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CompetitiveExams:Asoka'sDhammaExamrace

NeedOfDharma
1. Therewasconsideredintellectualfermentaround600B.C.Healthyrivalrywasapparentamongthenumberofsectssuchasthe
Charvaks,JainsandAjivikas,whosedoctrinesrangedfrombarematerialismtodeterminism.Thisintellectuallivelinesswasreflected
intheelectedinterestsoftheMauryanrulers.ItwasclaimedbytheJainasthatChandraguptawassupporterandthereisevidence
thatBindusarafavouredtheAjivikas.Thus,theEmpireofAsokawasinhabitedbypeoplesofmanycultureswhowereatmanylevels
ofdevelopment.Therangeofcustoms,beliefs,affinities,antagonisms,tensionsandharmoniesweregalore.True,Magadhaandthe
fringesoftheseareas.ThenorthwasinclosecontactwiththeHellenizedcultureofAfganisthanandIran.Thefarsouthwasonthe
thresholdofacreativeefflorescenceofTamilculture.TherulerofsuchasEmpirerequiredtheperceptionswereaddressedtothe
publicatlarge.Itisintheseinscriptionsthatthekingexpoundshisideasondhamma.Itappears,Asokaaimedatcreatingan
attitudeofmindamonghissubjectsinwhichsocialbehaviorwasaccordedthehighestplace.Theideologyofdhammacanbeviewed
asafocusofloyaltyandasapointofconvergenceforthethenbewilderingdiversitiesoftheEmpire.Inaway,Asoka'sdhammawas
akintothepreambleintheconstitutionofIndia.
2. Acentralizedmonarchydemandsonenessoffeelingonthepartofitspeople.Theethicsofthedhammawasintendedtogenerate
suchafeeling,comparabletothepreambleoftheIndianConstitution.
3. TheMauryanSocietywithitsheterogeneouselementsandwitheconomic,socialandreligiousforcesworkingagainsteachother
posedthethreatofdisruption.Asoka,therefore,neededsomebindingfactortoallowtheeconomicactivitytoproceedonaneven
keelandtherebyensurethesecurityofhisstate.
4. Alsoasthecommercialclassesgainedeconomicimportanceandresentedtheinferiorsocialstatusasperthesanctionsofthe
Brahmins,theywantovertoBuddhism,whichpreachedsocialequality.TheirsupporttotheMauryankingwasveryvitalforthe
peaceandprosperityoftheEmpire.Asokathoughtthathecouldattractthembythepropagationofthisdhammabyweaningthem
awayfromtoocloselyidentifyingthemselveswithBuddhism.
5. AsokafeltthattheaforesaidforcesofcontrarypullswouldthreatenthepeaceoftherealmnotinthegeneralinterestofhisEmpire.
Asoka'sdhammatherefore,wasintendedtoserveapracticalpurpose.
Thedhammawasnotmeanttobeareligionbutwhatbehoovesamanofrightfeelingtodo,orwhatmanofsensewoulddo.Such
beingthenatureofhisdhamma,itisprimarilyanethicofsocialconduct.

Ashoka'sCode
Asoka'sMoralcodeismostconciselyformulatedinthesecondMinorRockEdict.
ThussaithHisMajesty:
Fatherandmothermustbeobeyedsimilarlyrespectforlivingcreaturesmustbeenforced,truthmustbespoken.Thesearethevirtues
ofthelawofDuty(orPeityDhamma)whichmustbepractisd.Similarly,theteachermustbereverencedbythepupil,andproper
courtesymustbeshowntorelations.
Thisistheancientstandardofduty(orPiety)leadstolengthofdaysandaccordingtothismenmustact.
Thethreeobligationsofshowingreverence,respectinganimallife,andtellingthetruthareinculcatedoverandoveragainintheedicts.
Besides,itwasmeantforallBuddhists,brahmins,JainsandAjivikas,Intheway,itwasthesaraortheessenceofthegoodprinciplesof
allreligions.Also,whilepleadingonbehalfofhisdhamma,Asokapassionatelyappealedfortolerationtowardsallreligionsanda
reverenceforeachother.
HadthisdhammagotanythingtodowithBuddhistprinciples,Asokawouldhaveopenlystatedsoinhisedictssinceheneversouthtto
hid/hissupportforBuddhism.Forthatmatter,AsokadidnotincorporateanyofthefundamentaltenetsofBuddhistfaithsuchasthe
FourNobleTruths,thechainofcasualtythesacredeightfoldpath,andtheNirvana.Theomissions,alsowithrepeatedreferencetothe
conceptofsvargaorheaven(aHindubelief)showthathisdhammacannotbeidentifiedwithBuddhism.
SinceAsoka'sdhammawasnotintendedforthecauseofBuddhimsduringhisdharamayatras,henotonlyvisitedvariousplacesof
Buddhistimportance,butalsogavegiftstosramanasandBrahmins.Mostofall,evenafterentrustingthepropagationofdhammato
theDharmaMahamatras,Asokacontinuedtostylehimselfasthebelovedofthedevas,aHinduconcept,sincetherewerenoGodsin
Buddhismatthattime.

SuccessOfHisDharma
Asokaspecificallystatesthathismissionsweresenttovariousplaces(CeylonandvariousWesterncountries)andmaintainsthatthey
wereallsuccessful.Itisdifficulttoacceptthisclaimbecausehistoricalevidenceshowsthathisofficialsovershotthemark.Definitely,
therewasresentmentagainsttheirwayofdoingthings.ItisknownfromevidencethatAsokapresumedthatnotonlyhewasaseeker
oftruthbutalsohedidreachthetruth.Suchconvictionsarealwaysharmful.Mostofall,itisimportanttonotethatthereisno
authenticproofthathismissionswereasuccess.Significantly,noneofAsoka'ssuccessorscontinuedthepropagationofdhamma.Far
worseisthefactthatinthelaterages,hispillarinscriptionscametobemisunderstoodassymbolsofphallus.
ThesplendouroftheDarkCenturies
ThefivecenturieswhichpassedbetweenthedeclineofthefirstgreatIndianempireoftheMauryasandtheemergenceofthegreat
classicalempireoftheGuptashasoftenbeendescribedasadarkperiodinIndianhistorywhenforeigndynastiesfoughteachotherfor
shortlivedandephemeralsupremacyoverNorthernIndia.ApartfromKanishka'sIndoCentralAsianempirewhichcouldclaimtobe
similarinsizeandimportancetohaschina,theparthiansofPersiaandtothecontemporaryRomanempirethisperioddidlackthe
glamouroflargeempires.ButthisdarkperiodparticularlythefirsttwocenturiesADwasaperiodofintensiveeconomicandcultural
contactamongthevariouspartsoftheEurasiancontinent.Indianplayedaveryactiveroleinstimulatingthesecontacts.Buddhism
whichhasbeenfosteredbyIndianrulerssincethedaysofAshokawasgreatlyaidedbytheinternationalconnectionsoftheIndoGreeks
andtheKushanasandthusrosetoprominenceinCentralAsia.SouthIndiawasestablishingitsimportantlinkswiththeWestandwith
SoutheastAsiainthisperiod.TheselinksespeciallythosewithsoutheastAsia,provedtobeveryimportantforthefuturecourseof
Asianhistory.
ButIndiaitselfexperiencedimportantsocialandculturalchangesinthisperiod.ForcenturiesBuddhismhadenjoyedroyalpatronage.
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ThiswaspartlyduetothefactthattheforeignrulersofIndiafoundBuddhismmoreaccessiblethanorthodoxHinduism.TheVedic
BrahminshadbeenpushedintothebackgroundbythecourseofhistoricaldevelopmentallthoughHinduismassuchdidnotexperience
adecline.OnthecontrarynewpopularcultsarosearoundgodslikeShiva,KrishnaandVishnuVasudevawhohadplayedonlya
marginalroleinanearlierage.ThecompetitionbetweenBuddhismwhichdominatedtheroyalcourtsandcitiesandorthodox
BrahminismwhichwasstillrepresentedbynumerousBrahminfamilieseverywhereleftenoughscopeforthesenewcultstogain
footholdsoftheirown,ofgreatimportanceforthefurtherdevelopmentofHinduismandparticularlyfortheHinduideaofkingshipwas
theKushanarulersidentificationwithcertainHindugodstheywereactuallybelievedtoattainacompleteidentitywiththerespective
godaftertheirdeath.
ReligiouslegitimationwasofgreaterimportancetotheseforeignrulersthantootherIndiankings.Menander'sasheshadbeen
distributedaccordingtotheBuddhistfashionandKanishkawasidentifiedwithMithrasbutwimakadphisesandHuvishkawerecloserto
shivaasshownbytheimagesontheircoins.Huvishka'scoinsprovidearegularalmanacoftheiconographyoftheearlyShivacult.The
deificationoftherulerwhichwassoprevalentintheRomanandHellenisticworldaswellasamongtheIranianswasthusintroduced
intoIndiaandleftamarkonthefuturedevelopmentofHinduKingship.
AnotherfutureofcrucialimportanceforthefuturepoliticaldevelopmentofIndiawastheorganizationoftheShakaandKushana
Empireshadbeen,butwerebasedonthelargescaleincorporationoflocalrulers.InsubsequentcenturiesmanyregionalEmpiresof
Indiawereorganizedonthispattern.
Themostwellknowncontributionofthedarkperiodwasacourse,toIndianart.AftertheearlysculpturesoftheMauryaswhichwere
greatlyinfluencedbytheIranianstyle,anewIndianstyle,anewIndianstylehasfistemergedunderShungasandtheirsuccessorsin
theBuddhistmonumentsofBharhutandSanchiwhichparticularlyshowedanewstyleofreliefsculpture.ThemergeroftheGandhara
schoolofart,withitsGraecoRomanstyleandtheMathuraschoolofartwhichincludedarchaicIndianelementsandbecamethecenter
ofIndoKushanaart,finallyledtotheriseoftheSarnathschoolofart.ThisschoolthensetthepatternoftheclassicalGuptastyle.
Lesswellknown,butmuchmoreimportantforthefuturedevelopmentofHindusociety,wasthecompilationoftheauthoritativeHindu
lawbooks(dharmasastra),theforemostofthembeingthecodeofManuwhichprobablyoriginatedinthesecondorthirdcenturyAD.
AfterthebreakdownoftheMauryaandShungaEmpires,theremusthavebeenaperiodofuncertainty,whichledtorenewedinterestin
traditionalsocialnorms.Thesewerethencodifiedsoastoremaininviolateforalltimestocome.Ifweaddtothistheresurgenceof
Sanskrit,astestifiedbyRudradaman'sfamousrockinscriptionofthesecondcenturyAD.Weseethatthisdarkperiodactually
containedalltheelementoftheclassicalcultureoftheGuptaage,Thusthemanysplendouredandmuchmaligneddarkperiodwas
actuallytheharbingeroftheclassicalage.

PostMauryanPeriod(20bc300ad):EconomyAndSociety
InthepostMauryanera(200BC.To300A.D.)theeconomymovedatanacceleratedtempo.Societywitnessedstructuralreorientation
assignificantgroupsofforeignerspenetratedintoIndiaandchosetobeidentifiedwiththerestofthecommunity.
Theoccupationofcraftsmenwasanimportantsegementoftheday'ssocioeconomicmilieu.Thecraftsmentwerenotonlyassociated
withthetownsbutalsovillageslikeKarimnagarintheTelenganaregionofAndhraPradesh.Thecategoriesofcraftsmenwhowere
knowninthisperiodbearoutthetruththattherewasconsiderablespecializationinminingandmetallurgy.Alargenumberofiron
artifactshavebeendiscoveredatvariousexcavatedsitesrelatingtotheKushanandSatavahansPeriods.Itissurprisingtonoticethat
theTelenganaregionappearstohavemadespecialprogressinironartifactsnotonlyweaponsbutalsobalancerods,sickles,
ploughshares,razorsandladelshavebeenfoundintheKarimnagarandNalgondadistricts.Also,cutlerymadeoutofironandsteelwas
exportedtotheAbyssinianports.
Equallysignificantwastheprogressmadeinclothmakingandsilkweaving.DyeingwasacraftofreputeinsomesouthIndiantowns
likeUraiyur,ashurbofTiruchirapalli,andArikamedu.Theuseofoilwasalsohighbecauseoftheinventionofoilwheel.Theinscriptions
ofthedaymentionweavers,goldsmiths,dyers,workersinmetalandivory,jewelers,sculptors,fishermen,perfumersandsmithsasthe
donorsofcaves,pillars,tablets,cisternsetc.Amongtheluxuryitemstheimportantoneswereivoryandglassarticlesandbeedcutting.
AtthebeginningofthecoristianeratheknowledgeofglassblowingreachedIndiaandattaineditspeak.Coinmintingalsoreacheda
highlevelofexcellencemadeoutofgold,silver,copper,bronze,leadandpotin.AcointmouldoftheSatavahansperiodshowsthat
throughithalfadozencoinscouldbeturnedoutatime.
Inurbanhandicraftstheprideofplacegoestothebeautifulpiecesofterracottaproducedinprofusequantities.Theyhavebeenfound
inmostofthesitesbelongingtotheKushanandSatavahansperiods.Inparticular,terracottafiguresofgreatbeautyhavebeenfound
intheNalgondadistrictofTelengana.Theterracottafiguresweremostlymeantfortheuseofupperclassesintowns.
Thisimmensemanufacturingactivitywasmaintainedbyguilds.Atleasttodozenkindsofguildswerethere.Mostoftheartisansknown
frominscriptionshailedfromtheMathuraregionandthewesternDeccanwhichlayonthetraderoutesleadingtotheportsonthe
westerncoast.
Theguilds,comingfromthedaysoftheMauryanperiod,becameamoreimportantfactorintheurbanlifebothinbeinginstrumental
toincreaseinproductionandmouldingpublicopinion.Theprimaryguildsofthedaywerethoseofthepotters,metalworkersand
carpenters.Someguildsorganizedtheirowndistributionsystemwhileowningalargenumberofboatstotransportgoodsfromvarious
portsontheGanges.
Theguildsofthedayfixedtheirownrulesofworkandthestandardsofthefinishedproducts.Theyexercisedcareregardingpricealso
tosafeguardtheinterestofboththeartisanandthecustomer.Theycontrolledthepriceofthemanufacturedarticles.Heconductofthe
guildmemberswasregulatedthroughaguildcourt.Thecustomaryusesoftheguildshadthesameforceasthoseoflaws.
Theextensiveactivityoftheguildscanbeknownfromtheirsealsandemblems.Thebannersandinsigniaofeachguildwerecarriedin
processionoffestiveoccasions.Theseprosperousguildsinaddition,donatedlargesumsofmoneytoreligiousinstitutionsandcharitable
causes.
Sincetheactivityoftheguildswassobuoyant,itappearsthattheyattractedtheattentionofkingstoo.Itissaidthatkingshad
financialinterestsinguilds.Royaltyinvesteditsmoneyincommercialactivities.ThisnaturallyledtoprotectionbeingprovidedbyState
totheguilds.Regardingtheactivitiesofguilds,itappearsfrominscriptionsthattheyactedasbankers,financiersandtrusteesalthough
theseactivitieswerecarriedoutbyaseparateclassofpeopleknownassresthins.Usurywasapartofbankingandthegeneralrateof
interestwasaround15%loansextendedtoseatradecarriedhigherinterestrate.Anauthorityofthedaystatesthattherateof
interestshouldvaryaccordingtothecasteofthemantowhommoneyislent.
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Interestingly,apartfromtheguilds,therewereworkersbodiesalso.Theworkerscooperativeincludedartisansandvariouscrafts
associatedwithaparticularenterprise.Theclassicexampleofthisactivitywasthecooperativeofbuilders,whichhasitsmembers
drawnfromspecializedworkerssuchasarchitects.Engineers,bricklayersetc.
TheimmensecommercialactivitywasbolsteredbythethrivingtradebetweenIndiaandtheEasterRomanEmpire.Withthemovement
ofCentralAsianpeoplelikeSakas,ParthiansandKushans,tradecametobecarriedacrossthesea.Amongtheports,theimportant
oneswereBroachandSoparaonthewesterncoast,andArikameduandTamraliptiontheeasterncoast.OutoftheseportsBroachwas
themostimportantasnotonlygoodswereexportedfromherebutaalsogoodswerereceived.Acrossland,theconvergingpointof
traderouteswasTaxila,whichwasconnectedwiththeSilkRoutepassingthroughCentralAsia.Ujjainwasthemeetingpointofgood
numberoftraderoutes.
ThetradebetweenIndiaandRomemostlyconsistedofluxurygoods.TobeginwithRomegotherimportsfromthesouthernmost
portionsofthecountry.TheRomanimportswereMuslims,pearls,jewelsandpreciousstonesfromCentralandSouthIndia.Iron
articlesformedanimportantitemofexporttotheRomanEmpire.ForcertainarticlesIndiabecametheclearinghouse,asforexample,
silkfromChinabecauseofimpedimentsposedbytheParthianruleinIranandtheneighboringareas.
TheRomans,inreturn,exportedtoIndiavarioustypesofpottersfoundinexcavationsatplaceslikeTamlukinWestBengal,Arikamedu
nevarPondicherryandafewotherplaces.ProbablyleadwasimportantfromRome.ItisalsopresumedthattheKushanshadbrisktrade
withtheRomansastheyconqueredMesopotamiain115A.D.AtaplaceclosetoKabul,glassjarsmadeinItaly,EgyptandSyriahave
cometolight,apartfromsmallbronzestatuesofGrekoRomanstyle,AndthemostsignificantRomanexporttoIndiawasthegoldand
silvercoinsnearly85findsofRomancoinshavebeenfound.ThereisnothingsurprisinginthelamentationoftheRomanwriterPlinyin
the1stcenturyA.D.ThatRomanwasbeingdrainedofgoldonaccountoftradewithIndia.
IndiankingdomssentembassiestoRomethebestknownbeingtheonesentabout25B.C.Whichincludedstrangecollectionofmen
andanimalstigers,snakes,tortoisesamonkandanarmlessboywhocouldshootarrowswithhistoes.ThismissionreachedRome
duringthedaysofEmperorAugustusin21B.C.
Inthesouthernkingdomsmaritimetradeoccupiedtheprideofplace.Theliteratureofthedayreferstoharbours,docks,lighthouses
andcustomoffices.Largevarietyofshipswerebuilt,bothforshortdistanceaswellaslongdistancevoyages.Accordingtoplinythe
largestIndianshipwas75tons.Othersourcesmentionhigherfigures.
IntheselfsameperiodtherewasaboomintradewithsouthEastAsia.ThiswasfirstoccasionedbytheRomandemandforspices.
Graduallythistradegrewindimensions.
ThegrowingnumberofstrangersintheporttownsandtradecentersledtotheirabsorbingIndianhabitsastheirnumbersgrew,social
lawsofthedaybecamerigidastobeseenfromthelawcodeofManu.FurtherasconversionstoHinduismwastechnicallyimpossible
thenonIndiangroupsgraduallygrewintoseparatesubcastes.Afteralltheconversionofasingleindividualwasaproblembutthe
deviceofcastemadesuchabsorptioneasier.MoreovertheforeignersfounditeasiertobecomeBuddhistsinsteadofAryans.Facedone
theoreticalknowledgeconfinedtobrahminsandtheotherpracticalandtechnicalknowledgewhichbecamethepreserveofthe
professionals.
ItwasduringthisperiodDharmashastrascametobewritten.TheseShastrasmadethesocialstructuretoberigid.Apartfromthese
writingspoetryanddramawerealsopopular.TheoutstandingpoeminTamilwasShilappadigaram.AnotherpoeminTamilwas
Manimegalai.InSanskrit,AsvaghosaandBhasawerethetwogreatdramatists.ThemanuscriptsofAsvaghosawerefoundinamonastry
inTurdaninCentralAsia.BothofhisplaysdealwithBuddhistthemes.Bhasaappearedacoupleofcenturieslater.Hisplaysarebased
ontheincidentfromthespicsorhistoricalromancesaroundtheexploitsofkingudayaninAvanti.
Inthefieldofplasticart.GreatweretheachievementofthisperiodlikethestupasatSanchiandBarhutthecavesatKarlelloraand
Ajanta.AtAmravatithegreatageofpaintingbegan.AlsothesculpturesatAmravatishowamasteryofstonesculptureandwiththe
mathuraschoolofsculpturetheIndiantraditionofsculpturebegan.
Theboomingtradeandcommerceoftheperiodwasatthebaseoftheurbansettlementsthatcameintoexistence.Theimportant
townsofnorthernIndiawereVaishali,Pataliputra,Varanasi,Kausambi,Sravasti,Hastinapur,MathuraandIndraprastha.Mostofthe
townsflourishedintheKushanperiodasrevealedbyexcavations.TheexcavationsatSonkhinMathurashowasmanyassevenlevelsof
theKushanarebutonlyoneoftheGuptaperiod.AgaininJalandhar,LudhianaandRoparalsoseveralsitesshowgoodKushan
structures.TheSatayahanskingdownalsowitnessedthrivingtownslikeTagar,Paithan,Dhanyakataka,Amravati,Nagarjunakonda,
Broach,Sopara,ArikameduandKaveripattanam.

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