443868

2012

POM0010.1177/0305735612443868Hallam et al.Psychology of Music

Article

The development of practising

strategies in young people

Psychology of Music
40(5) 652680
The Author(s) 2012
Reprints and permission: sagepub.
co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0305735612443868
pom.sagepub.com

Susan Hallam,Tiija Rinta, Maria Varvarigou

and Andrea Creech
Institute of Education, University of London, UK

Ioulia Papageorgi

University of Nicosia, Cyprus

Teresa Gomes and Jennifer Lanipekun

Institute of Education, University of London, UK

Abstract
There has been considerable research considering how instrumental practice changes as expertise
develops. Much of that research has been relatively small scale and restricted in the range of
instrumentalists included. This paper aimed to explore the development of practising strategies and
motivation to practise as expertise develops with a large sample of participants at different levels of
expertise playing a wide range of different instruments. A total of 3,325 young people ranging in
level of expertise from beginner to the level required for entry to higher education conservatoires
completed a questionnaire which consisted of a number of statements relating to practising
strategies, organization of practice, and motivation to practise with a seven-point rating scale. Data
were analyzed in relation to nine levels of expertise. Factor analysis revealed seven factors: adoption
of systematic practice strategies; organization of practice; use of recordings for listening and feedback
and use of the metronome; use of analytic strategies; adoption of ineffective strategies; concentration;
and immediate correction of errors. There were statistically significant linear relationships between
grade level and four of the factors but not for organization of practice; use of analytic strategies; and
concentration. The findings are discussed in relation to the educational implications.

Keywords
concentration, development, expertise, motivation, practice

Corresponding author:
Professor Susan Hallam, Institute of Education, University of London, 20 Bedford Way, London, WC1H OAL, UK.
Email: s.hallam@ioe.ac.uk

Hallam et al.

653

Introduction
Practice is central to the development of all aspects of musical expertise. Indeed, Ericsson,
Krampe, and Tesch-Romer (1993) have suggested a monotonic relationship between deliberate practice and an individuals acquired level of performance. Supporting this, accumulated
practice has been demonstrated to be a key variable in determining the level of musical expertise attained. Expert performers invest several thousand hours of practice over a lengthy period
of time to attain high levels of accomplishment, although there are substantial individual differences (Ericsson et al., 1993; Hallam, 1998; Jrgensen, 2002; Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, &
Moore, 1996; Sosniak, 1990). These differences suggest that the quality of the practice undertaken is also important. The extent to which musicians enjoy practice may be an important
determinant of how much is undertaken or, indeed, the extent to which musicians attempt to
make their practice effective so that they can keep practice time to a minimum (Chaffin, Imreh, ,
& Crawford, 2002; Hallam, 1995a, 2001a, 2001b; McPherson & Davidson, 2002).
Effective practice has been described by Hallam (1997b) as that which achieves the desired endproduct, in as short a time as possible, without interfering negatively with longer-term goals (p.
181). In other words, effective practice is what works in the short term without interfering with
progression in the long term, for instance by creating undue muscular tension. The underlying
assumption of this definition is that effective practice can take many forms and that each musician
requires considerable meta-cognitive skills to know what is effective for them. Deliberate practice,
as defined by Ericsson et al. (1993), is conceptualized as goal-oriented, structured, and effortful,
although motivation, resources, and attention are perceived as possibly acting to constrain its
effectiveness. Also acknowledging the importance of practice being focused, Jrgensen (1995)
proposes that musicians need to behave like teachers, taking account of their practice aims, the
musical content, available learning media, allocation of time, and specific practice strategies.
Whatever the nature of the practice undertaken, time spent practising increases as expertise develops (Hallam, 1992; Harnischmacher, 1993; Sloboda et al., 1996). Focusing on the
number of days when practice was undertaken each week, Sloboda et al. (1996) reported that
novices and young people practised each day, although not all of the evidence supports this
(Hallam, 2011). It may be that the number of days when practice occurs does not increase as
expertise develops, but the length of time of practice sessions (Hallam, 2001a).
Research on the quality of practice has tended to focus on the strategies adopted. One strand
of work has considered whether strategy use changes as levels of expertise increase. Studies
with professional musicians have shown that typically they establish an overview and aural
mental schemata of music to be learned by studying the score, playing the music, or learning
from a live or recorded model. Difficult sections are identified based on the formal structure of
the music, the most difficult parts being divided into smaller subdivisions. As practice progresses the sections are linked together (Chaffin, Imreh, Lemieux, & Chen, 2003; Hallam,
1995a, 1995b). Research on the practice of those studying music in higher education in conservatoires or universities has shown that they tend adopt similar strategies to professionals
(e.g., Dos Santos & Gerling, 2011; Miksza, 2011), although they do not always implement them
effectively (e.g., Nielsen, 1999, 2001).
Key questions are whether similar strategies are adopted by those at lower levels of expertise
and if strategy use changes as expertise develops. Some research has addressed this issue. Gruson
(1988) studied 43 pianists from novice to professional level and found that, as expertise developed, there was an increase in the repetition of sections, verbalizing and playing hands separately, while errors, repeating single notes and pauses decreased. Hallam (1997a), studying 55
string players aged 618 ranging from beginner to post-grade 8 standard, identified six levels of

654

Psychology of Music 40(5)

practice. Initially there was much time wasting and work was incomplete; at the second level the
music was played through with no corrections; at the third, single notes were corrected; at the
fourth, the material was played through with short sections repeated en route; at the fifth the
material was played through with large sections practised en route; while at the sixth level the
material was played through initially, with difficult sections identified and worked on in isolation. The correlation between these levels and graded examination level was 0.69, suggesting
enhanced strategy use as expertise developed. McPherson and Renwick (2001) also found relatively ineffective practice in a longitudinal study of relative beginners undertaken over three
years. Most practice time was spent playing through a piece with the children sometimes repeating a small section after an error. Some worked things out before playing. These studies suggest
that strategy use does develop simultaneously with expertise. However, they have limitations in
terms of sample size and instrument breadth (Gruson, 1988; Hallam, 1997a) and because of
the length of the period of the study (McPherson & Renwick, 2001).
One of the difficulties that beginners and novices may experience is not having appropriate
schemata against which to evaluate progress. If learners have not acquired an internalized representation of the sound of the music that they are trying to play, they have nothing against
which to assess whether they are making errors. There is certainly evidence that this is the case.
Hallam (1997a) found that 60% of beginners, novices and advanced students when learning a
new piece left errors uncorrected. Once errors were made they tended to become permanent and
were left uncorrected. Similar observations were made by McPherson and Renwick (2001)
and Pitts, Davidson, and McPherson (2000). Only when students had considerable expertise and
had well-developed schemata were errors consistently corrected. One possible strategy to support the development of relevant aural schemata is the use of recordings (Puopolo, 1971;
Zurcher, 1975) as this provides learners with the opportunity to acquire knowledge of the
sounds that they are trying to recreate before practising. However, there is some evidence that
recordings, even when available, are infrequently used (Miksza, 2007) and even when they are
used this is not always effective in enhancing performance (Anderson, 1981; Linklater, 1997).
Musicians often have to learn to play passages at considerable speed. Initially, while ensuring
that they are playing the correct notation, they may have to begin their practice playing the
passage slowly. Drake and Palmer (2000) observed three approaches adopted by students at
different levels of expertise in learning to play fast passages. Beginners tended to stick to one
tempo throughout practice sessions, novices increased tempo gradually until they reached a
limit, while the most accomplished students gradually increased tempo over each practice session. These findings are supported by those of Barry (1992) and Oura and Hatano (2001). The
adoption of these strategies is clearly important to support the development of high levels of
expertise. The question is to what extent do they develop in young people playing a wide range
of instruments across a broad range of expertise?
Another strand of research has explored whether the organization of practice contributes to
its effectiveness (Barry, 1992; DeNicola, 1990; Price, 1992; Santana, 1978). At the start of
practice sessions many musicians carry out warm-up exercises, although there is considerable
individual variation in the extent to which these are perceived to be necessary; this in part may
relate to the instrument that they play (Hallam, 1995a; Jrgensen, 1998). Technical exercises
often follow with repertory work left until last (Duke, Flowers, & Wolfe, 1997). Highly expert
young musicians focus on scales in morning practice sessions rather than those later in the day
(Sloboda et al., 1996) suggesting that this may be an important strategy in developing high
levels of expertise. They may do this because they treat scales as warm-up exercises, or they
may believe that they will be better able to concentrate on technique in the morning. A distinction has also been made between formal (deliberate) and informal practice (playing favourite

Hallam et al.

655

pieces by ear, messing about with music, improvising); (McPherson & McCormick, 1999;
Sloboda & Davidson, 1996). High achievers tend to report more formal and informal practice
(Sloboda & Davidson, 1996) which may indicate higher levels of enjoyment of making music.
In order for practice to be focused, learners must concentrate. There is considerable evidence
that some learners do not succeed in concentrating and engage in displacement activities, for
instance setting up a music stand, maintaining the instrument (McPherson & Renwick, 2001;
Pitts et al, 2000a). Concentration may improve as expertise develops. McPherson and Renwick
(2001) found that, over a period of three years, a higher percentage of practice time was focused
on improving performance with less time spent in off-task activities. This may reflect an increase
in meta-cognition, knowledge concerning ones own cognitive processes and products and
the active monitoring and consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes (Flavell,
1976, p. 232). These are activities with which professional musicians consistently engage.
Hallam (2001a, 2001b), requiring students to undertake a performance task within a limited
space of time, explored the extent of implicit planning and found that those who exhibited high
levels of planning completed the task, identified difficulties early on, concentrated their efforts
on those difficulties and then integrated learned sections together. These strategies were
adopted most frequently by students at higher levels of expertise.
Such activities have also been conceptualized as self-regulation (McPherson & Zimmerman,
2002). McPherson (1997), working with 101 high school wind players, demonstrated that selfregulated musicians employed more sophisticated and musically appropriate strategies. Adopting
a different perspective, Cantwell and Millard (1994) studied six 14-year-old students and identified deep and surface approaches to learning music, the former involving learning in musical
rather than technical terms. This led to a greater focus on understanding and subsequently
enhanced learning outcomes. Perhaps the focus on musical outcomes sustained students interest. Similarly, Duke, Cash, and Allen (2011) found that concentration on the sound produced led
to more accurate performance than focus on the movements required for making the sounds.
Having well-defined aims for practice may support concentration. Ericsson et al. (1993) concluded that having a clear goal for each practice session was important for learning to occur.
However, the evidence suggests that novices and more accomplished students often fail to formulate goals for practice activities and mastering specific tasks (Jrgensen, 1998).
Some research has focused on the direct relationship between strategy use and learning outcomes. For instance, Miksza (2011) investigated the relationships between observed practice
behaviours consistent with conceptions of deliberate practice and the performance achievement
of a specific piece of 55 college wind players. Participants completed a 23-minute practice session and were assessed on their performance pre- and post-practice. While there was some
improvement in assessed performance this was very small, although there was more variability
post-practice. Significant positive correlations were found between pre- and post-performance
measures and repeating two to four bar chunks, whole-part-whole strategies, linking sections
together and the use of the metronome. The relatively small changes in performance outcomes
preclude firm conclusions about the extent to which strategy use assisted learners in the short
practice period they were allocated to prepare the set piece, although the positive correlations
with pre-practice performance suggest that strategy use was linked to overall levels of expertise.
In a study conducted over a 16-week period where graduate and undergraduate students
prepared a short Brazilian piano piece without guidance from teachers, Dos Santos and Gerling
(2011) found that students exhibited different performance outcomes although they were similar in their levels of self-regulation. Hallam (2011), researching school-aged students, similarly
found no relationship between the practising strategies adopted and the quality of performance
at particular levels of expertise.

656

Psychology of Music 40(5)

It is clearly important to our understanding of the development of expertise to be able to

establish the relationship between time spent practising, the adoption of particular practising
strategies, the organization of practice, motivation to practise and the level of expertise and the
quality of performance at that level of expertise. The study reported here aims to explore these
relationships with a large sample of young people at different levels of expertise playing a wide
range of instruments. The specific research questions are:
Does the amount of practice increase as expertise develops?
Do practising strategies, organization of practice and levels of concentration of young
people change as they become more expert?
Do young peoples attitudes towards practising change as they become more expert and
are these related to the amount of practice undertaken?
Does the adoption of effective practising strategies contribute to attaining high levels of
expertise?
Does the adoption of effective practising strategies contribute to the quality of that
expertise?
On the basis of previous research we would expect that: the amount of practice will increase as
expertise develops; that practising strategies, organization of practice and levels of concentration
will change as learners become more expert; and that the adoption of effective practising strategies will contribute to attaining high levels of expertise and to the quality of that expertise.

Method
Design
Previous research in this area has tended to adopt observation methods with practice being
recorded using audio or video equipment. While this facilitates detailed analysis of real life
events, it is time consuming. As a result sample sizes tend to be relatively limited in size. To
address this issue the present study adopted a self-report questionnaire as a means of collecting
data from a large sample of learners. Analysis of variance was used to analyze the data, with
level of expertise as the independent variable and practice time and the outcomes of two factor
analyses as the dependent variables. Multiple regression techniques were also adopted.

Materials
The questionnaire was devised based on the research evidence outlined earlier and a smaller
scale prior study (Hallam, 2011). The questionnaire sought information about the level of
expertise attained (assessed by the highest examination grade achieved) and the quality of performance at that level of expertise (as measured by the mark obtained in the highest grade). In
the United Kingdom (UK) there are several independent examination boards which offer graded
instrumental examinations, usually from preliminary to grade 8. Typically, graded examinations assess candidates performance on pieces, scales, sight-reading, and aural tests, with some
examination boards assessing technical exercises and improvisation tasks. These provide a convenient, widely recognized and impartial means of assessing level of expertise and, through the
mark given, the quality of that expertise. Respondents were also asked to indicate the length of
time they had spent learning to play an instrument and the number and length of practice

657

Hallam et al.

sessions in a typical week. The questionnaire also included a range of statements relating to:
the practising strategies adopted; the organization and management of practice; and motivation to practise. Respondents were requested to respond to these on a seven-point Likert scale
with 7 indicating the strongest agreement and 1 the strongest disagreement. The questionnaire was piloted on a small group of young musicians to ensure that the statements were easy
to understand. Their feedback indicated that no changes were required. The full questionnaire
is included in Appendix 1.

Respondents
Data were collected by a team of researchers from young people playing all of the classical and
popular musical instruments in a variety of settings, including two junior conservatoires, two
local authority youth orchestras, two local authority Saturday music schools, a conservatoire
for popular music, and three state comprehensive schools. The children who participated were
receiving tuition on their instruments individually or in small groups of no more than four
children. The organizations which the children were attending were approached and permission requested for questionnaires to be administered. Convenient times for the researchers to
visit the organizations were negotiated.
A total of 3,325 children ranging in level of expertise from beginner through to grade 8
level (minimum required for conservatoire entrance in the UK) participated in the research. Of
these, 2,027 (61%) were girls and 1,225 (37%) were boys, with some not indicating their sex.
The instruments that they played were representative of the classical and popular instruments
played in the UK. The greatest number played the violin (28%) followed by flute (10%), piano
(10%), clarinet (10%), cello (8%), trumpet (6%), guitar (4%), viola (3%), voice (3%), saxophone (3%), French horn (3%), trombone (3%), oboe (2%), drums (2%), double bass (2%),
percussion (1%), cornet (1%), tuba (1%), recorder (1%), bassoon (1%), harp (1%) with other
instruments played by fewer than 1% of respondents. The grade levels of the respondents and
their ages are set out in Table 1. The age range was from 6 to 19 years and the number of
months learning from 1 to 172. The Pearsons correlation between age and grade level was
r = .618, (p < .0001), between the number of months learning and age .602 (p < .0001) and
grade .592 (p = .0001).

Table 1. Grade levels of participants

Grade

Number of
learners

Percentage

Mean age

Std. Deviation

Minimum

Maximum

Preliminary
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total

493
286
197
253
246
495
297
269
354
2890

17.1
9.9
6.8
8.8
8.5
17.1
10.3
9.3
12.2
100.0

11.4
11.1
11.9
12.5
13.1
14.1
14.6
15.2
16.1
13.4

2.8
1.9
2.1
2.1
1.8
1.9
1.9
1.7
1.6
2.7

5.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
6.0
9.0
8.0
10.0
10.0
5.0

18.0
18.0
18.0
19.0
18.0
18.0
18.0
19.0
19.0
19.0

658

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Procedure
The research was designed taking account of the ethical guidelines of the British Psychological
Society and the British Educational Research Association and was approved by the ethics committee of the Institute of Education, University of London. The organizations that the young
people were attending were contacted and asked if they would be willing for the researchers to
collect data from students. The young people themselves were told that they did not have to
participate if they did not wish to do so and were assured that the data would remain confidential and that their parents and teachers would not have access to it.
The researchers administered the questionnaires to students in the various learning environments. The exact procedures for this varied depending on the environment. For instance, in
schools the children completed the questionnaires during music lessons, while in the extracurricular environments questionnaires were distributed and collected during break periods
between musical activities.

Results
Does the amount of practice increase as expertise develops?
Respondents were asked to indicate on the questionnaire the number of days that they practised each week and the length of time that they practised on each day. There was a significant
effect of level of expertise on the number of days of practice, F(8,2865) = 12.85, p < .0001,
and a statistically significant linear trend, F(1,2865) = 85.35, p < .0001, indicating that, as
expertise increased, the number of days in which practice was undertaken increased (see Table 2
for means and SDs of number of days when practice occurred). There was a significant effect of
expertise on the amount of daily practice, F(8,2864) = 60.48, p < .0001, and a highly significant linear trend, F(1,2864) = 388.22, p < .0001, indicating that, as expertise increased, so did
the amount of daily practice (see Table 2 for means, SDs, and minimum and maximum daily
practice in minutes). The number of days when practice occurred and the reported amount of
practice undertaken in each session was combined to create an overall measure of time spent

Table 2. Number of days when practice undertaken and average daily practice in minutes
Grade

Number of days of practice

Average daily practice in minutes

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Min

Max

Preliminary
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
Total

492
285
196
251
244
490
295
269
352
2874

4.3
4.4
4.4
4.4
4.7
4.7
4.6
5.1
5.3
4.6

1.9
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.6
1.8
1.6
1.6
1.7
1.7

491
282
196
248
244
492
296
269
353
2873

32.5
26.4
28.9
32.4
38.3
46.4
47.2
59.0
73.6
43.8

37.6
17.6
21.5
24.7
29.7
38.3
35.5
39.8
48.1
38.1

.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0

180.0
120.0
120.0
240.0
180.0
360.0
280.0
330.0
360.0
360.0

659

Hallam et al.

Mean of averweekprac

500.00

400.00

300.00

200.00

100.00
Preliminary

1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
What is the most recent grade examination that you have taken?

8.00

Figure 1. Amount of weekly practice by level of expertise

practising each week. There was a significant effect of level of expertise on overall weekly practice,
F(8,2856) = 54.39, p <.0001, with a significant linear trend, F(8,2854) = 362.1,
p < .0001, indicating that weekly practice increased as students became more expert (see Figure 1).

Do practising strategies, levels of concentration and the organization of

practice change as young people become more expert?
Multivariate analysis revealed that there was a highly significant effect of level of expertise on
statements relating to practising and concentration, F(216,19784) = 6.27, p < .0001. This
was followed up by analysis of variance for each item to explore whether there were linear
trends. For almost all of the statements there was a statistically significant linear trend. Table 3
sets out the mean responses to each statement by grade level. There were decreasing trends for
statements relating to: practising pieces from beginning to end without stopping; working
things out just by looking at the music and not playing; trying to find out what a piece sounds
like before beginning to try to play it; analyzing the structure of a piece before learning to play
it; when making a mistake going back to the beginning and starting again; making a list of
what to practise; and setting targets for each practice session.
There were increasing trends for: identifying difficult sections; practising small sections;
doing warm-up exercises; getting recordings of a piece that is being learned; starting practice
with studies; practising things slowly; knowing when a mistake has been made; when making
a mistake, practising a section slowly; when something was difficult playing it over and over
again; marking things on the part; practising with a metronome; starting practice with scales;
recording practice and listening to the tapes; and thinking about how to interpret the music.
There was no significant effect of level of expertise on concentration and distraction while
practising. Students did not report any major problems with being distracted.

Factor analysis
To explore the relationships between the variables, factor analysis was undertaken. A principal
components analysis was selected as it affords an empirical analysis of the data set (Tabachnick
& Fidell, 2001). Eigenvalues were retained if they were greater than 1 and the scree plot was

660

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Table 3. Practising strategies

Grade

Pre

Number of participants
Practising strategies
I try to get an overall idea of a
piece before I practise it
When I practise I only play
pieces from beginning to end
without stopping
I work things out just by
looking at the music and not
playing
I try to find out what a piece
sounds like before I begin to
try to play it
I work out where the difficult
sections are when Im
learning a piece of music
I practise small sections of the
pieces I am learning
When I make a mistake, I
stop, correct the wrong note
and then carry on
I try to get a recording of the
piece that I am learning so
that I can listen to it
I analyze the structure of a
piece before I learn to play it
I practise things slowly
I know when I have made a
mistake
When I make a mistake I
practise the section where I
went wrong slowly
When something is difficult I
play it over and over again
I learn by playing slowly to
start with and then gradually
speeding up
When I make a mistake I go
back to the beginning of the
piece and start again
When Im practising I mark
things on the part to help me
I practise with the metronome
When I make a mistake I
carry on without correcting it

490 284 196 253 245 495 296 269 354

Total Linear Sig

4.9

5.0

4.7

4.9

4.7

5.0

4.8

4.9

5.3

4.9

.031

3.5

3.8

3.4

3.3

3.3

2.9

2.8

2.7

2.3

3.1

.0001

3.9

4.0

3.6

3.6

3.6

3.4

3.4

3.4

3.5

3.6

.0001

4.8

5.1

5.1

4.8

4.8

4.8

4.6

4.7

4.7

4.8

.0001

4.9

5.2

5.2

5.3

5.3

5.2

5.2

5.4

5.6

5.2

.0001

4.9

4.9

5.2

5.1

5.2

5.3

5.4

5.5

5.7

5.2

.0001

4.9

5.2

5.1

4.8

4.8

4.7

4.8

4.8

4.8

4.9

.003

3.7

3.5

3.7

3.9

3.8

4.0

4.2

4.5

5.1

4.1

.0001

3.9

4.2

4.1

4.2

3.8

3.9

3.6

3.6

3.6

3.9

.0001

4.9
5.5

4.9
5.8

4.9
5.8

4.7
5.6

4.7
5.6

4.9
5.7

4.9
5.8

5.0
5.8

5.2
6.1

4.9
5.7

.0001
.0001

5.3

5.5

5.6

5.3

5.3

5.5

5.6

5.7

5.8

5.5

.0001

5.6

5.6

5.4

5.4

5.3

5.5

5.5

5.7

5.8

5.6

.004

5.0

5.1

5.0

4.8

4.9

4.9

5.0

5.1

4.8

5.0

NS

4.0

3.9

3.7

3.7

3.5

3.3

3.2

3.2

2.6

3.4

.0001

4.0

4.3

4.5

4.7

4.8

4.9

5.1

5.2

5.4

4.8

.0001

3.1
3.0

3.1
2.9

3.3
2.9

3.4
3.3

3.4
3.1

3.7
3.0

3.9
3.1

4.1
3.0

4.5
2.8

3.6
3.0

.0001
NS
(Continued)

661

Hallam et al.
Table 3. (Continued)
Grade

Pre

Total Linear Sig

I record myself playing and

listen to the tapes
I think about how I want to
make the music sound
Organization of practice
I start my practice with scales
I start my practice with
studies
I do warm up exercises at the
start of my practice
I make a list of what I have to
practise
I set myself targets to achieve
in each practice session
Concentration
I am easily distracted when I
practise
I find it easy to concentrate
when I practise

2.8

2.7

2.9

2.9

2.8

2.9

3.1

2.9

3.4

2.9

.0001

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.6

4.6

5.0

5.0

5.3

5.8

4.9

.0001

3.7
3.5

4.3
3.5

4.2
3.6

4.5
3.5

4.3
3.6

4.2
3.7

4.0
3.8

4.4
4.0

4.1
4.2

4.1
3.7

.006
.0001

4.5

4.6

4.6

4.6

4.5

4.8

4.8

5.1

5.3

4.8

.0001

3.5

3.8

3.7

3.7

3.8

3.3

3.3

3.2

3.1

3.5

.0001

4.2

4.3

4.1

4.1

3.9

3.9

3.9

3.8

4.2

4.1

.002

3.8

3.7

3.9

3.8

3.9

3.7

3.9

3.6

3.6

3.8

NS

5.2

5.4

5.1

5.2

5.0

5.1

5.3

5.2

5.2

5.4

NS

used to identify those factors before the breaking point of the elbow of the plot. A varimax rotation was used to enable interpretation and description of results (Green, Salkind, & Akey, 2000;
Tabachnick & Fidell, 2001). Two checks were made to assess sampling adequacy, the KaiserMeyer-Olkin (KMO) test (checks whether the sample is large enough to carry out factor analysis) and an anti-matrix of covariances and correlations which showed that all elements on the
diagonal of these matrices were greater than .5, the necessary requirement. The KMO was
0.86, greater than the 0.5 required to assess the adequacy of the sample (Field, 2000).
Following examination of the scree plot, a seven-factor solution was deemed to be the most
appropriate. Table 4 sets out the weightings. Those below 0.2 have been omitted.
Factor 1: adoption of systematic practice strategies. This factor had an eigen value of 2.9, accounting
for 10.7% of the variance. This factor had high weightings for practising sections slowly when
having made a mistake (.737); practising difficult sections over and over again (.68); slow practice
(.649); gradually speeding up when learning fast passages (.585); recognizing errors (.558); marking things on the part (.308); practising small sections (.404); identifying difficult sections (.298);
good concentration (.259); and thinking about how the music should sound (.268). There was a
significant effect of level of expertise on factor 1, F(4,2492) = 4.09, p < .0001, with a statistically
significant linear trend, F(1, 2492) = 6.79, p < .01 (see Figure 2), indicating that, as the level of
expertise increased, the adoption of systematic practice strategies increased.
Factor 2: organization of practice. This factor had an eigen value of 2.073 accounting for 7.7% of the
variance. This factor related to the organization of practice including starting practice with scales
(.734); making a list of what had to be practised (.621); starting with warm-up exercises (.546);
starting with studies (.444); setting targets to achieve in each practice session (.381); marking

662

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Table 4. Rotated component matrix

Statements

Factors

I find it easy to concentrate when I practise

I try to get an overall idea of a piece before I
practise it
When I practise I only play pieces from
beginning to end without stopping
I work things out just by looking at the music
and not playing
I try to find out what a piece sounds like before I
begin to try to play it
I work out where the difficult sections are when
Im learning a piece of music
I practise small sections of the pieces I am
learning
When I make a mistake, I stop, correct the
wrong note and then carry on
I do warm up exercises at the start of my
practice
I try to get a recording of the piece that I am
learning so that I can listen to it
I start my practice with studies

.259

I analyze the structure of a piece before I learn

to play it
I practise things slowly
I know when I have made a mistake
When I make a mistake I practise the section
where I went wrong slowly
When something is difficult I play it over and
over again
I set myself targets to achieve in each practice
session
I am easily distracted when I practice
I learn by playing slowly to start with and then
gradually speeding up
When I make a mistake I go back to the
beginning of the piece and start again
When Im practising I mark things on the part
to help me
I practise with the metronome
I make a list of what I have to practice
When I make a mistake I carry on without
correcting it
I start my practice with scales
I record myself playing and listen to the tapes
I think about how I want to make the music
sound

.227
.663

.320

.699
.251
.701

.450

.759

.298

.516

.229

.404

.264

.405

.225

.705
.546

.214
.671

.444

.220
.252

.486

.402

.427

.254

.649
.558
.737

.317

.680

.371

.381

.585

.220

.224

.207

.773

.643 .247
.308

.302

.228

.224
.621

.639

.305

.208

.734
.268

.204

.738
.268

.324

.267

.793

.218

Hallam et al.

663

Figure 2. Adoption of systematic practising strategies by grade level

things on the part (.302); practising with the metronome (.224); and, to a lesser extent, learning to
play slowly to start and then gradually speeding up (.22); and thinking about how to interpret the
music (.204). There was a significant effect of level of expertise on factor 2, F(8,2492) 4.92, p <
.0001, but no statistically significant linear trend indicating that, as level of expertise increased,
there was no systematic increase in the organization of practice (see Figure 3).
Factor 3: use of recordings for listening and feedback and use of metronone. This factor had an eigen
value of 2.048, accounting for 7.6% of the variance. It had high weightings for recording selfplaying and listening to the recording (.738); listening to other recordings of the piece to be
learnt (.671); and practising with the metronome (.639). There was a significant effect of level
of expertise on factor 3, F(8, 2492) 29.48, p < .0001. A Pearsons correlation of factor 3 with
level of expertise revealed an r of .26 (p < .0001). There was also a highly statistically significant
linear trend, F(1,2492) = 184.5, p < .0001, indicating that, as expertise increased, so did the use
of recordings for listening and feedback and use of the metronome (see Figure 4).
Factor 4: use of analytic strategies. This factor had an eigen value of 1.98 accounting for 7.3% of the
variance. The factor had high weightings for: trying to find out what a piece sounds like before
trying to play it (.759); getting an overall idea of a piece before practising it (.663); identifying difficult sections (.516); analyzing the structure of a piece before playing it (.427); thinking about
interpretation (.324); and working things out just by looking at the music and not playing (.318).

664

Figure 3. Organization of practice by grade level

Figure 4. Use of recordings and metronome by grade level

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Hallam et al.

665

There was a significant effect of level of expertise on factor 4, F(8,2492) = 3.249, p < .001, but no
statistically significant linear trend indicating that, as level of expertise increased, there was no
systematic increase in the use of analytic strategies (see Figure 5).
Factor 5: adoption of ineffective practising strategies. This factor had an eigen value of 1.87 accounting for 6.9% of the variance. There were high loadings on only playing pieces from beginning to
end without stopping when practising (.7); and going back to the beginning and starting again
when making a mistake (.644). There was a smaller loading on working things out just by looking at the music and not playing (.451). This latter might be conceptualized as a useful strategy,
for instance, in terms of mental rehearsal. However, in previous research it was consistently
adopted by beginners who also tended to repeat the whole piece with no identification of difficult passages and returned to the beginning of a piece when a mistake was made. For this reason
the factor was conceptualized as referring to ineffective practising strategies. This is supported
by the negative loadings on identifying difficult sections (.222); thinking about interpretation
(.266); marking things on the part (302); and practising small sections (.403). There was a
significant effect of expertise on factor 5, F(8,2492) = 75.72, p < .0001. There was a negative
Pearsons correlation of r = .436 (p < .0001) between factor 5 and level of expertise and a
highly statistically significant linear trend, F(1,2492) = 462.3, p = .0001 (see Figure 6) indicating that, as level of expertise increased, there was a decrease in the adoption of ineffective practising strategies.
Factor 6: concentration. This factor had an eigen value of 1.48 accounting for 5.5% of the variance.
The factor had high weightings on finding it easy to concentrate (.699) and negatively on being
easily distracted when practising (.773). There was a significant effect of level of expertise on
factor 6, F (8,2492) = 3.218, p<.001, but no significant linear trend indicating that, as expertise
increased, there was no systematic increase in concentration (see Figure 7).
Factor 7: immediate correction of errors. This factor had an eigen value of 1.34 accounting for 5.0%
of the variance and high weightings in relation to: when making a mistake the wrong note is corrected and then I carry on (.705); When I make a mistake I carry on without correcting it (.795).
There was a significant effect of level of expertise on factor 7, F (8,2492) = 2.54, p < .01. There
was a very small negative correlation between factor 7 and levels of expertise (r = .063, p < .001)
and a statistically significant linear trend, F(1,2492) = 10.482, p < .001 (see Figure 8) indicating
that, as expertise increased, the immediate correction of errors decreased.

Do young peoples attitudes towards practice change as they become more

expert and are attitudes related to the amount of practice undertaken?
In addition to data on practising strategies and organization of practice, participants were
asked to indicate their agreement to statements related to liking practice. The means for the
statements relating to liking practice were 4.7 for I like practising (range 4.9 to 4.4); 5.2 for
on some days I dont want to practise (range 4.7 to 5.4); and 3.5 for I find practice boring
(range 3.3 to 3.9). There was no significant effect of level of expertise on liking practice or finding practice boring, although there was a significant linear trend in relation to not wanting to
practise on some days, F(1,2805) = 9.67, p < .0001, indicating that, as expertise increased, so
did reluctance to practise on some days.

666

Figure 5. Use of analytic strategies by grade level

Figure 6. Ineffective practising strategies by grade level

Psychology of Music 40(5)

667

Hallam et al.
Table 5. Mean factor scores by grade level

Preliminary
Grade 1
Grade 2
Grade 3
Grade 4
Grade 5
Grade 6
Grade 7
Grade 8
Total

Mean

Std. Deviation

486
280
190
248
239
481
282
258
350
2814

.19
.10
.00
.23
.26
.11
.27
.03
.02
.04

1.0
1.0
.99
.93
.98
.91
1.0
.93
.94
.99

A principal components factor analysis was undertaken with varimax rotation on the variables related to attitude towards practising. The KMO was 0.58, greater than the 0.5 required
to assess the adequacy of the sample (Field, 2000). Following examination of the scree plot a
single factor solution was deemed to be the most appropriate. The weightings for the variables
were I like practising .743; on some days I dont want to practise .623; and I find practising
boring .808. The factor focus is on not enjoying practice. There was a small positive correlation
between this factor and level of expertise, suggesting that students enjoy practising less as they
become more expert (r = 0.123, p < .01). Table 5 sets out the mean factor scores by level of
expertise. The data suggest that there is great enjoyment of practice after initially starting to
play an instrument which wanes considerably in the middle examination grades (grade 36)
with enjoyment and commitment returning beyond this level. There was a significant effect of
level of expertise on attitude to practice, F(8,942) = 3.8, p < .0001, and a statistically significant linear trend, F(1, 942) = 12.5, p < .0001, indicating that, as expertise increased, enjoyment
of practice decreased.
Pearsons correlations were undertaken between reported levels of weekly practice, level of
expertise and the indices of commitment to practice. There was a positive correlation of .32
(p < .0001) between level of expertise and average weekly practice in minutes. There were no
statistically significant relationships between liking practising and level of expertise or finding
practising boring and level of expertise. There was a small positive relationship between weekly
practice and liking practising (.167, p < .0001), a small negative relationship between not
wanting to practise on some days (.092, p < .0001) and finding practice boring (.156,
p < .0001).

Does the adoption of effective practising strategies contribute to attaining high

levels of expertise?
A multiple regression analysis was undertaken with grade level representing level of expertise
as the criterion variable and number of months learning, weekly practice, and the seven factors
related to practising and attitudes to practising as the predictor variables. The multiple R was
.729 with an adjusted R2 of .526, F(10,928) = 105.2, p < .0001. The beta weightings are given

668

Psychology of Music 40(5)

Table 6. Regression coefficients for level of expertise

(Constant)
Number of months learning
Adoption of systematic practice strategies
Organisation of practice
Use of recordings and a metronome
Use of analytical strategies
Ineffective practising strategies
Ease of concentration
Unawareness of errors
Commitment and enjoyment of practice
Average weekly practice in minutes

Beta weight

Sig

.457
.031
.013
.121
.029
.312
.085
.051
.095
.055

.000
.000
NS
NS
.000
NS
.000
.001
.027
.000
.033

Figure 7. Concentration by grade level

in Table 6. The strongest weighting was for number of months learning (.457) followed by a
negative weighting for ineffective practising strategies and positive weightings for the use of
recordings and a metronome. The other predictors had very low weightings.

669

Hallam et al.

Figure 8. Immediate correction of errors by grade level

Table 7. Regression coefficients for quality of performance

(Constant)
Number of months learning
Adoption of systematic practice strategies
Organization of practice
Use of recordings and a metronome
Use of analytical strategies
Playing through music adopted as a key strategy
Ease of concentration
Unawareness of errors
Commitment and enjoyment of practice
Average weekly practice in minutes

Beta weight

Sig

.168
.004
.117
.116
.015
.245
.034
.045
.078
.045

.000
.000
NS
.001
.002
NS
.000
NS
NS
.023
NS

Does the adoption of effective practising strategies contribute to the quality of

expertise?
Participants were asked to indicate their level of performance in their last graded examination.
Because participants had taken different examination syllabuses it was not possible to use
exact marks as outcome measures so performance was divided into the categories set by examination boards, fail, pass, commended and highly commended. Twenty four percent (624) of

670

Psychology of Music 40(5)

participants responding to this question had failed their last examination, 17% (437) had
passed their most recent examination, 33% (834) had received a commendation, and 26%
(671) had received a special commendation. A multiple regression analyses using examination outcome as the criterion variable revealed a Multiple R of .407 with an R2 of .156,
F(10,856) = 16.99, p < .0001. Table 7 sets out the beta weightings. The strongest weighting
was negative relating to playing through music adopted as a key strategy. This was followed by
number of months learning, organization of practice and making use of recordings and a
metronome

Discussion
The findings from the research suggest that, as expertise develops, learners practise on more
days and increase the amount of practice undertaken on those days. Those at the highest levels
of expertise, on average, reported just over twice the amount of daily practice of beginners.
However, even the most advanced players did not practise every day. There was also huge variation in the amount of practice reported at every level of expertise. This finding is consistent
with previous research findings (Ericsson et al., 1993; Sloboda et al. 1996). The increase in
practice is not surprising as the higher grade examination requirements include more scales
and technical exercises and longer pieces from the repertoire. The increased volume of material
to be learned takes longer to practise, hence more practice time is needed.
Learners at higher levels of expertise reported adopting more effective practising strategies
and perceived that they were more able to recognize errors. They also ceased to adopt the ineffective strategies of playing through entire pieces, returning to the beginning of a piece if they
made a mistake, or correcting errors as they played through a piece. While these strategies may
seem to be ineffective in the long term, it may be that in the initial stages of learning to play an
instrument, where pieces are very short and tend to be of a similar level of difficulty throughout, they are appropriate. What may be problematic is that some learners are unable or unwilling to change their approach as the content of what they are learning becomes more complex
and difficult. This is supported by what appears to be a dip in the adoption of effective strategy
use at around grade 3. It may be that, as the repertoire becomes more challenging, some students cannot or are not sufficiently interested to adapt their practice strategies. These students
may then give up playing. The increase in negative attitudes towards practice in these middle
grades supports this. Further research taking account of drop outs would be needed for verification, although there is already evidence that those who drop out tend to practise less than
those who continue (Hallam, 1998; Sloboda et al., 1996).
As expertise developed more use was made of the metronome and recordings to assist practice and listen to the performance of others, although beginners also reported listening to
recordings more than those in the middle grades. This may reflect the fact that, increasingly,
beginner tutor books have recorded materials which can be used to support practice. After this
stage, recordings of music to be learned may not be available until learners are tackling the
standard repertoire for the instrument. The increase in the use of mobile phones for recording
may also have facilitated the ease of recording practice and performance and therefore made
this strategy more accessible. This type of feedback may be particularly useful to learners as it
is visual as well as aural.
There was no effect of level of expertise on the organization of practice. While it might have
been expected that practice would become more organized with increasing levels of expertise,
the data do not support this. Perhaps organization of practice relates more to personal

Hallam et al.

671

preferences or other factors such as the instrument played, available repertoire, or constraints
relating to where and when practice has to be undertaken.
The lack of increase in the adoption of analytic strategies is surprising. There may be individual differences in preferences for analytic or intuitive approaches to learning music which
are unrelated to the level of expertise (Hallam, 1995b; Lisboa, Williamon, Zicari, & Eiholzer,
2005; Nielsen, 2001; Winold, Thelen, & Ulrich, 1994). However, there is evidence that analytic
approaches can support secure memorization processes which would indicate their necessity at
higher levels of expertise as more complex works are learned which need to be performed from
memory (Hallam, 1997c; Chaffin et al., 2003). It may be that the young people in the research
sample were not required to play from memory with sufficient regularity for the adoption of
such strategies to be necessary.
There was no effect of level of expertise on ease of concentration. This may be an artefact of
the self-report methodology. Self-reports regarding the extent to which one is able to concentrate while practising or be distracted may be particularly unreliable. Despite this the data raise
some interesting questions. While there was no relationship between mean responses and level
of expertise, the two statements to which participants responded had different standard deviations. There was a reduction in the standard deviation through the grade levels for responses to
being distracted but not for ease of concentration. Further research might explore these differences as it likely that intensity of concentration is a key element in the amount of time needed
to attain learning goals.
Attitudes to practice and level of expertise were not related, although as expertise increased
there was an increase in not wanting to practise on some days. The data suggested that practice
was enjoyed in the early stages of learning with less enthusiasm in the middle examination
grades with enjoyment and commitment returning beyond this level. This requires more investigation. There was a small positive relationship between the amount of weekly practice and
liking to practise. It is surprising that this relationship was not stronger. The extent of practice
undertaken does not appear to be strongly related to enjoying practice. This raises the question
of what motivates young people to practise. Interestingly, a substantial proportion of those participating in the study had failed their most recent examination. Despite this they had sustained
sufficient motivation to continue playing. This requires further investigation.
The findings from the multiple regression using level of expertise as the criterion variable
confirm earlier research (e.g., Ericsson et al., 1993; Hallam, 1998, 2011; Sloboda et al. 1996)
demonstrating that the number of months of learning was the best predictor of the level of
expertise attained. The adoption of a range of effective practising strategies was not a statistically significant predictor of level of expertise, with the exception of the use of recordings and
a metronome. However, lack of ineffective practising strategies was a relatively strong predictor.
It may be that, once ineffective strategies have been eliminated and a certain level of effectiveness has been achieved, there is a ceiling effect, and further improvement in practising strategies, of itself, does not contribute further to the development of expertise.
The findings suggest that number of months of learning was a significant predictor of the
quality of performance at the level of expertise attained, although not all earlier research supports this (Hallam, 2011; Williamon & Valentine, 2000). The strongest predictor related to the
lack of use of ineffective strategies. The use of effective strategies with the exception of making
use of recordings and a metronome was not an important predictor. This may be because other
factors play a more important role in the quality of performance at any level of expertise than
those related to practice, although, interestingly, organization of practice did contribute to the

672

Psychology of Music 40(5)

prediction of the quality of expertise. It is possible that this relates to the role of scales and other
technical exercises in many graded examinations. Organizing practice so that these technical
elements are tackled at the start of practice may indicate a particular focus on them which
contributes to gaining high marks.
There are limitations to this research as the data are based on self-report, although the statements relating to practice itself are based on research which has been previously verified with
recordings or observational work (see Gruson, 1988; Hallam, 2001a, 2001b; McPherson,
2005; Pitts et al; 2000). There is evidence that learners tend to report adopting particular
learning strategies before they actually implement them (Flavell, 1976). This needs to be taken
into account when interpreting the findings. Getting accurate data about the amount of time
which is spent practising is also problematic (Madsen, 2005). This remains the case for this
study.
While the research has elucidated a number of issues it has also raised further questions.
First, we need to know more about how the organization of practice contributes to the quality
of expertise at any particular level and the nature of the use of the metronome and recordings
in practice which contribute to the level and quality of expertise. Second, the data indicated
that the young people did not unreservedly enjoy practising. There were higher levels of enjoyment during the beginner stages and at the higher grade levels. This needs further investigation, as does why some learners continue to play an instrument to relatively high levels of
expertise when practice is perceived as not particularly enjoyable. Although there is some
research which follows up on those who drop out, this has largely been post-hoc. A large-scale
study which collected data relating to practising and motivational factors and was then able to
follow up those who dropped out would be useful in this respect. Related to this is the issue of
those who had failed their previous graded examination and yet had continued to learn to play
an instrument. Theories of motivation would generally predict that failure of this kind, relating
to a voluntary activity, would lead to drop out. Clearly for many of these learners that was not
the case.

Implications for education

The findings show that beginners learning to play an instrument tend to play through the
music that they are required to learn. Initially, this may be an effective strategy as pieces tend
to be short and of similar difficulty throughout. However, the evidence from this research suggests that, at middling levels of expertise, some learners may not be able to make the transition
to the strategies required to learn the more difficult repertoire needed for further progression.
Clearly they need support from teachers to enable them to work more effectively. Earlier
research has shown that teachers often believe that they are teaching their pupils how to practise (Barry & McArthur, 1994) while students report that this is not the case to any great
extent (Jrgensen, 1995, 2000; Schatt, 2011). Indeed, there is considerable evidence that
even those studying at higher education music conservatoires do not always adopt very effective practising strategies (Austin & Berg, 2006; Miksza, 2006; Nielsen, 1999, 2001). This is
despite the evidence that students can be taught to adopt meta-cognitive strategies effectively
during practice and that this leads to enhanced performance (Bathgate, Sims-Knight, &
Schunn, 2011). Clearly teachers need to focus more on this issue, particularly as practising for
very long periods of time can lead to physical injuries and ruin promising musical careers (see
Williamon, 2004).

Hallam et al.

673

How might teachers support learners in becoming more effective in their practice? They
can model effective practising in lessons, providing guidance as to how to identify difficult passages, subsequently modelling strategies as to how the difficulties might be tackled. This has
the added advantage of encouraging analysis of pieces to be learned which can be extended as
repertoire becomes more complex to include issues relating to structure and interpretation.
These activities will need to be carried out by the teacher over a sustained period of time to be
effective. This will require a change in pedagogy as there is considerable evidence that modelling does not constitute a major element in many instrumental lessons (Kennell, 1992; Kostka,
1984) despite the fact that it has been demonstrated to be very effective (Dickey, 1991, 1992;
Goolsby, 1996).
Teachers can assess whether learners are engaging with these processes during lessons. For
instance, when new repertoire is being introduced learners can be asked to identify difficult
passages and demonstrate how they would go about practising them. As repertoire is being
mastered, ongoing technical challenges can be dissected, discussed and appropriate practising
strategies developed. This will mean the learner taking an active rather than passive role. The
evidence to date suggests that this is not usually the case, with teacher talk and student performance typically taking up most lesson time (Kennell, 1992; Kostka, 1984).
Technological developments in recent years, particularly recording facilities on mobile
phones, have made recording performance and practice much simpler. Most young people can
easily record practice and performances. These recordings can be used in lessons to discuss how
practice and performance can be improved. This has been shown to be an effective way of
improving practising strategies (Nielsen, 1999, 2001).
The feedback that teachers give, whether in response to recordings or playing in lessons, is
crucial for improving the quality of learning outcomes (Colprit, 2000; Duke & Henninger,
1998, 2002; Hallam, 2006; Kennell, 2002). Even when learners can meet technical requirements unaided, they frequently do not have the vision or knowledge to fulfil their potential
musically (Dos Santos & Gerling, 2011). Learners need expert guidance in developing a
secure technique, ensuring that the quality of the sound produced is pleasing and playing
musically. Teachers need to be able to provide feedback in a constructive supportive way
which does not negatively impact on motivation, particularly in the early stages of learning
when the learner may have not acquired a strong identity as a musician (Sloboda & Howe,
1991; Sosniak, 1985).
If learners are to achieve high marks in those graded examinations which include considerable technical requirements (e.g., scales, exercises), teachers need to find ways to encourage
greater organization of practice so that these are addressed early in practice sessions. Modelling
this in lessons may help in this respect. However, teachers need to take account of the aims and
aspirations of their students in developing appropriate curricula. It may be that some students
would prefer to focus on learning repertoire rather than taking examinations with high levels
of technical requirements. There is certainly evidence that motivation is greater when learners
have choice about what they learn and how they learn it (Renwick & McPherson, 2002). Given
that most young people taking instrumental lessons will continue with music for recreational
purposes rather than to pursue a career as a professional musician, this is important. Sustaining
motivation in learners is one of the most important tasks facing the teacher and, crucially,
ensuring that they develop a love of music which will sustain their interest in the long term.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-forprofit sectors.

674

Psychology of Music 40(5)

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Biographies
Susan Hallam is Professor of Education at the Institute of Education, University of London and
Dean of the Faculty of Policy and Society. She has published extensively in relation to music
psychology and music education including Instrumental Teaching: A Practical Guide to Better
Teaching and Learning (1998), The Power of Music (2001), Music Psychology in Education
(2005),and she is co-editor of The Oxford Handbook of Psychology of Music (2009) and Music
Education in the 21st Century in the United Kingdom.
Dr Tiija Rinta is an educationist and researcher based in London. Tiija completed her doctorate
from the Institute of Education, University of London, on the importance of creative activities
in educational settings with children who exhibit communication difficulties. Tiija has worked
for several international NGOs, government agencies and universities since then. Most recently
Tiija has worked for an EU-funded pan-European project on the usability of music technology
for enhancing social inclusion amongst children from immigrant backgrounds. A recent visiting fellowship took Tiija to the Educational Research Academy of the Government of Taiwan.
The products of Tiijas work are publications in international professional journals, articles in
magazines, book chapters and handbooks for professionals.
Dr. Maria Varvarigou is currently working as a researcher on a range of projects related to
instrumental music, practising, ear playing, choral singing, CPD for KS1 teachers, an
evaluation of a major project by the London Symphony Orchestra, music provision in the
Greater London Authority and the effects of active engagement of music on well-being and
health in older people.She completed her PhD in 2009 as scholar of the A.S. Onassis
Foundation.
Dr. Andrea Creech is senior lecturer in education and Faculty Director of Research at the
Institute of Education, London. She is a regular guest speaker at the Guildhall School of Music
(London) and Laval University in Quebec.Her research interests are musical development
across the lifespan, learning and teaching for older adults and the impact of interpersonal
relationships on learning and teaching outcomes.
Dr. Ioulia Papageorgi holds a BSc in Psychology and a BA in Music. She also holds an MA in
Music Education and a PhD (Psychology in Education) from the Institute of Education,
University of London. She has worked as a Lecturer and Coordinating Research Officer at the
Institute of Education, University of London, and as an Associate Lecturer at the Open
University. She is currently an Assistant Professor in the department of Social Sciences at the
University of Nicosia, Cyprus.

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Teresa Gomes has an academic background in Music Education and Sociology of

Education. Early research addressed aspects of the development of cultural capital using
music practices. Teresas recent research focused on the methods and processes used in
music programming for radio and cultural venues. Her interest for future research is in
investigating the relationships between cultural capital and leisure activities, in a lifecourse perspective.
Dr. Jennifer Lanipekun worked in secondary schools for over 30 years as a teacher of music
and dance. Dr. Lanipekun has presented her research at universities and international conferences and has co-authored several baseline studies for the British National Singing
Programme. Her first book (2011, Cambria Press, New York) is titled Communication in
Theatre Directing and Performance from Rehearsal to Production. She is currently doing followup research.

Appendix 1
Research on instrumental practising
We are conducting some research on instrumental practising. We would be very grateful if you
would complete this questionnaire. It will take you about 10 minutes. Thank you for your time.
Name______________________Age _______________
Main instrument _______________________________
Other instruments _________________________________________________
Do you take part in musical groups at school, e.g., orchestra, band? Yes/No
If yes, please indicate what the groups are ________________________________
 o you take part in musical groups out of school, e.g., county groups, community groups?
D
Yes/No
If yes, please indicate what the groups are _______________________________________
On average how many days a week do you practise? ______________________________
On average, how much practice do you do on each day? ____________________________
How long have you been learning your first instrument? _______ years ________ months
What is the most recent grade examination you have taken? _______________________
What mark did you get? __________ (please include the maximum that you could have attained,
e.g., 71/100 or 121/150

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Hallam et al.

Please indicate in the table below how strongly you agree or disagree with the
following statements. Please answer ONLY in relation to your main instrument.

Very
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Very
strongly agree
disagree strongly
agree
disagree
Practising strategies

I try to get an overall idea of a piece

before I practise it
When I practise I only play pieces
from beginning to end without
stopping
I work things out just by looking at
the music and not playing
I try to find out what a piece sounds
like before I begin to try to play it
I work out where the difficult
sections are when Im learning a
piece of music
I practise small sections of the
pieces I am learning
When I make a mistake, I stop,
correct the wrong note and then
carry on
I try to get a recording of the piece
that I am learning so that I can
listen to it
I analyze the structure of a piece
before I learn to play it
I practise things slowly
I know when I have made a mistake
When I make a mistake I practise
the section where I went wrong
slowly
When something is difficult I play it
over and over again
I learn by playing slowly to start
with and then gradually speeding
up
When I make a mistake I go back to
the beginning of the piece and start
again
When Im practising I mark things
on the part to help me
I practise with the metronome
When I make a mistake I carry on
without correcting it
I record myself playing and listen to
the tapes

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Psychology of Music 40(5)

Very
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Very
strongly agree
disagree strongly
agree
disagree
Practising strategies

I think about how I want to make

the music sound
Organization of practice
I start my practice with scales
I start my practice with studies
I do warm up exercises at the start
of my practice
I make a list of what I have to
practise
I set myself targets to achieve in
each practice session
Concentration
I am easily distracted when I
practice
I find it easy to concentrate when I
practise
Attitudes towards practising
I like practising
On some days I dont want to
practise
I find practising boring

Thank you for completing this questionnaire.