Transfer Functions and

Frequency Response
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2010

Laplace Transform of
Initial Condition Response

Frequency domain view of initial

condition response
Response of dynamic systems
to sinusoidal inputs
Transfer functions
Bode plots
Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Laplace Transform of
a Dynamic System

Laplace Transform of
a Dynamic System

System equation

!!x(t) = F !x(t) + G !u(t) + L!w(t)

dim(!x) = (n " 1)
dim(!u) = (m " 1)
dim(!w) = (s " 1)

Rearrange Laplace transform of dynamic equation

s!x(s) " F! x(s) = !x(0) + G! u(s) + L!w(s)

Laplace transform of system equation

s!x(s) " !x(0) = F !x(s) + G! u(s) + L!w(s)

[ sI ! F ] "x(s) = "x(0) + G" u(s) + L"w(s)

!x(s) = [ sI " F ]

"1

[ !x(0) + G !u(s) + L!w(s)]

Initial
Condition

Control/Disturbance
Input

4th-Order Initial
Condition Response

Elements of the Characteristic

Matrix Inverse

!x(s) = [ sI " F ] !x(0)

"1

$
&
&
&
&
&
%

[ sI ! F ]

!1

Lon

Longitudinal dynamic model (time domain)

$ *DV
&
!V! (t) ' & L
)
V
VN
!"! (t) ) &
=&
)
!
MV
!q(t)
) &
!#! (t) )( & LV
& *
VN
&%

*g
0
0
0

*Dq

*D#

Lq

L#

VN

VN

Mq

M#

L#

VN

'
)$
)&
)&
)&
)&
)&
)%
)(

!V (t) '
)
!" (t) )
,
!q(t) )
)
!# (t) )(

$
&
&
&
&
&%

!V (0) '
)
!" (0) )
given
!q(0) )
)
!# (0) )(

$
!V (s) '
)
&
!" (s) )
*1 &
= [ sI * FLon ] &
!q(s) )
)
&
!# (s) )(
&%

nVV (s) n"V (s) nqV (s) n#V (s) '

)
nV" (s) n"" (s) nq" (s) n#" (s) )
)
nVq (s) n"q (s) nqq (s) n#q (s) )
)
nV# (s) nV# (s) nV# (s) nV# (s) )
(
s 4 + a3 s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1s + a0

= s 4 + a3 s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
Numerator is an (n x n) matrix
nVV (s) n"V (s) nqV (s) n#V (s) '
)
nV" (s) n"" (s) nq" (s) n#" (s) )
)
nVq (s) n"q (s) nqq (s) n#q (s) )
)
nV# (s) nV# (s) nV# (s) nV# (s) )
(

Relationship to State
Transition Matrix
Initial condition response
!x(t) = " ( t, 0 ) !x(0)

Time
Domain
Frequency
Domain

(4 x 4)

Denominator determines the modes of motion

Numerator distributes the initial condition to each
element of the state

Adj ( sI " FLon )

!x(s) =
!x(0)
sI " FLon

Denominator is scalar

$
&
&
Adj ( sI ! FLon ) = &
&
&
&
%

!V (0) '
)
!" (0) )
!q(0) )
)
!# (0) )(

Characteristic Matrix Inverse

Distributes Effects of Initial Condition
$
&
&
&
&
&
&
[ sI ! FLon ]!1 = %

Adj ( sI ! FLon ) Adj ( sI ! FLon )

=
(4 x 4)
sI ! FLon
" Lon (s)

sI ! FLon " # Lon (s)

Longitudinal model (frequency domain)

$
&
&
&
&
&%

!x(s) = [ sI " F ] !x(0)

"1

!x(s) is the Laplace transform of !x(t)

!x(s) = [ sI " F ] !x(0) = L [ !x(t)] = L $% # ( t, 0 ) !x(0) &'
"1

Therefore,

[ sI ! F ]!1 = L #$ " (t, 0 )%&

Initial Condition Response of a

Single State Element
!1

Typical

(ijth)

kij nij (s)

!(s)
=

!xi (s) = ai1 ( s ) !x1 (0) + ai 2 ( s ) !x1 (0) + ! + ain ( s ) !xn (0) "

element of A(s)

kij s q + bq "1s q "1 + ... + b1s + b0

(s

+ an "1s

n "1

+ ... + a1s + a0

kij ( s " z1 )ij ( s " z2 )ij ... s " zq

( s " #1 )( s " #2 )...( s " #n )

ij

Partial Fraction Expansion of

the Initial Condition Response
Scalar response can be expressed with n parts,
each containing a single mode
p ( s ) $ d1
d2
dn '
!xi (s) = i
=&
+
+!
, i = 1, n
! ( s ) % ( s " #1 ) ( s " #2 )
( s " #n ) )( i
where, for each i, the (possibly complex) coefficients are

dj = s ! "j

) p# ((ss))
i

,
s="j

j = 1, n

Initial condition response of !xi(s)

A ( s ) ! [ sI ! F ]

Define

aij (s) =

Initial Condition Response of a

Single State Element

(
(s

Terms sum to produce a single numerator polynomial

pi (s) = ki1 s q1 + ... + b0 1 !x1 (0) + ki 2 s q2 + ... + b0

= k pi

pi ( s )
! (s)

qmax

+ ... + b0

!x1 (0) + ! + kin s qn + ... + b0

!xn (0)

Partial Fraction Expansion of

the Initial Condition Response
Time response is the inverse Laplace transform

$ d1
d2
dn '
+
+!
!xi (t) = L"1 [ !xi (s)] = L"1 &
( s " #n ) )(i
% ( s " #1 ) ( s " #2 )

= d1e#1t + d2 e#2 t + ! + dn e#n t i , i = 1, n

... and the time response contains every mode of the system

Response to a Control Input

State response to control

Scalar and Matrix

Transfer Functions

s!x(s) = F!x(s) + G!u(s) + !x(0), !x(0) ! 0

!x(s) = [ sI " F ] G !u(s)
"1

Output response to control

!y(s) = H x !x(s) + H u !u(s)

= H x [ sI " F ] G !u(s) + H u !u(s)
"1

Transfer Function Matrix

Frequency-domain effect of all inputs on all
outputs
Assume control effects do not appear directly
in the output: Hu = 0
Transfer function matrix

H (s) = H x [ sI ! F ]

!1

H Adj ( sI ! F ) G
G= x
sI ! F
( r ! n )( n ! n )( n ! m )
= (r ! m)

First-Order
Transfer Function
Scalar dynamic system
x! ( t ) = fx ( t ) + gu ( t )
y ( t ) = hx ( t )

Scalar transfer function

(= first-order lag)
y(s)
hg
!1
= H (s) = h [ s ! f ] g =
u (s)
(s ! f )

(n = m = r = 1)

Second-Order
Transfer Function

Pilatus TurboPorter PC-6

Longitudinal Transfer
Function Matrix

Second-order dynamic system

! x! ( t )
1
x! ( t ) = #
# x!2 ( t )
"

$ ! f
& = # 11
& #" f21
%

f12 $ ! x1 ( t )
&#
f22 & # x2 ( t )
%"

$ ! g
& + # 11
& #" g21
%

! y (t )
1
y (t ) = #
# y2 ( t )
"

$ ! h
& = # 11
& #" h21
%

h12 $ ! x1 ( t )
&#
h22 & # x2 ( t )
%"

$
&
&
%

g12 $ ! u1 ( t )
&#
f22 & # u2 ( t )
%"

With Hx = I, and assuming

$
&
&
%

Elevator produces only a pitching moment

Throttle affects only the rate of change of velocity
Flaps produce only lift
!1

Second-order transfer function matrix

H(s) = H x [ sI ! F ]

!1

" h11
G=$
$# h21

h12
h22

"
adj $
%
$#
'
(
'&
det *
*)

s ! f11

! f12

! f21

s ! f22

s ! f11

! f12

! f21

s ! f22

%
'
'& " g11
$
+ $ g21
#
-,

g12 %
'
f22 '
&

Longitudinal Transfer
Function Matrix
There are 4 outputs and 3 inputs
$ nV (s) nV (s) nV (s) '
!T
!F
)
& !E
& n!" E (s) n!" T (s) n!" F (s) )
)
& q
q
q
& n! E (s) n! T (s) n! F (s) )
)
& #
#
#
&% n! E (s) n! T (s) n! F (s) )(
HLon (s) = 2
s + 2* P+ nP s + + n2P s 2 + 2* SP+ nSP s + + n2SP

)(

Input-output relationship
$
&
&
&
&
&%

!V (s) '
$ !* E(s) '
)
!" (s) )
)
&
= HLon (s) & !* T (s) )
)
!q(s)
& !* F(s) )
)
(
%
!# (s) )(

"
$
$
$
$
#

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

"
%$
'$
'$
'$
'$
&$
#

nVV (s) n(V (s) nqV (s) n)V (s) % " 0

'
$
nV( (s) n(( (s) nq( (s) n)( (s) ' $ 0
'
$
nVq (s) n(q (s) nqq (s) n)q (s) ' $ M * E
'
nV) (s) n() (s) nq) (s) n)) (s) ' $# 0
&

T* T

L* F / VN

!L* F / VN

+ Lon ( s )

( r ! n )( n ! n )( n ! m )
= (r ! m) = (2 ! 2)

(n = m = r = 2)

Douglas AD-1 Skyraider

HLon (s) = H x Lon [ sI ! FLon ] G Lon

Scalar Transfer Function from

!uj to !yi
Denominator polynomial contains n roots
Each numerator term is a polynomial with q zeros,
where q varies from term to term and ! n 1

H ij (s) =

kij nij (s)

!(s)

kij s q + bq "1s q "1 + ... + b1s + b0

s n + an "1s n "1 + ... + a1s + a0

kij ( s ! z1 )ij ( s ! z2 )ij ... s ! zq

( s ! "1 )( s ! "2 )...( s ! "n )

ij

)
# zeros = q
# poles = n

%
'
'
'
'
'
&

Transfer Function Matrix for

Short-Period Approximation

Scalar Frequency Response

Function
Substitute: s = j!

H ij (j! ) =

kij ( j! " z1 )ij ( j! " z2 )ij ... j! " zq

( j! " #1 )( j! " #2 )...( j! " #n )

= a(! ) + jb(! ) " AR(! ) e

Dynamic equation
#
Mq
# !q! & %
!!x SP = %
()% +
Lq .
%$ !"! (' % -, 1 * V 0/
N
$

ij

j# (! )

= H x [ sI ! F ]

)(

$
L
L M
$
'
M!E &s + " V # !E " V M )
&
N
N
!E (
%
&
&
' 24
Lq 20 $ VN M ! E *
& # L! E
,+ 1 # V /. # M q ) 5
VN 12 s + & L
N
&
!E
%
( 62
3
%
7 SP ( s )

In this case, transfer function matrix dimension is (2 x 1)

# k n q (s) &
# +q(s)
(
% q !E
%
% k" n!"E (s) (
+! E(s)
'
$
H SP (s) ! 2
=%
2
%
+" (s)
s + 2) SP* nSP s + * nSP
%
+
%$ ! E(s)

&
(
(
(
(
('

&
(
( !1 E
('

!1

!M "
s+

L"

VN

,
.
.
.
.-

!1

) M/E
+
+ !L/ E
VN
+*

,
)
L
M"
.
+ s+ "V
N
.
+
.
+ #
Lq &
+ %$ 1 ! V (' s ! M q .
N
.+*
G=
Lq &
#
L"
s ! M q s + V ! M" %1 ! V (
$
N
N'

)(

,
.
.
.-

) M/E
+
+ !L/ E
VN
+*

,
.
.
.-

Short-Period Motions
'
)
)
)
)
)
(

Simulator Demonstration of
Short Period Response to Elevator Deflection
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1O7ZqBS0_B8

Dornier Do-128D

Transfer Function Matrix for

Short-Period Approximation
)
(

VN

)
s ! Mq
+
!1
H SP (s) = H x [ sI ! F ] G = + #
L
&
+ ! %1 ! q V (
N'
+* $

Real and imaginary parts

Amplitude ratio and phase angle

&
# M1E
( # !q & %
( + % *L1 E
(%
( %$ !" (' %
VN
$
'

Transfer Function Matrix (with Hx = I, Hu = 0)

Frequency response is a complex function of

input frequency, !

'
$
L
L M
$
'
M!E s + " V # !E " V )
)
&
N
N(
%&
)
&
& $
Lq - L! E
' )
*
)
& & M!E ,1 #
VN /. #
VN s # M q )( )
+
&% %
(
H SP (s) =
L
$
'
*
L
L
s 2 + #M q + " V s # & M " , 1 # q V / + M q " V )
+
N
N.
N(
%

M"
L"

Rapid damping
Pitch angle and rate response
Flight path angle reoriented by difference
between pitch angle and angle of attack

Dornier Do-128 Demonstration

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hdLXE0rc9Q

# !q(s)
# !q(s) & %
!) E(s)
%
(=%
"
(s)
!
"
(s)
!
%$
(' %
!) E(s)
%$

Pitch Rate Transfer Function

!q(s)
=
!" E(s)

&
(
( !) E(s)
(
('

(
)

Scalar Transfer
Functions for ShortPeriod Approximation

Pitch-rate frequency response

L
L M
%
(
M"E 's + # V $ "E # V M *
k q s $ zq
N
N
"E )
&
= 2
L
s
+
2
1 SP2 nSP s + 2 n2SP
%
(
+
.
L
L
s 2 + $M q + # V s $ ' M # - 1 $ q V 0 + M q # V *
,
N
N/
N)
&

Angle of Attack Transfer Function

!" (s)
=
!# E(s)

. 35
Lq (
31 + VN M # E %
'& 1 $ V *) $ M q 0 6
VN 23 s + - L
N
k" ( s $ z" )
/ 37
4 , #E
= 2
L
s
+
2
8 SP9 nSP s + 9 n2SP
+
.
%
(
L
L
s 2 + $M q + " V s $ - M " ' 1 $ q V * + M q " V 0
&
N
N)
N/
,
$

L# E

Bode Plot

Short Period
Frequency Response

kq j" $ zq
!q( j" )
=
2
!# E( j" ) $" + 2% SP" nSP j" + " n2SP
= ARq (" ) e

j&q (" )

Angle-of-attack frequency
response
k" ( j# % z" )
!" ( j# )
=
2
!$ E( j# ) %# + 2& SP# nSP j# + # n2SP
= AR" (# ) e j'" (# )

Angle and Rate

Response of a
DC Motor over
Wide InputFrequency
Range
! Long-term response
of a dynamic system
to sinusoidal inputs
over a range of
frequencies
! Determine
experimentally or
! from the Bode plot
of the dynamic
system

Very low damping

Moderate damping

High damping

Bode Plot Portrays Response

to Sinusoidal Control Input

Constant Gain Bode Plot

kq ( j" $ zq )
!q( j" )
j& (" )
=
= ARq (" ) e q
!#E( j" ) $" 2 + 2% SP" n SP j" + " n SP 2

y ( t ) = hu ( t )

Express amplitude ratio in decibels

AR(dB) = 20log10 [ AR(original units)]

# zeros = 1
# poles = 2

20 dB = factor of 10

Plot AR(dB) against log10(!input)

Plot phase angle, " (deg) against
log10(!input)
Products in original units
are sums in decibels

Integrator Bode Plot

t

y ( t ) = h ! u ( t ) dt

H( j! ) = 1
H( j! ) = 10
H( j! ) = 100
Amplitude ratio, AR(dB)
= constant
Phase angle, " (deg) = 0

Differentiator Bode Plot

y (t ) = h

du ( t )
dt

H( j! ) =

1
j!

10
H( j! ) =
j!

Slope of AR(dB)
= 20 dB/decade
" (deg) = 90

H( j! ) = j!

H( j! ) = 10 j!
Slope of AR(dB)
= +20 dB/decade
" (deg) = +90

Bode Plots of First-Order Lags

10
H( j! ) =
( j! + 10)

100
H( j! ) =
( j! + 10)

100
H( j! ) =
( j! + 100)

Bode Plots of First-Order Lags

General shape of amplitude
ratio governed by
asymptotes
Slope of asymptotes
changes by multiples of 20
dB/dec at poles or zeros
AR asymptotes of a real pole

When ! = 0, slope = 0
dB/dec
When ! # #, slope = 20
dB/dec

Phase angle of a real,

negative pole

When ! = 0, " = 0
When ! = #, " =45
When " -> ", " -> 90

Bode Plots of Second-Order Lags

Bode Plots of Second-Order Lags
Effects of Gain and Natural Frequency

Effect of
Damping Ratio

H red ( j! ) =

( j! )

H green ( j! ) =

10 2
H green ( j! ) =
2
( j! ) + 2(0.1)(10)( j! ) + 10 2
H blue ( j! ) =
H red ( j! ) =

10 2
( j! ) + 2(0.4)(10)( j! ) + 10 2
2

( j! )

10 2
+ 2(0.707)(10)( j! ) + 10 2

H blue ( j! ) =

10 2

( j! )

( j! )

+ 2 ( 0.1) (10 ) ( j! ) + 10 2
10 3

+ 2 ( 0.1) (10 ) ( j! ) + 10 2
100 2

+ 2 ( 0.1) (100 ) ( j! ) + 100 2

Amplitude Ratio Asymptotes

of Second-Order Bode Plots

Phase Angles of Second-Order

Bode Plots

AR asymptotes of a
pair of complex poles

Phase angle of a pair

of complex negative
poles

When ! = 0, slope
= 0 dB/dec
When ! # !n,
slope = 40
dB/dec

When ! = 0, " = 0
When ! = !n, " =90
When " -> ", " ->
180

Height of resonant
peak depends on
damping ratio

First- and Second-Order Departures

from Amplitude Ratio Asymptotes

Abruptness of phase
shift depends on
damping ratio

Frequency
Response AR
Departures in the
Vicinity of Poles
Difference between
actual amplitude ratio
(dB) and asymptote =
departure (dB)
Results for multiple
roots are additive
from McRuer, Ashkenas,
and Graham, Aircraft
Dynamics and Automatic
Control, Princeton
University Press, 1973
Zero departures have
opposite sign

Phase Angle
Variations in the
Vicinity of Poles
Results for multiple
roots are additive
from McRuer, Ashkenas,
and Graham, Aircraft
Dynamics and Automatic
Control, Princeton
University Press, 1973
LHP zero variations have
opposite sign
RHP zeros have same
sign

First- and SecondOrder Phase Angles

Next Time:
Configuration and Power Effects
on Flight Stability

Supplementary
Material

Bode Plots of 1st- and 2nd-Order Lags

Bode Plots of 3rd-Order Lags

%
" 10 %"
100 2
'
H blue ( j! ) = $
'$
2
2
# ( j! + 10) &$# ( j! ) + 2(0.1)(100)( j! ) + 100 '&
"
%" 100 %
10 2
'$
H green ( j! ) = $
'
2
$#( j! ) + 2(0.1)(10)( j! ) + 10 2 '&#( j! + 100) &

H red ( j! ) =
H blue ( j! ) =

10

( j! + 10)
100 2

( j! )

+ 2(0.1)(100)( j! ) + 100 2

Bode Plot of a 4th-Order System

with No Zeros
%"
%
"
100 2
12
H ( j! ) = $
2
2
2 '$
2 '
j
!
+
2
0.05
1
j
!
+
1
j
!
+
2
0.1
100
j
!
+
100
( ) ( ) ( ) '& $# ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
'&
$# ( )

Left-Half-Plane Transfer Function Zero

Zeros are numerator singularities

H (j! ) =

H ( j! ) = ( j! + 10 )

# zeros = 0
# poles = 4

Single zero in left half

plane
Introduces a +20
dB/dec slope
Produces phase lead
in vicinity of zero

Resonant peaks and

large phase shifts at
each natural frequency
Additive AR slope shifts
at each natural
frequency

Right-Half-Plane Transfer Function Zero

k ( j! " z1 ) ( j! " z2 ) ...

( j! " #1 )( j! " #2 )...( j! " #n )

Second-Order Transfer Function Zero

H( j! ) = ( j! " z)( j! " z* ) =

[( j! )

+ 2(0.1)(100)( j! ) + 100 2

H ( j! ) = " ( j! " 10 )
Single zero in right half
plane
Introduces a +20 dB/dec
slope
Produces phase lag in
vicinity of zero

Complex pair of
zeros produces an
amplitude ratio
notch at its
natural frequency

4th-Order Transfer Function with

2nd-Order Zero
H( j! ) =

[( j! )

[( j! )

+ 2(0.1)(10)( j! ) + 10 2

+ 2(0.05)(1)( j! ) + 12

][( j! )

+ 2(0.1)(100)( j! ) + 100 2

Elevator-toNormal-Velocity
Frequency
Response

M " E s 2 + 2$% n s + % n2 Approx Ph ( s & z3 )

!w(s)
n w (s)
= "E
# 2
!" E(s) ! Lon (s) s + 2$% n s + % n2
s 2 + 2$% n s + % n2 SP
Ph

) (

0 dB/dec
0 dB/dec
+40 dB/dec

(n q) = 1
Complex zero
almost (but
not quite)
cancels
phugoid
response

40 dB/dec

Phugoid

Short
Period

20 dB/dec