Key points to remember:

• Formula 6CO2 + 6H2O ⇒ C6H12O6 + 6O2

• Reactants/Raw Materials ⇒ Carbon Dioxide and Water
• Product ⇒ Glucose and Oxygen
• Photosynthesis takes place in the leaf
• Photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll of the leaf
• Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast
• Photosynthesis uses sunlight to make glucose
• Photosynthesis is found in autotrophic organisms
• All autotrophs use photosynthesis
• Photosynthesis won’t work without sunlight
• The cuticle covers the surface and prevents H2O loss
• Stomate/stomata  tiny openings/holes in leaf that allow

O2 and CO2 to exit or enter the cell

Key points to remember about Chlorophyll

• Absorbs blue and red light the best

• Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplast

Aerobic Pathway: Glycolysis Kreb Cycle  Electron Transport System  ATP
Anaerobic Pathway: Glycolysis Fermentation  Lactic Acid or Ethyl Alcohol

:Key points to remember:

• Formula for Cellular Respiration: C6H12O6 + 6O2 ⇒ 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
• The goal is to make energy (ATP)
• Reactants “Raw Materials” ⇒ Glucose and oxygen
• Products ⇒ ATP, Carbon Dioxide, and Water
• Cellular Respiration takes place in the mitochondria
• Cellular Respiration requires O2 (Oxygen) to function. It won’t work without O2

Key points cont…

• If no O2 is present, Glucose begins “Fermentation”.
• Fermentation glucose is converted to ⇒ Lactice Acid (in humans) or Ethanol alcohol “ethanol”
(in plants and fungs
• All Eukaryotic Cells need Cellular Respiration because this is how they get energy.
• Plant, Animal, Protist, and Fungus Cells utilize mitochondria to perform Cellular Respiration.
• Prokaryotic cells (Bacteria) do not have mitochondria so they obtain energy through molecules,
chemicals, or other similar breaking of bonds between molecules
• Cellular Respiration won’t work without O2.
• Cellular Respiration is Glucose being converted into ATP (Energy) Glucose  ATP
• ATP (Adenosine Tri-Phosphate) is the energy molecules used by all living things. Cars run on gas
but organisms run on ATP.
• Glycolysis  breaking glucose apart (is the first stage of Cellular Respiration)

•The products of Photosynthesis are used to make Cellular Respiration work.

• The products of Cellular Respiration are used to make Photosynthesis work.
• Notice that Photosynthesis produces  O2 and Glucose. Notice that Cellular Respiration uses the O2 and
Glucose produced from photosynthesis as “raw materials” to make Cellular Respiration work.
• Notice that Cellular Respiration produces  CO2 and H2O. Notice that Photosynthesis uses the CO2 and H2O
produced from Cellular Respiration as “raw materials” to make Photosynthesis work.
• Reactants aka “Raw Materials”. These are the substances/ingredients needed to make each system work.
• Products are the substances that are produced by each system
 ANIMAL

What Phase Are These Cells In?

Key points to remember:

• Interphase comes before Mitosis

• Interphase is made up of G1, S, and G2 phases
• Mitosis is made up of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Daughter Cells (Cytokinesis)
• The first phase of Mitosis is Prophase
• Mitosis produces Diploid Cells
• Diploid means it has 2 sets of chromosomes.
Ex  Human cells (not human sperm and eggs) are 46 chromosomes. These cells are made up of 2 sets
of 23 chromosomes. The first set of 23 chromosomes came from the mother. The other 23
chromosomes came from the father.
• In Mitosis the # of chromosomes stays the same.
Ex  There are 46 chromosomes at the start of mitosis and 46 chromosomes at the end.

• The # of cells increases by 2x. If there are 8 cells at the beginning of mitosis then there will be 16 cells at the
end.
• Mitosis produces cells that are exactly the same. The cells are just duplicating themselves.
• Mitosis is used to make new cells or replace damaged or old cells

Key points to remember:

• 1st goal of meiosis  produce sperm and egg cells also called (GAMETES)
• 2nd goal of meiosis  to produce organisms that have the same number of chromosomes as the parents
• The # of chromosomes is reduced in half. This means that if at the beginning of meiosis there is 28
chromosomes then at the end there will be 14 chromosomes in each individual cell
• In meiosis the cell # quadruples but the chromosome # reduces by ½
• A male is XY. Through meiosis, half of the sperm produced will have X chromosomes and the other half Y’s.

• The rule is 50% X and 50% Y

• If a parent is Tt then he or she will give 50% of their
kids a “T” and the other
50% a “t”.
Key points to remember:
• DNA is a double helix
• DNA uses deoxyribose sugars
• DNA is made of nucleotides
• A nucleotide is made of 3 parts
- Sugar - Phosphate - Base
• A DNA nucleotide has 4 bases:
- Adenine (A) - Cytosine (C)
- Thymine (T) - Guanine (G)
• A pairs with a T
• C pairs with a G
• Rosalind Franklin used an X-Ray Crystal
Diffraction method to take a picture of
the DNA like the one below. She showed
that DNA is a double helix
Key Points to remember:
• Transcription  Converting DNA to RNA
• Translation  Converting RNA to Proteins (Amino Acids)
• RNA is single stranded but DNA is double stranded
• RNA uses Ribose but DNA uses Deoxyribose sugars
• RNA pairs Adenine (A) with Uracil (U), but DNA pairs Adenine (A) with Thymine (T)
• RNA  A-U DNA A-T
• There are 3 RNA’s: - mRNA -rRNA -tRNA
• Transcription takes place in the nucleus
• Translation takes place in the ribosome/cytoplasm
• DNA is converted to mRNA (messenger)RNA.
• mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes into the cytoplasm
• rRNA binds the mRNA so that it doesn’t slip and slide
• tRNA has amino acids on the top of it.
• tRNA anticodons pair with mRNA’s codons. In the process amino acids are linked together
• Codon  a group of 3 nucleotides together on a mRNA
• Anticodon a group of 3 nucleotides together on the bottom of a tRNA
• If mRNA’s codon is ACG then tRNA’s anticodon will be UGC. Remember for RNA A-U and U-A.

• I is a base on the tRNA

• II is the mRNA

• III shows 2 amino bound together by

peptide bonds

• IV is the tRNA as a whole

• V is a single amino acid by itself

How to determine the amino acid from the

chart:
Lets use the mRNA codon GAC:

• Start on the left and find the first letter (G). You
are now looking at the 4th row.
• While staying in the 4th row, look at the top for
the second letter which is (A). You are now in
the 4th row and 3rd column
• Your answer choices have now been limited to
ASP and GLU
• Find the third letter which is (C) and now your
answer choice is ASP
•Now you try: CAG  Gin

Key points to remember (Using the example above):

• Gregor Mendel studied the pea plant
• Genotype: the 2 genes received from the parents
• There are 3 Genotypes:
- Homozygous Dominant  AA
- Heterozygous  Aa
- Homozygous Recessive  aa
• Phenotype is the trait that’s expressed  Tall, short, brown eyes, curly hair
• Genotypic Ratio: The proportion of AA, Aa, and aa in the Punnett Square
• Phenotypic Ratio: The proportion of Auburn to White flowers
• In these crosses (complete dominance), the dominant trait or gene wins
or domineers over the recessive.
• These crosses are called monohybrid because your are only crosses one
type of gene at a time
• Purebred  an organism is 100% a specific trait with no mixture

•Cross Fertilization/Pollination  Seed/pollen from one organism is transferred to another

• This is called a Pedigree
• TT and Tt  are the unshaded
• tt  are the shaded

• I, II, III, and IV represent the

- Parents, kids, grandkids, and great grandkids

• Only people that are connected to the mating line are

related to each other

• I3 and I4 only have 3 kids

• This is called a Karyotype
• I1 is a Tt because one of its kids came out tt. This
• There
meansare that46both I1 and I2 have a “t” gene
chromosomes
• There are 23 pairs
• II2
Theis23the
rd first born son and II3 is the younger daughter
pair determines the sex

• Boys are XY and girls are XX

• The Y is bigger than the X chromosome

• This cell is diploid because it has 2 sets of

chromosomes

• This person has 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes

 • This is Incomplete dominance

• You get 3 phenotypes: Red, Pink, and White

• You get 3 genotypes

- RR Red, Rr  Pink, and rr  White

• The genotypic and phenotypic ratios will always be

the same

• In this Punnett Square the genotypic ratio is:

1:1:1:1 (A:B:AB:O)
Q u ickTim eª a n d a
T IFF (U n co m p ressed) d ecom p resso r
are need ed to see th is p ictu re.
• This means that 25% of the offspring are predicted to
have A, B, AB, and O blood
• A blood can only receive A and O blood
• A blood produces B-antibodies
• A can give there blood to only A and AB people

• B blood can only receive B and O blood

• B blood produces A-antibodies
• B can give their blood to B and AB

• AB blood can receive all blood types

• AB produces no antibodies
• AB can only give their blood to AB people

• O blood can only receive O blood

• O blood produces A and B antibodies
• O can give their blood to everyone (Universal donor)
 • This is a Punnett Square showing (SEX LINKAGE)

• Dad can be: XRY (Red eyes) or XrY (White Eyes)

• Mom can be:

- XRXR (Red eyes), XRXr (Red Eyes), XrXr (White eyes)

• Mom can be a carrier (XRXr). This means that t

hough she comes out being red eyes, she can still pass
on a white gene to her kids.

• In this example both girls have red eyes, 1 boy has red
eyes, and 1 boy has white eyes.

• This means that 100% of the girls come out red and
50% of the boys come out red, and 50% boys white

• Notice that the CDE switched to EDC

• Noticed that the LMNO of the bottom chromosome switched

with the CDEFG of the top chromosome

• This is a POINT MUTATION

• Notice that CD was removed
• By putting an “Adenine” instead of a “Thymine” base a
different mRNA was produced

•• Notice
Insteadthat
of aCD
GAAwasordeleted
mRNAinthere
the top
is achromosome
GUA for mRNA
• Notice that CD was duplicated in the bottom chromosome
• Instead of getting the amino acid “GLU” (Glutamic Acid) it
gets “VAL” which is (Valine)

• This causes someone to have sickle celled blood

• Round (Circular DNA) is only found in certain bacteria

• This circular DNA is called a plasmid

• If I combine external DNA with the plasmid it produces

RECOMBINANT DNA

• The plasmid and the gene I want to fuse it with are both cut
with RESTRICTION ENZYMES

• The plamid and the gene are fused by DNA Ligase

• ECOR1 is one of many restriction enzymes

• It first looks for the sequence “CTTAAG”

• It only cuts within that sequence between the A and G

• It does not cut between every A and G; It only cuts between

the A and G of the sequence “CTTAAG”

• Cutting the enzyme with EcoR1 produced 3 segments

• Cutting with HindiIII produced 2 segments

• 1st you cut the DNA

• 2nd you put the DNA on an agarose gel

• 3rd you put the gel in an electrophoresis machine

• 4th you let the machine to separate the segments based on

size.

• The larger segments move slower than the shorter segments

Why is SUSPECT 3 the bad guy?