaling techniques: Comparative scales involve the direct

comparison of stimulus objects. For example respondents might be asked
whether they prefer sensation or Black Panther. It includesa. Paired comparison: In paired comparison scaling a respondent is presented
with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. Paired
comparison scales are frequently used when the stimulus objects are physical
objects.
b. Rank order scaling: A comparative scaling techniques in which respondents
are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank
them according to some criterion. For example - rank-1, coca-cola, brand value
69.39 core tk. and rank-2, Microsoft, brand value 61.37 core tk.
c. Constant scaling: In constant sum scaling respondents allocate a constant
sum of units, such as points, dollars, or chips, among a set of stimulus objects
with respects to some criterion.
2. Non-comparative scaling: In non-comparative scaling each stimulus objects
is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set. It is divided into
two partsa. Continuous rating scale: In a continuous rating scale also referred to as a
graphic rating scale, respondents rare the objects by placing a mark at the
appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion
variable to the other. Here the respondents are not restricted to sleeting marks
previously set by the researcher.
High

low
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b. Itemized rating scale: Here the respondents are provided with a scale that
has a number or brief description associated with each category. The categories
are ordered in terms of scale position and the respondents are required to select
the specified category that best describes the object being rated. It includesi. Likert scale: Here the respondents have to indicate a degree of agreements or
disagreement with each of a series of statements about the stimulus objects. A
measurement scale with five response categories ranging from strongly
disagrees to strongly agree which requires the respondents to indicate a
degree.
ii. Semantic differential scale: It is a 7-point rating scale with endpoints
associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
iii. Staple scale: A scale for measuring attitudes that consist of a single
adjective in the middle of an even numbered range of values from -5 to +5
without a neutral point zero. Respondents are asked to indicate how accurately
or inaccurately each term describes the object by selecting an appropriate
numerical response category. The higher the number the more accurately the
term describes the object.

Chapter Eight
DATA

What is data?
A collection of facts from which conclusion can be drawn. Or, distinct pieces of
information usually formulated in a specified way.

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Types of data
Mainly there are two typesa. Primary data: refers to information that is obtained firsthand by the
researcher on the variables for the special purpose of study.
b. Secondary data: refers to information gathered from sources already
existing, like- website, industry analysis, govt. publications etc.
Sources of data
Primary sources:

Secondary sources:

a. Individuals: who provide

a. Various publications of the central,

state or local govt.
b. Various publications of foreign govt.
c. Trade journals
d. Books magazines and newspaper.
e. Reports and publications of various
associations.
f. Report prepared by research scholars
and universities.
g. Public records and statistics and other
published sources.
h. Unpublished sources like- diaries,
letters, unpublished biographies and
autobiographies.

information when interviewed,

administered questionnaire and
observed.
b. Focus group: consists
typically with 8-10 members
with a moderator who discuss
with them at least two hours.
c. Panels of respondent: Like
focus group. Focus group
meets once but panel of
respondent meets several times.

Data collection methods

Two
methods
a. Face
to face interview: Here the researcher meet the respondents face to
face & ask question.
1. Interview method: It involves presentations of oral verbal stimuli and
reply
of oral- verbal
responses.
It can
conductedcollect
in fourthe
ways..
b. Telephone
interview:
Here
the be
researcher
phone numbers of
respondent and call them.
c. Computer assisted interview: Here the researcher computer & internet and
chat with and mail to respondent s to collect data.
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d. Interview through electronic media: Here the researcher collect data with
help of electronic broadcast media like- radio, TV etc.

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2. Observation method: A scientific method of data collection. Here the

researcher directly observes the target respondents and from his observation he
gets data about the respondent group without asking any question to the
respondents.
Difference between primary and secondary data:
Sub. matter

Primary data

1.Definintion Information that is obtained

firsthand by the researcher on the
variables for the special purpose
of study.
2. Purpose
3.Collection
process
4.Cost
5.Time

For the problem at hand

Require high involvement
High
Long

Secondary data
Information that is obtained
from existing sources by the
researcher on the variables
for the special purpose of
study.
For the other problem
Rapid and easy

low
Short
Advantages of Primary data

1. It can be collected from a number of ways like interviews, telephone

surveys, focus groups etc.
2. It can be also collected across the national borders through emails and
posts.
3. It can include a large population and wide geographical coverage.
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4. Primary data is current and it can better give a realistic view to the
researcher about the topic under consideration.
Disadvantages of primary data
1. The questions must be simple. Otherwise the answer may not be accurate.
2. Some respondents do not give timely responses.
3. Sometimes, the respondents may give fake, socially acceptable and sweet
answers and try to cover up the realities.
4. In some primary data collection methods there is no control over the data
collection.
5. Requires huge time.
6. Requires high cost.
Advantages of Secondary data
1. Identify the problem
2. Better define the problem.
3. Formulate an appropriate research design. ( by identifying the key
variables)
4. Interpret primary data more insightfully. .
5. Answer certain research questions and test some hypotheses.
6. Develop an approach of the problem.
7. It is relatively cheap and no prior arrangements are required.

Disadvantages of secondary data

1. Accuracy of secondary data is not known.
2. Data may be outdated.
3. The objectives, nature and methods used to collect secondary data may
not be appropriate to the current situation.
Factors of choice of data collection:
The choice of data collection depends on.
1. The facility available.

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2. The degree of accuracy required.
3. The expertise of the researcher.
4. The time span of the study.
5. Other cost and resources associated with and available for data gathering.
Types of secondary data
Secondary data

External secondary data

Internal secondary data
(Data
(Data that are generated within the
org)that are generated from the

Ready to use

Require further processing

Published secondary
dataservice
Computerized data base
Syndicated
(Published by govt.,
chamber
of commerce,
trade
associations,
Online
database
marketing
research
firms.) information fro
Information
services
offered by
marketing
research
org. that
provided
Internet database
Offline database
(Cd, DVD etc.)

Processing and analyzing of data

Processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected
data so that they are amenable to analysis. It includes the following steps1. Editing: Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data
(specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions to correct these when
possible.

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It is done to ensure that the data are accurate, consistant with other facts
gathered. It can be done in two waysa. Field editing: Here editing is done in running situation. This sort of editing
should be done as soon as possible after the interview, preferably on the very
day or on the next day.
b. Central editing: A single or group editor just corrects the error. Central
editing should take place when all forms or schedules have been completed and
returned to office.
2. Coding: It refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to
answers so that responses can be put into a limited number of categories or
classes. Main function is categories in numbers or symbols to analysis easily.
3. Classification: Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data
which must be reduced into homogenous groups if we are to get meaningful
relationship. Here large data or respondents are categorized on the basis of
common characteristics or classify different classes.
4. Tabulation: It refers to see the whole data at a glance. When a mass data has
been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange concise and
logical order named tabulation to show the entire data at a glance.

Chapter nine
SAMPLING DESIGN

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Sampling design
A definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population. It refers to the
technique or the procedure that the researcher would adopt in selecting items for
the sample.
Issues related in sampling design
1. Population: refers to either group of people, events o things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate.
2. Sample: It is a subset of population. It comprises of some members selected
from it. Some but not all elements of the population would be form the sample.
3. Elements: An element is a single member of the population.
4. Subset: A subset is a single number of the samples just as an element is a
single member of the population.
What do you mean by Sampling?
It is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the
population, so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties
or characteristics would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or
characteristics of the population?
Reasons for sampling
1.
2.
3.
4.

It can save time and money.

It may enable more accurate measurement.
It is the only way when population contains infinite members.
It enables to estimate the errors and thus assists in obtaining.

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Steps in sampling:
At the time of developing a sample design, the researcher must pay attention to
the following steps1. Types of universe: Define the set of objects termed as universe. Two types of
universe are - finite universe and infinite universe.
2. Sampling unit: Sampling unit may be a geographical one like- state, district,
or a construction unit like- house, flat, or social unit like- family or it may be an
individual.
3. Source list: Also known as sampling frame. It should be compr4ehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate.
4. Size of sample: Refers to the numbers of items to be selected from the
universe to constitute a sample.
5. Parameters of interest: Researcher must consider the question of the
specific population parameters which are of interest.
6. Budgetary constraints: Cost consideration from practical point of view.
7. Sampling procedure: Finally the researcher must decide about the technique
to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
Types of sampling designs:
Mainly two types:
1. Probability sampling: Here individual items are picked up form the whole
group. Every item has an equal chance to be included in the sample. It is of
different types
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Random sampling: Selecting sampling by lottery.

Systematic sample: Selecting sample by using the nth elements.
Stratified sampling: Selecting sampling from the sub population.
Cluster sampling: grouping the population and selecting group.
Area sampling: Clusters happens in different area.

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f. Multi-stage sampling: The item is divided by hierarchy in high or
low.
g. Sequential sampling: Sample is not fixed and it comes by survey
process.
2. Non- probability sampling: Here the researcher includes sampling
according to his judgment and opinion. Three types..
a. Convenience sampling: Here researcher select sample according to
convenience.
b. Judgment sampling: Here researcher chooses sample based on his
own judgment.
c. Quota sampling: Here the researcher select sample in such a way so
that every sample acts as representative of all samples of the universe.
Characteristics of good sample design
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It must result in a truly representative sample.

It must result in small sampling error.
It must be viable in the context of funds available for the research.
It must be such systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
It must be such so that results of the sample study can be applied in
general.

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Chapter Ten
QUESTIONNARE

What is Questionnaire?
Questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions through which a
researcher requests the respondents to record their answers for the purpose of
data collection for the research study. It is usually within closely defined
alternatives.
Administration of Questionnaire
Administration of the questionnaire refers to the designing and making a
questionnaire to use in the data collection for any research program. It can be
done in three ways:
1. Personally administered questionnaires: When the questionnaire is used to
collect data directly from the respondent, then it is called as personally
administered questionnaire. Personally administered questionnaires require
some preconditions to be fit:
When a survey is confined in a local area.
Organization is willing and able to assemble the respondents.
2. Mail questionnaires: When the questionnaire is distributed to the
respondents to over mail for feedback after answering the questions. Then it is
called as mail questionnaire.
Advantages of personally administered questionnaire
1. Researcher can collects data within a short period of time.
2. Respondents' doubts and questions can be clarified on the spot.
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3. Researcher can introduce the research topic and motivate the respondents
to answer frankly.
4. Administering questionnaires to the large number of individuals at the
same time is less expensive and consumes less time.
5. It does not require as much skill to administer the questions as to conduct
interviews.
Advantages of mail questionnaires:
1. A large geographic area can be covered.
2. Respondent can send it back in convenient time.
3. 30% returns is acceptable.
Disadvantages of mail questionnaires:
1. Response is low.
2. Doubt of respondents cannot be clarified.
3. Difficult to establish the representation of the sample.
Effective techniques employed for improving the rates of response to mail
1. Sending follow up letters: Researcher can send a follow up letter to the
respondents mentioning the details information about the research topic,
purpose and way to answer to make questionnaire easy to respondents.
2. Some monetary incentive can be given: To motivate the respondents to
answer the questions and send it back, the researcher can give some monetary
incentives along with the questionnaire.
3. Providing self-addressed and stamped return envelopes: To have quick
response researcher can provide self-addressed and stamped envelopes to the
respondents.
4. Keeping the questionnaire short: Researcher can design the questionnaire
small and brief to consume the less time to respondents.
5. Using the name of renowned research organization: Researcher can use
the name of renowned research organization in the introductory cover letter to
charm the respondents and make the program more reliable and valid.

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Guidelines for questionnaire design

Sound questionnaire design principles should focus on three areas1. Principles of Wording.
2. Planning issues of measurement.
3. General appearance of the questionnaire.
These are discussed bellow1. Principles of Wording: It refers to the some factors likea. The Appropriateness of the Contents and purpose of questions: Here the
appropriate contents and the purpose of the questionnaire are considered
according to the subjective and objective variables like respondent's
perceptions, attitudes, age, education etc.
b. Language and wording of the questions: The usage of the language in the
questionnaire depends on the educational level of the respondents, the usage of
the idioms and term in their culture and norms and the frame of preference.
c. Type and forms of the questions: The researcher is to take the decision
about which type of questions will be asked in the questionnaire. The questions
may be

Open- ended versus closed question

Positively and negatively worded questions.
Double-Barreled questions.
Ambiguous question.
Recall-Dependent questions.
Leading question.
Loaded question.
Social desirably question.
Length of questions.

d. The sequencing of the questions: Sequencing the questions chronologically

easier questions to the difficult questions, general questions to specific
questions, primary to final question etc. is also a main task at the time of
designing questionnaire.
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e. The personal data sought from the respondents: The researcher can
include the personal and demographic questions about the age, educational
level, marital status, and income. It is better not to ask the name of the
respondents.
2. Principles of measurement: Here the researcher thinks about the
measurement of scaling, hypothesis, variables etc. which are to be included in
the questionnaires.
3. General appearance of the questions: It is also necessary to pay attention to
how the questionnaire looks. An attractive and neat questionnaire with
appropriate introduction is the pre-condition to char the respondent and to get
reliable data.
Types/forms of the questionnaires
A questionnaire consists of different types of written set of questions. A
question criterion is a vital element to conduct a research program. Questions
may be categorized in different ways. The main forms and types of questions
are described bellow1. Open-ended versus closed: Open-ended questions allow the respondents to
answer them in any way they choose. The researcher here will not provide
boundary. So, respondents are free to answer what they like to choose. For
example-the researcher asks the question to customer or buyer about the price
rate of daily necessary goods. Here the customer can answer according to his
wish.
On the other hand, in the closed questions the respondents have to make choice
among a set of alternatives given by the researcher. For example- the researcher
ask the question to the customer or consumer about the price rate of daily
necessary goods and fix five possible answers to choose any one.
2. Positively and negatively worded questions: A questionnaire that includes
both positive and negative questions is called positively and negatively worded

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question. A good questionnaire should include both positively and negatively
worded questions. The researcher should avoid the double negative and
excessive use of word, because it makes the respondents confused. For
example- Are you satisfied with the service of train? It can be asked negatively
such as- You are not satisfied with the service of train, is it? So, actual
information can be found through negative and positive questions.
3. Double-Barreled question: When different responses come from its support
is called double barreled question. The researcher should avoid double-barreled
question and two or more separate question should be asked. For example- The
quality of Sunsilk shampoo is very high, that is why its sales are decreasing?
The first part's answer is "yes" but the second part's answer is "NO". So, the
researcher can ask in bellow way Is the quality of Sunsilk shampoo very high?
Is it the reason to decrease its sales?
4. Ambiguous question: A question that is not clearly stated or defined is
called ambiguous question. Sometime the language of the question is not only
double-barreled but also ambiguous. For that the respondents become confused
what will be his answer. For example- What about the Bangladesh politics?
Here the respondents will become confused actually what the researcher wants
to know from his answer.
5. Recall-dependent question: A question which may require respondents to
recall past experience that are unclear in their memory is called recalldependent question. For example- If a person, who has completed honors 3rd
year, is asked to state when he first went to the high school, he may not be able
to give the correct answer.
6. Leading question: Questions should not be expressed in such a way that lead
the respondent to give responses that the researcher would like or want them to
give. For example- a question is, "Do you think that the students' politics of
Bangladesh should be banned? Here the respondent is forced in a way to say
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'YES'. But this matter can be asked in bellow way- "To what extent do you think
that the students' politics of Bangladesh should be banned?"
7. Loaded question: A question which is asked to the respondents in an
emotionally charged manner is called loaded question. An example of such
loaded question is- 'To what extent do you think the price rate of daily
necessary goods is high, if the political party decides to go on hartal or strike?'
8. Social desirable question: A question which is asked to the respondents to
find out socially desirable responses is called socially desirable question. The
question should not go against the social norms and believes. If the question
goes against it, then it may have negative impact. For example- 'Do you think
wine should be available in every grocery shops?' In these cases the respondents
may show negative attitudes or may become annoyed, because the question is
against the social value as a Muslim country.
From the above discussion we can say that different types of questions are used
in the questionnaire by the researchers to find out the intended information.

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Chapter Eleven
REPORT WRITING

The report
It is important that the results of the study and the recommendations to solve the
problem are effectively communicated to the sponsor, so that the suggestions
made are accepted and implemented; otherwise all the effort expended on the
investigation would be in vain. Writing the report concisely, and with clarity is
perhaps as important.
Basically there is no hard and first rule for the layout of the research report,
while there is no single report layout or format which is appropriate for all
situations. However the following outline is generally accepted as the basic
format for most of the research project.
1. The title page: The first contain of writing a report is the title. The title page
should state the subject of the report, for whom and by whom the report was
prepared, and the date of completion, submission or presentation.
2. Abstract or summery of the report: Abstract or summery of the report
explain why the researcher project was conducted, what aspects of the problem
were considered, what the outcomes were, and what should be done.

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3. Introduction or background: The details of the research project are found
in the introduction of the report. This section includes Background information
Research problem
Research gap
4. Justification or scope of the research: After analyzing and reviewing
extensive available literature at hand, the researcher can clarify or identify the
concept or knowledge gap. To fill up the knowledge gap is the main purpose of
justification. Here the researcher should answer the following questions

Does the field need reworking?

Is there any gap in knowledge?
Are the expected results useful to the society?
Who might be interested in the result?

5. Literature review: Literature review refers to a direct search to published

works including periodical books, academic journals, govt. report etc that
discuss theory and present empirical result relevant to the topic at hand. The
main purpose of the literature review is to find out the knowledge gap in the
field of proposed research.
6. Framework development: Usually a theoretical framework is developed in
the introductory section. But some research problems require defining many
concepts in detail and that is not possible to complete in the introductory section
hence in this section framework or hypothesis should be explained.
7. Methodology: It is the important part in the research writing process. It
includes
Research design
Population and sampling
Measurement system
Data collection and analysis
Results of analysis

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8. Findings: Findings will be normally the longest section of the report. If the
problem is to be solved, the gathered data must be examined as they relate to
the objectives of the study.
9. Discussion: The discussion of the researcher with the knowledgeable person
about the problem and the findings can narrowly be included in this section.
10. Limitations: When the researcher studies his report, he may face some
limitations. Like a time constraints for completing the work, larger population
etc. these limitations should be reported within their proper perspective,
indicating the accuracy of the interpretation of the results.
11. Conclusion: The conclusion is drawn by inference either inductive or
deductive from the findings. The conclusion verifies or denies the premises or
hypothesis upon which the investigation has been conducted.
12. References: It is the final section of the report preparation. it contains
detailed information of sources from where material s are found including the
books, journals, conferences and various articles, magazine, news papers etc.

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