Brewing

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"Brewer" redirects here. For other uses, see Brewer (disambiguation).

This article is about the brewing of beer. For making tea, see Tea brewing. For homebrewing,
see Homebrewing. For other uses, see Brewing (disambiguation).

A 16th-century brewery

Brewing is the production of beer by steeping a starch source (commonly cereal grains) in water
and fermenting the resulting sweet liquid with yeast. It may be done in a brewery by a
commercial brewer, at home by a homebrewer, or by a variety of traditional methods such as
communally by the indigenous peoples in Brazil when making cauim.[1] Brewing has taken place
since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence suggests that emerging
civilizations including ancient Egypt[2] and Mesopotamia brewed beer.[3] Since the nineteenth
century the brewing industry has been part of most western economies.
The basic ingredients of beer are water and a fermentable starch source such as malted barley.
Most beer is fermented with a brewer's yeast and flavoured with hops.[4] Secondary starch
sources (adjuncts), such as maize (corn), rice, or sugar, may also be used. [5] Less widely used
starch sources include millet, sorghum and cassava.[6] The amount of each starch source in a
beer recipe is collectively called the grain bill.
Steps in the brewing process
include malting, milling, mashing, lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning, filtering,
and packaging. There are three main fermentation methods, warm, cool and spontaneous.
Fermentation may take place in an open or closed fermenting vessel; a secondary fermentation
may also occur in the cask or bottle.

Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Ingredients

3 Brewing process

4 Mashing
4.1 Lautering

5 Boiling
o

5.1 Brew kettle or copper

5.2 Whirlpool

5.3 Hopback

5.4 Wort cooling

6 Fermenting
6.1 Fermentation methods

6.1.1 Warm fermentation

6.1.2 Cool fermentation

6.1.3 Spontaneous fermentation

7 Conditioning

8 Filtering

9 Packaging

10 Brewing methods

11 By-products

12 Brewing industry

13 References

14 External links

History[edit]
Main article: History of beer
Brewing has taken place since around the 6th millennium BC, and archaeological evidence
suggests emerging civilizations including ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia brewed beer.
Descriptions of various beer recipes can be found in cuneiform (the oldest known writing) from
ancient Mesopotamia.[2][7][8] In Mesopotamia the brewer's craft was the only profession which
derived social sanction and divine protection from female deities/goddesses, specifically: Ninkasi,
who covered the production of beer, Siris, who was used in a metonymic way to refer to beer,
and Siduri, who covered the enjoyment of beer.[3]

Ingredients[edit]

Malted barley before roasting

The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, such as malted barley, able to be
fermented (converted into alcohol); a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation; and a
flavouring, such as hops,[4] to offset the sweetness of the malt.[9] A mixture of starch sources may
be used, with a secondary saccharide, such as maize (corn), rice, or sugar, often being termed
an adjunct, especially when used as a lower-cost substitute for malted barley.[5] Less widely used
starch sources include millet, sorghum, and cassava root in Africa, potato in Brazil, and agave in
Mexico, among others.[6] The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called
the grain bill.
Water
Beer is composed mostly of water. Regions have water with different mineral components; as a
result, different regions were originally better suited to making certain types of beer, thus giving
them a regional character.[10] For example, Dublin has hard water well suited to making stout,
such as Guinness; while Pilsen has soft water well suited to making pale lager, such as Pilsner
Urquell.[10] The waters ofBurton in England contain gypsum, which benefits making pale ale to
such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known
as Burtonisation.[11]

Starch source
Main articles: Malt and Mash ingredients
The starch source in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the
strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain.
Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin germination, and then drying the
partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that will allow conversion
from starches in the grain into fermentable sugars during the mash process. [12] Different roasting
times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain.
Darker malts will produce darker beers.[13]
Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because of its fibrous
husk, which is important not only in the sparging stage of brewing (in which water is washed over
the mashed barley grains to form the wort) but also as a rich source of amylase,
a digestive enzyme that facilitates conversion of starch into sugars. Other malted and unmalted
grains (including wheat, rice, oats, and rye, and, less frequently, maize (corn) and sorghum) may
be used. In recent years, a few brewers have produced gluten-free beer made with sorghum with
no barley malt for people that cannot digest gluten-containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye.[14]
Hops
Main article: Hops

Hop cone in a Hallertau, Germany, hop yard

Hops are the female flower clusters or seed cones of the hop vine Humulus lupulus,[15] which are
used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today.[16] Hops had been
used for medicinal and food flavouring purposes since Roman times; by the 7th century
in Carolingian monasteries in what is now Germany, beer was being made with hops,[17] though it
isn't until the thirteenth century that widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is recorded.
[18]
Before the thirteenth century, beer was flavoured with plants such asyarrow, wild rosemary,
and bog myrtle, and other ingredients such as juniper berries, aniseed and ginger, which would
be combined into a mixture known as gruit and used as hops are now used; between the
thirteenth and the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring,
beer flavoured with gruit was known as ale, while beer flavoured with hops was known as beer.[19]
[20]
Some beers today, such as Fraoch by the Scottish Heather Ales company and Cervoise
Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company, use plants other than hops for flavouring. [21]
[22]

Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer: they contribute a bitterness that
balances the sweetness of the malt; they provide floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours;
they have an antibiotic effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable

microorganisms; and they aid in "head retention", the length of time that a foamy head will last.
[23]
The preservative in hops comes from the lupulin glands which contain soft resins with alpha
and beta acids.[24][25] Though much studied, the preservative nature of the soft resins is not yet fully
understood, though it has been observed that unless stored at a cool temperature, the
preservative nature will decrease.[26][27] Brewing is the sole major commercial use of hops.[28]
Yeast
Main articles: Brewer's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Saccharomyces uvarum
Yeast is the microorganism that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast metabolises the
sugars extracted from grains, which produces alcohol and carbon dioxide, and thereby
turns wort into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour.
[29]
The dominant types of yeast used to make beer areSaccharomyces cerevisiae, known as ale
yeast, and Saccharomyces pastorianus, known as lager yeast; Brettanomyces ferments lambics,
[30]
and Torulaspora delbrueckiiferments Bavarian weissbier.[31] Before the role of yeast in
fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts, and a few styles
such as lambics still use this method today. Emil Christian Hansen, a Danish biochemist
employed by the Carlsberg Laboratory, developed pure yeast cultures which were introduced
into the Carlsberg brewery in 1883,[32] and pure yeast strains are now the main fermenting source
used worldwide.[33]
Clarifying agent
Main article: Finings
Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents to beer, which typically precipitate (collect as a
solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished
product. This process makes the beer appear bright and clean, rather than the cloudy
appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as wheat beers.[34]
Examples of clarifying agents include isinglass, obtained from swimbladders of fish; Irish moss, a
seaweed; kappa carrageenan, from the seaweed Kappaphycus cottonii; Polyclar(artificial);
and gelatin.[35] If a beer is marked "suitable for Vegans", it was generally clarified either with
seaweed or with artificial agents,[36] although the "Fast Cask" method invented by Marston's in
2009 may provide another method.[37]

Brewing process[edit]

Diagram illustrating the process of brewing beer

Hot Water Tank

Mash Tun
Malt
Hops
Copper
Hopback
Add Yeast to
Fermenter
Heat
exchanger
Bottling
Cask or Keg
There are several steps in the brewing process, which may include malting, mashing,
lautering, boiling, fermenting, conditioning,filtering, and packaging.[38]

Malting is the process where barley grain is made ready for brewing. [39] Malting is broken down
into three steps in order to help to release the starches in the barley.[40] First, during steeping, the
grain is added to a vat with water and allowed to soak for approximately 40 hours.
[41]
During germination, the grain is spread out on the floor of the germination room for around 5
days.[41] The final part of malting is kilning when the malt goes through a very high temperature
drying in a kiln; with gradual temperature increase over several hours. [42] When kilning is
complete, the grains are now termed malt, and they will be milled or crushed to break apart the
kernels and expose the cotyledon, which contains the majority of the carbohydrates and sugars;
this makes it easier to extract the sugars during mashing.[43]
Mashing converts the starches released during the malting stage into sugars that can be
fermented. The milled grain is mixed with hot water in a large vessel known as a mash tun. In
this vessel, the grain and water are mixed together to create a cereal mash. During the mash,
naturally occurring enzymes present in the malt convert the starches (long chain carbohydrates)
in the grain into smaller molecules or simple sugars (mono-, di-, and tri-saccharides). This
"conversion" is called saccharification. The result of the mashing process is a sugar rich liquid
or "wort", which is then strained through the bottom of the mash tun in a process known
as lautering. Prior to lautering, the mash temperature may be raised to about 7578 C (167
172 F) (known as a mashout) to deactivate enzymes. Additional water may be sprinkled on the
grains to extract additional sugars (a process known as sparging).[44]
The wort is moved into a large tank known as a "copper" or kettle where it is boiled with hops and
sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. This stage is where many chemical and
technical reactions take place, and where important decisions about the flavour, colour, and
aroma of the beer are made.[45] The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic
processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins, and concentrate and sterilize the wort.
Hops add flavour, aroma and bitterness to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort
settles to clarify in a vessel called a "whirlpool", where the more solid particles in the wort are
separated out.[46]
After the whirlpool, the wort is rapidly cooled via a heat exchanger to a temperature where yeast
can be added. The heat exchanger consists of tubing inside a tub of cold water. It is very
important to quickly cool the wort to a level where yeast can be added safely as yeast is unable
to grow in high temperatures.[43] After the wort goes through the heat exchanger, the cooled wort
goes into a fermentation tank. A type of yeast is selected and added, or "pitched", to the
fermentation tank.[45] When the yeast is added to the wort, the fermenting process begins, where
the sugars turn into alcohol, carbon dioxide and other components. When the fermentation is
complete the brewer may rack the beer into a new tank, called a conditioning tank.
[44]
Conditioning of the beer is the process in which the beer ages, the flavour becomes smoother,
and flavours that are unwanted dissipate.[46] After conditioning for a week to several months, the
beer may be filtered and force carbonated for bottling,[47] or fined in the cask.[48]

Mashing[edit]
Main article: Mashing

A mash tun at the Bass Museum in Burton-upon-Trent

Mashing is the process of combining a mix of milled grain

(typically malted barley with supplementary grains such as corn, sorghum, ryeor wheat), known
as the "grain bill", and water, known as "liquor", and heating this mixture in a vessel called a
"mash tun". Mashing is a form of steeping,[49] and defines the act of brewing, such as with making
tea, sake, and soy sauce.[50] Technically, wine, cider and meadare not brewed but rather vinified,
as there is no steeping process involving solids.[51] Mashing allows the enzymes in the malt to
break down the starch in the grain into sugars, typically maltose to create a malty liquid
called wort.[52] There are two main methods infusionmashing, in which the grains are heated in
one vessel; and decoction mashing, in which a proportion of the grains are boiled and then
returned to the mash, raising the temperature.[53] Mashing involves pauses at certain
temperatures (notably 456273 C or 113144163 F), and takes place in a "mash tun" an
insulated brewing vessel with a false bottom.[54][55][56] The end product of mashing is called a
"mash".
Mashing usually takes 1 to 2 hours, and during this time the various temperature rests activate
different enzymes depending upon the type of malt being used, its modification level, and the
intention of the brewer. The activity of these enzymes convert the starches of the grains
to dextrins and then to fermentable sugars such as maltose. A mash rest from 4955 C (120
131 F) activates various proteases, which break down proteins that might otherwise cause the
beer to be hazy. This rest is generally used only with undermodified (i.e. undermalted) malts
which are decreasingly popular in Germany and the Czech Republic, or non-malted grains such
as corn and rice, which are widely used in North American beers. A mash rest at 60 C (140 F)
activates -glucanase, which breaks down gummy -glucans in the mash, making the sugars
flow out more freely later in the process. In the modern mashing process, commercial fungal
based -glucanase may be added as a supplement. Finally, a mash rest temperature of 65
71 C (149160 F) is used to convert the starches in the malt to sugar, which is then usable by
the yeast later in the brewing process. Doing the latter rest at the lower end of the range
favours -amylase enzymes, producing more low-order sugars likemaltotriose, maltose,
and glucose which are more fermentable by the yeast. This in turn creates a beer lower in body
and higher in alcohol. A rest closer to the higher end of the range favours -amylase enzymes,
creating more higher-order sugars and dextrins which are less fermentable by the yeast, so a
fuller-bodied beer with less alcohol is the result. Duration and pH variances also affect the sugar
composition of the resulting wort.[57]

Lautering[edit]
Main article: Lautering

Lautering is the separation of the wort (the liquid containing the sugar extracted during mashing)
from the grains.[58] This is done either in a mash tun outfitted with a false bottom, in a lauter tun, or
in a mash filter. Most separation processes have two stages: first wort run-off, during which the
extract is separated in an undiluted state from the spent grains, and sparging, in which extract
which remains with the grains is rinsed off with hot water. The lauter tun is a tank with holes in
the bottom small enough to hold back the large bits of grist and hulls. [59] The bed of grist that
settles on it is the actual filter. Some lauter tuns have provision for rotating rakes or knives to cut
into the bed of grist to maintain good flow. The knives can be turned so they push the grain, a
feature used to drive the spent grain out of the vessel.[60] The mash filter is a plate-and-frame
filter. The empty frames contain the mash, including the spent grains, and have a capacity of
around one hectoliter. The plates contain a support structure for the filter cloth. The plates,
frames, and filter cloths are arranged in a carrier frame like so: frame, cloth, plate, cloth, with
plates at each end of the structure. Newer mash filters have bladders that can press the liquid
out of the grains between spargings. The grain does not act like a filtration medium in a mash
filter.[61]

Boiling[edit]
After mashing, the beer wort is boiled with hops (and other flavourings if used) in a large tank
known as a "copper" or brew kettle though historically the mash vessel was used and is still in
some small breweries.[62] The boiling process is where chemical and technical reactions take
place,[45] including sterilization of the wort to remove unwanted bacteria, releasing of hop flavours,
bitterness and aroma compounds through isomerization, stopping of enzymatic
processes, precipitation of proteins, and concentration of the wort.[63][64] Finally, the vapours
produced during the boil volatilise off-flavours, including dimethyl sulfide precursors.[64] The boil is
conducted so that it is even and intense a continuous "rolling boil". [64] The boil on average lasts
between 45 and 90 minutes, depending on its intensity, the hop addition schedule, and volume of
water the brewer expects to evaporate.[65] At the end of the boil, solid particles in the hopped wort
are separated out, usually in a vessel called a "whirlpool". [46]

Brew kettle or copper[edit]

Brew kettles at Coors Brewing Company

Copper is the traditional material for the boiling vessel, because copper transfers heat quickly
and evenly, and because the bubbles produced during boiling, and which would act as an
insulator against the heat, do not cling to the surface of copper, so the wort is heated in a
consistent manner.[66] The simplest boil kettles are direct-fired, with a burner underneath. These
can produce a vigorous and favourable boil, but are also apt to scorch the wort where the flame
touches the kettle, causing caramelisation and making cleanup difficult. Most breweries use a
steam-fired kettle, which uses steam jackets in the kettle to boil the wort. [64] Breweries usually

have a boiling unit either inside or outside of the kettle, usually a tall, thin cylinder with vertical
tubes, called a calandria, through which wort is pumped. [67]

Whirlpool[edit]
At the end of the boil, solid particles in the hopped wort are separated out, usually in a vessel
called a "whirlpool" or "settling tank".[46][68]The whirlpool was devised by the Molson Brewery in
1960 to utilise the so-called tea leaf paradox to force the denser solids known as "trub"
(coagulated proteins, vegetable matter from hops) into a cone in the centre of the whirlpool tank.
[69]
Whirlpool systems vary: smaller breweries tend to use the brew kettle, larger breweries use a
separate tank,[68] and design will differ, with tank floors either flat, sloped, conical or with a cup in
the centre.[70] The principle in all is that by swirling the wort the centripetal force will push the trub
into a cone at the centre of the bottom of the tank, where it can be easily removed. [68]

Hopback[edit]
A hopback is a traditional additional chamber that acts as a sieve or filter by using whole hops to
clear debris (or "trub") from the green (or unfermented) wort, as the whirlpool does, and also to
increase hop aroma in the finished beer.[71][72] It is a sealed chamber between the brewing kettle
and counter-flow wort chiller. Hops are added to the chamber, the hot wort from the kettle is run
through it, and then immediately cooled in the wort chiller before entering the fermentation
chamber. Because it is a sealed chamber it facilitates maximum retention of volatile hop aroma
compounds that would normally be driven off when the hops contact the hot wort. [73] While a
hopback has the same filtering effect as a whirlpool, it operates differently: a whirlpool uses
centrifugal forces, a hopback uses a layer of whole hops to act as a filter bed. Furthermore, while
a whirlpool is useful only for the removal of pelleted hops (as flowers do not tend to separate as
easily), in general hopbacks are used only for the removal of whole flower hops (as the particles
left by pellets tend to make it through the hopback).[74] The hopback has mainly been substituted
in modern breweries by the whirlpool.[75]

Wort cooling[edit]
After the whirlpool, the wort must be brought down to fermentation temperatures (2026Celsius)
[54]
before yeast is added. In modern breweries this is achieved through a plateheat exchanger. A
plate heat exchanger has many ridged plates, which form two separate paths. The wort is
pumped into the heat exchanger, and goes through every other gap between the plates. The
cooling medium, usually water, goes through the other gaps. The ridges in the plates ensure
turbulent flow. A good heat exchanger can drop 95 C wort to 20 C while warming the cooling
medium from about 10 C to 80 C. The last few plates often use a cooling medium which can be
cooled to below the freezing point, which allows a finer control over the wort-out temperature,
and also enables cooling to around 10 C. After cooling, oxygen is often dissolved into the wort to
revitalize the yeast and aid its reproduction.
While boiling, it is useful to recover some of the energy used to boil the wort. On its way out of
the brewery, the steam created during the boil is passed over a coil through which unheated
water flows. By adjusting the rate of flow, the output temperature of the water can be controlled.
This is also often done using a plate heat exchanger. The water is then stored for later use in the
next mash, in equipment cleaning, or wherever necessary.[76] Another common method of energy
recovery takes place during the wort cooling. When cold water is used to cool the wort in a heat

exchanger, the water is significantly warmed. In an efficient brewery, cold water is passed
through the heat exchanger at a rate set to maximize the water's temperature upon exiting. This
now-hot water is then stored in a hot water tank.[76]

Fermenting [edit]

Modern closed fermentation vessels

Fermentation takes place in fermentation vessels which come in various forms, from enormous
cylindroconical vessels, through open stone vessels, to wooden vats. [77][78][79] After the wort is
cooled and aerated usually with sterile air yeast is added to it, and it begins to ferment. It is
during this stage that sugars won from the malt are converted into alcohol and carbon dioxide,
and the product can be called beer for the first time.
Most breweries today use cylindroconical vessels, or CCVs, which have a conical bottom and a
cylindrical top. The cone's aperture is typically around 60, an angle that will allow the yeast to
flow towards the cone's apex, but is not so steep as to take up too much vertical space. CCVs
can handle both fermenting and conditioning in the same tank. At the end of fermentation, the
yeast and other solids which have fallen to the cone's apex can be simply flushed out of a port at
the apex. Open fermentation vessels are also used, often for show in brewpubs, and in Europe in
wheat beer fermentation. These vessels have no tops, which makes harvesting top-fermenting
yeasts very easy. The open tops of the vessels make the risk of infection greater, but with proper
cleaning procedures and careful protocol about who enters fermentation chambers, the risk can
be well controlled. Fermentation tanks are typically made of stainless steel. If they are simple
cylindrical tanks with beveled ends, they are arranged vertically, as opposed to conditioning
tanks which are usually laid out horizontally. Only a very few breweries still use wooden vats for
fermentation as wood is difficult to keep clean and infection-free and must be repitched more or
less yearly.[77][78][79]

Fermentation methods[edit]
See also: Beer style

Open vessel showing fermentation taking place

There are three main fermentation methods, warm, cool and wild or spontaneous. Fermentation
may take place in open or closed vessels. There may be a secondary fermentation which can
take place in the brewery, in the cask or in the bottle.
Brewing yeasts are traditionally classed as "top-cropping" (or "top-fermenting") and "bottomcropping" (or "bottom-fermenting").[80] Yeast were termed top or bottom cropping, because in
traditional brewing yeast was collected from the top or bottom of the fermenting wort to be reused
for the next brew.[81] This terminology is somewhat inappropriate in the modern era; after the
widespread application of brewing mycology it was discovered that the two separate collecting
methods involved two different yeast species that favoured different temperature regimes,
namely Saccharomyces cerevisiae in top-cropping at warmer temperatures and Saccharomyces
pastorianus in bottom-cropping at cooler temperatures.[82] As brewing methods changed in the
20th century, cylindro-conical fermenting vessels became the norm and the collection of yeast for
both Saccharomyces species is done from the bottom of the fermenter, thus the method of
collection no longer implies a species association. There are a few remaining breweries who
collect yeast in the top-cropping method, such as Samuel Smiths brewery in Yorkshire, Marstons
in Staffordshire and several German hefeweizen producers.[81]
For both types, yeast is fully distributed through the beer while it is fermenting, and both
equally flocculate (clump together and precipitate to the bottom of the vessel) when fermentation
is finished. By no means do all top-cropping yeasts demonstrate this behaviour, but it features
strongly in many English yeasts that may also exhibit chain forming (the failure of budded cells to
break from the mother cell), which is in the technical sense different from true flocculation. The
most common top-cropping brewer's yeast,Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is the same species as
the common baking yeast. However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different
strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, in
order to carbonate dough in the shortest amount of time; brewing yeast strains act slower, but
tend to tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (normally 12-15% abv is the maximum, though
under special treatment some ethanol-tolerant strains can be coaxed up to around 20%).
[83]
Modern quantitative genomics has revealed the complexity of Saccharomyces species to the
extent that yeasts involved in beer and wine production commonly involve hybrids of so-called
pure species. As such, the yeasts involved in what has been typically called top-cropping or topfermenting ale may be both Saccharomyces cerevisiae and complex hybrids of Saccharomyces
cerevisiae and Saccharomyces kudriavzevii. Three notable ales, Chimay, Orval and Westmalle,
are fermented with these hybrid strains, which are identical to wine yeasts from Switzerland. [84]
Warm fermentation[edit]
In general, yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae are fermented at warm temperatures
between 15 and 20 C (59 and 68 F), occasionally as high as 24 C (75 F),[85] while the yeast
used by Brasserie Dupont for saison ferments even higher at 29 to 35 C (84 to 95 F).[86] They
generally form a foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, as during the fermentation process
its hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to adhere to CO2 and rise; because of this, they are
often referred to as "top-cropping" or "top-fermenting" [87] though this distinction is less clear in
modern brewing with the use of cylindro-conical tanks.[88] Generally, warm-fermented beers are
ready to drink within three weeks after the beginning of fermentation, although some brewers will
condition them for several months.

Cool fermentation[edit]
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please
help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2013)
Main article: Lager
Lager is beer that has been cool fermented at around 10 C (50 F) (compared to typical warm
fermentation temperatures of 18 C (64 F)), then stored for around 30 days at temperatures
close to freezing point;[citation needed] during this storage sulphur components developed during
fermentation dissipate.[citation needed] Though it is the cool fermentation that defines lager, the main
technical difference with lager yeast, Saccharomyces pastorianus, is its divergent genome and
its ability to metabolize both melibiose, a disaccharide of galactose and glucose
and raffinose (a trisaccharide composed of the sugars galactose, fructose, and glucose).[citation needed]
[clarification needed]
Ale yeasts, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, can only partially metabolize raffinose and
cannot metabolize melibiose at all. Nonetheless, these sugars are not present in typical beer
wort made from malted barley and their metabolism or lack of it will not affect the subsequent
beer organoleptic qualities in any way.[89]
Brewers in Bavaria had for centuries been selecting cold-fermenting yeasts by storing ("lagern")
their beers in cold alpine caves. The process of natural selection meant that the wild yeasts that
were most cold tolerant would be the ones that would remain actively fermenting in the beer that
was stored in the caves. A sample of these Bavarian yeasts was sent from the Spaten brewery in
Munich to the Carlsberg brewery in Copenhagen in 1845 who began brewing with it. In 1883
Emile Hansen completed a study on pure yeast culture isolation and the pure strain obtained
from Spaten went into industrial production in 1884 as Carlsberg yeast No 1. Another specialized
pure yeast production plant was soon installed at the Heineken Brewery in Rotterdam the
following year and together they began supply of pure cultured yeast to brewers across Europe.
[90][91]
This yeast strain was originally classified as Saccharomyces carlsbergensis a now defunct
species name which has been superseded by the currently accepted taxonomic
classificationSaccharomyces pastorianus.
Today, lagers represent the vast majority of beers produced. Examples include Budweiser
Budvar, Birra Moretti, Stella Artois, Red Stripe, and Singha. Some lagers are marketed
as Pilsner, which originated in Pilsen, Czech Republic (Plze in Czech).[clarification needed][citation needed]
Lager yeast normally ferments at a temperature of approximately 5 C (41 F). Lager yeast can
be fermented at a higher temperature normally used for top-fermenting yeast, and this
application is often used in a beer style known as California Common or colloquially as "steam
beer".
Spontaneous fermentation[edit]
"Wild yeast" redirects here. For the role of wild yeast in winemaking, see Yeast in winemaking.
Lambic beers are historically brewed in Brussels and the nearby Pajottenland region of Belgium
without any yeast inoculation.[92][93] They are fermented in oak barrels with the resident microbiota
present in the wood and can take up to 2 years to come into condition for sale. [94] However, with
the advent of yeast banks and the National Collection of Yeast Cultures, brewing these beers

albeit not through spontaneous fermentation is possible anywhere. Specific bacteria cultures
are also available to reproduce certain styles.[citation needed] Brettanomyces is a genus of yeast
important in brewing lambic, a beer produced not by the deliberate addition of brewer's yeasts,
but by spontaneous fermentation with wild yeasts and bacteria.[95]

Conditioning[edit]

Conditioning tanks at Anchor Brewing Company

After an initial or primary fermentation, beer is conditioned, matured or aged, [96] in one of several
ways,[97] which can take from 2 to 4 weeks, several months, or several years, depending on the
brewer's intention for the beer. The beer is usually transferred into a second container, so that it
is no longer exposed to the dead yeast and other debris (also known as "trub") that have settled
to the bottom of the primary fermenter. This prevents the formation of unwanted flavours and
harmful compounds such as acetylaldehydes.[98]
Krusening
Krusening is a conditioning method in which fermenting wort is added to the finished beer.
[99]
The active yeast will restart fermentation in the finished beer, and so introduce fresh carbon
dioxide; the conditioning tank will be then sealed so that the carbon dioxide is dissolved into the
beer producing a lively "condition" or level of carbonation.[99] The krusening method may also be
used to condition bottled beer.[99]
Lagering
Lagers are stored at near freezing temperatures for 16 months while still on the yeast. [100] The
process of storing, or conditioning, or maturing, or aging a beer at a low temperate for a long
period is called "lagering", and while it is associated with lagers, the process may also be done
with ales, with the same results that of cleaning up various chemicals, acids and compounds. [101]
Secondary fermentation
During secondary fermentation, most of the remaining yeast will settle to the bottom of the
second fermenter, yielding a less hazy product.[102]
Bottle fermentation
Some beers undergo a fermentation in the bottle, giving natural carbonation. [103] This may be a
second or third fermentation. They are bottled with a viable yeast population in suspension. If

there is no residual fermentable sugar left, sugar or wort or both may be added in a process
known as priming. The resulting fermentation generates CO2 that is trapped in the bottle,
remaining in solution and providing natural carbonation. Bottle-conditioned beers may be either
filled unfiltered direct from the fermentation or conditioning tank, or filtered and then reseeded
with yeast.[104]
Cask conditioning
Main article: Cask ale
Cask ale or cask-conditioned beer is unfiltered and unpasteurised beer that is conditioned
(including secondary fermentation) and served from a cask, either pumped up from a cellar via
a beer engine (hand pump), or from a tap by gravity.[105] Sometimes a cask breather is used to
keep the beer fresh by allowing carbon dioxide to replace oxygen as the beer is drawn off the
cask.[106] The term "real ale" as used by the Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) refers to beer
"served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide", which would disallow the use of a cask
breather.[107][108]

Filtering[edit]
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help
improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012)
Main article: Filtered beer

A mixture of diatomaceous earthand yeast after filtering.

Filtering the beer stabilizes the flavour, and gives beer its polished shine and brilliance. Not all
beer is filtered. When tax determination is required by local laws, it is typically done at this stage
in a calibrated tank.
Filters come in many types. Many are in the form of sheets or "candles". Others use a fine
powder such as diatomaceous earth, also called kieselguhr. The powder is added to the beer
and recirculated past screens to form a filtration bed.
Filters range from rough filters that remove much of the yeast and any solids (e.g., hops, grain
particles) left in the beer, to filters tight enough to strain colour and body from the beer. Filtration
ratings are divided into rough, fine, and sterile. Rough filtration leaves some cloudiness in the
beer, but it is noticeably clearer than unfiltered beer. Fine filtration removes almost all cloudiness.
Sterile filtration removes almost all microorganisms.

Sheet (pad) filters

These filters use sheets that allow only particles smaller than a given size to pass through. The
sheets are placed into a filtering frame, sanitized (with boiling water, for example) and then used
to filter the beer. The sheets can be flushed if the filter becomes blocked. The sheets are usually
disposable and are replaced between filtration sessions. Often the sheets contain powdered
filtration media to aid in filtration.
Pre-made filters have two sides. One with loose holes, and the other with tight holes. Flow goes
from the side with loose holes to the side with the tight holes, with the intent that large particles
get stuck in the large holes while leaving enough room around the particles and filter medium for
smaller particles to go through and get stuck in tighter holes.
Sheets are sold in nominal ratings, and typically 90% of particles larger than the nominal rating
are caught by the sheet.
Kieselguhr filters
Filters that use a powder medium are considerably more complicated to operate, but can filter
much more beer before regeneration. Common media include diatomaceous earthand perlite.

Packaging[edit]
See also: Beer bottle, Beverage can, Widget (beer), Draught beer and Cask ale
Packaging is putting the beer into the containers in which it will leave the brewery. Typically, this
means putting the beer into bottles, aluminium cans and kegs/casks, but it may include putting
the beer into bulk tanks for high-volume customers.

Brewing methods[edit]
Main article: Brewing methods
There are several additional brewing methods, such as barrel aging, double dropping, and
Yorkshire Square.

By-products[edit]
Brewing by-products are "spent grain" and the sediment (or "dregs") from the filtration process
which may be dried and resold as "brewers dried yeast" for poultry feed, [109] or made into yeast
extract.
Yeast extract
Yeast extract is used in brands such as Vegemite and Marmite.[110] The process of turning the
yeast sediment into edible yeast extract was discovered by a German scientistJustus Liebig.[111]
Spent grain

Spent grain

Brewer's spent grain (also called spent grain, brewer's grain or draff) consists of the residue of
malt and grain which remains in the mash-kettle after the mashing and lautering process. [112] It
consists primarily of grain husks, pericarp, and fragments of endosperm.[113] As it mainly consists
of carbohydrates and proteins,[113] and is readily consumed by animals,[114] spent grain is used
in animal feed.[114] Spent grains can also be used as fertilizer, whole grains in bread,[115] as well as
in the production of biogas. Spent grain is also an ideal medium for growing mushrooms, such
as shiitake, and already some breweries are either growing their own mushrooms or supplying
spent grain to mushroom farms.[116] Spent grains can be used in the production of red bricks, to
improve the open porosity and reduce thermal conductivity of the ceramic mass. [117]

Brewing industry[edit]
The brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational
companies and many thousands of smaller producers known as microbreweries or regional
breweries depending on size and region.[118][119] More than 133 billion liters (3.51010 U.S. gallons;
2.91010 imperial gallons) are sold per yearproducing total global revenues of $294.5 billion
(147.7 billion) as of 2006.[120] SABMiller became the largest brewing company in the world when
it acquired Royal Grolsch, brewer of Dutch premium beer brand Grolsch.[121] InBev was the
second-largest beer-producing company in the world and Anheuser-Busch held the third spot,
but after the acquisition of Anheuser-Busch by InBev, the new Anheuser-Busch InBev company
is currently the largest brewer in the world.[122]
Brewing at home is subject to regulation and prohibition in many countries. Restrictions on
homebrewing were lifted in the UK in 1963,[123] Australia followed suit in 1972,[124] and the USA in
1978, though individual states were allowed to pass their own laws limiting production. [125]

Mashing
In brewing and distilling, mashing is the process of combining a mix of
milled grain (typically malted barley withsupplementary grains such

as corn, sorghum, rye or wheat), known as the "grain bill", and water, known as "liquor", and
heating this mixture. Mashing allows the enzymes in the malt to break down the starch in the
grain into sugars, typically maltose to create a malty liquid called wort.[1] There are two main
methodsinfusion mashing, in which the grains are heated in one vessel;
and decoction mashing, in which a proportion of the grains are boiled and then returned to the
mash, raising the temperature.[2] Mashing involves pauses at certain temperatures (notably 45
6273 C or 113144163 F), and takes place in a "mash tun"an insulated brewing vessel
with a false bottom.[3][4][5] The end product of mashing is called a "mash".[citation needed]

Infusion mashing[edit]
Most breweries use infusion mashing, in which the mash is heated directly to go from rest
temperature to rest temperature. Some infusion mashes achieve temperature changes by adding
hot water, and there are also breweries that do single-step infusion, performing only one rest
before lautering.

Decoction mashing[edit]
Decoction mashing is where a proportion of the grains are boiled and then returned to the mash,
raising the temperature. The boiling extracts more starch from the grain by breaking down the
cell walls of the grain. It can be classified into one-, two-, and three-step decoctions, depending
on how many times part of the mash is drawn off to be boiled.[6] It is a traditional method, and is
common in German and Central European breweries.[7][8] It was used out of necessity before the
invention of thermometers allowed simpler step mashing. But the practice continues for many
traditional beers because of the unique malty flavor it lends to the beer; boiling part of the grain
results in Maillard reactions, which create melanoidins that lead to rich, malty flavours.[9]

Ingredient selection[edit]
See also: Mash ingredients
Each particular ingredient has its own flavor that contributes to the final character of the
beverage. In addition, different ingredients carry other characteristics, not directly relating to the
flavor, which may dictate some of the choices made in brewing: nitrogen content, diastatic power,
color, modification, and conversion.

Nitrogen content[edit]
The nitrogen content of a grain refers to the mass fraction of the grain that is made up of protein,
and is usually expressed as a percentage; this fraction is further refined by distinguishing what
fraction of the protein is water-soluble, also usually expressed as a percentage; 40% is typical for
most beermaking grains. Generally, brewers favor lower-nitrogen grains, while distillers favor
high-nitrogen grains.

In most beermaking, an average nitrogen content in the grains of at most 10% is sought; higher
protein content, especially the presence of high-mass proteins, causes "chill haze", a cloudy
visual quality to the beer. However, this is mostly a cosmetic desire dating from the mass
production of glassware for presenting serving beverages; traditional styles such as sahti, saison,
and bire de garde, as well as several Belgian styles, make no special effort to create a clear
product. The quantity of high-mass proteins can be reduced during the mash by making use of
a protease rest.
In Britain, preferred brewers' grains are often obtained from winter harvests and grown in lownitrogen soil; in central Europe, no special changes are made for the grain-growing conditions
and multi-step decoction mashing is favored instead.
Distillers, by contrast, are not as constrained by the amount of protein in their mash as the nonvolatile nature of proteins means that none will be included in the final distilled product.
Therefore, distillers seek out higher-nitrogen grains in order to ensure a more efficiently-made
product; higher-protein grains generally have more diastatic power.

Diastatic power[edit]
Diastatic power (DP), also called the "diastatic activity" or "enzymatic power", is a property
of malts, grains that have begun to germinate, and is used to measure the malt's ability to break
down starches into simpler fermentable sugars during the mashing process. The act of
germination produces a number of enzymes such as amylase that can convert
the starch naturally present in barley and other grains into sugar. The mashing process activates
these enzymes by soaking the grain in water at a controlled temperature.
In general, the hotter a grain is kilned, the less its diastatic activity; as a consequence, only lightly
colored grains can be used as base malts, with Munich malt being the darkest base malt
generally available.
Diastatic activity can also be provided by diastatic malt extract or by inclusion of separatelyprepared brewing enzymes.
Diastatic power for a grain is measured in degrees Lintner (Lintner or L, although the latter can
conflict with the symbol L for Lovibond color); or in Europe by Windisch-Kolbach units (WK).
The two measures are related by

A malt with enough power to self-convert has a diastatic power near 35 Lintner (94
WK). Until recently, the most active, so-called "hottest", malts currently available were
American six-row pale barley malts, which have a diastatic power of up to 160 Lintner
(544 WK). Wheat malts have begun to appear on the market with diastatic power of up
to 200 Lintner. Although with the huskless wheat being somewhat difficult to work with,
this is usually used in conjunction with barley, or as an addition to add high diastatic
power to a mash.

Color[edit]
In brewing, the color of a grain or product is evaluated by the Standard Reference
Method (SRM), Lovibond (L), American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC)
or European Brewery Convention (EBC) standards. While SRM and ASBC originate in
North America and EBC in Europe, all three systems can be found in use throughout the
world; degrees Lovibond has fallen out of industry use but has remained in use
in homebrewing circles as the easiest to implement without a spectrophotometer. The
darkness of grains range from as light as less than 2 SRM/4 EBC for Pilsener malt to as
dark as 700 SRM/1600 EBC for black malt and roasted barley.

Modification[edit]
The quality of starches in a grain is variable with the strain of grain used and its growing
conditions. "Modification" refers specifically to the extent to which starch molecules in the
grain consist of simple chains of starch molecules versus branched chains; a fully
modified grain contains only simple-chain starch molecules. A grain that is not fully
modified requires mashing in multiple steps rather than at simply one temperature as the
starches must be de-branched before amylase can work on them. One indicator of the
degree of modification of a grain is that grain's Nitrogen ratio; that is, the amount of
soluble Nitrogen (or protein) in a grain vs. the total amount of Nitrogen(or protein). This
number is also referred to as the "Kolbach Index" and a malt with a Kolbach index
between 36% and 42% is considered a malt that is highly modified and suitable for
single infusion mashing. Maltsters use the length of the acrospire vs. the length of the
grain to determine when the appropriate degree of modification has been reached before
drying or kilning.

Conversion[edit]
Conversion is the extent to which starches in the grain have been enzymatically broken
down into sugars. A caramel or crystal malt is fully converted before it goes into the
mash; most malted grains have little conversion; unmalted grains, meanwhile, have little
or no conversion. Unconverted starch becomes sugar during the last steps of mashing,
through the action of alpha and beta amylases.

Grain milling[edit]
The grain used for making beer must first be milled. Milling increases the surface area of
the grain, making the starch more accessible, and separates the seed from the husk.
Care must be taken when milling to ensure that the starch reserves are sufficiently milled
without damaging the husk and providing coarse enough grits that a good filter bed can
be formed during lautering.
Grains are typically dry-milled. Dry mills come in four varieties: two-, four-, five-, and sixroller mills. Hammer mills, which produce a very fine mash, are often used when mash
filters are going to be employed in the lautering process because the grain does not
have to form its own filterbed. In modern plants, the grain is often conditioned with water
before it is milled to make the husk more pliable, thus reducing breakage and improving
lauter speed.
Two-roller mills Two-roller mills are the simplest variety, in which the grain is crushed
between two rollers before it continues on to the mash tun. The spacing between these
two rollers can be adjusted by the operator. Thinner spacing usually leads to better
extraction, but breaks more husk and leads to a longer lauter.
Four-roller mills Four-roller mills have two sets of rollers. The grain first goes through
rollers with a rather wide gap, which separates the seed from the husk without much
damage to the husk, but leaves large grits. Flour is sieved out of the cracked grain, and
then the coarse grist and husks are sent through the second set of rollers, which further
crush the grist without damaging the crusts. There are three-roller mills, in which one of
the rollers is used twice, but they are not recognized by the German brewing industry.
Five- and Six-roller mills Six-roller mills have three sets of rollers. The first roller
crushes the whole kernel, and its output is divided three ways: Flour immediately is sent
out the mill, grits without a husk proceed to the last roller, and husk, possibly still
containing parts of the seed, go to the second set of rollers. From the second roller flour
is directly output, as are husks and any possible seed still in them, and the husk-free
grits are channeled into the last roller. Five-roller mills are six-roller mills in which one of
the rollers performs double-duty.

Mashing-in[edit]
Mixing of the strike water, water used for mashing in, and milled grist must be done in a
such a way as to minimize clumping and oxygen uptake. This was traditionally done by
first adding water to the mash vessel, and then introducing the grist from the top of the
vessel in a thin stream. This has led to a lot of oxygen absorption, and loss of flour dust
to the surrounding air. A premasher, which mixes the grist with mash-in temperature

water while it is still in the delivery tube, reduces oxygen uptake and prevents dust from
being lost.
Mashing in (sometimes called "doughing-in") is typically done between 35 and 45 C (95
and 113 F), but, for single-step infusion mashes, mashing in must be done between 62
67 C (144153 F) for amylases to break down the grain's starch into sugars. The
weight-to-weight ratio of strike water and grain varies from 12 for dark beers in single-step
infusions to 14 or even 15, ratios more suitable for light-colored beers and decoction
mashing, where much mash water is boiled off.

Optimal rest temperatures for major mashing enzymes

Temp C

Temp F

Enzyme

Breaks down

4045 C

104.0113.0 F

-Glucanase

-Glucan

5054 C

122.0129.2 F

Protease

Protein

6267 C

143.6152.6 F

-Amylase

Starch

7172 C

159.8161.6 F

-Amylase

Starch

Enzymatic rests[edit]
In step-infusion and decoction mashing, the mash is heated to different temperatures at which
specific enzymes work optimally. The table at right shows the optimal temperature ranges for the
enzymes brewers pay the most attention to and what material those enzymes break down. There
is some contention in the brewing industry as to just what the optimal temperature is for these
enzymes, as it is often very dependent on the pH of the mash, and its thickness. A thicker mash
acts as a buffer for the enzymes. Once a step is passed, the enzymes active in that step
are denaturedby the increasing heat and become permanently inactive. The time spent
transitioning between rests is preferably as short as possible; however, if the temperature is
raised more than 1 C per minute, enzymes may be prematurely denatured in the transition layer
near heating elements.

-Glucanase rest[edit]
-glucan is a general term for polysaccharides, such as cellulose, made up of chains
of glucose molecules connected by beta glycosidic bonds, as opposed to
alpha glycosidic bonds in starch. These are a major constituent of the cell wall of plants,
and make up a large part of the bran in grains. A -glucanase rest done at 40 C

(104 F) is practiced in order to break down cell walls and make starches more available,
thus raising the extraction efficiency. Should the brewer let this rest go on too long, it is
possible that a large amount of -glucan will dissolve into the mash, which can lead to a
stuck mash on brew day, and cause filtration problems later in beer production.

Protease rest[edit]
Protein degradation via a proteolytic rest plays many roles: production of free-amino
nitrogen (FAN) for yeast nutrition, freeing of small proteins from larger proteins for foam
stability in the finished product, and reduction of haze-causing proteins for easier
filtration and increased beer clarity. In all-malt beers, the malt already provides enough
protein for good head retention, and the brewer needs to worry more about more FAN
being produced than the yeast can metabolize, leading to off flavors. The haze causing
proteins are also more prevalent in all-malt beers, and the brewer must strike a balance
between breaking down these proteins, and limiting FAN production.

Amylase rests[edit]
The amylase rests are responsible for the production of free fermentable and
nonfermentable sugar from starch in a mash.
Starch is an enormous molecule made up of branching chains of glucose molecules. amylase breaks down these chains from the end molecules forming links of two glucose
molecules, i.e. maltose. -amylase cannot break down the branch points, although some
help is found here through low -amylase activity and enzymes such as limit dextrinase.
The maltose will be the yeast's main food source during fermentation. During this rest
starches also cluster together forming visible bodies in the mash. This clustering eases
the lautering process.
The -amylase rest is also known as the saccharification rest, because during this rest
the -amylase breaks down the starches from the inside, and starts cutting off links of
glucose one to four glucose molecules in length. The longer glucose chains, sometimes
called dextrins or maltodextrins, along with the remaining branched chains, give body
and fullness to the beer.
Because of the closeness in temperatures of peak activity of -amylase and -amylase,
the two rests are often performed at once, with the time and temperature of the rest
determining the ratio of fermentable to nonfermentable sugars in the wort and hence the
final sweetness of the fermented drink; a hotter rest gives a fuller-bodied, sweeter beer
as -amylase produces more unfermentable sugars. 66 C (151 F) is a typical rest
temperature for a pale ale or German pilsener, while Bohemian pilsener and mild ale are
rested more typically at 6768 C (153154 F).

Decoction "rests"[edit]
In decoction mashing, part of the mash is taken out of the mash tun and placed in a
cooker, where it is boiled for a period of time. This caramelizes some of the sugars,
giving the beer a deeper flavor and color, and frees more starches from the grain,
making for a more efficient extraction from the grains. The portion drawn off for decoction
is calculated so that the next rest temperature is reached by simply putting the boiled
portion back into the mash tun. Before drawing off for decoction, the mash is allowed to
settle a bit, and the thicker part is typically taken out for decoction, as the enzymes have
dissolved in the liquid, and the starches to be freed are in the grains, not the liquid. This
thick mash is then boiled for around 15 minutes, and returned to the mash tun.
The mash cooker used in decoction should not be allowed to scorch the mash, but
maintaining a uniform temperature in the mash is not a priority. To prevent a scorching of
the grains, the brewer must continuously stir the decoction and apply a slow heating.
A decoction mash brings out a higher malt profile from the grains and is typically used in
Bocks or Doppelbock-style beers.

Mash-out[edit]
After the enzyme rests, the mash is raised to its mash-out temperature. This frees up
about 2% more starch, and makes the mash less viscous, allowing the lauter to process
faster. Although mash temperature and viscosity are roughly inversely proportional, the
ability of brewers and distillers to use this relationship is constrained by the fact that Amylase quickly denatures above 78 C (172.4 F). Any starches extracted once the
mash is brought above this temperature cannot be broken down, and will cause a starch
haze in the finished product, or in larger quantities an unpleasantly harsh flavor can
develop. Therefore, the mash-out temperature rarely exceeds 78 C (172.4 F).
If the lauter tun is a separate vessel from the mash tun, the mash is transferred to
the lauter tun at this time. If the brewery has a combination mash-lauter tun, the agitator
is stopped after mash-out temperature is reached and the mash has mixed enough to
ensure a uniform temperature.

Advanced Mashing Techniques

11/30/-1
MASHING 102 ADVANCED MATERIAL

The above is a simple overview of mashing and might be sufficient to guide the novice masher
through a basic mash. I want to cover some concepts here that help to explain further the
process of mashing.
In a way, mashing is the natural progression of malting. Both act to take a raw ingredient (barley
or malt) and through enzymatic processes reduce the material into sugars that are consumable
by yeast. You may be surprised to think of malting as producing sugars, but this is exactly what
occurs in the production of caramel malts. Caramel malts, depending on how dark they are,
contain sugars already converted for the brewer.
A significant part of the mashing process involves protein degradation. Proteins are organic
matter of relatively high molecular weight and are composed of amino acids. Amino acids are
Natures building blocks and play an important role in healthy yeast metabolism during
fermentation. Properly malted and mashed grains will produce a wort that is high in free amino
nitrogen (FAN), which ensures a healthy fermentation.
Proteins can be grouped into three classes: large, medium, and small. One of the goals of
mashing is to break down large proteins into free amino acids while retaining some medium
proteins; medium-sized proteins provide beneficial viscosity to the wort, which aids in head
retention and mouthfeel. Large and medium proteins are reduced by the action of proteolytic
enzymes during the protein rests in a mash program. These rests are typically performed
between 112 and 140 F (4460 C). The malting process also reduces proteins, particularly in
the production of British pale ale malts. This is one of the reasons it is easier to mash this malt
using a single saccharification rest the protein rest has already largely been done by the
maltster.
Starches are degraded in three steps: gelatinization, liquefaction, and finally saccharification.
Liquefaction is the process by which the starch absorbs water, and the process is enzymatically
driven by alpha-amylase. It is a slow process in ungelatinized starch but occurs rapidly in
gelatinized starch; therefore, liquefaction cannot occur effectively in mashing until the starches
are gelatinized (1). Gelatinization is the process by which the starch molecules break open,
allowing them to be more readily converted by amylase enzymes.
Malt starch is composed of long chains of glucose molecules amylose and amylopectin (see
Figure 2). Amylose is built of linear chains of glucose, whereas amylopectin is built of multibranched chains of glucose units (4). The linear bonds of amylose are connected by 14 carbon
links (the number 1 carbon binds with the number 4 carbon with an oxygen molecule between
the 1 and 4 carbons). Amylopectin contains both 16 carbon links and 14 links. Beta-amylase
breaks the 14 bond, producing maltose, but is incapable of breaking the 16 linkage in
amylopectin. The 16 linkage can, however, be broken by alpha-amylase.
Rests in the 140s F (low 60s C) will favor beta-amylase activity, which increases the
concentration of maltose in the wort and therefore results in higher fermentability. Often, these
rests are termed beta rests or maltose rests. Rests in the high 150s F (~70 C) favor alpha-

amylase activity and produce a wort higher in dextrin content. Dextrins are not consumable by
brewers yeast and survive into the finished beer, providing beneficial mouthfeel.
Another issue in mashing is that of beta glucans. Beta glucans are gums that are products of the
breakdown of the hemicellulosic cell walls. They are produced during the malting process under
the action of the enzyme beta-glucanase. Beta-glucanase enzymes can survive the malting
process but are rapidly deactivated above 122 F (50 C). They remain quite active at 104 F (40
C), and as a result a rest in the 104 F (40 C) range will help to dissolve the beta glucans.
Beta-glucanase survives to a much higher degree in lightly kilned pale lager malts than in ale
malts (2).
Beta glucans have an effect on wort viscosity. Higher levels left intact may lead to more-viscous
wort and subsequently more difficult lautering. In general, more highly modified malt will have
lower levels of beta glucans.
Wheat malt, in particular, has high levels of gums and for this reason a low temperature rest is
almost mandatory when mashing wheat. Also, because ferrulic acid is liberated at 111 F (44 C),
a rest at this temperature is most beneficial for wheat beers. Ferrulic acid binds to pentosanes in
grains with ester bonds, and because beta-glucanase degrades both beta glucans and
pentosanes, this rest will liberate free ferrulic acid. Free ferrulic acid is important in wheat beers
because it is decarboxylized into 4-vinyl guaiacol during fermentation (5), which contributes to
the characteristic phenolic flavor.
The combination of temperature rests favoring each amylase leads to maximum extract yield. It
is also the different characteristics of these amylases that allows brewers to carefully control the
composition of the wort and the character of the finished beer.
DECOCTION MASHING
Decoction mashing is the traditional technique used in brewing to process undermodified to
moderately modified malt, primarily in the production of lagers and Weizens. In decoction
mashing, a protein rest is performed at around 122 F (50 C) for 15 min. After this rest, a thick
portion of the grains (about 2035%) containing little fluid is removed and separately mashed at
saccharification temperatures between 148 and 158 F (6570 C), followed by a 1545 min
period of boiling.
Significant changes to the malt occur at the elevated mashing temperatures, primarily those
between 165 F (74 C) and boiling. Starch molecules that survive into the higher temperatures
literally explode, liberating their components and furthering reduction and conversion. Boiling the
grains dissolves gums, which are especially troublesome in Weizen beers. Boiling also darkens
the wort and helps to further reduce proteins.
At the completion of the boil, the decocted portion is combined with the rest of the mash, and the
resulting mash is held at saccharification temperatures until conversion is complete. Alternatively,

a second or even third decoction may be pulled after the mashes are recombined (double and
triple decoction mashing, respectively).
At the end of the saccharification period, the mash is raised to mash-off by the addition of heat or
a decocted portion of the mash. Decoction mashes usually produce a slightly higher degree of
extract and a somewhat maltier flavor. For more complete discussions of decoction mashing, see
references 5 and 6.
Decoction mashing is losing favor in lager brewing because of its high energy costs and because
of the production of ever more highly modified malts. German brewmasters are continually
raising the dough-in temperatures to upwards of 140 F (60 C) in an effort to preserve some
beneficial proteins that accentuate the foam stand of a beer. This practice is a direct response to
the over-modification of modern continental Pils malts.
SCIENCE SERVES ART
Mashing is a complex mix of enzymatic reactions that each have optimum temperature and pH
ranges. It is easy to say that beta-amylase is most active at 140149 F (6065 C), but it is also
somewhat active at 154 F (68 C) and even higher temperatures. Similarly, alpha-amylase is
most active in the high 150s F (low 70s C), but it survives to some extent into the 170s F (high
70s C). By carefully controlling the time spent at each of the optimum ranges, you can
successfully predict wort composition.
It is the art of the brewer to devise mash programs that optimize the conversion of the raw malt
into wort that meets the requirements of a particular beer style (see Figures 37). Mashing
provides the brewer tools that can be used to create both variety and consistent, repeatable
results.
As home brewing becomes ever more popular in Ireland we've had increasing numbers of requests
for a glossary of brewing. Many of the more technical activities in brewing are described by terms we
tend not to see elsewhere in ordinary life, and several others have a meaning in brewing quite distinct
from what we're used to. So, as an enhancement to the brewing chat in our Forums, and as a general
reference tool, we've initiated this guide to the language of brewing.
The bulk of the initial work was carried out by Dr Jacoby, with contributions from Hendrixcat and some
overview from the Editorial Team. It is intended to grow organically with the needs of the whole
community, so if there's a term you think should be included, let us know in this thread.
- The Editorial Team
A
Acid rest an optional rest period during the mash of between fifteen and thirty minutes where
the grist is held at 35 - 40C to acidify the mash and aid the action of malt amylases.
Adjuncts any secondary source of starches and/or sugars used in brewing, the primary source
being malted barley. Adjuncts include (but are not limited to) flaked cereal grains, sugars, syrups,
corn, and rice.

Aerate the process of mixing air into wort, usually at the beginning of fermentation, to provide
oxygen for the yeast.
Airlock typically a plastic water lock which allows carbon dioxide produced by yeast to escape from
the fermentation vessel, while preventing the influx of outside air (which may carry infectious
microbes).
Alcohol By Volume (ABV) a standard measure of how much alcohol is contained in an alcoholic
beverage. It is expressed as a percentage of total volume.The ABV for a beer can be calculated
based on Specific Gravity readings taken before and after fermentation using the formula: ABV =
(Original Gravity - Final Gravity) X 131
For example:
(1.045-1.009) X 131= Alcohol by Volume.
0.036 X 131=Alcohol by Volume.
4.716 = Alcohol by Volume.
Ale broadly speaking, a beer brewed using a top-fermenting yeast; one that ferments best at
warmer temperatures (usually between 16C 24C). (Contrast with Lager).
Alkalinity the concentration of carbonates in brewing water. Highly alkaline water requires
acidification before it is suitable for mashing. Alkaline water prevents the correct pH being met during
mashing, causing problems with extract and original gravity.
All-Grain Brewing the use of raw malted barley as the primary source of malt sugars in a brewing
session (as opposed to the use of malt extracts). Since all-grain brewing requires mashing and
sparging, it is considered the most "advanced" form of home brewing. (Contrast with Kit
Brewing and Extract Brewing). See also this guide to all-grain brewing .
Amylase malt enzyme responsible for the breakdown of malt starch into simpler sugars during
mashing.
Alpha Acids acids present in hops which are isomerised during the boil into isoalpha acids.
Alpha Acid Units (AAU) the amount of bitterness in hops. Low alpha acid hops are in the 2% 5%
range; high alpha hops are in the 9% and over range. Brewers also measure hopping volumes in
IBUs (International Bittering Units). IBUs tell how bitter the beer is, whereas AAUs tell how bitter the
hops themselves are.
Aroma Hops hops added near the end of the boil in order to extract and preserve their delicate
aromatic oils.
Attenuation the extent to which yeast converts sugar to alcohol and CO 2.
Autolysis the tendency for yeast to feed on each other after fermentation finishes, releasing
unpleasant aromas and flavours into the beer. For beers which will remain in the fermenter for an
extended period of time (more than 2-3 weeks), the potential for autolysis can be reduced by using a
secondary fermenter to reduce the amount of sediment present.
Autosyphon a syphon tube with a built-in pump to deliver the suction needed to start the syphoning
process. Autosyphons do not require the user to physically suck on the end of the tube (as is the case
with a simple syphon), and so are less likely to be a source of infection.

Ball lock the most common type of keg fitting used on corny kegs for the liquid and gas
connections. The quick-disconnect locks onto a groove in the keg fitting using a spring-loaded collar,
and small steel ball bearings.
Barley the grain that provides the most common source of fermentable sugar in beer.
Base malt the malt that contributes the majority of fermentable sugars in the grist. (Contrast
withSpeciality Malt)
Batch priming the practice of adding the full quantity of priming sugar for a batch of beer to the
bottling bucket prior to bottling. This can be contrasted with the method of priming each bottle
individually with an equal quantity of priming sugar.
Batch sparging a method in which the mash tun is first completely drained of wort, then an
additional amount of hot liquor is infused into the mash tun, stirred to help dissolve more extract and
then drained again into the brewpot. (Contrast with Continuous sparging).
Beer kit see Kit brewing
Bench capper see Bottle Capper.

Bittering Hops hops added at the beginning of the boil and provide the bitter flavour to beer.
(Contrast withAroma Hops).
Blow-off-tube a tube (one side of which is inserted into a fermenter and the other submerged into a
bucket of water) which allows for the release of carbon dioxide and excess fermentation material.
Body refers to the fullness or mouthfeel of a beverage. In beer, body is the result of residual malt
sugars, dextrins and alcohol.
Boiler the vessel, usually plastic or stainless steel, in which you boil your beer to prepare it for
fermentation. Smaller brewpots can be used on a normal kitchen stove top. Larger vessels may
require the installation of heating elements or the use of a gas burner to bring the liquid to a rolling
boil. Also known as aCopper or a Kettle.
Boiling time the period during which wort is boiled. Generally one hour is sufficient. The boil must
be vigorous and rolling to maximise utilisation of hop alpha acids, good break formation, sterilisation
of the wort and removal of volatiles in steam. An evaporation rate of 10% per hour indicates that the
boil is vigorous enough.
Bottling wand a device which allows beer bottles to be filled with minimal splashing, thereby
reducing aeration/oxidation of the finished beer. A typical bottling wand consists of a rigid plastic tube
long enough to reach the bottom of the bottle, and a valve which is opened by pressing the tip of the
filler against the bottom of the bottle. Can be attached directly to the end of a siphon hose, or to the
spigot of a bottling bucket. See also this guide to bottling beer.
Bottle capper a device for crimping metal caps onto beer bottles. The two most common bottle
cappers are the hand-held, double lever type, and the somewhat more expensive bench capper. See
also this guide to bottling beer.
Bottle conditioning a method of carbonating bottled beer by adding a small amount of extra sugar
(see Priming) at the point of bottling. The residual yeast creates carbon dioxide under pressure,
carbonating the beer.
Bottling bucket a vessel from which beer is syphoned off and placed into bottles. Generally beer is
racked from a fermenter into the bottling bucket, leaving behind unwanted yeast matter. A fixed

amount of primingsugar is added before bottling to provide carbonation through the action of the
entrained yeast. See also thisguide to bottling beer.
Break material see Cold break and Hot break.
Bung in brewing, an apparatus (usually rubber) used to seal a fermentation vessel. Unlike a lid,
which encloses a container from the outside, a bung is partially inserted inside the container to act as
a seal. Bungs can also be purchased bored to allow an airlock to be fitted to a fermenter.
Brew belt an electric heating belt which can be wrapped around a fermenter.
Brewpot see Boiler.
Brix unit of measurement of sugar in wort. Functionally equivalent to degrees Plato

C
Calcium an essential component in brewing liquor. Essential for good mashing, break formation,
fermentation and clarification. Values of between 50 and 150 ppm are common.
Calcium Chloride a source of calcium in brewing water. Chloride provides fullness to the mouthfeel
of beer. Should be balanced with sulphate.
Calcium Sulphate see Gypsum
Caramel malt see Crystal Malt.
Carbonation the concentration of carbon dioxide gas present in beer. Expressed in volumes of
carbon dioxide, and generally between 1 and 5 volumes, depending on the beer style. Determined by
the amount of sugar used when priming.
Carboy a fermenter with a large body and narrow neck, the advantage of which is minimal surface
area exposed to air contact (which can lead to oxidation and infection). Carboys come in glass and
plastic varieties, glass being the preferred alternative due to the fact that they are less susceptible to
infections and less permeable to air. Each variety is available in several sizes, the standard size being
5 gallons (25L).
Cask-conditioned beer see Real Ale.
Chill haze haze that forms in beer upon chilling. Very common in home brewed beer and Real Ale
due to a lack of filtration. The haze disappears upon warming and does not generally appear above
10 C. Caused by the interaction of tannins and protein.
Clone recipe a recipe that purports to clone a commercially brewed beer.
Cold break refers to the proteins that precipitate out of the wort when it is rapidly cooled after the
boil has come to an end. If the wort is not cooled rapidly, the proteins will remain in the beer and may
cause Chill haze. (Contrast with Hot break).
Continuous hopping the constant addition of hops to wort during the boil, in contrast to the more
traditional batch addition of hops at specific times. Best typified by the 120 minute IPA brewed by
Dogfish Head Brewery, Delaware USA.
Continuous sparging a method in which water is continuously introduced to the top of the mash,
usually with the aid of a sprinkler system. This water then percolates down through the grain bed
increasing in sugar concentration as it goes. The goal is to gradually replace the wort with the water,

stopping the sparge when the gravity is 1.008 or when enough wort has been collected, whichever
comes first. This method demands more attention by the brewer, but is generally considered the most
efficient sparge method. (Contrast withBatch sparging).
Copper see Boiler.
Crystal malt one of the three main categories of brewing grains. Crystal malts are created by the
maltster by steeping wet grains to achieve the production of sugars within the whole grains. When the
grains are then dried and heated in kilns, the sugars are crystallised and caramelised to varying
degrees of darkness. Since crystal malts do not require mashing, they may be used by extract and allgrain brewers alike.
Clarify to remove haze-causing particles and solids out of solution, often with the help of finings.
Clarification is primarily a cosmetic process since haze-causing particles usually have no effect on
flavour.
Cold break proteins that coagulate and fall out of solution when the wort is rapidly cooled prior to
pitching the yeast.
Conditioning the residual activity of the yeast following primary fermentation, which helps to refine
the flavour of the beer.
Cornelius keg (aka corny keg) a tall, skinny stainless steel keg, typically 5 gallons in capacity,
manufactured by the Cornelius company. Probably the most popular system for kegging homebrew.
Corn sugar see Dextrose.
Corny keg see Cornelius keg.
Craft brewing a newer, less common term for "microbrewed" beer. Craft breweries generally
produce all-malt beers from quality ingredients, emphasising flavour and individuality rather than
industrial cost-cutting measures and marketing gimmicks.

Decoction a mashing technique classically employed by lager brewers due to the use of under
modified malt. Malt is held at a number of rest periods to aid efficiency during the mash. Increases in
mash temperature are achieved by removing a portion of the mash, boiling it and returning it to the
mash tun where it raises the temperature of the entire mash to the next pre-set mash temperature.
The process can be carried out over a number of steps.
Demijohn a one-gallon glass jar with straight shoulders and two handles at the top. They are often
used for smaller experimental batches of beer.
Dextrose glucose monohydrate. Can be used as a priming sugar.
Dimethyl Sulphide Commonly referred to as DMS. A pungent sulphur compound considered an off
flavour if found in high concentrations in ales, but acceptable in low concentration in lagers. Stems
from lager and pale malt, but is generally driven off in steam during the boil. Has been described as
smelling like cooked corn, rotten cabbage or cat's urine, depending upon the concentration.
Dip tube a tube, usually made from metal, which extends from a fitting on the top of a keg, down
into the body of the keg. On a standard soda keg, the dip tube on the "out" fitting extends all the way
to the bottom of the keg, allowing beer to be drawn off. The dip tube on the "in" fitting is short, and is
used to inject CO2 into the headspace.

DME abbreviation for "Dry Malt Extract" (sometimes referred to as "spray malt"). See Malt.
DMS see Dimethyl sulphide
Doughing-in the process of adding the grist to the strike water.
Dry-hopping the addition of hops during or after primary fermentation to boost the hop aroma of the
beer.

Efficiency the percentage of available extract that is retrieved from malt during mashing. Home
brewers can expect around 75% efficiency with the most common mashing methods employed.
Enzymes -- see this article about understanding enzymes in brewing .
Ester a fermentation by-product that contributes fruity characteristics to the aroma and flavour of the
beer.
Extract brewing - the use of malt extract as the primary source of malt sugars in a brewing session
(as opposed to using raw malted barley grain). Malt extract comes in two varieties: a dry powdered
extract (known as dry malt extract or 'DME') and a thick liquid extract (known as liquid malt extract or
'LME'). Each variety may be purchased pre-hopped, for extra flavour, or unhopped, giving the brewer
greater control over the final product. (Contrast with All-Grain Brewing). See also this guide to
extract brewing .

False bottom a raised perforated platform in a mash/lauter tun, designed to allow for drainage of
sweet wort during the sparge while retaining the grain bed. False bottoms range from fitted metal
screens to perforated plastic domes to simple mesh bags.
Fermentation the process by which yeast converts sugar to alcohol and carbon dioxide.
Fermentation lock see Airlock.
Fermenter the vessel into which you add the wort and yeast to ferment into beer.
Final Gravity the measure of the Specific Gravity of the beer after it has finished fermenting.
Finings gelatinous products added to the boil to brighten and clarify the beer. Irish moss (a type of
seaweed) is a classic example.
Finishing hops see Aroma Hops.
First runnings the heavy, sugar-laden liquid which comes out of the mash tun first, before
sparging. In a parti-gyle scheme, the first runnings are used to brew a very strong beer (e.g. a
Barleywine), while the second runnings are used for a lower gravity beer.

First wort hopping The addition of hops directly to the kettle as the first runnings are added before
the boil commences. Proponents suggests that a more favourable bitterness in acheive with this
method.
Flocculation the tendency of yeast to clump together and fall from solution when fermentation is
complete. Extent and timing of flocculation is often yeast strain specific.
Force carbonating carbonating beer by applying CO2 under pressure. This is typically achieved in
corny kegs, but may also be done in plastic soda bottles, with the proper fittings (e.g. carbonator
cap). By force carbonating, the beer can be drinkable as soon as it finishes fermenting and falls clear,
rather than having to wait 1-2 weeks for natural carbonation to develop after priming.
Fruit press a device used to separate fruit solids (such as stems, skins, seeds, pulp, leaves, and
detritus) from fruit juice. It is typically used in cider-making.
Fusel alcohols larger alcohol molecules other than ethanol produced by yeast during sub optimal
fermentation conditions. Also referred to as 'higher alcohols', they cause off flavours best
characterised as 'hot'.

Gas burner a popular device, especially in the US, for heating hot liquor tanks and brewpots. Less
popular in Ireland, however, due to the fact that they must be used outdoors. (Contrast with Heating
Element).
Grain bag a fine mesh bag, usually made of nylon or cotton. Typically used by extract brewers to
steep specialty grains in the brewing water.
Grain bed depth the depth of grain in the mash tun. The bed depth dictates the speed of wort run
off and the likelihood of a stuck mash.
Grain bill a list of the types and quantities of malt and other grains used in a beer recipe.

Grain mill a device used to crack open grain, providing access to the starch within. The extent of
milling is significant. Too little and the starch cannot be accessed. Too much and there will be
insufficient husk to provide an effective filter bed for wort run off.
Gravity the concentration or density of malt sugar in the wort. The higher the concentration of sugar
in a beer the higher the gravity. The term has three central uses in homebrewing: specific, original and
final. Specific gravity is the measure of the density of beer compared to the density of water. Original
gravity is the density of the beer before it ferments. And final gravity is the density of the beer after it
has finished fermenting.
Green Beer immature beer containing a number of fragrant flavour compounds that are eliminated
from the beer during maturation.

Grist in all-grain brewing, "grist" refers to the mixture of crushed grains (and adjuncts, if they are
used) which form the raw material for the mash. Mashing begins when the strike water is mixed with
the grist.

Growler glass jug, typically 1/2 gallon capacity. Commonly used by brewpubs and micro breweries
in the US to sell fresh draft beer for carry-out.

Gypsum calcium sulphate. A source of calcium when added to brewing liquor. Also a source of
sulphate, which enhances hop crispness.

H
Head retention the ability to hold a layer of foam on top of the beer. A beer with good head
retention will maintain some residual foam until the beer has been completely consumed, leaving
"lacework" down the sides of the glass.
Headspace the area at the top of a vessel (fermenter, bottle, or keg) which does not contain any
liquid. In general, the goal is to minimize headspace, to prevent oxidation of the beer by oxygen in the
air. Headspace in the primary fermenter is not a serious concern, because the CO 2 produced by
fermentation forms a protective blanket on top of the beer, and forces nearly all of the oxygen out of
the fermenter.
Heat Exchange Recirculating Mash System commonly abbreviated as "HERMS". A mashing
system in which the mash temperature is controlled by circulating the liquid part of the mash through a
heat exchanger. The main difference between a HERMS and a RIMS system is that in a HERMS
system, the wort never comes into direct contact with the heating element. This supposedly results in
less scorching, and a cleaner-tasting wort. (Contrast with RIMS).
Heating Element an electric element attached to the inside of a hot liquor tank or brewpot for
heating and boiling the liquid. (Contrast with Gas Burner).
HERMS see Heat Exchange Recirculating Mash System.
High alpha hops hops which contain a high percentage of alpha acids (the cut off is generally
considered to be around 9%). High alpha hops are typically used for bittering rather than finishing,
since the high alpha acid content means that less hops are needed to produce a given level of
bitterness, and they also tend to have less refined flavour and aroma characteristics.
Homebrew kit a starter kit containing the basic equipment necessary for brewing beer. A good kit
should include at least the following: a 25L fermentation vessel, a 25L secondary fermentation vessel
or bottling bucket, thermometer, airlock, bung (usually bored), trial jar, bottling wand, hydrometer,
bottle brush, syphon, large non-wooden spoon, bottle capper, crown caps and some steriliser. Distinct
from a beer kit used for kit brewing.
Hop bag a mesh bag for hops that can be submerged in the brewpot (or the fermenter, in the case
of dry hopping). Hop bags are useful in helping to minimise the spread of hop sludge, especially in
relation to pellet hops which have a tendency to completely disintegrate in liquid. However, hop bags
can also reduce the efficiency with which hop bitterness, flavour, and aroma is extracted.

Hop oil the aromatic fraction of hop compounds. Provides aroma and flavour. They are volatile and
easily driven off in steam if added too early in the boil.
Hop Pellets whole leaf hops that have been shredded and compacted into pellets. Forms included
type 90 and type 45, in which 10% and 55% respectively of extraneous hop matter has been
removed. Fewer hop pellets are required for a given volume of whole leaves. Also hop oils are more
readily accessible due to damage to lupulin glands.

Hop strainer a slotted pipe or manifold attached to the inside of the outlet tap on a brewpot to allow
the wort to be drained off while leaving behind the hop sludge.
Hops Humulus Lupulus, Cannabinacea family. The hops used in brewing are the flower of a tallgrowing vine of the same name. The green buds are covered with lupulin glands, tiny sacks
containing acids and aromatic oils which provide the bitterness and aromatic qualities for which hops
are so highly prized. Along with balancing the flavour of beer and enhancing its aroma, hops act as a
preservative by inhibiting many potentially spoiling organisms. They can generally be purchased as
whole leaves or in compressed pellet form.
Hot break proteins that coagulate and fall out of solution during the wort boil. The hot break
appears as a vigorous layer of foam that quickly recedes. It can sometimes cause a boil over if the
brewpot lacks sufficient head space. Contrast with Cold Break.
Hot liquor tank a vessel designed to bring water to strike temperature for mashing. In a three-tier
set-up, the hot liquor tank occupies the top level.
Hot-side aeration a much debated process in brewing. Hot wort readily takes up oxygen when
aerated. This can result in the development of off flavours in the finished beer through oxidation of
wort constituents.
Husk the shell around a barley kernel. It is a rich source of polyphenols and silica and is essential
for good run off from infusion mash tuns.
Hydrogen Sulphide a pungent gas produced by yeast during the early stages of fermentation. It
smells of rotten eggs and is driven off my carbon dioxide production during fermentation leaving little
trace of it in the finished beer. It can also be produced in larger quantities by unwanted contaminating
bacteria. Hydrogen sulphide of bacterial origin often persists into the finished beer.
Hydrometer a graduated glass instrument for measuring the specific gravity of a liquid.
Hydrometers are particularly useful for estimating the alcohol content of a beer and for monitoring the
progress of fermentation.

I
IBU see International bittering unit.
Immersion chiller see Wort Chiller.
Infection the presence of micro organisms in sufficient numbers, other than the pitched yeast strain,
to taint the beer with off flavours. See Wild Yeast
Infusion mash The process of mashing in which no addition heat is added to the mash tun during
mashing. The strike water is adjusted to a temperature that will allow the mash to settle out to a
desired temperature of between 65 - 68 C once the malt is added. (Contrast with Decoction).
International bittering unit (IBU) part per million of alpha acids present in beer. Calculation can be
hard to do accurately because of great variations in hop utilisation between brewing equipment.
(Contrast with Alpha Acid Unit).

Irish moss a seaweed commonly used as a clarifying agent in the brewing process. A small amount
is boiled with the wort, attracting proteins and other solids, and then removed from the mixture after
cooling.
Isinglass a beer clarifier made from the swim bladders of certain fish. Like gelatin, it causes yeast
to settle out more rapidly. Isinglass is the traditional clarifier for British cask ales, and is added at the
end of fermentation.
Iso Alpha Acids the form that alpha acids take after isomerisation during the boil. They provide
the bitterness in beer.
Isomerisation a chemical process in which a molecule is rearranged in structure, but still contains
the same number of atoms.

K
Keg conversion any DIY project for converting a 10 gallon stainless steel keg into a hot liquor tank,
a mash tun, or a brewpot. Typically, this involves removing the lid of the keg with an angle-grinder and
drilling holes near the bottom for an outlet tap and heating elements (using stepped drill bits or hole
saws). Welding is sometimes used to fix the tap and elements into place, but this is not strictly
necessary.
Kegerator a draft beer dispensing device intended for residential use. A keg is placed in a fridge
with a special temperature control system and then connected to a tap on the outside which can
dispense draught beer. The user is able to maintain a tapped keg in such a device for extended
periods of time, usually a couple of months, without losing any quality in the taste of the beer.
Kilning the heating of malt to reduce the moisture content and impart colour and flavour. The
temperature at which kilning is carried out, and the length of the kilning, determines how dark the malt
will be.
Kit brewing the simplest form of brewing and the most popular starting point for the novice brewer.
Kit brewing involves the use of malt extract (usually liquid malt extract which has been pre-hopped) as
the primary source of malt sugars in a brewing session. This liquid is usually boiled with some sugar
(preferrably spraymalt) and topped up with a predetermined amount of water in the fermenter. Yeast
(which is often supplied with the kit) is then added to start the fermentation process. (Contrast
with All-Grain Brewing.) See also this guide to kit brewing .

Krausen (kroy-zen) the fluffy foam that grows on top of wort as it begins to ferment. The krausen
can sometimes clog airlocks, in which case a blow-off tube may be required to release the excess
foam.
Krausening refers to the addition of freshly fermenting wort (i.e. wort with a krausen) to a previously
fermented batch just before it is bottled. Krausening will carbonate the bottled product.

L
Lag time the period between the pitching of the yeast into the wort and the first noticeable effects of
fermentation (e.g. when the airlock starts to bubble as the CO 2 builds up in the fermenter).

Lager broadly speaking, beer brewed using a bottom-fermenting yeast; one that ferments best at
cooler temperatures (usually between 7 15C). Lager beer is characterised by a lack of esters,
maltier flavour, and high clarity.(Contrast with Ale).
Lagering derivative of the German word for storage. Beer is stored at a low temperature for weeks
or months during which time maturation occurs through the elimination of undesirable flavour
compounds. SeeGreen Beer.
Lambic the speciality beer of Brussel, made using spontaneous fermentation by wild yeast.
Renowned for its sour flavour. Usually blended with batches of different ages to make Gueuze, or with
fruit juice to make Kriek (cherries), Frambois (raspberries), etc.
Lauter tun any vessel used to hold all-grain brewing ingredients during the sparge. Lauter tuns
must contain a false bottom or manifold to allow drainage of sweet wort while retaining the grain bed.
However, anything from a brewpot to nested plastic buckets will do, provided there is a way to strain
the wort off while leaving the grain behind. Many lauter tuns are equipped with sprinklers above the
grains to allow an even spray of sparge water over the grain bed. Many homebrewers use a combined
mash tun/lauter tun set-up, but strictly speaking they are not identical. A mash tun is a device for
mashing grain, whereas a lauter tun is a device for separating wort from grain.
Lipids fats and oils stemming from malt and hops. Lipids reduce foam retention and cause off
flavours if present in high concentration.

Liquor also known as strike water. In all-grain brewing, "liquor" refers to the hot water mixed with
the grist to begin the mashing process. Liquor must be adjusted to specific temperatures to achieve
the appropriate mash-in temperatures for different mashing styles.
LME - abbreviation for "liquid malt extract". See Malt.
Lovibond a measurement scale used to specify the colour of malt. The higher the number, the
darker the malt. Most base malts have a Lovibond rating below 10 (dark Munich malts may be slightly
higher). Crystal/caramel and toasted malts generally have a Lovibond rating of between 10 and 100.
Roasted malts are typically above 400.
Low alpha hops hops with a low alpha-acid content (typically between 2 - 5%). Many of the
preferred varieties of finishing hops are low alpha, though there are exceptions.

M
Maillard Reactions complex chemical reactions that occur during kilning of roasted malt. Rich and
flavourful compounds are formed during kilning from the interaction of malt sugars and proteins.
Malt in brewing, the noun "malt" generally refers to the sugars extracted from malted cereal grains
(usually barley or wheat). Malt is available commerically as a concentrated syrup or powder that many
homebrewers reconstitute to create their wort (this is commonly called "malt extract"). Malt is also the
term for the malted grains all-grain brewers use to extract their wort sugars.
Malted barley barley grain that has undergone a process in which the raw grains are soaked,
allowed to germinate (sprout), heated, and then dried. This process is undertaken by malting
companies, commonly known as "maltsters." Malting stimulates the creation of enzymes crucial to
mashing and begins the process of chemical breakdown necessary to create sweet, fermentable wort
from raw grains. Various malting techniques create the three major categories of malted grains: base
or pale malt, crystal or caramel malts, and roasted malt.
Maltster see Malted Barley.

Manifold a device used at the bottom of a lauter tun to strain the wort from the grain. Manifolds are
commonly constructed from copper or plastic tubing, connected in a flat ring or "H" shape, into which
holes or slots have been cut. The tubing is attached to a fitting which passes through the wall of the
lauter tun, to allow the wort to be drawn off.
Mashing the first major phase of all-grain brewing (before sparging). It involves a hot water
steeping process designed to hydrate the malted grain, gelatinise its starches, release its natural
enzymes, and convert the starches into fermentable sugars. The malt is crushed to facilitate hydration
and infused with pre-heated water to achieve a temperature between 65 and 68C (this range is
flexible and depends upon the style of beer being brewed). The mash is typically held at that
temperature for an hour, then drained of wort.. It is then infused with an equal volume of sparge water,
stirred, allowed to settle, and drained once again. The goal is to extract as much of the sweet wort
from the grain as possible.
Mash tun any vessel used to hold all-grain brewing ingredients during the mash. Mash tuns range
from simple brewing kettles and cooler boxes, to combination mash/lauter tuns equipped with false
bottoms, heating devices and sprinkler systems. An effective mash tun should be capable of
maintaining a steady temperature throughout the duration of the mash and be designed in such a way
as to allow for the efficient extraction of wort (if it is designed to double-up as a lauter tun). See
this guide to building a mash tun using a picnic coolerbox .
Mini mash The process of carrying out a small volume mash to produce wort that is supplemented
with malt extract. It is often seen as an intermediate step between extract brewing and all grain
brewing, but the logistics of carrying out a small volume mash are much the same as full one,
providing vessels of suitable size are available.
Modification a process in malting during which protein in barley kernels is broken down into simpler
fractions, more readily used by yeast.
Mouthfeel the sensation of fullness in the mouth created by dextrins and proteins in the beer.
See Body.
Munich Malt malt kilned at a slightly higher temperature than pale malt but for a shorter period of
time. Imparts sweetness and roundness of flavour.

N
Noble hops hop varieties prized for their quality flavour and aroma. Generally used for late hopping
because of very good aroma properties, but also because they tend to be low in alpha acids and not
well suited to bittering. Types include: Saaz, Hallertau, Mittelfruh.

O
Off-flavours undesirable flavours present in beer stemming from problems in the brewing process.
Original gravity the measure of the Specific Gravity of the beer before it ferments.
Oxidation the action of oxygen on malt constituents in beer, often undesirable.

Pale malt also known as base malt. The most common form of malt used in brewing. Typically
kilned at a temperature of 80 C. Commonly used varieties include Maris Otter, Optic and Pearl.
(Contrast with Speciality Grain).
Parts per million a common measure of components in solution. Equivalent to milligrams per litre.
Parti-gyle the process of producing two distinct beers from a single mash. Typically a high abv beer
is produced from the stronger first wort from the mash tun, followed by a lower abv beer fermented
from the weaker second wort.
pH the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution, determining acidity/alkalinity. pH values range
from 0 to 14. Pure water has a pH of 7. Mashing is carried out at around 5.2 and finished beer has a
pH of around 4.5. The correct pH is essential in the various brewing steps and must be met to ensure
good quality beer production.
pH stabiliser a chemical used to bring about a desired pH. Most commonly used to ensure a pH of
around 5.2 for effective mashing.
Phenol potent off flavour caused by infection with wild yeast. Smell of antiseptic, classically TCP.
Pitching the adding of yeast to cooled wort to initiate the fermentation process.
Pitching rate the amount of yeast required for a given original gravity of wort to ensure good
fermentation.
Plato a measure of sugar in malt as a percentage of sugar by weight. E.g. 10 Plato equates to a
10% sugar solution. 1 degree Plato is equal to a specific sugar gravity of 1.004. Plato is widely used
by brewers on the continent. Specific gravity readings are more common in Ireland, the UK and the
USA.
Polyphenols see Tannins. Not related to Phenol.
Poppet a small, spring-loaded valve located inside a soda keg fitting. The poppet seals the fitting
when the hose fitting is removed. Poppets are the most likely source of leaks on older soda kegs;
replacements are available from various on-line vendors.

Primary fermentation the initial and main metabolic process carried out by yeast in the production
of beer. Primary fermentation starts shortly after yeast is pitched into cooled wort. (Contrast
with Secondary Fermentation).
Priming the practice of adding a small quantity of sugar to the beer at bottling time to allow bottle
conditioning to occur. Prior to such conditioning, the yeast count in the beer needs to be reduced to
around 500,000 cells per millilitre in conditioning tanks. The remaining yeast then ferment the newly
added sugar thus providing carbonation to the beer.
Priming sugar sugar (often dextrose or glucose) used to carbonate beer in the bottle.
Protein rest an optional rest period during mashing lasting 20 - 30 minutes at a temperature of 45 60 C during which large protein molecules are broken down into simpler fractions providing nutrients
for yeast and aiding stability of the finished beer. Generally not required if well modified malts are
used.

Quick-disconnect the mechanism which allows keg fittings to be connected and disconnected
quickly and easily. Consists of a keg fitting on the keg itself, and a mating connector on the gas or
beer line to be connected to the keg. When the quick-disconnect is not connected, spring-loaded
valves in the keg fitting and connector prevent any liquid or gas from flowing. When the quickdisconnect is connected, the mechanism causes both valves to open.

R
Racking The process of transferring liquid from one container to another, usually with a syphon.
Rauchbier beer from Bamberg brewed using rauchmalt.
Rauchmalt malt that is dried over a fire of moist beechwood. The malt becomes infused with the
smoke producing a distinct smoked flavour to the finished beer.
RDWHAHB acronym for "Relax, Don't Worry, Have A Homebrew", a phrase popularised by Charlie
Papazian in his classic book the New Complete Joy of Homebrewing.
Racking see Siphoning.
Real Ale a term devised by the UK's Campaign for Real Ale (CAMRA) designating beer brewed
from traditional ingredients, matured by secondary fermentation in the container from which it is
dispensed, and served without the use of extraneous carbon dioxide. Real ale may be caskconditioned or bottle-conditioned ("Real Ale In A Bottle", RAIAB).
Recirculating Infusion Mash System commonly abbreviated as RIMS. A mashing system in
which a pump is used to continuously recirculate the liquid part of the mash through the mash bed.
Mash temperature is maintained by passing the liquid over a heating element. The heating element is
cycled off and on to maintain the desired mash temperature.
Recirculation the process of transferring wort, without overt aeration, from the bottom of the mash
tun to the top of the grain bed where it drains through the bed, being clarified of larger pieces of
matter as well as polyphenols and lipids.
Refractometer optical device used to estimate the concentration of sugar in wort. Measures in
degreesBrix which are functionally equivalent to degrees Plato.
Regulator a device which is used to reduce the pressure of CO2 coming from a tank (typically
around 800 PSI) to the pressure required to carbonate or dispense beer (typically 5 to 30 PSI).
Reinheitsgebot German beer purity law, which was originally enacted in Bavaria in the year 1516,
spreading to the rest of Germany in the 19th century. The Reinheitsgebot states that beer may only
contain water, malt, hops, and (once it was realised that they play an essential role), yeast.
Relief valve a pressure-activated valve, which protects against dangerous over-pressurisation in a
system or device. If the safe working pressure is exceeded, the relief valve "vents", releasing the
excess pressure. The most common types of relief valves seen by homebrewers are on
CO2 regulators, and soda kegs.
Residual extract the sugar left over after fermentation. This includes the sugars that brewers' yeast
was unable to ferment. It provides sweetness and body to the finished beer.
RIMS see Recirculating Infusion Mash System.
Roasted barley unmalted barley kilned to very high temperatures. Widely used in stouts to provide

black colour and sharp roasted flavour.

Roasted malt malt that is heated to very high temperature in a kiln (in excess of 200 C). Chemical
process called Maillard Reactions produce rich, complex flavour compounds that typify the roasted
flavours found in stouts and porters. (Contrast with Pale Malt).

S
Second runnings the lighter, more dilute runnings which come out of the mash tun after the
addition of sparge water. In a parti-gyle scheme, the first runnings are used to brew a very strong
beer (e.g. a Barleywine), while the second runnings are used for a lower gravity beer.
Secondary fermentation a slower fermentation process following the vigorous primary
fermentation. Beer is removed from the primary fermentation vessel and placed into a second vessel,
leaving behind dead yeast and trub matter. There is debate over its efficacy for regular strength beer,
but it is recommended for stronger beers that require a long maturation period. (Contrast with Primary
Fermentation).
Session beer a moderate strength beer which can be consumed in larger quantities due to its low
alcohol content.
Siphon/Siphoning the gravity-powered act of transferring beer from one container to another, or
the equipment used to do so. Some brewers refer to syphoning as "racking".
Smack-pack a method of yeast culturing employed by Wyeast. A pack contains yeast along with a
pouch of yeast nutrient. Pressure is applied to the pack which ruptures the inner pouch, mixing the
yeast with the nutrient, allowing the yeast to propagate within the pack. The pack swells as the yeast
multiply, at which point the yeast can be pitched into cooled wort or transferred to a further
propagation step.
Smoked malt see Rauchmalt.
Sparge arm a rotating sprinkler arm attached to the inside ceiling of a lauter tun. Provides a fine
misting spray to rinse the wort from the grain.
Sparging the process at the end of mashing during which residual sugar retained in the mash is
rinsed from the grain with hot water (typically no hotter than 80 C) and run to the brewpot for boiling.
Speciality grain malt and grain that makes up a minority of the grist, but adds substantial flavour
and colour to the finished beer. (Contrast with Base Malt).
Specific Gravity - the measure of the density of beer compared to the density of water.
Spray malt see Malt Extract.
Starch a complex sugar present in malt and grain that is converted to simpler sugars during
mashing.
Steeping in home brewing, the process of soaking speciality grains in hot water to extract flavour
and colour. Conversion of malt starch does not generally occur and the rich solution is added to malt
extract for boiling.
Stopper see Bung.

Strike water the water mixed with the grist to initiate mashing.
Stuck fermentation occurs in brewing when the yeast die prematurely or become dormant before
fermentation has finished. A stuck fermentation is an unintentional and unwanted occurrence that can
lead to beer being spoiled by bacteria and oxidation. There are several potential causes. The most
common are extreme temperatures (too cold and the yeast will become dormant; too hot and the
yeast will die) and deficient nutrient levels in the wort. Once the fermentation is stuck, it can be difficult
to restart due to a chemical compound released by dying yeast cells that inhibit the future growth of
yeast cells in the batch.
Stuck mash see Stuck Sparge.
Stuck sparge in all-grain brewing, the inability to get any liquid to flow through the grain bed during
the sparge. Generally only an issue with mashes containing a high percentage of wheat, or unmalted
adjuncts. Rice hulls can be added to the mash to reduce the risk of a stuck sparge.

T
Tannins complex compounds found in beer stemming from malt and hops. Can cause haze in beer,
particularly when beer is chilled. See Chill Haze.
Three-tier brewing system a brewing system consisting of three vessels seated on three
ascending platforms. The system is designed to allow liquid to flow from one vessel to the next by
gravity alone. The uppermost platform houses a hot liquor tank, the middle platform a mash
tun, and the lowest platform abrewpot. The hot liquor tank and brewpot can be heated by gas
burners or by electric elements.
Torrified wheat wheat which has been heated, causing the endosperm to expand and pop. This
gelatinises the starch in the grain rendering it instantly accessible (i.e. water soluble without the need
for a extra 'cooking'). Torrified wheat does not therefore need to be mashed. It is generally used
whenever head retention is desired when brewing bitters.
Trial jar a tall, slim vessel used to hold a sample of wort during gravity estimation using a
hydrometer.
Trub see Hot Break and Cold Break.

V
Vorlauf - see Recirculate.

W
Whirlpooling the practice of spinning the wort in a circular motion in the kettle, after the boil is

complete. This causes the trub and spent hops to pile up in the center of the kettle, allowing relatively
clear wort to be drawn off from the side.
Whole-leaf hops hops as they appear on the plant. Brewers use kiln dried whole leaves during the
brewing process. (Contrast with Hop Pellets).
Wild yeast yeast naturally present in the environment. Generally undesirable in beer except in those

styles that specifically require fermentation by wild yeast. (See Lambic). They produce potent off

flavours, most typically phenolic notes. They can ferment complex sugars that brewers yeast cannot,
often resulting in below expected final gravity. Classic examples include Saccharomyces
diastaticus and Brettanomyces.
Wood chips roasted chips (often American or French oak) are sometimes added to a secondary

fermenter to impart a range of flavours typical of beer that has been conditioned in wooden barrels or
casks.
Wort the sweet, rich fluid produced during mashing. It is a complex solution of sugars, protein, fats,
and inorganic minerals. It is boiled, usually for an hour, during which time hops are added to provide
bitterness and extra flavour and aroma.
Wort chiller a device used to rapidly cool wort from boiling to pitching temperature. Can take the

form of an immersion chiller (commonly a copper coil which is submerged in the wort and pumped
with cold water), or a counter flow chiller (which pumps hot wort through piping that runs against a
separate cold water pipe). In each type, heat is transfered from the hot wort to the water, cooling the
wort. See also this guide to building an immersion wort chiller .

Y
Yeast single-celled ascomycetous fungi used to ferment beer. Brewing yeast strains differ from

bread yeast in that they are selected for their tolerance to alcohol, their tendency
to attenuate and flocculate, and the flavour characteristics they impart in fermentation. Yeast is a
good source of Vitamin B, which is why Brewer's Yeast (dead) is often sold in health food stores.
Yeast nutrient - a mixture of various nutrients, minerals, and dead yeast ("yeast hulls" or "yeast
ghosts") which provide the materials necessary for yeast to reproduce and ferment vigorously.
Nutrients are helpful in almost any batch of beer, and are usually required in low-nutrient styles like
mead.
Yeast starter - a method employed to ensure that a sufficient amount of yeast is cultured to meet the
requiredpitching rate for a given original gravity of wort.

Z
Zymurgy - the science of brewing and fermentation.
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