1. ISO/CEI 12207 standard. Definitions: Process, activity, task.

Type of
processes:Primary,support,organizational.Shortdescription.
ISO/CEI12207:1995STANDARD
Themultitudeandthecomplexityoftheproblemsrelatedtothedevelopment
ofaSWproductimpliedthenecessityofa
systematicalapproach
and
standardization
.
Theresultwas
ISO/CEI12207:1995Standard
havingasmainpurposeto
establishfor
SWindustry
:
oA
commonframework
oA
welldefinedterminology
3.2DEFINITIONS
Definitions:
Inaccordancewiththisstandarda
SWPROJECT
consistsin:
(1)Processes
anassemblyof
resources
and
interdependentactivities
orientedtoawelldefinedpurpose.
(2)Activities
are
partsofaprocess
consistingin
typesofactions
throughwhich,processresourcesareusedforprojectpurpose.
(3)Tasks
are
componentsofactivities
consistinginoneoranassembly
of
actions
oA
task
canberelatedwithapersonoragroupofpersonshaving
theresponsibilityoftheiraccomplishment
oForany
task
mustbeestablishedorestimate
A
resourcesallocation
A
timehorizon
A
cost

3.3TYPESOFPROCESSES
(1)
PRIMARYPROCESSSES
(P)
(2)
SUPPORTPROCESSSES
(S)
(3)
ORGANIZATIONALPROCESSSES
(O)

3.4PRIMARYPROCESSSES
PRIMARYPROCESSES
aretheprocessesdeservingthemainparts(
actors
)
ofaSWproject:
acquisition,supplier,developer,operator(user)and

maintaineroftheproduct
ISO/CEI12207:1995STANDARD
defines
5
PrimaryProcesses
:
(1)
AcquisitionProcess
definestheactivitiesthroughwhichan
organization
acquires
asystem,aproductoraSWservice
(2)
SupplyingProcess
definestheactivitiesthroughwhichan
organization
supplies
asystem,aproductoraSWservice
(3)
DevelopmentProcess
consistsinactivitiesthroughwhichan
organization
definesandelaborates
asystem,aproductoraSW
service
(4)
UtilizationProcess
definestheactivitiesthroughwhichan
organization
utilizes
asystem,aproductoraSWservice
(5)
MaintenanceProcess
definestheactivitiesthroughwhichan
organization
suppliesmaintenance
serviceforasystem,aproduct
oraSWservice
3.5SUPPORTPROCESSES
SUPPORTPROCESSES
areprocesseswhichsupportotherprocesses.They
contributetothe
success
andthe
quality
ofaSWproject.
ISO/CEI12207:1995STANDARD
defines
8
SupportProcesses
:
(1)
DocumentationProcess
includestheactivitiesconcerningthe
definition
and
recording
ofallinformationresultedfromtheSW
developingprocess.
oThatpresumes
userdocumentation
aswellas
documentsrelatedto
developingprocess
:plans,reports,specifications,internal
standards,associateddocuments,internalprocedures.
(2)
SWConfigurationManagementProcess(SCM)
consistsin
administrative
and
technicalprocedures
which
oIdentify,defineandestablishthe
SWconfigurationelements
(components,modules,units,files,datastructures)
oControlthestorage,thehandlingandthedeliveryoftheSW
components
oEstablish
productversions
oEstablish
stateofthecomponents
(functionalities,disfunctionalities,
errors)

oControlthe
modifications
onpassingfromaversiontoanother
(ControlVersionsManagement)
(3)
QualityAssuranceProcess(QA)
definestheassemblyofactivities
whichassureinanobjectivemannerthat
oTherealizedSWproductfulfillthe
specifiedrequirements
oTheimpliedprocessescomplywithasetofestablished
plansand
procedures
(4)
TestingProcess(*)
definestheassemblyofactivitieshavingas
purposethe
verification
oftheproductsresultedfromdeveloping
activities,whichsatisfyimposedrequirementsandconditions.
oTheverificationhasdifferentdegreesofdepthdependingonthe
activitywhoseproductistested
(5)
ValidationProcess(*)
definestheassemblyofactivitieswhich
verifiesifaSWproductwhichisina
finalphase
,
satisfies
theplanned
utilizationrequirements(coverstheusersneedsresultedfromtheanalyze
process)
(6)
CommonAnalyzeProcess(*)
istheprocessof
analyze/evaluation
ofthestateofaprocessorproduct.
oItsaperiodicalprocesswhichinvolvethepartsimpliedinproject
(usuallythedeveloper,thebeneficiaryandthepurchaseror
supplier)
oItfocusesoneithertheanalyzeofSWproductrequirementsorthe
measurementofthepulseoftheproject
(7)
AuditProcess(*)
containstheactivitiesorientedto
certify
the
conformitywithnorms,requirements,schedules,andstatementsofthe
contract
foraproductoraSWprocess.
oInprinciple,theseactivitiesare
similar
withthoserealizedbytest,
validation
or
analyzeprocesses
,withthefollowing
differences
:
o(1)Theyareaccomplished
during
thedevelopmentoftheactivity
ortask,and
not
attheend,asinthecaseoftestorvalidation
process
o(2)Theauditingparthas
no
directresponsibilitiesintheimplied
productsandprocesses,elementthatdifferentiatestheauditing

processfromthecommonanalysisone.
(8)
ProblemsSolvingProcess(*)
includesactivitiesconcerning
analyzeandsolvingofthe
problems
(nonconformities,functionalerrors,
unexpectedsituations)
Obs.
Theprocessesmarkedwith
(*)
(
Testing,Validation,CommonAnalyze,
Audit,ProblemSolving
)canbeutilizedas
techniques
forthe
Quality
AssuranceProcess
3.6ORGANIZATIONALPROCESSES
ORGANIZATIONALPROCESSES
areprocessesrelatedtothe
management,infrastructure,training,andimproving
ISO/CEI12207:1995STANDARD
defines
4
OrganizationalProcesses
:
(1)
ManagementProcess
definesthebasicactivitiesrelatedtothe
managementofanyprocess
(2)
InfrastructureProcess
consistsinalltheactivitiesconcerning
establishing,achievingandmaintainingtheinfrastructureofany
process.
oByinfrastructurewemeanhardware,software,tools,
techniques,standardsandfacilitiesfordevelopment,
exploitationandmaintenance
(3)
TrainingProcess
specifiesthesetofactivitiesfortrainingand
maintainingtheprofessionallevelofthepersonal.
oThemaineffortisdirectedtoimprovetheknowledgeandto
increasethequalificationofthepersonal.
(4)
ImprovingProcess
consistsinthesetofactivitiesorientedto
definition,evaluation,measurement,controlandimprovementofany
process

2.Thecontract.Thecontracttemplate.Typesofcontracts.
TheContract
Its
absolutely necessary
. Half the horror stories about programming involve
eitherbadcontractsornocontractatall.
A
contract
isanagreementbetween
you
anda
customer
thatyouwilldoa
certain
job
within
specificconstraints
for
somuchmoney
.

Dontoperateonthebasisof
verbalagreements
or
casualmemos
,evenif
yourcustomerhappenstobeyourbuddydownthehallandyoubothworkfor
thesameorganization.
Withinyourcompany,youmaycallyourdocumenta
letterofunderstanding
orsomethingsimilar,whichsoundsfriendlierthan
contract
.
Inanycase
,youneeda
formalwrittenstatement
clearlyshowingwhatthe
customer
wants
andwhat
you
agree
toprovide.
Operatingwithoutsuchanagreementislunacyforbothparties,asmany
softwareprojectmanagersandjustasmanycustomershavefoundout.

ContractTemplate
Usuallyacontracthavetocoverthefollowing
essentialselements
:

(1)
Scopeofthework
.
Whatisthe
job
tobedone?
Ifthejobdefinitionistoovague,maybeyouneed
twocontracts:
Oneto
define
thejob
Oneto
write
programs.
(2)
Scheduleanddeliverables
.
What
specificitems(programs,documents)aretobedeliveredtothe
customer?
When
aretheytobedelivered?
Where
aretheytobedelivered?
In
whatform
(diskettes,CDs,draftsorcleandocuments)?
How
many
copies?
(3)
Keypeople
.
Who
isauthorizedto
approvechanges
and
accept
thefinishedproduct?
(4)
Reviewschedule
.
When
and
how
shallthecustomerbegivenreviewsandreportsof
progress?

What
isrequiredofthecustomerifhe
disapproves
ofareport?
(5)
Changecontrolprocedures
.
What
willbethe
mechanism
fordealingwithitemsthecustomerdemands,
whichyouconsider
changes
totheoriginalworkscope?
(6)
Testingconstraints
.
Where
andunderwhose
control
willcomputerorothertesttimebe
obtained?
Duringwhichworkshifts?
Exactlywhatprioritywillyourtestershave?
(7)
Acceptancecriteria
.
What are the specific
quantitative criteria
to be used in judging whether
your
finishedproductis
acceptable
?
(8)
Additionalconstraints
.
Arethereitemswhichmaybe
peculiar
toyourworkingenvironment?
Areyoutousecustomer
personnel
?Ifso,whatcontroldoyouhaveover
them?
Aretherespecial
datasecurityproblems
?
Isthecustomerrequiredtosupply
testdata
?Ifso,whatkindsofdata,in
whatform,when,andhowclean?
(9)
Price
.
Whatisyourpricefordoingthejob?
Isitfixedorvariable?
Ifvariable,underwhatcircumstances?
Alloftheseitemsandmorewill beaddressedinmuchorlessdetailinthe
contract.
The last item,
price
, is handled in a good many differentwaysdepending
onthetype
ofcontractagreedupon.
Hereisabriefsummaryofformalcontracttypes.

Thelasttwo
contracttypes(
Laborhours
and
Levelofeffort
)arepretty
much
riskfree
forthecontractor.Heprovidespeopletodoasthecustomer

directs.
o (2) The other contract types involve
varying degrees of risk
for the
contractor
andthecustomer.

(1)FirmFixedPrice(FFP)
o(a)Theprice
isset
and
not
subjecttochangeevenifyouhaveestimated
badly.
o(b)Thisisthe
mostrisky
typeofcontracttouseonaprogrammingjob.
o (c) It should
never
be used without at least
a very clear statement of
work,
no
fuzzyareas,
no
danglingdefinitions.
o(d)Manyaprojecthasexperiencedseverelossesoperatingundersucha
contract.
(2)FixedPricewithEscalation(FPE)
o(a)Thepriceisset
o(b)Someallowanceismadeforboth
upward
and
downwardadjustments
in
casecertainthingshappen,for
example
,
laborrates
or
materialcosts
change
.
(3)FixedPriceIncentive(FPI)
o(a)Atargetpriceisset
o(b)Someformulasareestablishedthatallowthecontractor:
(1)
Ahigherpercentageofprofit
ifthecontractorexceedsselected
targets,(suchas
cost)
(2)
Alowerpercentageofprofit
(evenaloss)ifthecontractormisses
theselectedtargets.
(4)CostShared(CS)
o (a) This type of contract reimburses the contractor for part or all ofhis
costs
butallows
noprofit
,or
fee
o(b)Itsusedeither:

(1)For
researchwork
with
nonprofitorganizations
(2)In
jointprojects
betweenthecustomerandthecontractorwhere
thereis
anticipatedbenefit
tothecontractor.
For
example
,thejobmayresultinaproductforwhichthe
contractorwillhavethe
exclusiveright
tosell..

(5)CostPlusIncentiveFee(CPIF)
o(a)Thecontractorwillbepaid
allhiscosts
plusa
fee
o(b)The
fee
varies
dependingon:
(1)Howclosethecontractorcomestomeeting
theestablishedtarget
costs
(2)Howwellhedoesinotherareasspelledoutinthecontract.
o (c) The
criteria
which determine the fee must be
objective
and
measurable
(6)CostPlusAwardFee(CPAF)
.
o(a)IssimilarwithCPIF
o (b) The difference is the
criteria
which are
more subjective
and are
weighed
bya
BoardofReview
.
(7)CostPlusFixedFee(CPFF)
o(a)Thecontractorispaid
allowablecosts
andaset
fee
.
(8)Time&Materials(T&M)
o(a)Thecontractorispaidfor
laborhours
actuallyworkedandthe
costof
materials
used.
(9)LaborHour(LH)
o(a)
Laborhours
arepaidfor,butnothingelse.
(10)LevelofEffort(LOF)
o(a)IssimilarwithLaborHourstypeofcontract
o(b)Theeffortispaid,butnothingelse.

3.Projectplanoutline.ShortdescriptionofthecontentsoftheProjectPlan
Sections
.


ProjectPlanOutline
Thetoughestpartofanywritingjobis
gettingstarted
.
Thatisthereasonfor
isrecommended
tostartwitha
predefined
Project
PlanOutline
.
Itshouldbe:
o(1)A
model
publishedinliterature
[Me81],[Kr99],
o(2)A
model
developedin
yourorganization
basedonyour
history
and
experience
.
Useitasa
starter
,
modify
ittosuityoursituation,andyoureontheway.
Startingwiththe
ProjectPlanOutline
hasmany
advantages
:
o(1)You
wontwastetime
tryingtodecidehowtobreakupthe
planningjob.
o(2)Thisoutlinehas
builtincredibility
becauseithasbeencontributed
tobymanyexperiencedprogrammingmanagers.
o(3)Having
any
outlinetouseasastarterhelps
reduce
thenumberof
rewrites
,savinghundredsofmanhourslater.
ProjectPlanSections
.:
(1)Overview
o
(2)PhasePlan
o
(3)OrganizationPlan
o
(4)TestPlan
o
(5)ChangeControlPlan
o
(6)DocumentationPlan
o
(7)TrainingPlan
o
(8)ReviewandReportingPlan
o
(9)InstallationandOperationPlan
o
(10)ResourcesandDeliverablesPlan
o
(11)Index
7.3.1Overview
The
overview
sectionoftheplanhassomeimportant
purposes
:
o(1)First,itassumesthatthereader
knowsnothing
abouttheproject
anditintroduceshimtothe
job
andtothe
customer
.

o(2)Second,itdescribesthe
generalorganization
oftheplan.
o(3)Presentsthe
assumptionsandrestrictions
onwhichtheplanis
based.
o(4)Establishesa
grossschedule
fortheproject.
o(5)Refersforshortto
technicalaspects
.
o(6)Makesa
riskanalyze
oftheproject.

7.3.2PhasePlan
Theobjectiveofthissectionistodefinethe
developmentcycle
fortheproject.
The
PhasePlan
servesasa
foundation
forsubsequentplanelements.
oItishighlyrecommendedtoadoptadevelopmentcycleastheone
presentedinthiscourseoranother.
Foreachphaseofthe
Lifecycle
describethe
primary
andthe
secondary
objectives
.
oThe
PhasePlan
shouldendwitha
chart
similartofig.7.3.2.abutwith
datesincluded.

o(7)It
summarizes
the
entireplan
bygivinga
capsuledescription
ofthe
detailedplanelementsthatfollowthe
Overview
.
7.3.3OrganizationPlan
OrganizationPlanelementshoulddefine:
o(1)The
organization
duringthevarious
phases
oftheproject.
o(2)The
specificresponsibilities
of
eachgroup
withinthe
organization.
Theoutlineofthe
PhasePlan
ispresentedinfig.7.3.3.a.
o(1)Itpresentsfirstthe
groups
andtheir
generalresponsibilities
.
o(2)For
eachphase
ofthe
developmentcycle
,the
specific
organization
and
groups'responsibilities
aredetailed.

7.3.4TestPlan
Thissectiondescribesthe
tools
,
procedures
,and
responsibilities
for
conductingalltestinglevelsontheproject.(Fig.7.3.4.a.)
TheTestPlanshouldclearlydefine:

o(1)The
levelsoftest
(forexample,
moduletest,integrationtest,
systemtest,acceptancetest,sitetest)
.
o(2)
Responsibility
forexecutingeachlevel.
o(3)
Machinesupport
requiredforeachlevel.
o(4)
Supportprograms
or
tools
required.
o(5)The
reporting
oftestresults.
Foreach
testlevel
theTestPlanmustdefine:
o(1)Thetestobjectives.
o(2)Thetestresponsibility.
o(3)Thetestprocedures.
o(4)Thetestentrycriteria.
o(5)Thetestexitcriteria.
o(6)Thetesttools.

7.3.5ChangeControlPlan.
Controllingchanges
inthedevelopingprogramsystemisoneof
managementsmostvitalfunctions.
Thissectiondefines:
o(1)The
kindsofchanges
tobecontrolled.
o(2)The
mechanism
foreffectingthatcontrol.

7.3.6DocumentationPlan.
Thisisa
key
section,butitsusuallymissing.
Itsintentistocontrolthegushofpaperthatinevitablyaccompaniesmost
projects.
oOneimportantcauseofoursooftengettingburiedunderpaperisthat
wedonttakethetimeto
definethedocuments
wewanttouseonthe
project.
oAsaresult,wheneveraprojectmemberneedstowritesomething,he
dreamsup
hisownformat
andsuddenlythereisanewkindof
documenttofileandkeeptrackof.
The
DocumentationPlan
isagatheringplaceinthe
ProjectPlan
forthe
descriptions
of
allpaperwork
tobeusedduringtheproject.


7.3.7TrainingPlan.
Generally,therearetwocategoriesof
training
requiredonaproject:
o(1)
Internal
trainingyourownpeople.
o(2)
External
trainingthecustomerandothers.
Trainingisoftenawardedlittleornospaceinaplan,butthisomissioncanbe
seriousonsomejobs.
oThe
TrainingPlan
definesallthe
kinds
of
internal
and
externaltraining
required,the
res
ponsibility
foreach,andthe
resources
required

7.3.8ReviewandReportingPlan
Theobjectiveofthisplanelementistodefine
howprojectstatus
willbe
communicated
by:
oOralprojectreviews.
oWrittenreports.
oStructuredwalkthrough.
oInspections.
StructureWalkthrough'sandinspectionsarediscussedindetaillater.
oTheyare
not
intendedasameansof
reportingstatus
tomanagement,
buttheyareanimportantmeansofhelpingprojectmembers
assess
thequality
oftheproductstheyaredeveloping.

7.3.9InstallationandOperationPlan
Thisdescribesthe
procedure
forgettingyourfinished,acceptedprogram
systeminstalledandoperatingproperlyinitsintendedenvironment,perhaps
atsomemissiledefensesite,perhapsinthecomputingcenterdownthehall.
The
outline
ofthisplanispresentedinfig.7.3.9.a.
Theplancontainstochapters:
o(1)
Installation.
o(2)
Operation.
Eventhesimplestofprogramscanbecome
snarled
insuchproblemsashow
toconvertfromanexisting,perhapsmanual,systemtothenew,

computerizedsystem.

7.3.10ResourcesandDeliverablesPlan.
Thisplanelementbringstogetherinoneplacethe
criticaldetails
associated
withyourplan:
o(1)Manpower.
o(2)Computertime.
o(3)Otherresources.
o(4)DeliveryschedulesAsummaryofallitemsthatyouaretodeliver
underyourcontract.
o(5)MilestonechartAsummaryofprojectmilestones.
o(6)Budget.
The
outline
ofthisplanispresentedinfig.7.3.10.a.
Thesedataareamongthe
mostfrequentlychangedorconsulted
,sothey
shouldbegatheredinoneplacetomakethemeasiertofindandeasierto
change.

7.3.11PlanIndex
Itsoneofthemosteffectivewaytomakeyour
ProjectPlan
muchmore
attractive
and
usable
tothereader.
8WritingAcceptanceCriteria
Discussionofacceptancetestingwillbeincludedunderthe
Acceptance
Phase
inChapter8.
Buttheactualworkofpreparingfor
acceptance
beginshere,inthe
Definition
Phase
.
Whatdeservesparticularemphasisnowisthatthe
criteriaforacceptance
mustbe
agreed
toearlyandinwriting.
Dontlaborthroughanentireproject
without
knowing
exactly
what
conditions
yourproductmustsatisfyinordertobe
acceptable
tothe
customer
.

4. Manager's Job: Assign the work (persons, domains). Working hours

(normal,supplementary, flexytime,deadline)Contextofusing,advantages,
disadvantages
.

The
managers
jobis:
o(1)
Toplananactivity
o(2)
Toseethatitiscarriedout
.

Themanagersjobisthe
promotion
ofexcellence
.
oSimplygettinga
task
done,meeting
deadlines
,livingwithin
budgets
,
rewarding
workers
fairly,pleasingthe
customer
,maintaining
personal
and
companyintegrity
,etc.theseare
essential
,but
not
enough
.
Themanagershould
always
:
oBelookingforwaystoprovidean
excellentproduct
.
oAtthesametimeensurethe
personalsatisfaction
and
careergrowth
ofhis
people.
oThosethingsgohandinhand
An
excellentproduct
willenhancethe
careers
ofitsmakers.
Growing
and
satisfiedpeople
willproducea
betterproduct
.

PersonsAssignment
Thesolutionis
simple
.
First,
assignaspecificpersonforanyjob.
oTheideathata
busyexecutive
canbe
actingmanager
ofa
majorproject
in
his
sparetime
is
ridiculous
.
oBettertoappointaslightly
lessqualified
person
tothe
job
fulltime
than
to
assignthejobto
anactingmanager
who
cantdevote
enoughtime
todothe
jobjustice.
Nowsupposethat
you
havebeen
assigned
as
manager
ofa
project
or
proposal
effort.
o(1)Youmustfirstgainan
understanding
ofthe
job
.

o(2)Thenmakeanattemptat
breakingup
the
job
and
assigning
pieces
ofitto
individuals
.Butthisis
not
enough.
o(3)Youmust
writedown
adescriptionof
eachpersonsjob
.Noexception!
Writeitdown!
o(4)Then
give
acopyof
all
assignments
to
everyone
.
Thefirstthingthatwillhappenisthathalfyourcrewwillcomestorming
intocomplainthat
someoneelses
jobassignment
bitesintotheir
territory
.
Ifyoure
lucky
,someonewillcomeinandpointoutthat
nobodys
assignment
covers
areaX.
o(5)Afteryouvehadacoupledaysofcomplaints,andpeoplehavechewedon
theassignmentsenough,
setup
a
meeting
totalkover
theproblems
thathave
beenbroughtyou.
o(6)Then
rewrite
the
assignments
,
pass
themoutagain,and
wait
thesecond
round
ofblasts.
o(7)Itmaytakea
coupleofrepetitions
,someofthemeetingsmaybe
uncomfortable,butsoonyoullhavejobdescriptionsthat
dont
overlap
and
do
cover
what
needstobedone
.

DomainsAssignment
An
alternateapproach
is:
o(1)To
assign
work
bytopic
only,and
leteachone
writehis
ownwork
description
.
o(2)Thenyou
alter
theminwhateverwayyouseefit,andpassthemout.

NormalWorkingHoursAllocation
WorkingHours
areallocatedto
tasks
,basedon:
o(1)Apriori
estimation
ofthetaskssize.
o(2)Apreestablished
schedule
.
Every
programmer
,
manager
or other
implied people
must have an
evidence
of
the
personalworkingtime
.

Firstandsecondlevel
managers
musthavethe
evidence
oftheworkingtimefor
theirs
teams
asbasisfor
control
.
ProjectManager
musttohaveanimageofthe
totalworkingtime
spentonproject
developmentasbasisfor
control
.
5.6.2SupplementaryWorkingHours
Ifyoure
relativelynew
tothecomputerprogrammingbusiness,perhapsyouhave
not
yet taken part in
panic projects
where everything was late andmanagement
had
toresorttothat
ultimateremedy
:
scheduledovertime
.
It'shardtodemonstratethatthereisamuch
worse
wasteofresources
thanthis.
oThereisa
naturaltemptation
tothinkthatbyworkingagivensetofpeople
25%
morehoursaweek
,25%
morework
willgetdone
Somemanagerseventhinkthat
crashovertimeefforts
helptobringthe
troops
together
andthatdevelopsastrong
feelingofcamaraderie
.

FlexyTimeTechnique
Thereissomethingelsetoconsiderabout
workinghours
.
Variouscompanieshave
experimented
withthe
idea
of
lettingemployees
settheir
ownhours
.
o(1)Generally,the
totaltime
tobeworked
eachday
is
set
,but
starting
and
endingtimes
areallowed
tofloat
.
o(2)Thiscanbefurther
liberalized
by
setting
a
numberofhours
for,say,an
entireweek
,and
leaving
thespecificdaysorhoursuptothe
individual
.

DeadLineTechnique
Carrieda
stepfurther
,
hours
mightbe
eliminated
asameasureofworkorworth.
The means of measurement or control might be that the employees complete a
given
taskbysome
predetermineddate
.
oThisis
deadlinetechnique
.


Subiect2

2. Size estimation methods. Describe a size oriented method + function

orientedmethod
.

4.OrganizationModalities.Conventionalorganization,Teamorganization,
Chiefprogrammerorganization.

OrganizationModalities
Thereareanumberofbasicwaysof
organizingpeople
todoajob:
o(1)
Functionalorganization
.
o(2)
Jobshoporganization
.
o(3)
Projectorganization
.
(1)
Functionalorganization
oTheProjectManager
borrowspeople
fromgroupsofspecialistswithinthe
company.
oEachspecialist
isonloan
toPMtodohispartofthejob,andthenhesgone
onloantothenextmanagerwhoneedshisskills.
Thisarrangementgivestheprojectmanager,
littlecontrol
becausethe
manonloanislikelytobemoreconcernedwithhishomeorganization
thanwithyourproject.
Typically,PMhas
littleornosay
aboutwhomheget,andhecanbe
frustratedbysubstitutionsmadebeforehisjobisfinished.
oPerhapsworsethanthattherewillbe
littleorno
continuity
ofpeople
onjob.
oIntheworstcase:
The
analysts
come,theyanalyze,theyleave.
The
designers
come,theydesign,theyleave.
Andthesameforthe
programmers
.
(2)
Jobshoporganization
oTheprogramsystemis
brokenup
intoseveral
majorsubsystems
.
oA
manager
andhis
group
isassignedwith
totalresponsibility
fordeveloping

thatsubsystemanalysis,design,programming,theworks.
Herethe
big
problemisthat
nobody
hashiseyeonthe
system
becausethemanagersareconcernedonlywiththesubsystems.
oA
jobshoparrangement
worksiftherearetobedoneanumberofrelatively
small
,
unrelatedjobs
(inotherwords,
not
asystem).
Ifyoureamanageraccustomedtoajobshoporganizationandare
abouttomanagethedevelopmentofasystem,rememberthatwhat
workedbeforemay
not
worknow.
(3)
Projectorganization
oNeitherfunctionalnorjobshoporganizationisappropriateforproducinga
system.
Thekindoforganizationneededhereis
projectorganization
.
oWhatisimpliedinanysucharrangementis:
(1)Thepeopleinvolveddevotetheirefforts
toasingleproject
.
(2)Theyareallunderthecontrolof
asingleprojectmanager
.
o
Projectorganization
maytake
manyforms
.
Everycompanyhasits
rules
aboutlinesofauthority,degreeof
autonomy,reportingtooutsidemanagement,andsoon.
Ignoring such considerations, we may discuss
project organization
intermsof
twoquitedifferent
approaches
:
(1)
Conventionalorganization
.
(2)
Teamorganization
.

ConventionalOrganization
Figure 6.2.1.a illustrates two conventional ways to organize a
medium size
project.
Theonlyreal
difference
between
(a)
and
(b)
is
thenumber
of
managementlevels
betweentheprojectmanager,andthepeoplewhodothetechnicalwork.
Thechoiceof
(a)
or
(b)
dependson
projectmanager'sstrengthsandweaknesses

andthoseofthe
managers
whoareavailabletohim.
o(1)Ifthe
projectmanager
is
technicallystrong
,abletoabsorbmuch
detail
,
andcanhandleasmanyasseven
managers
reportingtohim(ahefty
number),then
(a)
mightwellbethechoice.
The
danger
hereisthattheprojectmanagermaybecomeswampedin
details,losesightof
broaderprojectobjectives
,andlose
control
.
o(2)Ifthe
projectmanager
prefersto
delegatemoreresponsibility
sothathe
canconcentrateontheimportantproblemsthatarise,then
(b)
mightbethe
choice.
Inthatcasetheprojectmanagerhasfourmanagersreportingtohim.
Eitherwaytheprojecthas
many
managers
(sevenoreightbesides
project
manager)
,andthatmayhorrifytheboss"
Wherearetheworkers!?
".
o(1)Infact,these
managers
are
not
paperworkshufflers.
o(2)Sincetheyareverymuchinvolvedin
technicaldecisions
,the
ratio
of
managerstoworkersis
not
sobadasitlooks.

TeamOrganization.ChiefProgrammerTeam
The
teamapproach
isawayoforganizingarounda
groupofspecialists
.
oTheembodimentoftheapproachinprogrammingiscalledthe
Chief
ProgrammerTeam
.
IBMs
HarlanMills
,
originator
of theconcept, comparesthe
ChiefProgrammer
Team
to
a surgical team
, where a
chief surgeon
plans
and
performs
anoperationwith
vital
help
andbackupfrom
highlyskilledassistants
,bothsurgeonsandnonsurgeons.
oWhatfollowsisanoverviewofhowthis
idea
isputinto
practice
.
2.2.1HowItWorks
The
core
ofa
ChiefProgrammerTeam
wouldnormallybe
three
people
:
o(1)
Chiefprogrammer
.
o(2)
Backupprogrammer
.
o(3)
Technicallibrarian
.


The
ChiefProgrammer
o
Chiefprogrammer
isthe
technicalmanager
responsible
forthe
development
oftheprogramsystem.
oThispersonwillnormallywriteatleastthe
critical"system"modules
thatis,
theportionoftheprogramsystem
exercisingcontrol
over,and
interfacing
with,allthelowerlevel"working"modules.
oDependingonthetotalsizeandcomplexityofthejob,heandthebackup
mightwritethe
entire
programsystem
.
Where
others
areinvolved,thechiefprogrammer
assignswork
tothem
and
integrates
alltheir
modules
withhisown.
oThe
chiefprogrammer
isthemain
interface
withthe
customer
,atleastin
technicalmatters
Theremaybea
managerialcounterpart
whohandlesnontechnical
tasks.

Subiect4
2.Changecontrol.Baselinedocuments.Controlprocedures

ChangeControl
The most important
function
of
Analysis and Design Group
is to carry out the
change
controlprocedures
whichwillbedescribedlater.
Thismeans:
o
(1)Investigating
proposedchanges
.
o
(2)Recommendingadoption
or
rejection
.
o
(3)Documenting
the
results
.
Thegroupactsasa
filter
.
oItrelievesotherprojectmembers,particularlytheprogrammers,frommuchof
theburdenofdiggingintoa
proposedchange
andtrackingdownthe
consequences
of
makingthechange
.
Onmanyprojectsthe
investigationofachangeproposal
fallsonthe
programmer
.

Theprogrammerisconstantly
sidetracked
fromhismainjobtorun
downthisorthatideasuggestedbythecustomerorbysomeoneinhis
ownorganization.
oWhenapersonisdoingsomethingaslogicorientedas
programming
,every
interruption
meansa
lossofefficiency
.
Whentheinterruptionends,hemustsay,"
Now,wherewasI
?"
Inadditiontothewastedtimebacktracking,hemaywellendupwitha
bug
atthepointofinterruption.
Veryoftenthefrustrationofconstant
interruption
causesthe
programmertogivea
hasty
answerandtoagreetothechangejustto
gettheproblemoffhisbacksothathecangetonwithhis
programming.

BaselineDocuments
First, you must decide
what
to control
against, that is,
what
are the things you
want
touseas
foundations
,or
baselines
.
Metzger
recommends
two
baselinedocuments
:
o(1)The
ProblemSpecification
.
o(2)The
DesignSpecification
.
If
youput youreffortintomakingthesetwodocuments
fine
piecesofwork
inthe
first
placeandsetupyour
procedurestocontrolchanges
tothem,thenitshardtogo
wrong
.
oConversely,ifyourbaselinedocumentsare
shallow
and
poorlydone
,orifyou
falltocontrolchangestothem,itshardtogo
right
.
Thereisa
third
kindof
baseline
youmayneedtoconsider.
oThetwomentionedaboveare
established
early
inthedevelopmentcycleand
are
used
toguideproduction
oftheprogramsystem.
oIfyouareresponsiblefor
maintenance
orfor
moreversions
ofthesystem
beyond the initial delivery, then(3) The
DeliveredProgramSystem
becomesa
newbaseline
.

oInotherwords,inworkingonasecondorthirdornthversionoftheprogram
system,youmayusethe
lastdelivery
as
thebaseline
.
Here,however,wewilldiscussonlya
singledelivery
developmentcycle
.

ControlProcedures
If we agree on
controlling change
against the
Problem Specification
and the
Design
Specification
, we can now consider a
simple control mechanism
that you can
tailor
tofityourneeds.
Wheneveran
individual
seesaneedfora
change
thathethinksmayaffectoneof
the
baselines
the
folowingsteps
aretobeaccomplished:
o(1)Heproposesa
formalchange
.
o(2)The
AnalysisandDesignGroup
analyzes
theproposedchangeand
recommends
adoption
or
rejection
.
o(3)Therecommendationisthensubmittedtothe
ChangeControlBoard
whichmakesits
decision
,subjecttooverridebyeitheryouorthe
customer
.
o(4)The
AnalysisandDesignGroup
documentsthedecision,andthe
change,ifadopted,is
implemented
.
Nowletstakeacloserlookathowthisproceduremightwork.
(1)
Proposingachange.
o
Anyone
,eitherinyourorganizationorthecustomerscanproposeachange.
Todoso,asimple
ChangeProposalform
isfilledoutthatdescribesthe
need
forthechange,and,ifpossible,the
waytomake
thechange.
o
Asa
rule
,aprogrammerproposesachange
only
ifhethinksoneofthe
baselines
mightbeaffected.
A
ChangeProposal
is
not
submittedeverytimeapieceofdetailed
designforamoduleisslightly
altered
.
oThereis
one
kindof
change
thatfalls
outside
thisformalcontrolprocedure,
butitmustbementionedinpassing:
Supposea
programmer
wantstomakeachangetooneofthe
modules
alreadysubmitted
forintegration
test
.
Thechangeaffects
neither
theProblemSpecification
nor
the

DesignSpecification
,
but
itdoesaffectthedetaileddesignthe
CodingSpecification
forthemodule.
Thechangemightbetocorrecta
latefoundbug
ortoimprovea
pieceofcode
.
Whetherornot
toaccept
the
change
inthiscaseshouldbeupto
whoever
isinchargeof
integrationtesting
involvingthatmodule.
Ifthe
change
makessense,itshouldbe
accepted
only
inthe
formofa
newcopy
oftheprogram
module
,a
corrected
Coding
Specification
,andan
updated
moduleidentification
.
Nochange
shouldeverbeacceptedwithoutachangeinthe
moduleidentifier
.Everytimeyouletonethroughyou
lose
alittle
more
control
.

Subiect3

4.TheTestingPhaseTestPlanTestExecutionTypesoftests
THESYSTEMTESTPHASE
The
systemtestphase
isthephasetoughesttosell.
Bothmanagersandprogrammers resistit,and yetitsas
critical
asanyperiodon
the
project
.
The
systemtestphase
objectives
are:
o(1)The
mainobjective
is:
Tosubjecttheprogrammersproductstoathorough
setoftests
neither
designed
nor
executedbythe
programmers
.
Runin
asnearlya
liveenvironment
aspossiblewitha
minimumof
simulation
.
o(2)A
secondobjective
istobegin
training
the
customer
tobereadytotake
overthenewsystem.