BER in Fading Environment

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels
A First Course in Digital Communications

Ha H. Nguyen and E. Shwedyk
February 2009
1/45
Introduction
We have considered that the transmitted signal is only

degraded by AWGN and it might be subjected to filtering.
There are communication channels (e.g., mobile wireless
channels) where the received signal is not subjected to a
known transformation or filtering.
Typically the gain and/or phase of a digitally modulated
transmitted signal is not known precisely at the receiver.
It is common to model these parameters as random.
Shall consider channel models where the amplitude and/or
phase of the received signal is random.
2/45
Demodulation with Random Amplitude
r(t) = as(t) + w(t),

where a is a random variable with known pdf fa (a).
r2
r2
r2
0D
a E
2
0D
1D
a E
0 R 0T
0D
1D
E a E
a E
1T
0R
a E
1D
r1
0T
0R
1R
1T

a E
0

r1 = r2
r1
1R
0T
r1
1R
1T

3/45
Performance of BPSK and BFSK
!
2Eb
P[error] = Q a
(antipodal),
N0
r !
Eb
(orthogonal).
P[error] = Q a
N0
r
!
2Eb
E{P[error]} =
Q a
fa (a)da (antipodal),
N0
0
r !
Z
Eb
E{P[error]} =
Q a
fa (a)da (orthogonal).
N0
0
Z
4/45
Optimum Demodulation of BASK

Optimum receiver is determined by the maximum likelihood
ratio:
fr1 (r1 |1T ) 1D
R 1.
fr1 (r1 |0T ) 0D
fr1 (r1 |0T ) is N (0, N0 /2), while
Z
fr1 (r1 |1T ) =
fr1 (r1 |1T , a = a)fa (a)da
0
= E {fr1 (r1 |1T , a = a)} .
Need to know fa (a) to proceed further.

In general the threshold (and hence the decision regions) is a
balance between the different regions given by the values that
a takes on weighted by the probability that a takes on these
values.
5/45
M-ary Demodulation with Random Amplitude
If all the signal points lie at distance of Es from the origin (i.e.,
equal energy), then the optimum decision regions are invariant to
any scaling by a, provided that a 0.
The matched-filter or correlation receiver structure is still optimum,

one does not even need to know fa (a).
r
r
The error performance,
however, depends crucially
on a and fa (a).
2
a =1
r1
r1
a = 0.5
6/45
Demodulation with Random Phase

Phase uncertainty can be modeled as a uniform random variable (over
[0, 2] or [, ]). It does not change the energy of the received signal.
Q (t ) =
2
sin(2 f c t )
Tb
locus of s2R (t )
Q ( t )
s (t ) 1R
E
s1R (t ) = s1 (t )
locus of s1R (t ), s2R (t )
s2R (t ) 1R
R
2
s2 ( t )
0 R 0T
s1 (t )
I (t ) =
1T
s 2 (t )
0T
I (t )
1T
2
cos(2 f ct )
Tb
s1R (t ) 0 R

!"
1,Q (t )
s1R (t ) 0 R
2,Q (t )
s2R (t ) 1R
2,I (t )
E
s1 (t )
0T
s2 (t )
1,I (t )
1T
#$% &'()
7/45
Optimum Receiver for Noncoherent BASK

(
w(t),
if 0T
q2
.
E Tb cos(2fc t ) + w(t), if 1T

wQ ,
if 0T
wI ,
if 0T
rI =
, rQ =
,
E cos + wI , if 1T
E sin + wQ , if 1T
r(t) =
where wI and wQ are statistically independent N (0, N0 /2).

2 2
r +r
1
f (rI , rQ |0T ) = f (rI |0T )f (rQ |0T ) = N
exp
IN0 Q .
0

2
2
Z 2
1
rI E cos + rQ E sin 1
f (rI , rQ |1T ) =
exp
d
N0
N0
2
0
NE
I0
2
2
1 rIN+rQ NE
2 Eq 2
2
0
=
e
e 0 I0
rI + rQ .
N0
N0
!
q
E
1D
1D
2 Eq 2
2
2 R N
0 I01 e N0 .
rI + rQ
R 1
rI2 + rQ
N0
0D
0D 2 E
8/45
Decision Regions of BASK with Random Phase

Q ( t )
locus of
s2R (t )
s2R (t ) 1R
1 1D
E
0 0D
0R 0T
1T
rI2 + rQ2 = Th =
I (t )
N 0 1 * E N 0 +
I 0 ., e /2 E
t = kTb
kT
0b
( ) dt
rI
( k 1)Tb
r (t )
1D
I (t ) =
2
cos(2 f ct )
Tb
456768 7
23
3
()
t = kTb
kT
1b
( ) dt
( k 1)Tb
Q (t ) =
rQ
Th =
>
<
0D
Th
N 0 1 9 E N 0 :
I 0 =; e ><
2 E
2
sin(2 f c t )
Tb
9/45
Different Implementation of BASK Demodulation

y(t) =
=
where
r
2
r()
cos(2fc (t ))[u(t ) u(t Tb ]d
Tb

q
1 yQ (t)
2 (t) cos 2f
,
yI2 (t) + yQ
c t tan
yI (t)
q
2 (t) is the envelope. At the sampling instant, t = kT ,
yI2 (t) + yQ
b
then yI (kTb ) = rI and yQ (kTb ) = rQ .
t = kTb
r (t )
h(t ) = UT
V
2
cos(2 f ct ),
Tb
0,
0 t Tb
elsewhere
y (t )
1D
?@ABC DE B
FBGBHGDI
r +r
2
I
Th =
>
DKELILGDI
<
0D
2
Q
N0
2 E
I 01 MQO e
Th
N0 N
RP
10/45
Error Performance
ZZ
P [error|0T ] =
f (rI , rQ |0T )drI drQ =
1
N0
=0
where Q(, ) =
P [error] =
xe
dd = eTh /N0 .
=Th
2E
,
N0
ZZ
f (rI , rQ |1T )drI drQ
2
Th
N0
x2 +2
2
1 Th2 /N0
e
2
1 rIN+rQ
0
e
drI drQ ,
N0
2
N
0
P [error|1T ] = 1 P [correct|1T ] = 1
= 1Q
ZZ
I0 (x)dx is Marcums Q-function.

"
!#
r
r
1
2E
2
+
1Q
,
Th
.
2
N0
N0
11/45
There is about 0.3 dB penalty q

in power when using such a simpler
E
suboptimum threshold, 2 = E2b .
10
Noncoherent BASK
with threshold of 0.5E1/2
10
10
Noncoherent BASK
with the optimum threshold
2
Coherent BASK & BFSK
P[error]
Noncoherent BFSK
10
Noncoherent DBPSK
10
Coherent BPSK
10
10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
SNR per bit (E /N ) in dB
b
12/45
Optimum Receiver for Noncoherent BFSK

q
E 2 cos(2f1 t ) + w(t),
Tb
r(t) =
q
E 2 cos(2f2 t ) + w(t),
Tb
=
0T
E cos + w1,I
E sin + w1,Q
r1,Q
r2,I
w2,I
r2,I
r2,Q
w2,Q
r1,I
r1,Q
if 0T
if 1T
1T
= w1,I
r1,I
= w1,Q
E cos + w2,I
=
=
E sin + w2,Q
r2,Q
2
2
1 r1,IN+r1,Q
0
f (r1,I , r1,Q , r2,I , r2,Q |0T ) =
e
N0
!
2
2
E
2 Eq 2
1 r2,IN+r2,Q
2
0
,
e N0 I0
r1,I + r1,Q
e
N0
N0
2
1 r1,IN+r1,Q
0
e
N0
!
2
2
1 r2,IN+r2,Q NE
2 Eq 2
2
0
e
e 0 I0
r2,I + r2,Q .
N0
N0
f (r1,I , r1,Q , r2,I , r2,Q |1T ) =
13/45
Optimum Demodulator for BFSK with Random Phase

q
2 E
2
r2,I
N0
q
2
I0 2N0E r1,I
I0
2
+ r2,Q
2
+ r1,Q
1D
R 1
0D
q
1D q
2 + r2
2 + r2 .
r2,I
r1,I
2,Q R
1,Q
0D
Bandpass filter centered at f 2

t = kTb
f
g
h2 (t ) = hg
i
2
cos(2 f 2 t ),
Tb
0,
0 t Tb
WXYZ[\]Z
^ Z_Z`_\a
r2,2 I + r2,2 Q
elsewhere
r (t )
Bandpass filter centered at f1
t = kTb
b
c
h1 (t ) = dc
e
2
cos(2 f1t ),
Tb
0,
0 t Tb
elsewhere
WXYZ[\]Z
^ Z_Z`_\a
1D
>
<
0D
r1,2I + r1,2Q
The demodulator finds the envelope at the two frequencies and chooses
the larger one at the sampling instant.
14/45
Error Performance of BFSK with Random Phase

By symmetry P [error] = P [error|0T ] = P r22,I + r22,Q r21,I + r21,Q .

P error0T , r21,I + r21,Q = R2 =

P (r2,I , r2,Q ) falls outside the circle of radius R0T
Z 2 Z
2 +r2
(r1,I
1,Q )
2
R2
1
N0
=
e N0 dd = e N0 = e
.
N0 =0 =R
P [error] =
(Z
r1,I =
r1,Q =
2 +r2
(r1,I
1,Q )
N0
f (r1,I , r1,Q |0T )dr1,I dr1,Q
#

N0
e
N
E cos ,
dr1,I
2
=0
r1,I =
"Z
#

2
r1,Q
N0
N
0 N
e
E sin ,
dr1,Q f ()d.
2
r1,Q =
Z 2
E cos2 1
E sin2 1
E
1
1
1 Eb
e 2N0 e 2N0
d = e 2N0 = e 2N0 .
2
2
2
2
2
=0
Z
"Z
2
r1,I
N0
15/45
Noncoherent BASK is about 0.3 dB more power efficient than

noncoherent BFSK.
10
Noncoherent BASK
10
10
Noncoherent BASK
2
P[error]
Noncoherent BFSK
10
Noncoherent DBPSK
10
Coherent BPSK
10
10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b
16/45
Differential BPSK
Coherent BPSK is 3 dB better than coherent BASK or BFSK: Is it
possible to use BPSK on a channel with phase uncertainty?
Possible if a phase reference can be established at the receiver that
is matched to the received signal.
If the phase uncertainty changes relatively slowly with time, the
received signal in one bit interval can act as a phase reference for
the succeeding bit interval.
r ( t ) = Eb
t = kTb
2
cos(2 f c t ) + w(t )
Tb
kT
jb
( ) dt
rk
klmnopoqlp
( k 1)Tb
Delay Tb
1
Eb
r
s
t
If rk >0, present bit equals previous bit
If rk 0, present bit is complement of previous bit
2
1
cos(2 f c (t Tb ) ) +
w (t Tb )
Tb
Eb
But the above method can lead to error propagation!

17/45
Differential BPSK Modulation and Demodulation

0T : no phase change,
1T : phase change.
The decision rule is:
1D
rk R 0.
0D
which is independent of the previous decision.

Since DBPSK is orthogonal signaling, the error analysis for
noncoherent BFSK therefore applies to DBPSK:
1
P [error]DBPSK = eEb /N0 .
2
The only difference is rather than Eb joules/bit, the energy in
DBPSK becomes 2Eb . This is because the received signal
over two bit intervals is used to make a decision.
18/45
DBPSK shows about 1 dB degradation over coherent BPSK.

10
Noncoherent BASK
10
10
Noncoherent BASK
2
P[error]
Noncoherent BFSK
10
Noncoherent DBPSK
10
Coherent BPSK
10
10
5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
b
19/45
Detection over Fading Channels

Fading channel model arises when there are multiple transmission paths
from the transmitter to the receiver.
w xy z{

uv
|}~w}
~ w }x} }x x~}w x ~wwy

uv v
x}
v v
20/45
Rayleigh Fading Channel Model

Consider the transmitted
signal sT (t) = s(t) cos(2fc t), where
q
s(t) = Eb T2b over the bit interval with bit rate rb fc
(lowpass signal).
The received signal is:

X
X
r(t) =
rj (t) =
s(t tj )j cos(2fc (t tj ))
j
s(t)
X
j
j cos (2fc t 2fc tj ) = s(t)
X
j
j cos (2fc t j )
where j represents the attenuation and tj the delay along the jth
path, which are random variables. Also because s(t) is lowpass, we
approximate s(t) s(t tj ).
Since tj 1/fc, the random phase j lies in the range [0, 2). Now
X
X
r(t) = s(t)
j cos j cos(2fc t) +
j sin j sin(2fc t) .
j
21/45
Rayleigh Fading Channel

Model

P
P
nF,I =
j j cos j and nF,Q =
j j sin j have the following
moments:
X
X
E {nF,I } =
E{j }E{cos j } = 0, E {nF,Q } =
E{j }E{sin j } = 0,
j

X 2 2 F2
E j E cos j =
,
E n2F,I =
2
j

X 2 2 F2
E n2F,Q =
E j E sin j =
,
2
j
X
X
j cos j
k sin k
E {nF,I nF,Q } = E
j
k
XX
E {j k } E {cos j sin k } = 0,
=
|
{z
}
j
k
=0
Since the number of multipaths is large, the central limit theorem says
that nF,I , nF,Q are Gaussian random variables.
22/45
nF,I and nF,Q are statistically independent Gaussian random

variables, zero-mean, variance F2 /2:

F2
F2
fnI ,nQ (nI , nQ ) = fnI (nI )fnQ (nQ ) = N 0,
N 0,
.
2
2
The received signal is therefore:
r(t)
= s(t) [nF,I cos(2fc t) + nF,Q sin(2fc t)]
= s(t) [ cos(2fc t )] ,

q
n
and
where = n2F,I + n2F,Q , = tan1 nF,Q
F,I
f ()
f()
1
(uniform),
2

2
2
exp 2 u()
F2
F
(Rayleigh).
The term Rayleigh fading comes from the envelope distribution.

The phase of the received signal severely degraded but that the
amplitude is affected as well: The incoming signals add not only
constructively but also destructively.
23/45
Noncoherent Demodulation of BFSK in Rayleigh Fading

q
Eb 2 cos(2f1 t), if 0T
q Tb
,
s(t) =
Eb 2 cos(2f2 t), if 1T
Tb
r(t)
q
Eb 2 cos(2f1 t ) + w(t), if 0T
q Tb
.
Eb 2 cos(2f2 t ) + w(t), if 1T
Tb
r
r
2
2
cos(2f1 t) + Eb nF,Q
sin(2f1 t) +w(t),
Eb nF,I
T
T
b
b
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
r 1,I (t)
r 1,Q (t)
2
2
Eb nF,I
cos(2f2 t) + Eb nF,Q
sin(2f2 t) +w(t),
Tb
Tb
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
2,I (t)
0T ,
1T ,
2,Q (t)
The transmitted signal lies entirely within the signal space spanned by
1,I (t), 1,Q (t), 2,I (t) and 2,Q (t).
24/45
0T
1T
=
=
p
Eb nF,I + w1,I
p
Eb nF,Q + w2,Q
w2,I
r1,I
r1,Q
=
=
r2,I
w2,Q
r2,Q
r1,I
r1,Q
r2,I
r2,Q
w1,I
w2,Q
p
Eb nF,I + w2,I
p
Eb nF,Q + w2,Q
w1,I , w1,Q , w2,I , w2,Q are due to thermal noise, are Gaussian,
statistically independent, zero-mean, and variance N0 /2.
nF,I and nF,Q , are also Gaussian, statistically independent,
zero-mean and variance F2 /2.
The sufficient statistics are Gaussian, statistically independent,
zero-mean, with a variance of either N0 /2 or Eb F2 /2 + N0 /2,
depending on whether a 0T or 1T .
Computing the likelihood ratio gives the following decision rule:
1D
2
2
2
2
r2,I
+ r2,Q
R r1,I
+ r1,Q
,
0D
25/45
Equivalently the decision rule can be expressed as:

q
2
r2,I
2
r2,Q
1D
0D
2 + r2 .
r1,I
1,Q
which is identical to that for noncoherent BFSK!

Bandpass filter centered at f 2
t = kTb
h2 (t ) =
2
cos(2 f 2 t ),
Tb
0,
0 t Tb
r2,2 I + r2,2 Q
elsewhere
r (t )
Bandpass filter centered at f1
t = kTb
h1 (t ) =
2
cos(2 f1t ),
Tb
0,
0 t Tb
elsewhere
1D
>
<
0D
r1,2I + r1,2Q
26/45
Error Probability of Noncoherent BFSK

P [error] = P [error|0T ] = P
i
q
hq

r22,I + r22,Q r21,I + r21,Q 0T .
Fix the value of r21,I + r21,Q at a specific value, say R2 and compute
2 +r2

q
hq
i ZZ 1
r2,I
2,Q

e N0 dr2,I dr2,Q
P
r22,I + r22,Q R 0T , r21,I + r21,Q = R =
N0
Z
=0
=R
1
e
N0
2
N
0
dd = e
2 +r2
(r1,I
1,Q )
N0
r2,Q
r2, I
Find volume under

Z
f ( r2, I , r2,Q | 0T ) in region

Z outsize the circle
27/45
Average over all possible values of r1,I , r1,Q :

)
(
2
2 +r
(r1,I
1,Q )

N0
E e
0T

2
Z
Z
2 +r
(r1,I
1,Q )
N0
f (r1,I , r1,Q |0T )dr1,I dr1,Q
e
=
r1,I =
r1,Q =
1
.
Eb
2 + F2 N
0
Eb F2 can be interpreted as the received energy per bit.

1
The behavior is P [error] SNR
, a much much slower rate of decay
SNR
as compared to P [error] e
.
In the log-log plot of the P [error] versus SNR in dB, the error
performance curve appears to be a straight line of slope 1 in the
high SNR region.
28/45
Compared to noncoherent demodulation of BFSK in random phase only,

at an error probability of 103 about 19 dB more power is needed for
noncoherent demodulation of BFSK in Rayleigh fading!
10
10
Noncoherent FSK
Coherent FSK
Coherent PSK
P[error]
10
10
10
10
3 Noncoherent
FSK
Noncoherent
DPSK
Random phase
Random amplitude &2phase

(Rayleigh fading, F=1)
Coherent PSK
Coherent ASK & FSK
10
10
15
20
25
Received SNR per bit (dB)
30
35
29/45
BFSK and BPSK with Coherent Demodulation

If the random phase introduced by fading can be perfectly
estimated, then coherent demodulation can be achieved The
situation is the same as detection in random amplitude.
With a Rayleigh fading channel, is a Rayleigh random variable.
0D
For BFSK, the optimum decision rule is r1 R r2 and

1D
P [error] = E
Eb
N0
!)
u
2 Eb
u
1
F N0
.
= 1 t
Eb
2
2 + F2 N
1D
For BPSK, the optimum decision rule is r1 R 0 and

0D
u
2 Eb
u
1
F N0
.
P [error] = 1 t
Eb
2
1 + F2 N
30/45
Coherent BPSK is 3 dB more efficient that coherent BFSK, which in turn

is 3 dB more efficient than the noncoherent BFSK.
10
10
Noncoherent FSK
Coherent FSK
Coherent PSK
P[error]
10
10
10
10
3 Noncoherent
FSK
Noncoherent
DPSK
Random phase
Random amplitude &2phase

(Rayleigh fading, F=1)
Coherent PSK
Coherent ASK & FSK
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
31/45
Diversity
All communication schemes over a Rayleigh fading channel
have the same discouraging performance behavior of
1
.
P [error] SNR
The reason is that it is very probable for the channel to
exhibit what is called a deep fade, i.e, the received signal
amplitude becomes very small.
Diversity technique: multiple copies of the same message are

transmitted over independent fading channels in the hope that
at least one of them will not experience a deep fade.
Time diversity: Achieved by transmitting the same message in
different time slots.
Frequency diversity: Accomplished by sending the message
copies in different frequency slots.
Antenna diversity: Achieved with the use of antenna arrays
32/45
Optimum Demodulation of Binary FSK with Diversity

Consider N transmissions of BFSK over a fading channel:
q q
Eb T2b cos(2f1 t), if 0T

q
q
s(t) =
,
Eb T2b cos(2f2 t), if 1T

rj (t)
q q
E 2 j cos(2f1 t j ) + w(t), 0T
q b q Tb
E 2 j cos(2f2 t j ) + w(t), 1T
b
Tb
q
r
r
q
2
2
Eb nj,I T cos(2f1 t) + Eb nj,Q T sin(2f1 t) +w(t), 0T
| b {z
| b {z
}
}
(1)
(1)
j,I (t)
j,Q (t)
r
r
q
q
2
2
E
n
cos(2f
t)
+
E
n
sin(2f2 t) +w(t), 1T
2
b j,I
b j,Q
T
T
b
b
|
{z
}
|
{z
}
(2)
(2)
(t)
(t)
j,I
for (j 1)Tb t jTb and j = 1, . . . , N .
j,Q
33/45
q
q
2 cos(2f t), (1) (t) =
2 sin(2f t),
(1) (t) =
1
1
j,I
j,Q
q Tb
q Tb
(2)
(2)
2 cos(2f t),
2 sin(2f t),

(t)
=
(t)
=
2
2
T
j,Q
T
j,I
b
(j1)Tb t jTb , j = 1, . . . , N.
0T
(1)
r1,I =
(1)
rN,I =
q
q
(1)
(1)
(1)
Eb n1,I + w1,I
r1,Q =
.
.
.
(1)
(1)
(1)
Eb nN,I + wN,I
(2)
rN,Q =
(2)
q
q
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
Eb n1,Q + w1,Q
.
.
.
Eb nN,Q + wN,Q
(2)
(2)
r1,I = w1,I
r1,Q = w1,Q
.
.
.
.
.
.
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
rN,Q = wN,Q
rN,I = wN,I
1T
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
r1,I = w1,I
r1,Q = w1,Q
.
.
.
.
.
.
(1)
(1)
rN,I = wN,I
q
(2)
(2)
(2)
r1,I = Eb n1,I + w1,I
(1)
(1)
rN,Q = wN,Q
q
(2)
(2)
(2)
r1,Q = Eb n1,Q + w1,Q
(2)
rN,I =
.
.
.
(2)
(2)
Eb nN,I + wN,I
(2)
rN,Q =
.
.
.
(2)
(2)
Eb nN,Q + wN,Q
34/45
Number the sufficient statistics corresponding to f1 from 1 to 2N ;

sufficient statistics associated with f2 from 2N + 1 to 4N . The
likelihood ratio test is
f (r1 , . . . , rN ; r2N +1 , . . . , r4N |1T )
=
f (r1 , . . . , rN ; r2N +1 , . . . , r4N |0T )
2N
4N
Q
Q
2
2
2
2
1
1 erj /(2t )
erj /(2w )
2
2
j=1
2N
Q
j=1
2
2
1 erj /(2t )
2t
4N
X
4N
Q
j=2N +1
which can be reduced to
j=2N +1
j=2N +1
1D
R 1,
2) 0
rj2 /(2w
D
1
e
2w
2N
1D X
rj2 R
rj2 .
0D j=1
35/45
Chi-Square Probability Density Function

Consider y = x21 + x22 + + x2N where the xi s are zero-mean,
statistically independent Gaussian random variables with identical
variances, 2 . To find fy (y) determine the characteristic function y (f )
and then inverse transform it.
(N
)
N
N
j2 P
n
o
Y
Y
x2k
j2f y
2
j2f x2k
k=1
y (f ) = E e
=E e
=E
e
=
E ej2f xk .
k=1
n
o
2
E ej2f xk =
k=1
2
2
2
ej2f xk exk /(2 ) dxk = 1 2 .
1j4 f
Therefore y (f ) = (1j41 2 f )N/2 and
R
fy (y) = (1j41 2 f )N/2 ej2yf df , where y 0. From the identity
R
1 p
( ix) eipx dx = 2p ()e u(p), where R() > 0 and
1
2
R() > 0, the pdf is
where (x) =
R
0
fy (y) =
y 2 1 ey/(2 )
u(y),
N
2 2 N N2
tx1 et dt = (x 1)! for x integer.
36/45
Error Performance of BFSK with Diversity

Define 1 =
P4N
2
j=2N +1 rj
and 0 =
1D
P2N
2
j=1 rj .
The decision rule is:
1 R 0 .
0D
P [error] = P [error|0T ] =
f (0 |0T )
Z
f (1 |0T )d1 d0 .
f (1 |0T ) and f (0 |0T ) are chi-square distributions:

2
f (1 |0T ) =

2
1 1 /(2w )
1 0 /(2t )
N
N
e
e
1
0
u(
),
f
(
|0
)
=
u(0 ).
1
0 T
2N (N )
2N w
2N t2N (N )
It can be shown that

N 2 N j
X
t
1
(2N j)
P [error] =
.

2N j
2
2
w
(N )(N j + 1)
j=1
1 + 2t
w
37/45
Define T = Eb F2 /N0 as the averaged SNR per transmission.

Recognize that
x. Then
t2
2
w
= 1 + T and (x) = (x 1)! for integer

N
1
X
1
N 1+k
1 + T k
P [error] =
.
(2 + T )N
k
2 + T
k=0
For large values of SNR, 1 + T 2 + T T and

N 1
1 X N 1+k
2N 1
1
P [error]
=
.
(T )N
k
(T )N
N
k=0
The error performance now decays inversely with the N th

power of the received SNR.
The exponent N of the SNR is generally referred to as the
diversity order of the modulation scheme.
38/45
Compared to no diversity, there is a significant improvement in

performance with diversity.
10
10
N=1 (No diversity)
P[error]
10
N=6
10
10
N=2
N=8
10
10
Noncoherent FSK
in random phase only
N=4
6
10
15
20
25
Received SNR per transmission (dB)
30
35
39/45
Optimum Diversity
As the diversity order N increases the error performance improves.
This improvement comes at the expense of a reduced data rate in
the case of time diversity.
If the transmitters power or equivalently the energy expended per
information bit is constrained to Eb joules then increasing N does
not necessarily lead to a better error performance.
With increased N we increase the probability of avoiding a deep
fade, at the same time the energy, Eb , of each transmission is

reduced. Therefore the SNR of each transmission is reduced which
in turn increases the error probability.
There is an optimum value for the diversity order N at each level of
error probability. An empirical relationship is:
Nopt = Ke10 log10 T .
where K is some constant.
40/45
P [error] versus the averaged received SNR per bit, 10 log10

10
10
2
Eb F
N0

.
N=1 (No diversity)
10
P[error]
N=2
10
N=4
10
10
N=6
Noncoherent FSK
in random phase only
N=8
10
10
15
20
25
30
35
41/45
Determining The Optimum Diversity Order
(b)
(a)
14
10
SNR per bit ranges from 2 to 16 dB in 1dB steps
12
Optimum diversity order Nopt
P[error]
10
10
10
10
8
6
4
2
10
5
10
15
Diversity order N (number of transmissions per bit)
20
0
2
6
8
10
12
Average received SNR per bit (dB)
14
16
42/45
Central Limit Theorem

Central limit theorem states that under certain general
conditions the sum of n statistically independent continuous
random variables has a pdf that approaches a Gaussian pdf as
n increases.
P
Let x = ni=1 xi . where the xi s are statistically independent
random
variables
mean, E{xi } = mi , and variance,

with
2
2
E (xi mi )P = i . Then x is a random
variable with
P
mean mx = ni=1 mi , variance x2 = ni=1 i2 and a pdf of
fx (x) = fx1 (x) fx2 (x) fxn (x).
By the central limit theorem fx (x) approaches a Gaussian pdf

as n increases, i.e.,
2
fx (x)
1
(xm2x )
2x
e
.
2x
43/45
Example 1: fxi (xi) are Zero-Mean Uniform

(a)
0.5
Actual distribution
Gaussian fit
n=2
0.45
0.4
n=4
0.35
fx(x)
0.3
0.25
n=6
0.2
n=10
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
8
0
x
44/45
Example 2: fxi (xi) are Laplacian

(b)
0.4
Actual distribution
Gaussian fit
0.35
0.3
n=2
fx(x)
0.25
n=4
0.2
n=6
0.15
n=10
0.1
0.05
0
5
10
x
15
20
25
45/45

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Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

A First Course in Digital Communications

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

We have considered that the transmitted signal is only

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Demodulation with Random Amplitude

r(t) = as(t) + w(t),

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Performance of BPSK and BFSK

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Optimum Demodulation of BASK

= E {fr1 (r1 |1T , a = a)} .

Need to know fa (a) to proceed further.

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

M-ary Demodulation with Random Amplitude

The matched-filter or correlation receiver structure is still optimum,

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Demodulation with Random Phase

locus of s1R (t ), s2R (t )

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Optimum Receiver for Noncoherent BASK

where wI and wQ are statistically independent N (0, N0 /2).

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Decision Regions of BASK with Random Phase

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Different Implementation of BASK Demodulation

then yI (kTb ) = rI and yQ (kTb ) = rQ .

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

f (rI , rQ |0T )drI drQ =

f (rI , rQ |1T )drI drQ

A First Course in Digital Communications

I0 (x)dx is Marcums Q-function.

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

There is about 0.3 dB penalty q

Coherent BASK & BFSK

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Optimum Receiver for Noncoherent BFSK

f (r1,I , r1,Q , r2,I , r2,Q |1T ) =

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Optimum Demodulator for BFSK with Random Phase

Bandpass filter centered at f 2

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Error Performance of BFSK with Random Phase

f (r1,I , r1,Q |0T )dr1,I dr1,Q

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

Noncoherent BASK is about 0.3 dB more power efficient than

Coherent BASK & BFSK

A First Course in Digital Communications

Chapter 10: Signaling Over Fading Channels

If rk >0, present bit equals previous bit

If rk 0, present bit is complement of previous bit

But the above method can lead to error propagation!

~ w }x} }x x~}w x ~wwy

Rayleigh Fading Channel