Advanced Problems of

Longitudinal Dynamics
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2010

Fourth-order dynamics

Steady-state response to control

Transfer functions
Frequency response
Root locus analysis of parameter
variations

Linear, Time-Invariant Fourth-Order

Longitudinal Model
$
&
&
&
&
&
%

$ *DV
!V! (t) ' & L
) & V
VN
!"! (t) ) &
)=& M
!
!q(t)
V
) &
!#! (t) )( & LV
*
&
VN
%

*g

*D#

L#

Mq

M#

L#

VN

VN

'
)$
)&
)&
)&
)&
)&
)%
(

!V (t) ' $ 0
) &
!" (t) ) & 0
+
!q(t) ) & M + E
) &
!# (t) )( & 0
%

T+ T

L+ F / VN

*L+ F / VN

'
) $ !+ E(t) '
)
)&
) & !+ T (t) )
) & !+ F(t) )
(
)%
(

Stability and control derivatives are defined at a

trimmed (equilibrium) flight condition

Numerical solution for trimmed

flight condition
Nichols chart
Pilot-aircraft interactions
Copyright 2010 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html

Initial-Condition and StepInput Responses of a

Business Jet Aircraft

Initial pitch rate [!q(0)] = 0.1 rad/s

Elevator step input [!!E(0)] = 1 deg

Trimmed Solution of the

Equations of Motion

Flight Conditions for

Steady, Level Flight
Nonlinear longitudinal model

Numerical Solution to Estimate

the Trimmed Condition
Specify desired altitude and airspeed, hN and VN
Guess starting values for the trim parameters throttle
setting, elevator angle, and pitch angle (= angle of attack),
!T0, !E0, and #0
Calculate f1, f2, and f3 (f4 has same value when q = 0)

1
V! = f1 = $%T cos (! + i ) " D " mg sin # &'
m
1
#! = f2 =
$T sin (! + i ) + L " mg cos # &'
mV %
q! = f3 = M / I yy
1
!! = f4 = (! " #! = q "
$T sin (! + i ) + L " mg cos # &'
mV %

Nonlinear longitudinal model must be in equilibrium

1
$T (! T0 , ! E0 , " 0 , hN ,VN ) cos (" + i ) # D (! T0 , ! E0 , " 0 , hN ,VN ) &' ( 0
m%
1
$T (! T0 , ! E0 , " 0 , hN ,VN ) sin (" + i ) + L (! T0 , ! E0 , " 0 , hN ,VN ) # mg &' ( 0
f2 =
mV %

f1 =

f3 = M (! T0 , ! E0 , " 0 , hN ,VN ) / I yy ( 0

1
$T cos (! + i ) " D " mg sin # &'
m%
1
0 = f2 =
$T sin (! + i ) + L " mg cos # &'
mV %
0 = f3 = M / I yy
0 = f1 =

0 = f4 = (! " #! = q "

Define a scalar,positive-definite trim cost function, e.g.,

1
$T sin (! + i ) + L " mg cos # &'
mV %

( )

J (! Tk , ! Ek , " k ) = a f12

( )

+ b f22

( )

+ c f32 k , k = 0,1,!, K

In level flight, q = 0, and " = #

Minimize the Cost Function with

Respect to the Trim Parameters

Example of Search for Trimmed

Condition (Fig. 3.6-9, Flight Dynamics)

Cost is bowl-shaped

( )

J (! Tk , ! Ek , " k ) ! J ( u k ) = a f12

( )

+ b f22

( )

+ c f32 k , k = 0,1,", K

Cost is minimized at the bottom of the bowl, i.e., when

" !J
!J
=$
! u u= u* $ ! u1
#

!J
! u2

!J %
=0
'
! u3 '
& u= u*

Search in direction perpendicular to contours of equal cost

In MATLAB, use fminsearch [Nelder-Mead Downhill Simplex Method]

u = fminsearch ( J, u 0 )

Steady-State Response of the

Fourth-Order Longitudinal Model
!!x(t) = F!x(t) + G!u(t)
How do we calculate the equilibrium response to control?

Steady-State Response

!x SS = "F "1 G !u SS
For the longitudinal model
$
&
&
&
&
&
%

$
&
&
&
&
&
%

!VSS
!" SS
!qSS
!# SS

$ *gM L# '
+E
VN ()
%&

[ gM

L+ F / VN ]

L#
LV
' $
'
VN * D# VN M + E () &% M V VN * M # VN T+ T )( $%( D# M V * DV M # ) L+ F
0
0
0
$ *gM LV '
0
[ L+ F / VN ]
+E
VN )(
&%

L#

LV

g MV

L#

VN * M #

Roles of stability and control

derivatives identified
Result is a simple equation relating
input and output

LV

VN

$
&
&
&
&
&
%

!VSS ' $
)
!" SS ) &
=&
!qSS ) &
) &
!# SS ) %
(

a
c
0
f

!qSS
!# SS

*D#

L#

Mq

M#

L#

VN

VN

'
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
(

*1

$ 0
&
& 0
& M
+E
&
& 0
%

T+ T

L+ F / VN

*L+ F / VN

'
) $ !+ ESS
)&
) & !+ TSS
) & !+ F
SS
)%
(

!VSS = a!" ESS + ( 0 ) !" TSS + b!" FSS

'
)
)
)
/ VN '( )
)
)
)
) $ !+ ESS
)( &
& !+ TSS
& !+ F
SS
%

0 b ' $ !* E
SS
)
d e )&
!* TSS
0 0 ) &&
0 g ) % !* FSS
(

!" SS

*g

'
)
)
)
(

4th-Order Steady-State Response

May Be Counterintuitive

Algebraic Equation for

Equilibrium Response
$
&
&
& $
& & DV
& %
&
' &
) &
) &%
)=
)
)
(

!VSS

$ *DV
&
'
& LV
)
VN
&
)
=
*
& M
)
V
&
)
& LV
)
(
& * V
N
%

'
)
)
)
(

!# SS = c!" ESS + d!" TSS + e!" FSS

!qSS = ( 0 ) !ESS + ( 0 ) !" TSS + ( 0 ) !" FSS

!$ SS = f !" ESS + ( 0 ) !" TSS + g!" FSS
'
)
)
)
(

Observations

Thrust command
Elevator and flap commands
Steady-state pitch rate is zero
4th-order model neglects air density gradient effects

Pitch angle response

!" SS = !# SS + !$ SS = ( c + f ) !% ESS + d!% TSS + ( e + g ) !% FSS

Primary and Coupling Blocks of the

Fourth-Order Longitudinal Model

Effects of Stability
Derivative Variations on 4thOrder Longitudinal Modes

FLon

# !DV
%
% LV
VN
%
=%
M
V
%
% LV
% ! V
N
$

!g

!D"

L"

Mq

M"

L"

VN

VN

&
(
(
( # FPh
( = % SP
( %$ FPh
(
(
'

Ph &
FSP
(
FSP (
'

Some stability derivatives appear only in primary blocks (DV, Mq, M")
Effects are well-described by 2nd-order models

Some stability derivatives appear only in coupling blocks (MV, D")

Effects are ignored by 2nd-order models

Some stability derivatives appear in both (LV, L")

May require 4th-order modeling

$M" Effect on Fourth-Order Roots

Group all terms multiplied by
M" to form numerator for $M"

! Lon (s) = s + DV +
4

L"

VN # M q s

Short
Period

L
L
L
$
'
+ &( g # D" ) V V + DV " V # M q # M q " V # M " o ) s 2
N
N
N
%
(
L
L
+ M q $( D" # g ) V V # DV " V ' + D" M V # DV M " o s
)
N
N(
%&

+ g MV

L"

VN # M " o

* d(s) + kn(s)

LV

VN # !M " s + DV s + g

LV

VN

Primary effect: The same as in the

approximate short-period model
Numerator zeros

The same as the approximate phugoid mode

characteristic polynomial
Consequently, effect of M" variation on
phugoid mode is small
" !DV
$
sI ! $ L
V
VN
$#

Phugoid

!g %
'
L
= ( Ph (s) = s 2 + DV s + g V V
N
0 '
'&

MV Effect on FourthOrder Roots

Phugoid

Short
Period

! Lon (s) = s 4 + DV +

L"

3
VN # M q s

L
L
L
$
'
+ &( g # D" ) V V + DV " V # M q # M q " V # M " ) s 2
N
N
N
%
(
L
L
+ M q $( D" # g ) V V # DV " V ' + D" M V # DV M " s
)
N
N(
%&

gM "

LV

VN + M V D" s + g

L"

VN

Short
Period
Phugoid

=0

Large positive value produces

oscillatory phugoid instability
Large negative value produces
real phugoid divergence

D! = 0

L" /VN and LV /VN Effects on

Fourth-Order Roots
L" /VN: Increased damping of the short-period
Small effect on the phugoid mode

LV /VN: Damped natural frequency of the

phugoid
Negligible effect on the short-period

Pitch and Thrust

Control Effects

A Little More About

Output Matrices

Longitudinal Model
Transfer Function Matrix

With Hx = I

H Lon (s) = H x Lon [ sI ! FLon ] G Lon =

"
$
$
$
$
#

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

!1

0
0
0
1

"
%$
'$
'$
'$
'$
&$
#

n (s) n (s) n (s) n (s) % " 0

'
$
nV( (s) n(( (s) nq( (s) n)( (s) ' $ 0
'
$
nVq (s) n(q (s) nqq (s) n)q (s) ' $ M * E
'
)
)
)
)
nV (s) n( (s) nq (s) n) (s) ' $# 0
&
s 4 + a3 s 3 + a2 s 2 + a1s + a0
V
V

V
(

V
q

V
)

T* T

L* F / VN

!L* F / VN

$ nV (s) nV (s) nV (s) '

!T
!F
)
& !E
& n!" E (s) n!" T (s) n!" F (s) )
)
& q
q
q
& n! E (s) n! T (s) n! F (s) )
)
& #
#
#
&% n! E (s) n! T (s) n! F (s) )(
H Lon (s) = 2
s + 2* P+ nP s + + n2P s 2 + 2* SP+ nSP s + + n2SP

)(

!y = !x = H x !x; then H x = I 4
and

%
'
'
'
'
'
&

"
$
$
$
$
$
#

There are 4 outputs and 3 inputs

$
&
&
&
&
&%

!V (s) '
$ !* E(s) '
)
!" (s) )
)
&
=
H
(s)
& !* T (s) )
Lon
!q(s) )
& !* F(s) )
)
(
%
!# (s) )(

With Hu = 0, suppose the output equals the state:

!y1 % "
'
!y2 ' $
=$
!y3 ' $
' $
!y4 ' #
&

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
0
0
1

% "$
'$
'$
'$
'$
&
#

!x1 % "
' $
!x2 ' $
!
!x3 ' $
' $
!x4 ' $#
&

Suppose the only output is !V; then

"
(
!y = !V = "# 1 0 0 0 $% (
(
(
(#

!V %
'
!( '
!q '
'
!) '&

!V $
)
!& )
!q )
)
!' )%

Suppose !V and !" are measured; then

"
" !y1 % " !V % " 1 0 0 0 % $
$
'=$
!y = $
'=$
'$
$# !y2 '& # !( & # 0 0 0 1 &
$
$#

!V %
'
!) '
!q '
'
!( '&

A Little More About

Output Matrices

Output (measurement) of body-axis velocity and pitch

rate and angle
Transformation from [!V, !%, !q, !"] to [!u, !w, !q, !#]
#
%
%
%
%
$

Elevator-to-NormalVelocity Numerator

& # cos ) N
( %
( = % sin ) N
( %
0
%
!" (' %$
0

!u
!w
!q

0 0 *VN sin ) N & #

(%
0 0 VN cos ) N ( %
(%
0 1
0
(%
1 0
1
(' %$

!V &
(
!+ (
!q (
(
!) ('

H x Adj ( sI ! FLon ) G = # sin " N

$

Separate measurement of state and control perturbations

"
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
$
#

" !x %
!y = $
' = H x !x + H u !u
# !u &

!y1 %
' "
!y2 ' $
$
!y3 ' $
'=
!y4 ' $
' $
!y5 ' $
!y6 ' $#
&

1
0
0
0
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0

0
0
1
0
0
0

0
0
0
1
0
0

%
'"
'$
'$
'$
'$
' $#
'&

!V
!(
!q
!)

"
% $
' $
'+$
' $
' $
'& $
$#

0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
0
0
0
1

%
'
'
' " !* E %
' $ !* T '
&
'#
'
'&

) (

2
n Approx Ph

0 0 VN cos " N

Elevator-to-NormalVelocity Frequency
Response

nVV (s) n'V (s) nqV (s) n"V (s) %

)# 0
nV' (s) n'' (s) nq' (s) n"' (s) ) ( 0
)(
nVq (s) n'q (s) nqq (s) n"q (s) ) ( M * E
)( 0
nV" (s) n'" (s) nq" (s) n"" (s) ) $
&

%
)
) = n*wE (s)
)
)
&

#
(
(
%(
&(
(
(
$

nqV (s) %
)
nq' (s) )
) M ! E = M ! E #( sin " N ) nqV (s) + (VN cos " N ) nq" (s) %
$
&
nqq (s) )
)
nq" (s) )
&

M " E s 2 + 2$% n s + % n2 Approx Ph ( s & z3 )

!w(s)
n w (s)
= "E
# 2
!" E(s) ! Lon (s) s + 2$% n s + % n2
s 2 + 2$% n s + % n2 SP
Ph

) (

0 dB/dec

M " E s + 2#$ n s + $
( s % z3 )
!w(s)
n (s)
=
= 2
2
2
!" E(s) ! Lon (s) s + 2#$ n s + $ n
s + 2#$ n s + $ n2 SP
Ph
2

0 0 VN cos " N

#
(
(
%(
&(
(
(
$

Transfer function numerator

n!wE (s) = # sin " N

$

Elevator-to-Normal-Velocity
Transfer Function
w
"E

Transform though "N back to body axes

Normal velocity transfer function is analogous to angle of

attack transfer function ($" ! $w/VN)
z3 often neglected due to high frequency

(n q) = 1
Complex zero
almost (but not
quite) cancels
phugoid response

+40 dB/dec
0 dB/dec
40 dB/dec

20 dB/dec

Elevator-to-Pitch-Rate
Numerator and Transfer Function
"
(
(
H x Adj ( sI ! FLon ) G = "# 0 0 1 0 $% (
(
(
(
#

nVV (s) n&V (s) nqV (s) n'V (s) $

)" 0
nV& (s) n&& (s) nq& (s) n'& (s) ) ( 0
)(
nVq (s) n&q (s) nqq (s) n'q (s) ) ( M * E
)( 0
nV' (s) nV' (s) nV' (s) nV' (s) ) #
%

$
)
) = n*qE (s)
)
)
%

M " E s ( s $ z1 ) ( s $ z2 )
!q(s)
n q (s)
= "E
# 2
!" E(s) ! Lon (s) s + 2%& n s + & n2
s 2 + 2%& n s + & n2
Ph

) (

Elevator-to-PitchRate Frequency
Response
(n q) = 1
Negligible lowfrequency response,
except at phugoid
natural frequency
High-frequency
response well
predicted by 2nd-order
model

Pitch angle
frequency response
($# = $% + $")

Elevator-to-Angle of Attack transfer function

Approx Ph

Similar to flight
path angle near
phugoid natural
frequency
Similar to angle
of attack near
short-period
natural
frequency

Elevator-to-Pitch Angle transfer function

!" (s)
n" (s)
$
'$
'
= # E ; n#"E (s) = M # E & s + 1 T ) & s + 1 T )
%
"1 ( %
"2 (
!# E(s) ! Lon (s)

+20 dB/dec
0 dB/dec
20 dB/dec
+20 dB/dec

+40 dB/dec

Frequency Response of
Angles to Elevator Input

Elevator-to-Flight Path Angle transfer function

) (

!qSS = ( 0 ) !ESS + ( 0 ) !" TSS + ( 0 ) !" FSS

Transfer Functions of
Angles from Elevator Input

!" (s)
n" (s)
= # E ; n#"E (s) = M # E s 2 + 2$% n s + % n2
!# E(s) ! Lon (s)

SP

Free s in numerator differentiates pitch angle transfer function

!" (s)
L %
n" (s)
(
= # E ; n#" E (s) = M # E $ ' s + 1 T *
"1 )
!# E(s) ! Lon (s)
VN &

M " E s ( s $ z1 ) ( s $ z2 )
!q(s)
n q (s)
= "E
#
!" E(s) ! Lon (s) s 2 + 2%& n s + & n2
s 2 + 2%& n s + & n2
Ph

!" SS = c!# ESS

!$ SS = f !# ESS

!% SS = ( c & f ) !# ESS

SP

Transfer Functions of
Angles from Thrust Input

Frequency Response of Angles

to Thrust Input
Thrust primarily effects flight path angle and low-frequency pitch angle

Thrust-to-Flight Path Angle transfer function

!" (s)
L
n" (s)
= # T ; n#"T (s) = T# T V s 2 + 2$% n s + % n2
!# T (s) ! Lon (s)
VN

Approx SP

Thrust-to-Angle of Attack transfer function

!" (s)
n" (s)
$
'
= # T ; n#"T (s) = T# T s & s + 1 T )
%
"T (
!# T (s) ! Lon (s)

Thrust-to-Pitch Angle transfer function

!" (s)
n" (s)
$
'
= #T
; n#"T (s) = T# T & s + 1 T )
%
"T (
!# T (s) ! Lon (s)

Feedback Control: Angles to Elevator

Variations in control gain

Principal effect is on
short-period roots

Gain and Phase Margins:

The Nichols Chart

Nichols Chart:
Gain vs. Phase Angle

Bode Plot

Two plots
Open-Loop Gain (dB) vs. log10&
Open-Loop Phase Angle vs. log10&

Nichols Chart
Single crossplot; input
frequency not shown
Open-Loop Gain (dB) vs. OpenLoop Phase Angle

Gain and Phase Margins

Gain Margin
At the input frequency, &, for which '(j&) = 180
Difference between 0 dB and transfer function magnitude,
20 log10 AR(j&)

Phase Margin
At the input frequency, &, for which 20 log10 AR(j&) = 0 dB
Difference between the phase angle '(j&), and 180

Axis intercepts on the Nichols Chart identify GM

and PM

Examples of Gain and Phase Margins

Gain and Phase Margins in

Pitch-Tracking Task

%
" 10
%"
100 2
H blue ( j! ) = $
'$
2
2 '
# ( j! + 10 ) & $# ( j! ) + 2 ( 0.1) (100 ) ( j! ) + 100 '&

Elevator-to-Pitch-Angle
Bode Plot

% " 100
"
%
10 2
H green ( j! ) = $
'
2
2 '$
$# ( j! ) + 2 ( 0.1) (10 ) ( j! ) + 10 '& # ( j! + 100 ) &

Bode Plot

Elevator-to-Pitch-Angle
Nichols Chart

Nichols Chart

Gain Margin: Amplitude ratio below 0 dB

when phase angle = 180
Phase Margin: Phase angle above 180
when amplitude ratio = 0 dB

Amplitude Ratio vs. Phase Angle

Pilot Inputs to Control

Pilot-Vehicle Interactions

* p. 421-425, Flight Dynamics

Effect of Pilot Dynamics on

Pitch-Angle Control Task

Pilot introduces neuromuscular lag while closing the control loop

Example
Model the lag by a 1st-order time constant, TP, of 0.25 s
Pilot"s gain, KP, is either 1 or 2

Pilot Transfer Function = K P

1 / TP
1 / 0.25
= KP
s + 1 / 0.25
s + 1 / TP

Open-Loop Pilot-Aircraft
Transfer Function

!
)
,)
,
M ' E + s + 1T . + s + 1T .
! 1 / TP $ #
*
(1 - *
(2 H (s) = K P #
&# 2
2
2
2
" ( s + 1 / TP ) % # s + 2/0 n s + 0 n Ph s + 2/0 n s + 0 n
#"

) (

$
&
&
&
SP
&%

Effect of Pilot
Dynamics on
Pitch-Angle
Control Task

Effect of Pilot Dynamics on Elevator/PitchAngle Control Root Locus

Gain and phase

margins become
negative for pilot
gain between 1
and 2

Next Time:
Fourth-Order LateralDirectional Dynamics

Pilot transfer function changes asymptotes of

the root locus

Supplemental
Material

Airspeed Frequency Response to

Elevator and Thrust Inputs
Response is primarily through the lightly damped
phugoid mode

Altitude Frequency Response

to Elevator and Thrust Inputs
Altitude perturbation: Integral of the flight path angle perturbation
t

!z(t) = "VN % !# ($ )d$

0

!z(s)
$ V ' !* (s)
= #& N )
% s ( !" E(s)
!" E(s)

High- and Low-Frequency Limits of

Frequency Response Function
H ij ( j! ) = AR(! ) e j" (! )

H ij ( j! " #) "

H ij ( j! " 0) "

k ij ( j! ) + bq$1 ( j! )

[( j! )

+ an$1 ( j! )

k ij ( j! ) + bq#1 ( j! )

[( j! )

+ an#1 ( j! )

q#1

n#1

q$1

n$1

+ ...+ b1 ( j! ) + b0

+ ...+ a1 ( j! ) + a0

+ ...+ b1 ( j! ) + b0

+ ...+ a1 ( j! ) + a0

]"

k ij

( j! )

n$q

k ij b0
, b0 $ 0
a0
' k ij j(0)b1 , b = 0, b $ 0, etc.
0
1
'( a0

] " ''&

!z(s)
$ V ' !* (s)
= #& N )
% s ( !" T (s)
!" T (s)