Section Review 1

Key Terms

communication

stakeholders
electronic commerce (e-commerce)
Summary
Effective communication is a critical factor in the business world: you must be able to make your
messages understood, and they must function to move people to action or to change their ways of
thinking. If your effort at communication succeeds, you increase productivity, and in order for it to
succeed, you must be able to anticipate problems, make decisions, coordinate work flow, supervise
others, develop relationships, and promote products and services. Another important effect of good
communication is a positive impression on the stakeholders all the various elements within and
without your organization that have an interest in its success including customers, clients, and
investors. Poor communication is not only ineffective; it can make a bad situation worse.
The characteristics of effective communication are as follows:
It provides practical information such as how something is done, why a method has been
changed, what the cause of a problem is and how it can be solved, how far along a project is, or
why a particular piece of equipment is necessary.

It is based on facts and evidence rather than opinions. It employs specific details and concrete
language, and it covers all sides of an issue, not just the most favorable one.

It uses a wide variety of means to make information as clear and concise as possible, including
visual and graphic media.

It focuses on a specific audience, indicating what is to be done by or for that audience.

It is often persuasive in nature, recommending products, service, or courses of action to

customers, clients, employers, or employees. The most effective persuasive messages indicate
specific benefits to the reader.

A key concept in the writing of effective messages is revision; throughout the course, you will be
reminded that no message is complete until it has been proofread and revised, usually more than once.
Communication has a particular bearing on the challenges in todays workplace. Technological advances
such as e-mail, voice mail, faxes, pagers, and the Internet have dramatically changed the nature of
personal and professional communication, making communications faster, more frequent, and wider in
scope. It is amazing that it is now possible for people on opposite sides of the world to communicate in a
matter of seconds.
This revolution in technology makes it necessary to communicate even more effectively and efficiently.
Good writing skills not just in formal letters but in e-mails and memoranda are more important than
ever. So are good verbal skills, for audio and video media are used with increasing frequency. Intranetsprivate corporate networks based on Internet communication- make organizational in-house
communication more effective than ever. And extranets the extension of private networks to outsiders

such as suppliers make it faster. Many business today are taking advantage of this technology in order
to conduct electronic commerce (e-commerce) - the buying and selling of goods and services over
the Internet.
Globalization is another factor affecting communication: the typical market today is the entire world, not
just the town where a business is located. More and more Americans work for multinational employers,
and foreign companies and investors are increasingly prevalent in the U.S. Moreover, the workforce in the
U.S. now consists of people from a wide variety of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Indeed, ethnic
minorities have become so well established in some parts of the country that they are no longer
minorities. Globalization and diversity make good communication even more important, as businesses
must deal with differences in law, customs, and languages.
Another important change affecting communication is the shift from the traditional command-and-control
management structure to one based on collaboration and teamwork. This approach has advantages when
quick decisions based on multiple factors are required. But it also has some disadvantages when different
interests, goals, and functions compete.
Outline

I.

II.

Effective communication
A.

Persuasion

B.

Increased productivity

C.

Effect on stakeholders

Characteristics
A.

Practical

B.

Factual

C.

Various

D.

Audience-centered

E.

Persuasive

III.

Revision

IV.

Modern workplace
A.

Technological advances

B.

Efficiency and effectiveness

C.
V.

VI.

1.

Good writing skills

2.

Good verbal skills

Electronic commerce

Globalization and diversity

A.

Multinational employers

B.

Cultural and ethnic diversity

Teamwork and collaboration

Section Review
Key Terms

internal communication

instant messaging and chat

formal communication network
videoconferencing
informal communication network
telenet
external communication
Internet telephony
telecommute
file transfer protocol (FTP)
e-mail
discussion mailing lists
Usenet newsgroups
Summary
Every employee in a company is a part of the communication chain. Regardless of your position high or
low you have information that others will need, and others have information you will need. Every link in
the chain is important.
Internal communication occurs just within the organization, and it is important that every member of
the organization be aware of what is going on and communicate what he or she observes in order to head
off potential problems. Internal communication is often effected by phone, e-mail, fax, memo, or
intranet. Internal communication is necessary if the job is going to be done; it helps all company
personnel understand the organizations mission.
Internal communication is both formal and informal. A formal communication network is usually
illustrated by a flowchart, with the company executives at the top, managers in the middle, and
employees at the bottom. Information flows down, up, and across the structure. High level decisions flow
down from the people who make them to the people who put them into effect. Important information
such as problems, trends, opportunities for improvement, grievances, and performance ratings flow
upward from the mid-level managers to the executives. And communication is in constant flow diagonally
and laterally from one department to another.
The formal communication network is the way information is intended to flow, but, of course, much
information is passed through an informal communication network a grapevine, as it were. Just in
the course of daily conversation, people at all levels of an organization are constantly communicating
information; about 80% of it has to do with business, and 75 to 95% of that information is accurate. The
grapevine cant be controlled from the top; so it is important that managers take it into account and
indeed use it to their advantage to both receive and send information informally. But when official
information needs to be imparted, it is important that it not be spread just by the grapevine.
External communication is, of course, the communication with entities outside the organizationcustomers, vendors, distributors, competitors, investors, the media, and the government. As with
internal communication, some external communication is formal and some informal. Formal external
communication is in the form of letters, reports, memos, oral presentations, and websites. It is especially

important that these forms be constructed well, for they are frequently the first impression of the
organization that an outsider gets. Indeed, it is so important for certain messages to be just right that
they are produced by a special public relations team within the organization.
Often the public relations team is called in to respond to a crisis an environmental accident, sabotage
situation, labor strike, product failure, major litigation, or change in management. Standard procedure in
such instances is for the organization to communicate immediately, honestly, and frequently. Failure to do
so especially if there is implication of a cover-up can be disastrous to a companys image.
Just as informal communications are effective within an organization, so are they when dealing with
external elements. Every member of an organization has external contacts that are important source of
information and that give outsiders an impression of the organization overall. Much of a high-level
managers job involves networking with his or her counterparts in other organizations, but a lot of it also
includes getting feedback from real people.
There is no more effective source of this sort of real world communication than the Internet, and
anyone undertaking a career in business will certainly be expected to be Internet-savvy. The
instantaneous sharing of textual and visual information has resulted in dramatic changes in the way
companies operate internally and externally. Employees can now telecommute, that is, work away from
the office, whether at home or while traveling. And the Internet has been especially effective in
transacting business with other organizations throughout different parts of the world.
The Internet provides a variety of options to enhance communication. The most familiar is e-mail, in the
form of either a simple text message or one with complex files attached. Discussion mailing lists, or
listservs, are groups which you join in order to receive messages from all other members of the group.
Usenet newsgroups are websites which you access with a news reader program. Anyone can read the
messages posted to the site; you dont have to be a member.
Instant messaging and chat provide real-time opportunities for communication with individuals or
groups. And telenet enables you to access other organizations' computer networks even if your
computer is not a permanent part of the network.
The Internet also provides opportunities for visual and audial communication from a distance.
Videoconferencing is being used as an alternative to face-to-face meetings. Internet telephony
enables professionals to communicate by phone over the Internet at much less cost than over
conventional phone lines. Another advantage of the Internet is the ability to download and upload large
amounts of information through file transfer protocol (FTP)
Outline

I.
II.

The communication chain

Internal communication
A.

B.

III.

Formal communication network

1.

Vertical flowchart

2.

Diagonal and lateral

Informal communication network

1.

The grapevine

2.

Official communications

External communication
A.

Formal communications

B.

Public relations team

C.

Networking

IV.

The Internet
A.

Telecommuting

B.

Discussion mailing lists

C.

Usenet newsgroups

D.

Instant messaging and chat

E.

Telenet

F.

Videoconferencing

G.

Internet telephony

H.

FTP

Section Review
Key Terms

encoding

communication barriers
communication channel
perception
medium
selective perception
decode
noise
feedback
Summary
Communication is a dynamic, transactional (two-way) process. It involves both the sender and the
receiver of a message and includes six steps:
1) The idea someone (the sender) has an idea and decides to share it.
2) Encoding - the sender decides all of the factors to be used in communicating the idea words,
gestures, format, medium, tone, and style.
3) Transmission the sender transmits the idea through a communication channel (writing, speaking,
and visual) and a medium (telephone, letter, e-mail, and face-to-face conversation); the factors
affecting channel and medium are location, time, and formality.
4) Receiving the person to whom the message is directed receives it.
5) Decoding the receiver decodes the message (hears, reads, sees, and understands it).
6) Feedback the receiver responds (with words, gestures, expressions, or lack of any of them),
indicating that he or she has or has not understood the message.

However, the communication process is not as linear as this description might seem: Feedback functions
as a sort of loop the sender and receiver each revising and responding to the message until it is moreor-less understood. This being the case, you should be careful not to put too much into any one message.
Rather, focus on one main idea and use the back-and-forth feedback aspect to provide additional
information and detail.
Ideally, when the message is decoded the sender and the receiver both respond to the meanings of the
words and other communication cues in the same way. But this is where the communication process
sometimes breaks down. One of the great issues in postmodernist communication and literary theory is
that people do not assign the same meanings to words (and gestures and expressions) as other people.
This is particularly evident when people from two different cultures try to communicate. And there are
other factors as well which can result in communication barriers.
Communication theorists refer to any impediment to the process as noise. Noise, of course, can be an
auditory distraction such as a lawn mower outside the window of a classroom. But it can also take the
form of perceptual and language differences, restrictive environments, distractions, deceptive
communication tactics, and information overload.
Restrictive environment refers to intentional impediments in the communication chain, particularly the
feedback loop. Organizations are most typically subject to this when they intentionally limit
communication; if executives and managers use a command-and-control style, information is passed
down the chain but not back up. In contrast to this technique is the best practices approach, one in
which employees are encouraged to communicate their ideas and suggestions. The idea behind the bestpractices approach is that the person actually doing to job has valuable knowledge of how it can best be
accomplished.
Miscommunication is sometimes intentional - the result of deceptive tactics, or spin. When an
organization exaggerates the benefits of a product or idea, provides inaccurate statistical information,
covers up or leaves out negative information, or states opinion as fact, it is using deceptive tactics.
Distractions are another kind of noise that can interfere with communication. Physical distractions are
bad phone-line connections, poor acoustics, or illegible text. They can also be factors that affect the
receiver such as uncomfortable seating, poor lighting, and health problems. Emotional distractions can be
a factor too whether they be the emotions of the sender or of the receiver.
Information overload results from being bombarded with volumes of information. The average office
worker receives over 200 messages in one form or another every day. It has become increasingly more
difficult, but still vital, to determine what information is valuable and what is not.
Our perception of the reality around us is based largely on sensory experience what we see, hear,
touch, etc. When two people experience the same event such as hearing the same words they may or
may not perceive it in the same way. All perception, or, rather, interpretation of perception, is based on
prior experience. Therefore, when we interpret sensory experiences, we try to put them into the pattern
of perception we have already developed, and sometimes we distort the experience in order to make it
fit. This barrier to communication is called selective perception.
Obviously, then, the closer the experiences of the sender and the receiver, the closer the perception of
the message. Thus cultural factors have a strong impact on the communication process. Moreover,
language itself has a strong impact: even though two people speak the same language, they might not
have the same associative meanings with words.
Round-the-clock accessibility is a result of modern technologys impact on communications. Cell phones,
pagers and voice mails, intranets, and e-mail have all made it possible, and virtually necessary, to stay in
contact with the job 24 hours a day, seven days a week.
Outline

I.

Communication process
A.

Idea

B.

Encoding

C.

Transmission

II.

1.

Channel

2.

Medium

D.

Receiving

E.

Decoding

F.

Feedback

Communication barriers
A.

Noise
1.

Restrictive environments

2.

Deceptive tactics

3.

Distractions

4.
B.

a.

Physical

b.

Emotional

Information overload

Selective perception

Section Review
Key Terms

topic

main idea

direct approach

indirect approach

Summary
In the United States and Canada, a well-organized message is generally linear in
development, proceeding point by point directly and clearly. Poorly organized
messages are often characterized by the following:

Taking too long to get to the point not stating the purpose until well into the
message.

Including irrelevant material putting in details that are either unnecessary or

too specific

Mixing up ideas putting information in the wrong paragraph or section of the

message

Omitting necessary information leaving out specific details such as make,

model and price; time and date; particular problems

Good organization is essential in a business letter to avoid wasting the readers time
and jeopardizing goodwill. In addition, poorly organized messages can result in
misinterpretation, which can be costly. Good organization results in expediency, and
time is money. A good organizational plan can save the writer time and work,

obviating false starts and wasted effort. Moreover, a well-organized plan can enable
the company to delegate responsibilities by dividing a task among several writers.
Even more important, a well-organized message is easier for the reader to understand
and thus respond to positively. Organization, combined with diplomacy, will enhance
the writers and the organizations credibility. Saving the readers time is another
important consideration, for, as noted above, time is money. A well-organized
message is concise and relevant, providing only what the reader wants or needs to
know.
Good organization is achieved largely through attitude recognizing and accepting the
need for a plan and through technique knowing how to organize information
effectively. The steps to effective organization are: defining the main idea, limiting the
scope, grouping supporting points, and selecting a direct or an indirect approach to
message sequence.
The subject of a business message is sometimes called the topic, and the statement
or assertion the writer makes about the topic is called the main idea. (In a traditional
college research paper, it is called the thesis.) Often the main idea is easy to impart,
but in messages in which the writer is trying to persuade an audience or in which
there is bad news to convey, the writer needs to develop a main idea that will
establish a good relationship with the audience by focusing on common interests and
advantages.
Once the writer has determined the main idea, he or she should limit the scope of the
message. Scope means the general length and the amount of detail. Two
considerations in determining and limiting the scope are time available and audiences
expectation. No matter what the scope is, the message should consist of only three or
four major points maybe five, but no more. Rather than introduce new points, the
writer can expand the scope by developing the points he or she has already chosen.
Ultimately, the scope is determined by the subject, the audiences prior knowledge of
the topic, its response to the message, and the writers credibility.
After determining the scope, the writer must provide the appropriate structure in
which to present ideas and supporting evidence. An outline is an excellent and
sometimes indispensable tool for structuring a business message. The basic outline
formats use numbers or letters to identify major points and indented points to show
similarities in status. Another way of structuring a message is to create an
organization chart with main ideas and subordinate ideas arranged visually by
divisions according to priority.
The main idea indicates what the readers should do or think and why they should do
so. It is supported by three to five key points which serve one or more of the following
purposes:

to inform with factual material

to describe a process

to describe an object

to persuade or collaborate

to give a historical account

Each of these key points must in turn be supported with evidence; the more evidence
provided, the more likely will the audience be persuaded. And it is a good idea to vary
the evidence as the assertion is developed, switching from statistical data to
anecdotal accounts, from authoritative references to physical description.
Another important consideration is the sequence in which the key points will be
presented. Since most business messages in the U.S. and Canada follow a linear
pattern of development, they can be presented in one of two ways:

Direct approach (deductive) the main idea supported by the evidence

Indirect approach (inductive) the evidence first, leading up to the main idea

If the audience is likely to be receptive, the direct approach works better. On the other
hand, if the audience is resistant to the message, the indirect approach saving the
main idea until last is advised. This rule of thumb notwithstanding, sometimes it is
better to use the direct approach when the news is bad: it is all a matter of the type of
message (i.e., the purpose), its length, and the audiences likely reaction.
The most common types of business correspondence are routine messages, goodnews messages, and goodwill messages. These messages are direct and easy to
understand. The main idea should be stated immediately and then developed by
evidence in the body or the message.
Bad-news messages, on the other hand, require a bit of finesse. It might seem that
the direct approach is always best, but business messages do more than just impart
information; establishing goodwill with a potential customer, supplier, or contributor is
always desirable. Thus, the opening of a bad-news message should be a bit indirect,
with the bad news stated in the body and justified by the reasons for it. This approach
is not considered unethical or manipulative; it is simply a matter of considering the
feelings of a reader who is about to be let down and trying to make the situation a
little easier.
Persuasive messages are perhaps the most challenging of business correspondence.
An audience that has to be persuaded is not naturally receptive, and thus the writer
must get the reader to consider something contrary to his or her inclination.
Persuasive messages begin by focusing the readers attention on a problem or need
and then stimulating interest in it. The main idea then offers a solution to the problem
or gratification of the need. The message ends with a call to action and a cordial
closing.
Outline

I.

Poorly organized messages

A. Unclear main idea
B. Irrelevant material
C. Mixed up ideas
D. Missing information

II.

Good organization
A. Expediency
B. Cost effectiveness
C. Delegation of responsibility
D. Positive reader response
1.

Conciseness

2. Relevance
III.

Steps in effective organization

A. Define the main idea
B. Limit the scope
1.

Available time

2.

Audiences expectation

C. Provide structure
1.

Outline

2.

Organization chart

D. Support the main idea

1.

Informing

2.

Describing
a.

Process

b. Object
3.

Persuading

4.

Giving historical account

E. Provide evidence
IV.

Sequence of key points

A. Direct approach
1.

Deductive

2.

Audience favorable

B. Indirect approach

V.

1.

Inductive

2.

Audience skeptical

Most common business messages

A. Routine
B. Good-news
C. Goodwill

VI.

Bad-news messages

VII.

Persuasive messages

Section Review
Key Terms

style

connotative meaning

compound-complex sentence

tone

abstract word

topic sentence

active voice

concrete word

transitions

passive voice

cliches

boilerplate

jargon

functional words

simple sentence

content words

compound sentence

denotative meaning

complex sentence

Summary
After making an outline, the writer should put it aside for a day or so in order to go
back and look at it more objectively. The outline is not cast in stone, and it is likely that
the writer will add, delete, and re-arrange ideas as he or she begins composing the
message. Composition entails giving creativity free reign. It isnt important at this
stage to get every word spelled correctly or even to finish every sentence. Editing is
the next stage in the process; the important thing at this point is to get down idea.
Style and tone are important considerations in composing a business message. Style
is the way an individual uses the language; tone is the overall impression he or she
creates formal, informal conversational, and so on. Most business messages effect a
conversational tone; good writers are conscious of being sensible, logical, and
objective and of providing sufficient detail and examples to support their assertions.
In particular, writers of business messages should be careful to avoid the following:
Pompous, obsolete language pompous means stiffly formal, and it is often
characterized by phrases and expressions that are now considered stilted or
obsolete.
Intimacy it is not a good idea to get too personal with the receiver of a
business message unless one knows the person well already. Details about the
readers personal life, as well as other peoples personal lives, have no place in
professional correspondence.
Humor nothing falls flatter than unsuccessful attempts at humor, and there is
a very fine line between what one person finds funny and another does not,
especially when the two are from different cultures. Humor is best avoided
altogether in business messages.
Preaching and bragging - nothing turns people off more quickly than being
preached to. And bragging about ones accomplishments, whether in person or
in correspondence, is an obvious social and professional faux pas.
A writer often has to adapt his or her tone to the situation, changing from conversational to formal, or
the other way around, depending on the circumstances. In most business situations, though, the
preferred idiom is known as Plain English, the level of the language that can be understood by just about
anyone with an eighth- or ninth-grade education. Plain English does have some limitations - it does not
entail the vocabulary necessary for scientific research, and it falls a bit short in expressing strong feelings
or personal insights. Moreover, it does not incorporate the variety of cultures and dialects that make up
the English language. But in general it is an effective way of avoiding some of the misunderstanding that
can result from nuances of usage and meaning.
As a rule, the active voice is more direct and precise than the passive voice. The active voice
emphasizes the doer of an action (Jack threw the ball), whereas the passive voice emphasizes whom or
what the action was done by (The ball was thrown by Jack.) Both have their uses, but, as noted above,
the active voice is generally preferred in vigorous, concise, and easily understood communications.
Diction means word choice, and the writer should be conscious of choosing the best words for the
intended effect. Functional words are those whose meanings do not change prepositions,
conjunctions, articles, and pronouns but even so the writer needs to be sure to use them correctly.

Content words such as nouns, verbs, adjective, and adverbs are often subject to interpretation, and
so the writer needs to be sure to choose words carefully to impart the intended meaning.
For example, content words often have both a denotative, or literal, meaning and a connotative, or
figurative, meaning. The denotative meaning is the one given by the dictionary; the connotative
meaning is the one that results from the readers response to the word usually positive or negative.
Another consideration in choosing the right word is its abstractness or concreteness. Concrete words
refer to physical objects; abstract words to ideas, concepts, or characteristics. Concrete words are more
specific and less likely to be misconstrued, but business messages often employ abstract terms as well
for example, morale, productivity, quality, motivation, and promise. When discussing abstract ideas in
the business world, the writer should use specific, concrete words whenever possible to obviate
misinterpretation.
Some more suggestions with regard to diction are as follows:
Use strong words nouns and verbs rather than modifiers
Use familiar words familiar to the reader, that is.
Avoid cliches like the plague (get it?)
Be careful when using jargon technical terms and professional jargon have their place in business
messages, but awareness of the audiences level of understanding is essential here.
Just as important as diction in business messages is sentence structure. And a general understanding of
the syntax of English is a valuable tool. There are four types of sentences, discussed in detail with
examples in the text: A simple sentence has one main clause. A compound sentence has two main
clauses joined by a conjunction or separated by a semicolon. A complex sentence has one main clause
and at least one subordinate clause. And a compound-complex sentence has two main clauses and at
least one subordinate clause.
In complex sentences the relative position of the main clause and the subordinate clause determines the
relative importance of the ideas being expressed. If the subordinate clause is put at the end of the
sentence, the main idea of the sentence is emphasized. If the subordinate clause is put at the beginning,
the main idea is de-emphasized. Good writing is characterized by a variety of sentence types and
emphasis of ideas.
Style the writers personal touch is another consideration. Most business correspondence is
characterized by a straightforward, relatively simple style, one that the audience will find clear and easy
to understand rather than entertaining.
Emphasizing the key ideas in a business message is an obvious way of bringing them to the readers
attention. Emphasize the main ideas by putting them at the beginning of the sentence (i.e., writing in
the active voice and making the main idea the subject) and by giving the more important ideas more
space that is, developing or describing them in more detail.
Just as words are combined into sentences, sentences are combined into paragraphs. The three essential
considerations in paragraph writing are unity, coherence, and development. A good paragraph contains a
topic sentence - which establishes unity - developed by various types of supporting sentences. The
writer achieves coherence by arranging ideas in a logical order and by using transitions to link
sentences and paragraphs.
There are five basic ways to develop paragraphs: illustration, comparison and contrast, cause and effect,
classification, and problem and solution. The method the writer chooses depends, naturally, on the
purpose of the message and the audience.
Finally, business messages sometimes employ a device known as a boilerplate a pre-written
paragraph or other block of text incorporated into the text that is being custom written to suit the needs
of a particular audience.
Outline

I.

Before composing
A. Review outline
B. Revise as needed

II.

First draft
A. Dont edit yet
B. Shape message

III.

1.

Style

2.

Tone

3.

Sentences and paragraphs

Style and tone

A. Style use of language
1.

Forceful or objective

2.

Personal or formal

3.

Colorful or dry

B. Tone overall impression

IV.

1.

Conversational

2.

Sensible, logical, objective

Obsolete and pompous language

A. Avoid intimacy
B. Avoid humor
C. Avoid preaching and bragging

V.

Plain English
A. 8th 9th grade level
B. Endorsed by government and organizations
C. Limitations of Plain English

VI.

1.

Lacks scientific precision

2.

Ineffective for expressing intense feeling and personal insight

3.

Does not embrace cultural dialects

Active and passive voice

A. Active
1.

The subject performs the action

2.

Vigorous, concise, understandable

B. Passive

VII.

1.

The subject is acted upon

2.

Cumbersome, wordy, vague

3.

Sometimes effective in creating you attitude

Diction
A. Functional and content words
B. Denotative and connotative meanings
C. Abstraction and concreteness

VIII.

Words that communicate

A. Strong words
1.

Nouns and verbs

2.

Not adjectives and adverbs

B. Familiar words
C. Cliches
D. Jargon
IX.

Effective sentences
A. Types of sentences
1.

Simple

2.

Compound

3.

Complex

4.

Compound-complex

B. Sentence style

X.

1.

Voice

2.

Emphasis

3.

Length

4.

Lists and bullets

Coherent paragraphs
A. Paragraph elements
1.

Topic sentence

2.

Developmental sentences

3.

Transitional elements

B. Paragraph development
1.

Illustration

2.

Comparison/contrast

3.

Cause and effect

4.

Classification

5.

Problem and solution

C. Boilerplates

Section Review
Summary
E-mail is a more convenient and generally less formal medium than the business letter, but organization
and writing style are still important considerations.
Most e-mail software includes the message of the original e-mail in any return, but for the sake of
conciseness and convenience, the writer of the return e-mail can edit the original message to include only
the relevant parts i.e., the parts to which the reply e-mail are addressed.

As a rule, e-mails messages should be limited to one screen, if possible. If not, the
most important information should be included first, and subsequent information
should be included in descending order of important.

The tone of e-mail can be as informal as that of a conversation or as formal as that of

a traditional business letter, depending, naturally, on the audience and the purpose.
If a writer is going to use e-mail and it is almost unavoidable not to he or she must
know how to use it correctly to avoid embarrassing situations such as sending the
message to an unintended recipient. The To:, Cc:, and Bcc: fields are used to send
messages directly to a recipient or recipients, to send a courtesy copy of a message to
an additional recipient or recipients, or to send a blind courtesy copy to an additional
recipient or recipients respectively. (Note: some business professionals regard
sending a blind courtesy copy (Bcc) as unethical.)
E-mail, like all other business messages, should be composed for the ease of the
reader. Special considerations include line length and text wrapping, as well as font
styles. Naturally, the general rules of composition apply paragraphs should be
unified, coherent, and well developed - and, of course, concise
(Note: It is something of a fashion to disregard spelling and mechanics when using email, but in professional communication these conventions are as important in e-mail
as in formal letters.)
An informative subject line is a distinctive feature of e-mail. Because business
professionals receive so many e-mail messages, they frequently screen them based on
1) sender, 2) subject, and 3) scanned message. If the subject line does not get the
readers attention in a genuine and informative way, the sender might delete the
message without reading it.
The subject line should tell the reader more than just the general topic of the
message; it should describe or classify the message as specifically as possible within
the 25 to 40 characters available. When an e-mail message is exchanged back and
forth several times, the subject line should be revised periodically to reflect updates in
the message.
Adding a salutation or greeting to an e-mail helps establish the tone of the message to
follow. A traditional salutation such as Dear Professor Ingersol establishes a formal
tone, while a less formal Hi Marty implies a personal relationship which will be
reflected in the rest of the message. Similarly, both the traditional Sincerely your, as
well as the simpler Thanks or Regards, are used in e-mail. (Note: international
correspondence usually calls for the more formal tone.)
To close the e-mail, the writer can simply type his or her name on the last line or
create a signature file which will automatically include the writers name, organization,
mailing address, fax number, and so on. In addition, a digital copy of ones signature
can also be attached which will, in some instances, have the same legal effect as a
handwritten signature.
Outline

I.

E-mail organization and tone

A. Reply
1.

Including original message

2.

Editing original message for relevance

B. Screen
1.

One screen if possible

2.

Important information first, if not bad news

C. Tone formal or informal

II.

Intended recipients
A. To:, Cc:, and Bcc: options
B. Line length and wrapped text

C. Conventional spelling, capitalization, and mechanics

III.

Parts of an e-mail
A. Subject line
1.

Purpose

2.

Revision

B. Salutation establishing tone

1.

Formal

2.

Conversational

C. Closing
1.

Formal

2.

Conversational

D. Signature
1.

Typed

2.

Signature file

3.

Digital signature

Section Review 5
Key Terms

hyperlinks
Summary
Writing for the web is different from writing for any other medium: the writer must gain the audiences
attention and make the main points immediately.

Web readers needs result from the volume of information available and their
expectation that it be available immediately. Because there is so much information
available and Web readers are able to scan many pages at one sitting, reading Web
documents is likely to be cursory rather than thorough. Therefore, it is vital that the
reader be able to ascertain main ideas at a glance.
Additionally, when read thoroughly, Web documents take more time than hard copies. Reading text on a
monitor is about 25 percent slower than on paper. The glare from the screen is hard on the eyes, and
scrolling from one screen to the next takes time.

Web texts often include hyperlinks, which enable the reader to move from one
document, webpage, or even website to another and back again in a nonlinear
fashion. This three-dimensional aspect of moving into, out of, and all round various
websites gives the reader a tremendous advantage in terms of locating information.
But it also makes it hard for the reader to determine the depth and scope of the
information. Thus it is important for web writers to use a well organized and reliable
hyperlink structure.
Coordinating the navigational elements of hyperlinked websites takes skill and effort.
First, the writer must plan hyperlink navigation as part of the original concept of the
project. As always, it is essential to be conscious of the audiences needs in this
case, the path the reader will follow to find information. The writer should be familiar
with the linked websites in advance to know what is included and to avoid duplication
of information.
Second, it is important that the reader be in control that he or she be able to explore
alternatives and choose the most viable course. An effective hyperlinked web

document can include a search engine, a site map, and an index or table of contents,
usually found at the top, at the bottom, or on the side of the webpage.
Third, the writer must be sure that the links are effective. Hyperlinks can be in the
form of words, phrases, sentences, and even graphics. Graphical links, though, can
present a problem in that they slow down the loading speed of a webpage. In
addition, some readers turn off the graphics capability of their computers to speed up
download time; they need to be accommodated by text versions of graphic pages, as
indeed do visually handicapped readers.
Composing a webpage message requires some attention to style and format.
Corporate webpages are often characterized by dull and sometimes vague writing. A
good visual design is an asset to web messages, but well thought-out and composed
substantive content is just as important as in any other medium.
An important characteristic of the web is that it is immediately accessible to a global
audience. That being the case, the tone of messages on the web must be appropriate
for readers who might not be fluent in English. Usually the tone of web
correspondence is somewhat less formal but not overly familiar. Also, idioms and
jargon can be misleading, so the writer must be careful not to confuse or offend.
Localizing is an interesting technique for suiting web material to the needs of the
audience. This entails more than just translating the text into the language of the
reader; local norms such as currency, weights and measures, time, and some customs
are also tranlated. Providing localization for web material requires a greater in-depth
understanding of the audience than normal and entails considerable effort.
Reading information online is difficult, other audience needs notwithstanding. It is
helpful to arrange information, if possible, in screen-sized, theme-related chunks that
can be accessed in any order. Each of these chunks becomes a separate webpage,
and webpages can be linked to other webpages to provide complete but manageable
accessibility to the subject.
Although linked, these webpages should be compehensible as separate entities. One
of the advantages of hyperlinked text is that it can be accessed in any order the
reader chooses. However, too many hyperlinks make accessing information difficult.
If information can be presented clearly and concisely on one webpage, it isnt
necessary to provide additional hyperlinks.
With regard to conciseness, webpages should be about 50 percent shorter than
printed texts. If possible, a web article should be limited to one computer screen; if
that is not possible, then three at the most. If the material cannot be limited to three
screens, it should not be randomly divided into different webpages; rather, the writer
should attempt to find logical patterns of division to avoid linear interruption as much
as possible.
Many readers print online documents and read from the hard copy rather than the
screen. Web writers need to accommodate this preference by providing print-ready
versions of their online documents. The document should include the file size to help
the reader determine the download time and the URL so that it will appear in the
printed version.
Because writing for the web requires the most important information to be placed first,
using an inverted pyramid style, a familiar technique to journalists, is an effective
method. The main idea appears first and the points follow in decreasing order of
importance. Thus the reader can find the most important information easily and then
read as much or as little of the rest as he or she wishes.
Outline

I.

The Web: A unique medium

A. Conventional guidelines
B. New challenges

II.

Characteristics of reading online

A. Cursory
B. Difficult
C. Nonlinear and interactive (hyperlinked)
D. Three dimensional

III.

Difficulties of reading online

A. Scope and depth of material
B. Inconsistent nature of online content

IV.

Well-organized hyperlink structure

A. Plan navigational pattern
1.

Readers likely path

2.

Writers own efforts v. other sites

B. Give readers control

1.

Options

2.

Site maps, etc.

C. Make graphic links effective

1.

Slower load time

2.

Text alternatives

V.

Design v. content

VI.

Writing for global audiences

A. Lighter, less formal
B. Jargon and idiom
C. Localized sites

VII.

1.

Language, norms, currency, weights

2.

Cultural differences

Information chunks
A. Self contained webpages
B. Accessible in any order
C. Linked

VIII.

Concise but comprehensive coverage

A. Nonlinear webpages
B. Only necessary hyperlinks
C. Reduced length of text
D. Logical division into webpages
E. Printable versions
1.

File size

2.

URL

IX.

Inverted pyramid style

A. Journalists technique
B. Main idea first
C. Descending order of importance

Section Review
Key Terms

cultural diversity

culture
ethnocentrism
cultural context
high-context culture
low-context culture
stereotyping
Summary
Intercultural communication is the process if sending and receiving messages between people whose
cultural backgrounds lead them to interpret verbal and nonverbal signs differently. It is largely the result
of two current trends: market globalization and a multicultural workforce.
Market globalization means the increasing tendency of the world to act as one market. Advances in travel
and technology have made it possible for people from all over the world to collaborate from their home
offices. Products can be produced in countries with low-cost labor and then distributed all over the world.
Competition is on the rise as business look for new international markets.
The first way to go global is to reduce the cultural and language barriers between companies and
customers, and one way to do so is through the use of Websites that accommodate these differences.
Interaction with people from different cultures is on the rise, even through communication media other
than the Internet.
The United States has become the most demographically diverse country in the world. By 2010, half the
population of the U.S. will be made up of ethnic minorities. The cultural diversity that results is
dramatically changing the way business communication takes place, making it necessary for managers to
communicate with and motivate employees and at the same time maintain cooperation and harmony
among them. In order to do so, companies have to develop a sense of cultural sensitivity.
Culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, attitudes, values, expectations, and norms for behavior.
Subcultures are recognized groups within cultures ethnic, religious, and, in the business world,
professional groups that have their own customs and idiom. Examples of subcultures within the U.S. are
Mexican Americans, Mormons, wrestling fans, Russian immigrants, disabled individuals, Harvard
graduates, and uncountable other groups.
Cultural idioms, the ways in which members of a culture express themselves, are learned directly and
indirectly from other members of the group. The first way to communicate with people from different
cultures is to recognize the tendency to judge people according to your own cultures standards i.e. to
overcome ethnocentrism.
The communication process entails the encoding and decoding of messages. Miscommunication occurs
when cultural differences result in the decoding of messages in unexpected ways. Assuming that people
will see things the way we see them often leads to cultural misunderstandings four areas contextual,
ethical, social, and nonverbal.

Cultural context refers to the pattern of physical cues, environmental stimuli, and implicit
understandings that help people within a culture understand each other. But outside the culture, cultural
context can result in misunderstanding. In high-context cultures the nonverbal context is more
important than the words. The speakers gestures and tone of voice provide cues that help the receiver
discover the meaning indirectly. In low-context cultures, verbal communication takes precedence. The
burden of communication is on the speaker rather than the listeners, and both speaker and listener are
conditioned to respond to syntactical patterns such as chronological order and cause-effect relationships
to infer meaning. In business these differences in context affect the way people make decisions, solve
problems, and negotiate.
In low-context cultures such as the United States and Germany, people try to make decisions quickly and
efficiently. They focus on the main issues and the leave the details to be worked out later. In high-context
cultures, such as Greece, focusing on the details is taken to be a sign of honesty and openness; ignoring
the details is regarded as evasive.
In the U.S. again, a low-context culture business is usually transacted through competition and some
confrontation. However, in China, a high-context culture, open conflict and debate are regarded as bad
form.
In low-context cultures, Germany and Canada for example, business negotiations are considered
impersonal. But in Japan negotiators prefer to establish social relationships first, personal and long-term
ties that will result in successful relationships in the future.
Ethical and even legal issues can arise from cultural context. In low-context cultures the written word is
tantamount to a binding contract, but in high-context cultures, a personal pledge is regarded as a point
of honor and is more important than a legal contract.
The cultural foundations of laws can result in totally different ways of interpretation. Under English
common law, on which the British and American legal systems are based, a person is innocent until
proven guilty. But in Mexico and Turkey, whose legal systems are based on the Napoleonic code, the
reverse is true.
Similarly, bribery is considered not only unethical but even illegal in the U.S., but in Kenya, China, Russia,
Mexico, and the Middle Easy, it is an accepted method of making sure that things are done right.
The best way to avoid ethical conflicts in intercultural communication is to follow four basic principles:
Seek mutual ground be flexible and willing to compromise.

Dont be judgmental recognize and accept cultural differences.

Be honest see things as they are, and accept the differences.

Respect cultural differences acknowledge the other persons needs and preserve his or her
dignity.
Social etiquette is an important consideration in recognizing and respecting cultural differences. Informal
rules, which are learned through observation and inference, are the basis of how one is supposed to
behave, but sometimes they are difficult to explain. This is where cultural sensitivity becomes an
important consideration. Among the issues that recur are the following:
Attitude toward materialism In the U.S. hard work is associated with success, and success
is often measured by material acquisition. Other countries consider leisure more important.

 Gender roles In the U.S. and Western Europe, women have come to be regarded as mens
equals in the business and professional worlds. In Latin America and Eastern Europe, and
especially in the Middle East and East Asia, this is not the case.

Social status Professional status in the U.S. is often indicated by the location and furnishings
of ones office; in other countries, the office is unimportant. Titles also reflect status, but in this
case more so in other countries than in the U.S. In America most professional are addressed by
the courtesy titles Mr. or Ms. In China titles are more reflective of a persons actual function
Chairman or Manager, for example.

Manners Social customs are often regulated by manners, and what is considered good
manners in one culture is bad manners in another. Making small talk about the weekend is
common in the U.S., but asking what someone did on the weekend would be regarded as
intrusive in cultures in which business and private lives are kept separate.

Time Executives from low-context cultures see time as limited, and consequently they focus on
specific tasks. Executives from high-context cultures, on the other hand, see the business day
as more flexible and focus more on forming interpersonal relationships than on meeting
deadlines.
As has been noted, nonverbal communication is very much a part of the mores of any culture, and being
able to interpret nonverbal signals is important in recognizing and accommodating culture differences:
Personal space The five feet of distance that usually separates Americans and Canadians
when transacting business, is uncomfortably close for Germans or Japanese and uncomfortably
far for Arabs and Latin Americans. When the distance is increased or decreased, people might
feel uncomfortable without really knowing why.

Body language People in the U.S. and Canada indicate no by moving their heads back and
forth while people in Bulgaria indicate no by moving their heads up and down. Exposing the sole
of the shoe is regarded as an insult by many people in the Middle East.

Communicating with people from different cultures means overcoming ethnocentrism, the natural human
tendency to regard ones own culture as superior. At the same time, it is important to avoid
stereotyping when trying to understand different cultures the tendency to predict other peoples
behavior or characteristics on the basis of their cultural identification. The Japanese, for example, often
stereotype Americans as aggressive, direct, self indulgent, and extravagant.
While some stereotypes are relatively accurate, it is important not to let your desire to avoid
ethnocentrism cause you to see people as members of cultures rather than as human beings.
Outline

I.

II.

Intercultural communication
A.

Market globalization

B.

Multicultural workforce

Cultural context
A.

High-context cultures

III.

B.

Low-context cultures

C.

Legal and ethical

D.

Social

E.

Nonverbal

Overcoming ethnocentrism
A.

Stereotyping

B.

Accepting human beings

Section Review 3
Key Terms

idiomatic

Summary
To overcome ethnocentrism, you will need to study the cultures of people with whom you communicate,
overcome language barriers, and develop strong oral and written intercultural skills.
If you are gong to work with people from a particular culture, you should learn as much as you can about
them. Books, articles, and personal contacts are all good ways of learning about a cultures history,
religion, politics, values, and customs. There are several helpful Websites as well that will help you
understand not only general culture issues but also specific points of business and professional protocol.
Seemingly similar gestures and customs can have different meanings in different cultures. For example, a
handshake in Spain should last from five to seven up-and-down strokes, whereas in France more than
single stroke is too much. But dont expect to be able to pass yourself off as a native of another culture,
no matter how much you study it. Rather, just make the effort to show you are aware of cultural and
individual differences by following these guidelines:
Assume that others are different dont hold people to your own culture standards.

Take responsibility for communication learn the language, if you can.

Withhold judgment as with any communication situation, wait until you have heard the
message before you jump to conclusions.

Show respect learn what the signs of respect are and show that you know them.

Empathize as always, put yourself into the position of the person you are communicating with.

Tolerate ambiguity know and accept the fact that communication will not be easy.

 Look beyond the superficial heres another one that applies to all communication situations, not
just intercultural.

Be both patient and persistent know that intercultural communication takes time; dont give up.

Recognize your cultural bias cultural bias is natural; the key is to understand it.

Be flexible be prepared to change both habits and attitudes.

Look for common ground once gain, this is good advice in any communication situation.

Send clear messages be ready to tolerate ambiguity, but avoid it as much as possible,

Treat people as individuals avoid cultural stereotyping.

Know when to be direct and when to be indirect.

Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis put it to the test.

These general guidelines will help in any communication effort, intercultural or not. But there are even
stronger issues, such as the language barrier.
More and more peo0ple throughout the world are learning English as a second language, and many of
them are coming to the U.S. Recent statistics show that 18% of the population of the U.S. now speak
some language other than English at home. In California, the number is 40%. The language spoken most
commonly in the U.S. after English is Spanish, then French, German, Italian, and Chinese. Only 32% of
Internet users read English.
There is a wide range of fluency among ESL users; so you have to be careful when using idiomatic
English. As a rule, languages dont translate with word-to-word correlations; every language has its
idiomatic expressions phrases that have figurative meaning but dont translate. For example, how
would a non-native speaker of English respond to the suggestion that he eat a hot dog? Be careful to
avoid these figurative expressions, using instead words whose denotative meanings are clear.
Pronunciation and accent can have a dismaying effect on non-native speakers. Similarly, we native
speakers can have a hard time understanding the pronunciation of colleagues who speak English as a
second language. To facilitate communication, here are some suggestions:
Listen carefully learn from experience.

Expect to understand dont create a psychological block.

 Create a relaxed atmosphere be friendly, and make it clear you are trying to understand.

Create a relaxed atmosphere be friendly, and make it clear you are trying to understand.

Rephrase questions ask the speaker to use different words.

Ask the speaker to write the message

Variations in tone and frequency of speaking are other considerations. People in some cultures speak
more loudly or softly than in others. And in some cultures silence is regarded as a virtue in
communication. The key, of course, is to match your communication style with the needs and
expectations of your audience. If a direct, confrontational approach is the norm, then use it. If written
communication is preferable to oral, then write. But recognize, too, that written communication in other
cultures is invariably more formal than in the U.S. Be sure to formalize your tone to the proper degree,
while not allowing it to sound unnatural or stilted.
While English is the most widely used language in the world, the language of business is always the
language of the customer. Therefore, you have three choices when communicating with people who dont
speak English: learn their language, use an interpreter, or teach them English.
Learning another language is a good idea, whether you are going to live and work in another country or
just visit. And, indeed, it can go a long way to earning the respect and appreciation of people in the U.S.
whose native language is not English. Learning the language, or even just a few phrases, shows respect
for other peoples culture.
Using a translator is necessary in some situations, and experienced translators are useful in interpreting
not only the meanings of words but also the cultural contexts. Be sure to meet with translators in
advance and make sure they understand the nuances of what you are trying to impart. Also, if possible
have a back-translator on hand to translate back into English what the translator has put into the other
language.
More and more companies are recognizing the value of providing English instruction for their employees.
Doing so has resulted in enhanced production and fewer accidents and grievances.
As you develop your understanding of other cultures and the language barriers that interfere with
communication, you will have to decide whether oral or written channels will be most effective.
As noted above, there are notable differences in letter-writing styles among members of different
cultures, most being more formal than in the U.S. For example, business letters from Japanese writers
typically begin with an observation about the weather, followed by an inquiry into the health of the
recipient, then a note of thanks for past services or patronage, and only after all that comes the main
point of the letter.
For your own part when you are writing to people from different cultures, use the following guidelines:
Write in plain English dont use two words when one will do.

Be clear use specific, concrete terms rather than figures of speech.

Follow the prescribed format for addresses.

 Cite numbers carefully use figures (27) rather than spelled-out numbers (twenty-seven).

Avoid slang, jargon, buzzwords, abbreviations, and acronyms.

Be concise use shorter and simpler sentences.

Use short paragraphs no more than eight to ten lines.

Use helpful transitions - first, second, third, ... in addition, consequently, etc.
It is easier to read and write a foreign language than to engage in a conversation. But sometimes there is
no alternative to a face-to-face contact. In those instances, when you are speaking English to people who
have difficulty with it, follow these guidelines:
Try to eliminate noise speak slowly and clearly, and make one point at a time.

Observe and use body language but remember that a gesture in one culture might mean
something different in another.

Use repetition and examples to make sure your meaning is understood.

Dont talk down to the other person dont think that talking louder or over-enunciating will
make a difference, and dont blame him or her for not understanding.

Use objective, accurate language avoid hyperbolic expressions such as fantastic, fabulous, or
awesome.

Learn foreign phrases and expressions Greeting people in their own language will show your
interest in their culture and willingness to accommodate.

Adapt your conversational style to the other persons if the other person is direct, be direct.

Check frequently for comprehension stop from time to time to make sure you are being
understood.

Clarify what will happen next make sure you and the other person agree on what has been
said. Follow up with a memo or letter confirming the decisions that have been made.

Outline

I.

Learning about other cultures

II.
III.

A.

Books, articles, personal contacts

B.

Websites

Awareness of cultural differences

Language barriers
A.

B.

IV.

English as a second language

1.

Idiomatic usage

2.

Pronunciation and accent

3.

Variation in tone and speaking frequency

The language of the customer

1.

Learning the language

2.

Using a translator

3.

Teaching them English

Channels
A.

Written

B.

Oral

Section Review
Key Terms

solicited proposals

request for proposalf

unsolicited proposals
internal proposals
external proposals
Summary

Reports serve a wide variety of purposes in the workplace, their essential function being to provide
objective information and analysis. The type of report used depends on five factors:
Source
Frequency
Target audience

 Length
Intent
A report may include some or all of these factors, depending on its purpose. Most reports fall
generally into one of six categories: monitor/ control, policy/ procedure, compliance, progress,
problem-solving, and proposal.
Monitor/control reports fit into the larger category of informational reports. They provide data that
enable managers to head off problems that might occur down the line and to establish guidelines for
future action. They require close attention to detail, accuracy, and honesty. Examples of
monitor/control reports are strategic planning and annual budgets, sales reports, corporate annual
reports, and scouting reports. Other monitor/control reports provide an account of what happened
at a conference or convention or on a trip. A summary report provides specific information about a
situation, publication, or document but does not go into detail about background or provide
examples.
Policy/procedure reports answer questions about, naturally, policies and procedures. They provide
specific, objective information about organizational guidelines, regulations, and standards.
Sometimes the information they provide is permanent; other times these reports are position papers
on particular issues.
Compliance reports confirm that an organization is abiding by required or regulated standards,
usually imposed by the government. The report is often written in response to specific questions;
sometimes it is produced by filing out a form.
Progress reports indicate how much of a project has been completed and how much is left to
complete. Sometimes they take the form of scheduled interim reports followed by final reports
when the undertaking has been completed.
All of the above reports are essentially informational in nature. But other reports require analysis
and sometimes recommendations. These reports provide accurate, objective information, but they
then go farther to persuade the reader to accept a decision, solution, or change.
Typical of analytical reports are problem-solving reports; these generally take the form of
recommendations based on research and analysis of alternatives. When they involve consideration
of several alternatives, they are called feasibility reports; when they entail justification of an action
that has already been performed, they are called, naturally, justification reports.
Proposals are special types of analytical reports that involve persuasion. They follow the process of
analyzing the audiences needs, providing a solution, and explaining why the solution should be
effected.
Solicited proposals are prepared in response to a need advertised by either an external organization
or an internal component, usually managerial, of your own organization. Proposals solicited by
external organizations, such as the government, often take the form of a request for proposal, a
formal invitation to submit a bid for contracted work and a detailed explanation of when and how
the work must be done.
Unsolicited proposals are initiated by the person or organization requesting consideration, not by
the organization needing the work done. If you write one of these proposals, the job description and
criteria are not already determined; rather, you must persuade the reader that there is a need and that
you can fulfill it.

Unsolicited proposals can be either internal or external. Internal proposals are requests for some
change within your own organization - a change in policy, procedure, or organization or requests
for additional resources personnel, equipment, or funds. Because the readers of these proposals
sometimes feel threatened by changes, the reports have to be carefully crafted to reflect the best
interest of all involved.
External proposals are used to persuade current customers, potential customers, or government
agencies of the need for some change or action. They are different from internal proposals in that
they are 1) more formal, 2) legally binding, and 3) reflective of an organizations competence and
integrity.
As with all types of business messages, the three-step writing process is the best way to organize
your report or proposal. The steps are already familiar planning, writing, and completing.
However, because of the persuasive nature of business reports and proposals, you might need to
give a bit more attention to your purpose and audience.
Outline

I. Determining types of reports

II. Informational reports
A. Monitor/control
B. Policy/procedure
C. Compliance
D. Progress
III. Analytical reports
A. Problem-solving
1. Feasibility
2. Justification
B. Proposals
1. Solicited
a. Request for proposal
2. Unsolicited
a. Internal
b. External
IV. Three-step writing process
A. Planning, writing, completing
B. Extra attention to purpose and audience

Section Review
Key Terms

problem factoring

hypothesis
Summary

As with any written business message, the best way to produce a report is to follow the three-step
writing process: planning, writing, and completing. The steps are not different, but the purpose and
audience analysis components require special attention in a proposal. The three-step writing
process is covered in detail in chapters 4, 5, and 6; below are some observations about the
additional elements that pertain to writing reports and proposals.
The planning stage of reports and proposals consists of three steps: analyzing the situation,
gathering information, and adapting the information to the audiences need.
Planning a written business message always entails determining the purpose and analyzing the
audience, but when you write a report you should include the additional step of analyzing the
situation, of determining whether a formal written message is the best medium or whether the
situation might be handled more tactfully by a phone call, e-mail, or conference. If you decide that
the written medium is best, then you must decide whether an informational report or an analytical
report will better suit the purpose.
If you determine that the nature of the report is analytical, then the next step is to define the
problem specifically. Sometimes the problem will have already been defined; in other instances,
you must determine that it actually exists and then communicate this through persuasion to you
reader. Several questions you might consider in this analysis are:
What needs to be determined?
Why is this issue important?
Who is involved?
Where is the problem located?
How did it start?
When did it start?
One you have defined the problem, the next step is to engage in problem factoring essentially
identifying a cause/effect situation. This is usually accomplished through inductive reasoning
observing effects and from them inferring causes. This inference or speculation of the cause is
called a hypothesis, which, once it has been formulated, must then be tested.
Once you have formulated a hypothesis, the next step is to determine a statement of purpose: the
problem statement tells what you are going to analyze; the statement of purpose tells why you are
doing so. The easiest way to write a purpose statement is to use an infinitive phrase (to plus a verb
followed by an object) for example, to identify... to explain... to submit... to inform... to
persuade...

The statement of purpose for an analytical report is sometimes more inclusive than for an
informational report. It might be written as several infinitive phrases such as to analyze...
evaluate... and suggest....
The more specific your statement of purpose, the easier it will be to stay on task. If the report has
been solicited or authorized, be sure the check the statement of purpose with the authorizing entity
to make sure you have understood the instructions.
When you have nailed down your purpose statement, you should next prepare a preliminary outline.
This will give you an overview of your report from the beginning to the end its key points, the
order in which they will be presented, and the amount of detail to be included.
Of course, the final outline will likely be somewhat different from the preliminary, as you will make
changes and adjustments as you proceed. But having a preliminary overview is invaluable. Much
of the change reflected in the final outline will be based on conclusions resulting from your
research. As you find out more information, you add some ideas and eliminate others. There are
two basic outlines formats alphanumeric and decimal. It doesnt matter which one you use as
long as you are consistent. Also, the format of the outline can be descriptive (topical) or
informative (talking), depending on the nature of the information and the way it will be used.
After you have produced a preliminary outline, you should prepare a work plan to help you
coordinate and monitor your undertaking. It can range from a relatively simple list of the steps to a
more formal and detailed statement of exactly what is to be done and when. This more formal work
plan is likely to include the following
Statement of the problem
Purpose and scope
Discussion of tasks
Description of results
Review of assignment, schedules, and costs
Follow-up plans
Preliminary outline
Outline

I. Three-step writing process

A. Planning
B. Writing
C. Composing
II. Planning reports and proposals
A. Analyzing the situation
B. Gathering information

C. Adapting the information

III. Analyzing the situation
A. Appropriate medium
B. Informational or analytical?
IV. Analytical
A. Define the problem
B. Problem factoring
1. Cause/effect
2.Hypothesis
C. Statement of purpose
1. Infinitive phrase
2. Confirmation
D. Preliminary outline
E. Work plan
1. Informal
2. Formal

Section Review
Key Terms

paraphrase

plagiarism
mean
median
mode
correlation
conclusions
recommendations
Summary

The next step after you have analyzed the situation and determined the best way to proceed is to
start gathering information. As with any other writing project, the best appproach is to plan first.

And often the best way to plan is simply to start browsing through infroamtion, in libraries and
bookstores or online, to get a general idea of what has already been written on your topic.
As you are gathering ideas about your topic, be sure to clarify the assignment. If you are doing the
project for someone else, check with him or her to make sure you both agree on what is to be done;
if you are doing the project for yourself, make sure your purpose is clear and specific. Then begin
narrowing down the information you have gathered, identifying the best sources. Most research
projects involve the use of secondary sources, information that has been written by others based on
their own experience or research.
There is a wide variety of sources of secondary information on any topic in the business world,
including information provided by specific companies or an entire industry (NAICS), and data on
statistics, trends, and business-related issues
Information which does not come directly from specific companies or industries can often be
researched in the library. Among the sources available are
business books
electronic databases
newspapers
periodicals
directories
almanacs and statistical resources
government publications
The most popular and convenient source of information on business and industry is, of course, the
Internet. But it is important to note that Internet information is not screened and, thus, is not always
reliable. You need to evaluate any online information you find and consider its reliability. One
good screening source for Internet information is the Internet Public Library at
http://www.ipl.org. Among the documents you can find there are company profiles, trade data,
business news, corporate tax and legal advice, small-business information, forms and documents,
financial reports, job postings, and publications.
To find information about a particular company, you might go to its website. In addition, you can
find recent news releases about companies from PRNewswire at www.prnewswire.com) and
Business Wire at www.businesswire.com. Of course, the web does have it limitations; so to fine
tune your search you should use a well-known commercial search engine. These tools are reliable
because they are usually well maintained and updgraded. The disadvantage of search engines is the
volume of unrelated material they can generate; therefore, be sure to consider the strategies listed in
Checkouts: Improving Search Results.
Sometimes you have to go to primary sources to find the information you need. One of the most
common primary sources is an original document a sales report, memo, balance sheet, income
statement, brochure, newsletter, etc. A lot of this information can be found in company databases.
The information you find can be used as a secondary source summarized by someone else or as
a primary source analyzed by you and compared with similar information from other sources.

Another way of using primary sources for gathering information is to make formal observations
to watch employees performing their jobs or customers using a product. Still another method is to
conduct experiments. But because these methods require careful quantifiable analysis, they are
often expensive and time consuming.
One of the most frequently used methods of collecting information in business is to survey people
with relevant experience and opinions. Surveys must be reliable and valid to be useful: a reliable
survey produces identical results when repeated; a valid one measures what it is intended to
measure.
The first step in creating a survey is to develop a questionnaire. To be effective, it should be short,
relevant, and easy to understand. The optimal time for completing a questionnaire is 10 to 15
minutes. The important considerations in designing survey questions are the following:
Questions should be easy to tabulate or analyze numbers, if possible.
Leading questions should not be used.
Questions should ask only one thing at a time.
The survey should be pretested by a sample group.
Because getting people to respond to a survey is sometimes frustrating, a 10 to 20 percent response
rate is usually considered good. To increase the chances of getting a response, be sure to make it
easy for the respondents to complete the survey and return it. Internet surveys are becoming
increasingly popular because of their convenience, low cost, and high response rate.
Interviews are effective if you need to get specific information directly from the most authoritative
source. Their disadvantages are that they must be planned carefully and that they take time.
Because the interviewer is expected to control the discussion by asking specific questions, you need
to be sure to plan those questions well. Planning an interview is like planning any other sort of
business communication: determine the purpose, analyze the audience, formulate a main idea, and
then decide on format and style.
Good interviews, like good business messages, have an opening, a body, and a close. The opening
is used to engage the person being interviewed and give him or her some idea what to expect. The
body includes the actual questions. The close summarizes the points that have been articulated and
establishes goodwill with the person being interviewed.
The answers you get in an interview will depend largely on the questions you ask, the way you ask
them, and in some cases the race, gender, age, education, and social status of your subject. Be
especially careful about sensitive issues that are ethically questionable or confidential. A good way
to obviate an uncomfortable situation is to provide a set of questions a day or so before the actual
interview.
Open-ended questions give the person being interviewed more opportunity to reveal feelings,
provide information, and offer opinions. Closed-ended questions are easier to respond to and give
the interviewer more control. Restatement questions focus on the earlier answers of the person
being interviewed and give him or her the opportunity to expand. Whatever the type of question
you use, be sure it is relevant, concise, and easy to understand. The following guidelines will be
useful:
Consider the sequence of the questions.
Decide which questions are most important, and focus on them.

 Make sure your questions seem intelligent.

Vary the pacing by using different types of questions - open-ended, closed-ended, and
restatement.
Limit the number of questions about 20 per half hour.
Edit the questions before you ask them.
In addition to face-to-face interviews, online and e-mail interviews are being used with increasing
frequency. The advantage to these is the delayed time factor: they give the person being
interviewed a chance to think through the answers more carefully and provide more useful
information.
After you have gathered sufficient information, it is time to evaluate your sources. Among the
questions you should consider are the following:
Is the source reliable and honest?
Could the source be biased?
What was the original purpose for the information?
Is the source authoritative?
Where did the source get the information?
Can the information be verified?
Is the information current?
Is the information complete?
Does the information stand up to close scrutiny?
After you have evaluated your source material, decide whether or not you have enough information
by answering the questions you developed at the beginning of your project.
Incorporating research material into your report or project requires some care and skill. For the
most part you will be using your own words to paraphrase or summarize the information you have
found. A good paraphrase is shorter than the original text, it is in your own words, and it does not
alter or distort the meaning of the original text. Occasionally, when the language of the original
source is especially relevant or compelling, you will use direct quotations. However, you should
use these quoted passages sparingly.
In either case, whether you use paraphrase or direct quotations, you must document your sources,
including tables, charts, diagrams, song lyrics, and so on. Failure to do so constitutes plagiarism.
The various methods of documentation footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical citation are
explained in Appendix B of the original text.
In some cases it is not enough just to document your sources; you must also abide by the copyright
laws by requesting permission to use certain information. Under the fair use doctrine this is
required when your use of the material would interfere with the original authors benefiting from
the result. In some instances you will have to pay a fee to use copyrighted material. Of course,

material that is regarded as common knowledge is not copyrighted; indeed, it does not even have to
be documented.
After you have compiled your information and decided what must be documented, you will begin
the process of analyzing it and interpreting your findings. Statistical data, in particular, are open to
a wide range of interpretation and must be presented in the most useful manner. One method of
analyzing statistical data is to determine the mean the sum of all the items in a group divided by
the number of items. Another useful statistic is the median the midpoint in a series of numbers.
And still a third is the mode the number that occurs more frequently in a series than any other.
Another method of interpreting data is to find a trend a steady pattern in a series of events over a
period of time. Once youve found a trend, the next step is to find a cause. One example is a
correlation a statistical relationship between two variables. Correlations are not always reliable
methods of establishing a cause-effect relationship, however.
After you have analyzed your data and put them in an easily understood form, it is time to draw
conclusions. The measure of a sound conclusion is that it 1) fulfills the original statement of
purpose, 2) is based strictly on the information included in the report, and 3) is the logical result of
a pattern of reasoning. Of course, all conclusions are subject to further interpretation and different
perspectives.
Conclusions in a report are often followed by recommendations suggestions of what to do with
the information and conclusions presented. In some reports, a recommendation is not called for and
thus is inappropriate. However, when you are asked to make recommendations, be sure to do so
without bias, assumptions, or the influence of personal values. Credible recommendations must be
based on factual information, good analysis, and logical conclusions.
Outline

I. Gathering ideas
A. Browsing libraries, bookstores, and web sites
B. Clarifying the assignment
II. Secondary sources
A. Specific companies and industries
B. Libraries
C. The Internet
1. Screening
2. Company websites
III. Primary sources
A. Company databases
B. Formal observations
1. Surveys
2. Questionnaires

C. Interviews
1. Planning
2. Organization
3. Sensitive issues
4. Types of questions
a. Open-ended
b. Closed-ended
c. Restatement
5. Online and email interviews
IV. Evaluating sources
A. Reliability
B. Purpose
C. Authority
D. Verification
E. Currency and completeness
V. Incorporating research material in the report
A. Paraphrase
B. Quotation
C. Plagiarism
D. Copyright
VI. Analyzing and interpreting research
A. Statistical data
1. Mean
2. Median
3. Mode
B. Trends and correlations
VII. Drawing conclusions
VIII. Making recommendations

Section Review 10
Summary

Any effective business communication must be audience centered. The first

consideration with a report is to choose the appropriate channel and medium.
Sometimes you can write just a memo or an email; other times you will need to write a
formal letter. And in some instances, the best channel is oral rather than written.
Oral reports are effective when you want immediate feedback or when a nonverbal
component will make the audience receive the report more favorably. Sometimes oral
reports are used in place of written reports; sometimes they are used in conjunction.
Chapter 13 will cover oral reports in more detail.
Most written reports are produced because the information they cover is long or
complex and must be laid out carefully, or because a written record might be needed
for future reference.
Electronic reports have become increasingly popular because of their speed,
accessibility, and versatility.
A critical factor in a successful report is a good relationship with the audience. Several
methods of establishing it are as follows:

Use the you attitude

Keep the tone positive

Establish your credentials

Be polite

Avoid biased language

Reflect the company image.

Outline

I. Centering on audience
A. Channel and medium
B. Good relationship
II. Selecting channel and medium
A. Oral reports
B. Written reports
C. Electronic reports
III. Establishing a good relationship
A. You attitude
B. Emphasizing the positive
C. Establishing credibility
D. Being polite
E. Avoiding biased language
F. Reflecting the company image

Section Review
Key Terms

team

free riders
brainstorming
participative management
high cost of coordination
emergence
problem-solving teams
group dynamics
reinforcement
task forces
self-oriented roles
collaborative message
committee
team-maintenance roles
virtual teams
task-facilitating roles
Groupthin
orientation
hidden agenda
conflict
Summary
A team is a unit of two or more people who work together to achieve a goal. And like it or not,
teamwork is very much the way of the business world. Teams achieve the highest level of improvement
in performance, and collaboration leads to creativity through participative management i.e., a sense
of ownership in an undertaking and in the decision-making to effect it.
Teams can be classified as formal, in which case they often become a permanent part of the structure of
the organization, or informal (also called ad hoc), in which case they are formed only for a particular
purpose and then disbanded. Examples of ad hoc teams are problem-solving teams and task forces,
in which representatives from different departments and other organizational elements are brought
together to focus on a common problem. An example of a formal team is a committee, particularly a
standing committee, which is formed to deal with a recurring issue.
Virtual teams, composed of members from different organizations and often times different geographic
locations, can be either formal or informal. They communicate via technology, sharing ideas without
having to be in physical proximity.
Teamwork and collaboration have advantages and disadvantages. Among the advantages is the old adage
that two or more heads are better than one. This is true in terms of several factors:

 Breadth and depth of knowledge and information

Diversity of views

Support through ownership

Higher performance through mutual purpose and accountability

The chief disadvantage is that collaborating takes more time and effort than working independently.
Other disadvantages are as follows:
Groupthink a situation in which the integrity of the group is maintained even at the cost of the
right decision.

Hidden agenda Individuals are often motivated by factors other than the accomplishment of
the goal, such as displaying power, avoiding effort, and even attracting the attention of coworkers.

Free riders Some team members are unproductive because they are not individually
accountable for the success of the undertaking.

High cost of coordination Teamwork is often more costly in terms of time and money than
individual efforts.

The professional and personal interactions that occur within a team are called group dynamics.
Sometimes the group dynamics work naturally, but more often they have to be coordinated and
controlled by unstated rules called norms. Examples of norms would be the assumption that it is
acceptable to be ten minutes late for a meeting or that e-mail should be used for communicating with
other team members rather than the phone.
The dynamics of a team often result in members playing certain identifiable roles. Self-oriented roles
are assumed by members who have personal agenda, or at least needs, that take precedence over the
common goal. These members are the least productive and, indeed, can be counterproductive. Team
members who assume team-maintenance roles focus on the actual process of the collaboration,
encouraging other members to work together and actually coordinating tasks. Members who assume
task-facilitating roles are more focused on the goal and keep the team from becoming too involved in
the process rather than the solution.
These roles are not usually assigned; rather, they are naturally assumed as a result of the members
status within the group. Among the variables that can determine status are competence in the field,
educational level, past successes, position within the organization, social standing, education, age,
gender, and even personal attractiveness. These factors can have an unsettling effect on a collaborative
effort, and the team may have difficulty in focusing on its goal until roles and status have been stabilized.
Once a team has been established and the roles more or less determined, the decision-making process
can begin. There are five stages:
Orientation personal interaction and establishment of roles and norms

 Conflict definition of the issues and individual positions

Brainstorming airing of the options and discussion of the pros and cons

Emergence development of a solution, even if it is not supported 100%

Reinforcement acceptance of the common goal and assignment of tasks

Conflict is inherent in the nature of teamwork, and it can have both positive and negative results. On the
positive side, conflict forces individuals to look at issues in a different way, to see possible implications
that might not have been evident and to use creativity in solving problems. On the negative side, conflict
results in distractions from the common goal, destroying team morale and polarizing individuals or
groups within the team.
The goal of a collaborative effort is to find a win-win strategy for problem solving. This approach is based
on the belief in a solution that might not be ideal for either side but can be accepted by both. The first
step in implementing a win-win strategy is to consider the needs, interests, and desires of the other side.
This consideration has to be based on more than just a general assumption; you have to put yourself in
the place of the person or group and understand the underlying motivation.
Naturally, there is going to be some resistance; that is the essence of conflict. When this resistance
occurs, try to deal with it as follows:
Express understanding show genuine empathy for the other persons position.

Deal directly with resistance brings it out in the open; dont let others hide resistance behind
passivity or silence.

Evaluate the other position objectively make sure you understand not only the words but also
the feelings of the other person.

Hold your argument in reserve lay the groundwork first; make sure the other person
understands your reasoning, but dont rely entirely on a rational argument. (This is called the
indirect approach and will be discussed in considerable detail in later chapters.)
An effective team is one in which the individuals recognize the abilities and motives of one another and
are willing to work toward a common goal. The guidelines for developing such a team are as follows:
Have a clear sense of purpose define the goal and make sure everyone understands it.

Communicate openly and honestly present your own ideas and listen to those of others without
criticism.

Reach decisions by consensus make sure everyones ideas are heard and positions are clear.

 Think creatively consider what the implications of a decision will be, what could go wrong down
the road.

Remain focused dont get sidetracked.

Resolve conflicts effectively accept conflict as an inherent part of collaboration, and put it to its
best use.
After a team has collaborated and a made a decision, the next step is to communicate the decision to
other elements within the organization. This is often done through a group-produced document or
presentation called a collaborative message. The overall effect of such a message is usually greater
than could have been attained by an individual effort, but, just like the process of making a decision, the
process of producing the message can be difficult. Some guidelines follow:
Select the right team members to produce the message capitalize on particular interpersonal
and communication skills.

Choose a responsible leader usually a team member who plays a task-oriented role is best.

Promote cooperation establish standards of accuracy and honesty.

Clarify goals reiterate what has already been established, and make sure team members are
focused on the common task.

Elicit commitment re-establish team unity and create a sense of ownership.

Clarify responsibilities make sure everyone knows his or her job.

Foster prompt action determine a deadline for every part of the undertaking.

Ensure technological compatibility make sure everyone is using the same word-processing
equipment so that documents can be combined.

Apply technology wisely use technological resources to communicate with other team members.
If the teams task is to produce a written document, the goal is for it to seem as though one person wrote
it. Therefore, one or more members will have to critique the writing of the others. Doing so can be
problematic, for people are sensitive to criticism, even when it is constructive. The guidelines for
critiquing the writing of others center on four questions:

 Are the assignment instructions clear?

Does the document accomplish the intended purpose?

Is the factual material correct?

Does the document use clear language?

If these four questions can be answered positively, then the goal of the undertaking has probably been
met and no other major revisions are necessary. If minor revisions are desirable, make sure your
suggestions are positive so that team or individual morale wont be undermined.
Outline

I.

Teams
A.

B.

C.
II.

III.

IV.

Formal
1.

Committee

2.

Standing committee

Informal
1.

Problem-solving

2.

Task force

Virtual

Advantages
A.

Knowledge and information

B.

Diversity

C.

Ownership

D.

Accountability

Disadvantages
A.

Groupthink

B.

Hidden agenda

C.

Free riders

D.

High cost of coordination

Group dynamics
A.

Self-oriented roles

B.

Team-maintenance roles

C.
V.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

2.

Task-facilitating roles

Stages of group decision-making

A.

Orientation

B.

Conflict

C.

Brainstorming

D.

Emergence

E.

Reinforcement

Conflict
A.

Positive

B.

Negative

Win-win strategy
A.

Understanding

B.

Dealing with resistance

C.

Objectivity

D.

Reserve

Effective teams
A.

Purpose

B.

Honesty

C.

Consensus

D.

Creativity

E.

Focus

F.

Conflict resolution

Collaborative messages
A.

Process

B.

Critiquing

Section Review
Key Terms

parliamentary procedure

Summary
The most natural way for a group to solve a problem collaboratively is in a meeting. Individuals get
together to express their views, get feedback, recognize opportunities and solutions, and decide how best
to accomplish a common goal. As organizations rely increasingly on teamwork, the number of meetings

will increase concomitantly. Well-organized and conducted meetings are effective, but poorly run ones are
counterproductive. The keys to effective meetings are in the preparation, the way they are conducted,
and the members participation.
The first step in preparing for a meeting is to make sure it is necessary. If information can be
communicated more simply say through memoranda or e-mail it should be. If a meeting is necessary,
it should be convenient, focused, and productive. To make it so, follow these guidelines:
Purpose Is the meeting to be merely informational, such as a briefing, or will it involve decision
making, including analysis of an issue, brainstorming, debate, and persuasion?

Participants Who needs to be there? Why? If the meeting involves decision-making, there
should be no more than 6-12 participants.

Location Find a suitable and convenient location, and reserve it. Make sure the physical
environment is appropriate; a lot can depend on whether or not people are comfortable. It the
meeting is a work session, try to hold it in the morning rather than the late afternoon.

Agenda Establish agenda and stick to them! Distribute the list several days in advance so that
participants can prepare.
Productive agenda answer three questions: 1) What is the purpose or goal of the meeting? 2) What are
the key issues? 3) What information do we need? For the record, agenda also include the names or the
participants, the time and place, and the order of business.
Conducting a meeting requires some skill and tact. The first issue is to keep the meeting focused on the
purpose. Effective leaders have to give other members some latitude to discuss issue, but they also have
to keep the meeting on task. One method is to interrupt discussion and summarize what has been said.
But if you cut off discussion too quickly, it will be hard to reach a consensus.
An effective way of coordinating discussion in large groups is to use formal parliamentary procedure.
It is too detailed to explain here; the best way to learn it is to refer to the time-honored Roberts Rules of
Order or one of the many adaptations of it. (http://www.constitution.org/rror/rror--00.htm)
In order to get a full consensus and to make sure that group members are not acting out of hidden
motives, the leader has to encourage participation among everyone. Sometimes that entails asking
questions of particular members, focusing on issues that pertain directly to them. On the other hand,
sometimes the leader has to limit the participation of members who are especially active or domineering.
The best way to do this is to refer to time limitations and the fact that everyone needs to be heard from.
In closing a meeting, be sure to summarize the conclusions reached or list the actions still to be taken.
Wrapping things up this way helps ensure that the participants agree on certain key points and that
everyone knows what he or she has agreed to do by a certain date.
All participants in a meeting should all try to make a substantive contribution to the topic and to the spirit
of the meeting. As a meeting takes place, try to understand the group dynamics and be ready to adjust
your own ideas and feelings to the good of the whole.
The final step in conducting a meeting is the follow-up: make sure all participants receive a copy of the
minutes or notes and that everyone is clear on who is to do what and by when. An informal meeting
might not require minutes, but the participants should take their own notes and then follow-up as
required. Even so, it is not a bad idea for the leader to initiate follow-up through e-mail or a phone call.
The formal minutes of a meeting should include a heading with the word Minutes, the name of the
committee or team, and the date. This heading should be followed by a list of the names of those
present, usually in alphabetical order or by rank, and a list of the names of committee or team members
who were absent.

The body of the minutes states the time the meeting began and ended, the major decisions made, the
tasks assigned, and any topics that were deferred for later consideration or action. Next it includes a
summary of the discussion, including the names of those who contributed. Outlines, topic headings and
subheadings, and any material submitted by participants are also included where appropriate.
Finally, the minutes should close with the phrase Submitted by followed by the signature and printed
name of the person who compiled them. If they were typed by someone other than the person who
compiled them, the typists initials should be added just as in a standard business letter.
Outline

I.

Preparing a meeting

II.

III.

A.

Purpose

B.

Participants

C.

Location

D.

Agenda
1.

Purpose

2.

Issues

3.

Information

Conducting a meeting
A.

Focus

B.

Parliamentary procedure

C.

Participation

D.

Closing

Follow-up
A.

Minutes

B.

Format for minutes

Section Review
Key Terms

listening process

poor note taking

empathetic listening
receiving
prejudgment
nonverbal communication
interpreting

 self-centeredness
remembering
selective listening
evaluating
speech/thought disparity
responding
inappropriate reaction
physical distraction
content listening
differing viewpoints
critical listening
Summary
Most people would rather talk than write. Not only does talking require less time and effort, but it
provides the opportunity for immediate feedback, which clearly makes communication more effective.
However, there are some disadvantages to talking over writing: for one, you dont have much chance to
revise if you get it wrong the first time. Moreover, in order to effect good communication by providing
feedback, you must know not only how to talk but also how to listen. In addition, you have to know how
to interpret nonverbal cues that affect communication. And finally, you have to abide by a code of
etiquette that informs professional communication.
People spend more time receiving information than they do transmitting it; therefore, listening is just as
important, if not more so, than speaking and writing. Just like public speaking and message writing,
listening involves a process five sequential steps:
Receiving

Interpreting

Remembering

Evaluating

Responding
Most people arent good listeners; indeed, most listen at or below an efficiency rate of 25%. At best, we
remember only about 50% of what we heard in a ten-minute conversation, and forget half of that by the
time 48 hours has passed. The problem is that although we tend to listen to words, we dont necessarily
listen to the message.

The truth is that speakers have no more control over communication than listeners do. No matter what
the speaker says, the listener controls what he or she listens to. But even though control is a conscious
effort, there are numerous barriers to the listening process as well:
Physical distractions

Different viewpoints

Poor note taking

Prejudgment

Self-centeredness

Selective listening

Speech/thought disparity

Inappropriate reaction
Therefore, it is incumbent on the listener to recognize these impediments and try to overcome them.
Overcoming them requires some effort: you have to prepare to listen first of all by determining your own
point of view on the subject. Good listening skills can be developed by practice listening to information
that challenges your thinking. Another consideration is to match your listening style to the speakers
purpose. Several listening styles are defined below:
Content listening hearing and understanding the information that is imparted without
necessarily agreeing or disagreeing. An example would be hearing a sales managers report on
sales figures for the previous month.

Critical listening understanding and also evaluating what is said: considering the logic, the
evidence, the validity of the conclusions, the implications for your organization, the speakers
motive, and anything relevant that has been left out. An example would be listening to a sales
managers projections for next year and evaluating the validity and the implications for your
department.

Empathetic listening sharing the feelings of others rather than the ideas putting yourself in
the speakers place, even if you dont agree with what he or she is saying. An example would be
listening to a customers complaints about having a flat tire while on vacation.
Physical distractions can be a problem, but they are relatively easy to overcome. First, make sure you are
in the right frame of mind and body to listen; if you are overtired or preoccupied, you won't listen
effectively. Also, turn off distractions such as the radios, TVs, and cell phones, and make sure you are
located so that you can hear the speaker.

Listening actively entails finding some topic of common interest, something of relevance to yourself or
your organization. While the you attitude is an essential technique in imparting information, often the
me attitude works best while listening.
As you listen, be sure to keep an open mind; dont pass judgment until the speaker has finished, and
avoid the temptation to think up retorts to his or her argument. Ask questions to make sure you
understand, and mentally restate the speakers points in your own words. Be prepared to take notes, and
be sure to sort the facts from the principles, the ideas from the examples, and the evidence from the
opinion.
People think faster than they speak most speak at about 120-150 words per minute, while most
process 500 to 800 words per minute. This is known as the speech/thought disparity, and you should
take advantage of it by using the lag time to review and consider what the speaker has said. Dont just
daydream.
Dont be so focused on the speaker that you miss the meaning of the speech. Try to overlook distractions
in the speakers voice, appearance, mannerisms, and personality and instead focus on what he or she is
saying.
As was noted earlier, feedback is an invaluable part of the communication process; so be sure to provide
it. Paying attention, indeed looking attentive, will give the speaker confidence that what he or she is
saying is being well received. Avoid distracting gestures, faces, and movements. And dont talk! Help the
speaker by making eye contact, leaning forward, and nodding assent when a key point is made.
Many of the points mentioned above are examples of nonverbal communication - the sometimes
conscious, sometimes unconscious cues we give off when we speak and when we listen. Nonverbal
responses can modify, reinforce, or distort a message; so it is important to be aware of them and to use
them to advantage. Some examples of nonverbal communication are as follows:
Facial expressions more so than anything else reveal feelings. Eyes in particular are clues to a
persons state of mind. Eye contact is an important technique in establishing a relationship with
an audience.

Likewise, gestures and posture can express your attitude toward what you are saying or hearing.
Some gestures such as the wave of a hand have specific, recognizable meanings, both positive
and negative. Other gestures and body positioning can indicate confidence or anxiety,
friendliness or hostility, assertiveness or passivity, power or lack of it.

Vocal characteristics, like body language, can imply positive or negative feelings, intentional or
unintentional. Tone, volume, stress, and pace all serve as clues to your attitude toward your
subject, your audience, and yourself.

Personal appearance also conveys your feelings toward your audience and yourself. Making the
effort to look good suggests a positive attitude and a genuine concern for your purpose.

Touching physical contact is a controversial subject these days. While it is often intended to
convey warmth, comfort, and assurance, it is also often interpreted as a sign of intimacy. And
intimacy can and often is interpreted as a sign of sexual interest or liberty. Touching is probably
best limited to shaking hands.

Time and space are interesting nonverbal cues. Being on time for an appointment is obviously a
sign of respect, but keeping people waiting is a display of authority. People also assert authority
by claiming space the most attractive, convenient, and desirable.

 And space can be used in another way: the amount of space between people engaged in
communication can make the individuals feel comfortable or ill at ease. Indeed, standing too
close is often referred to as invading ones space.
As noted above, nonverbal communication is both conscious and unconscious, and it is the conscious kind
that can be put to best use. Usually, it is combined with verbal communication in one of the following
ways:
Reinforcement of words with gestures

Negation, indicating that the verbal message is not intended to be taken literally or seriously

Substitution of a nonverbal message for a verbal one a nod of assent, for example.

Intensification of the verbal message with a nonverbal gesture, such as slowing your speech to
stress importance

Regulation to indicate when one speaker is finished and the other should begin
Sometimes nonverbal communication betrays a speakers true feelings. Words are relatively easy to
control; body language, facial expressions, and vocal characteristics are not. When a speaker is not
telling the truth, the signs are usually pretty clear:
Lengthy response time

Distancing (Avoiding the personal pronoun I )

Uneven speech (stuttering, searching for words)

Gap filling (anxiety about gaps in a conversation)

Raised pitch

Squirming

To much or too little eye contact

 Micro-expressions

Touching oneself around the nose or mouth

Just as nonverbal communication can suggest dishonesty, it can also indicate sincerity and credibility.
Eye contact should be direct but not continuous; keep your eyes on the other persons face but
dont stare into his or her eyes too intently. Be careful not to shift your eyes or look down
before answering a question.

Gestures should be spontaneous, not rehearsed or conscious. Avoid using hand-to-face gestures.
Also, avoid throat clearing, fidgeting, adjusting your clothing. And try not to lick your lips, wring
your hands, tap your fingers, or smile exaggeratedly. If you can avoid perspiring, do so.

Your posture should be open and relaxed. Walk with confidence and grace. Hold you head and
chin up, but not too high. Sit up straight - just as your mother told you and smile and lean
forward when answering a question. Avoid crossing your legs and especially your arms, a sure
sign of anxiety and standoffishness.

Try to control your voice, using a conversational tone and speaking moderately fast. Avoid
monotone. Similarly, avoid a flat, tense, or nasal tone. Dont speak too fast, but dont speak too
slowly either. Try to avoid verbal mannerisms like ums and ahs, but dont become so self
conscious that your speaking sounds unnatural.
Outline

I.

Talking v. writing
A.

B.

II.

III.

Advantages
1.

Less time and effort

2.

More feedback

Disadvantages
1.

Less opportunity for revision

2.

Knowing how to listen

3.

Interpreting nonverbal cues

Listening process
A.

Sequential steps

B.

Controlling listening

C.

Barriers to listening

Overcoming impediments to listening

A.

Preparing to listen

IV.

B.

Practicing

C.

Listening styles

VI.

VII.
VIII.

Content listening

2.

Critical listening

3.

Empathetic listening

Methods for good listening

A.

Overcoming physical distractions

B.

Listening actively

C.
V.

1.

1.

Me attitude

2.

Open mind

3.

Speech/though disparity

4.

Speakers distractions

Providing feedback

Nonverbal communication
A.

Facial expressions

B.

Gestures and posture

C.

Vocal characteristics

D.

Personal appearance

E.

Touching

F.

Time and space

Using nonverbal communication

A.

Reinforcement

B.

Negation

C.

Substitution

D.

Intensification

E.

Regulation

Recognizing lying
Indicating sincerity
A.

Eye contact

B.

Gestures

C.

Posture

D.

Voice

Section Review 2
Summary
Etiquette is more than just table manners; it means knowing what to do in any given situation how to
interact with people without offending them or appearing unpolished what the French call savoir faire.
It is as important in business as in social occasions, for putting people at ease and appearing confident
and professional will make them more likely to want to do business with you.
Professional appearance is the first consideration. If you look like a professional, you are more likely to
act like one. Being well groomed and properly dressed shows respect for your organization, the people
you deal with, and yourself. Style is, of course, a matter of personal taste, but a good general rule is to
follow the style of dress of the people you work with. On the other hand, your own style can reflect your
attitude:
The smooth and finished look suggests that you are calm, cool, collected, capable, and probably
likable.

The elegant and refined look suggests that you are efficient and confident as well as powerful.

The crisp and starchy look suggests that you are all business, that you are reliable and goal
oriented.

The up-to-the-minute trendy look suggests that you are energetic, creative, open to new ideas,
ready to accept change, and eager to contribute.
Accessories are as important as clothes. Jewelry should be appropriate to the workplace, nothing gaudy
or tacky. All leather items should be in good condition. Clothes, of course, should always be clean and
well pressed.
Grooming is an important consideration as well. Be sure to shower daily, shampoo your hair, and keep
your nails trim and clean. Use deodorant and mouthwash as needed. Be aware of company policy
stated or tacit about hairstyles, especially on men. Finally it is a good idea to keep spare personal items
at work, such as toothbrush and toothpaste, breath mints, a comb and brush, and so on.
Face-to-face interactions with other people have a tremendous impact on your success in business.
Smiling is one of the most important considerations, and certain occasions require it:
When you are introduced to someone

When you feel uncomfortable or out of place

When you receive a gift or a compliment

When you applaud someone else

Of course, smiling should always be genuine; nothing is more obvious than a fake smile. In addition,
smiling too long can make others feel uncomfortable.

Shaking hands is perhaps the most common social and professional greeting, at least in the U.S. and
Canada. Some other cultures have different customs, and there will be more on this in the next chapter.
The rule used to be that men always shook hands standing up while women remained seated. Now it is
common for women to stand as well, especially when being introduced to a client or an organizational
superior. Similarly, it used to be considered inappropriate for a man to extend his hand to a women, but
now either the man or the woman can be the first to offer to shake hands. The one aspect of protocol still
in effect with regard to shaking hands is that the person of greater authority, as it were, or age is
generally the one to extend his or her hand first. But even this rule is no longer strictly observed.
When you do shake hands, regardless of who offers his or her hand first, be sure to smile, make eye
contact, and nod your head to show that you are fully focused on the person you are meeting. A firm
handshake suggests confidence, assurance, interest, and respect, but too strong a handshake might
suggest an intimidation.
Making introductions is an especially important professional skill and there are still some matters of
protocol that are observed. Basically, you should mention the name of the more senior person first or, if
rank is not a factor, of the older person first. Gender no longer matters. Always try to include a little bit of
information in the introduction to give the people you are introducing something to smile about and
respond to.
When you are being introduced to someone, make a special effort to hear the name and remember it.
Remembering a persons name will gain you a lot of goodwill. The best way to remember it is to repeat it.
Sharing a meal is a popular business convention. And knowing a bit about social etiquette will stand you
in good stead in this situation. Be careful about cocktails or wine; know alcohols effect on you and use
good judgment if it is offered. As for the business itself, save it until after the meal. Leave your papers
out of sight under the chair is a good place and leave your cell phone turned off. If you do have to
take a call during the meal, explain in advance and then excuse yourself from the table when the cell
phone rings.
During the meal, there are certain taboos that should always be observed:
Dont get too personal about either yourself or your company.

Dont complain about your boss or your colleagues.

Dont finish other peoples sentences.

Dont interrupt the conversation.

Dont use profanity or tell inappropriate jokes.

Dont talk business before the conclusion of the entre.

Dont dress inappropriately.

Dont cough or sneeze without covering your mouth.

 Dont burp or yawn.

Dont take out a mirror to apply makeup.

Some sources estimate that 95% of most companies business contacts come from the telephone. Much
of the nonverbal aspect of communication is lost when you speak on the phone, but your tone of voice
can still reveal a lot about your personality and, thus, your professional competence. Here are a few tips:
Use frequent responses to show you are still there (Oh yes, I see, Thats right.).

Increase your volume slightly to convey confidence.

Vary your pitch and inflection.

Speak a bit more quickly than normal but clearly enough to be understood.
Receiving phone calls is just as important as making them. People who call your business want to speak
with someone who is competent, and they dont want to be put on hold or relayed from one department
to another.
If you answer the phone for a colleague or co-worker who is not immediately available, take the callers
name, number, and a brief message. Here are a few tips for answering the phone:
Answer within three rings, if possible, and smile. Thats right smile. The tone of your voice will
be reflected in your smile.

Identify your company, your department, and yourself.

Ask, How may I help you? If you know the callers name, use it.

Answer the callers questions, if you can. If you cant, tell the caller how you can help.

Take complete, accurate messages repeat names, phone numbers, e-mails, addresses, and
dates. Always ask for a return number. Be sure to write your notes legibly.

If you have to put the caller on hold or transfer the call, explain what you are doing. If the delay
will be a long one, offer to call back.
When you are the one initiating the call, be sure you do some planning in advance:
Be ready before you call have the information you need, know what questions you will ask,
make sure you are the one directing the conversation.

 Schedule the call for an appropriate time.

Eliminate distractions dont call from an airport runway.

Make a clear, comprehensive introduction identify yourself, your company, and your reason for
calling. Ask, Is this a good time to call or should I call back?

Dont take up too much time get right to the point and then end the call.

Maintain audience focus during the call ask questions and give clear answers.

Close in a friendly, positive manner double check and confirm all information you have given or
received. If you promise to call back, be sure to do so.
Cell phone etiquette is a special issue. Using a cell phone in public can convey certain negative
messages: 1) that the people around you arent as important as your call and that you arent paying
attention to them and 2) that you dont respect your callers privacy. If it is necessary to make or receive
a cell phone call in public, try to find someplace private and quiet.
Voice mail is a great convenience. When you record your voice-mail greeting, be sure to observe the
following:
Be brief no longer than 30 seconds.

Be accurate tell your callers exactly what to do, i.e., when to start speaking.

Sound professional but cheerful.

Remind your callers to leave a detailed message and a phone number.

Make options logical and helpful limit menu items to three or four and always make one of the
options a live operator.

Update your greeting to reflect your schedule, especially if you will be away for an extended
period.

Check your voice mail frequently and return calls within 24 hours.

When you leave a voice mail message, follow these tips:

Keep the message simple leave your name, phone number and reason for calling. State a
specific time when you can be reached. Repeat your name and phone number at the end of the
message.

Sound professional give your message a headline so the receiver can determine its priority.

Avoid personal messages.

Use the replay option when available to make sure your message is complete and clear.

Dont leave multiple, repetitious messages follow up with a fax or e-mail.

Dont hide behind voice mail to avoid personal confrontations. Similarly, dont use voice mail to
express praise or appreciation; always do that in person.
Outline

I.

II.

III.

Appearance
A.

Style

B.

Accessories

C.

Grooming

Face-to-face interaction
A.

Smiling

B.

Shaking hands

C.

Introductions

D.

Sharing meals

Telephone interaction
A.

Receiving calls

B.

Making calls

C.

Cell phones

D.

Voice mail

Section Review
Key Terms

heading

descriptive heading
informative heading
Summary

The next step after finishing the first draft is to review and refine the message. In some instances,
multiple proofreadings are advisable i.e., reading the message one time for content, organization,
style and tone; another time for readability; and even a third time for clarity and conciseness.
Many business writers make the mistake of not proofreading and then editing a potentially costly
omission. The third step in the writing process completing the message entails three steps
within itself: revising, producing, and proofreading the message.
Revision is an ongoing activity through every stage of the writing process. It includes questioning
diction and sentence structure, trying alternative constructions, moving sentences and paragraphs
around, and generally reshaping and tightening the piece for maximum effect. Then once the
writing is done, you need to do a final revision of the entire message. The best approach to final
revision is to set the draft aside for a day or so and then go back and read it with a fresh eye.
Revision can be frustrating and time consuming, and it is important to try to stay on schedule,
especially if the message has a deadline. But even a minimal amount of revision is almost
guaranteed to produce a better piece of writing.
When proofreading and evaluating the content, consider the following points about the information
provided:
accuracy
relevance
sufficiency
balance
The next step is to evaluate for organization. The criteria to consider are
logical order
prominence of important ideas
alternative sequence
redundancy
grouping of ideas
Finally, evaluate diction, style, and tone for maximum desired effect on the intended audience.
The first proofreading of a message should focus on the overall content, organization, style and
tone. The beginning and ending of a message have the greatest effect on the audience; so they
should receive special careful attention. The beginning must engage the audiences interest and be

geared to the audiences probable reaction i.e., either the direct approach for a receptive audience
or the indirect approach for a skeptical one. The body of the message must clearly reflect the
purpose. And the ending should briefly summarize the main idea and leave the audience in a
positive frame of mind.
The second proofreading should focus on readability. Readability formulas such as the Fog Index
can determine the reading level necessary to understand the message. Most technical documents
are geared at an audience reading on the 12th-14th-grade level. General business messages typically
are geared to readers on the 8th to 11th grade levels.
As interesting and useful as readability formulas can be, they do have some shortcomings: they
dont account much for the effects of sentence structure, organization of ideas, or the appearance of
the text on the page. In addition, they do not work when documents, or parts of documents, are
written in languages other than English.
Because most audiences skim a business message rather than read it thoroughly, make the message
easy to skim by using short paragraphs, varied sentence lengths, bullets and lists, and headings and
subheadings.
Varied sentence length makes the message interesting. An experienced writer learns to develop
sentence rhythms to emphasize important ideas and help the reader move along through the text.
While business writing is typically characterized by short sentences, too many short sentences make
the message choppy. On the other hand, too many long, convoluted sentences cause the reader to
lose focus and, ultimately, lose interest. Variation in sentence lengths is the key. Short sentences
emphasize key points, medium-length sentences help show relationships between ideas, and long
sentences serve to group ideas, enumerate key points, and preview or summarize information.
As a rule, paragraphs should be short. Large blocks of text are intimidating and off-putting. In
college-composition essays, the paragraphs are usually five to eight sentences long; but in business
correspondence, three to five sentences is the general guideline. One-sentence paragraphs can be
used for emphasis or transition, but used sparingly and only for effect. An effective technique in
business writing is to break one long paragraph into several shorter ones. As always, the paramount
consideration is the convenience of the reader.
Another way to provide for the convenience of the reader is to use lists within the paragraph. The
items on the list can be separated from one another by numbers, letters, or bullets in order to
highlight them and make them easy for the reader to identify. If the list is short, it can be
incorporated into the sentence. Vertical lists, when there are more items, are especially helpful the
making the page easy to skim.
Numbers should be used to indicate items or steps in a sequence, but if the order is not important,
bullets are preferred to numbers. A list can be introduced either as a grammatical part of the
preceding sentence, or by a complete sentence followed by a colon. It is especially important that
the items in the list be written in parallel structure. Be careful not to mix single words, phrases, and
clauses as elements in a list.
Another way to highlight the components of a message is to use headings, which are similar to
subject lines in memos and e-mails. Headings provide organization, focus the readers attention,
and make connections between main and subordinate ideas. Descriptive headings simply identify
the topic, while informative headings give the reader more understanding of the context of the
message.
Informative headings should provide enough information that the reader can understand them
without having to read the rest of the message. For example, Introduction provides little in the

way of explanation of what is to follow. However, An Insight Into Better Communication tells
the reader exactly what to expect.
Once the message has been made readable, the next step is to proofread for clarity. At this step the
emphasis is on the individual sentences rather than the overall organizational pattern. The general
rules of composition come into play here: paragraphs must be unified, coherent, and sufficiently
developed; and sentences must be well constructed. Among the most common errors are
Excessive coordination or, more simply, too many ands. You can achieve clarity simply by
breaking a long sentence into two shorter ones or by subordinating one clause to another.
Hedging Using the qualifiers may or seems too often can make a piece of writing evasive or
uncertain.
Lack of parallelism Similar ideas should be expressed in similar grammatical constructions.
As noted above, phrases should be matched with phrases, clauses with clauses, and sentences
with sentences.
Dangling modifiers In sentences which begin with modifying phrases, the next word or
close to it should be the word the phrase refers to. For example, in the sentenceRunning up
the steps, her books fell from her arms, the participial phrase Running up the steps refers
neither to her books nor to her arms. The word it should refer to she is not used in the
sentence, thus the phrase is said to be dangling.
Strung together nouns Using a series of three or more nouns can be confusing or, at least,
distracting. For example, system safety engineer computer course could be rewritten as a
computer course for system safety engineers.
Camouflaged verbs Verbs are sometimes changed into nouns by adding suffixes such as ion,
tion, ing, ment, ant, ence, and ency. For example, justify becomes justification. One way to
achieve conciseness is to use verbs rather than these nominalizations.
Awkward syntax As a rule, the subject and predicate should be kept as close together as
possible. The way to accomplish this is to revise intervening phrases so that they are placed in
proximity to the words they modify but do not come between the major elements of the
sentence.
Weak references Professional correspondence, perhaps as a carry-over from an earlier time
when it had a peculiar jargon, is sometimes characterized by expressions such as the
aforementioned, as mentioned above, the former, the latter, respectively. These phrases can
cause readers to lose track of the main idea; thus they should be used sparingly.
Excessive enthusiasm Adjectives and adverbs have their place in business writing, but the
emphasis should always be on the nouns and verbs.
Conciseness is a virtue. Most drafts can be cut by 50%. You can cut excess by reorganizing
content, improving readability, and making sentence clear. The next step in editing for conciseness
is to consider every word and eliminate unnecessary ones. If you can cut words, phrases, or even
sentences without affecting the meaning, you should.
Delete qualifiers Very and rather usually dont really serve a really necessary purpose in a
sentence. (Oops, lets try that sentence again: Very and rather usually dont serve a purpose in
a sentence. Yes, thats better!)

 Reduce phrases and long words This speaks for itself.

Eliminate redundancy visible to the eye? No, just visible.
Avoid It is/ There is/ Here is These words are called expletives; they have no grammatical
purpose except to be the first word in a sentence. So, instead of There are three things I need
to tell you, how about I need to tell you three things.
Technology can be helpful in revising a business message. Just being able to revise and save text,
not to mention the cut-and-paste and search-and-replace functions, makes writing easier and more
effective. Most word processing programs includes automatic grammar and spelling checkers, and
some provide revision and editing trackers, which are especially useful when documents are being
produced by a group of writers.
However, these technological advantages have to be used with caution. Spell checkers can point
out typos, but they wont correct the wrong word if it is spelled correctly. For example, a writer
might have typed their when he or she meant there. Always consider the spell checkers
suggestions before accepting them. Similarly, the grammar checker will point out constructions that
are generally regarded as errors passive instead of active voice, for example. But it is still up to
you to decide if a change is appropriate or not. Sometimes the passive voice is desired. (In this
sentence, for example)
Finally, a computer thesaurus can be useful in suggesting alternative words when the one you have
thought of just isnt right. Again, though, you, the writer, must make the choice from among
however many suggestions the compute provides.
Outline

I. After the first draft

A. Revising
B. Producing
C. Proofreading
II. Revising
A. Content
1. Accuracy
2. Relevance
3. Sufficiency
4. Balance
B. Organization
1. Logical order
2. Prominence of main ideas
3. Sequence

4. Repetition
5. Grouping
D. Style and tone
E. Beginning and end
III. Reviewing for readability
A. Readability formulas
1. Technical documents 12-14th grade level
2. General business messages 8-11th grade level
3. Wall Street Journal and Forbes 10-11th grade level
B. Shortcomings of formulas
1. Variable sentence structure
2. Organization of ideas
3. Appearance on page
4. Other languages
IV. Accommodating skimming
A. Varying sentence length
B. Keeping paragraphs short
C. Using bullets and lists
1. Introducing
2. Parallelism
D. Adding headings and subheadings
1. Descriptive
2. Informative
V. Editing for clarity
A. Long sentences
B. Hedging
C. Lack of parallelism
D. Dangling modifiers

E. Noun sentences
F. Camouflaged verbs
G. Weak structure
H. Awkward references
I. Excessive enthusiasm
VI. Editing for Conciseness
A. Unnecessary words and phrases
B. Long words and phrases
C. Redundancies
D. It is/There are starters
VII. Revising with technology
A. Cut-and-paste
B. Search-and-replace
C. Spell checkers
D. Computer thesaurus
E. Grammar checkers

Section Review
Key Terms

typeface

Serif typeface
Sans serif typeface
Summary

Producing the message entails designing an attractive, contemporary page layout and often
incorporating graphics or hypertext.
Business messages are often embellished by full-color pictures, sound recordings, and hypertext
links. Visuals can be produced by presentation software (for overhead transparencies and computer
slide shows) and graphics software (for diagrams and flow charts as well as more complex artistic
designs such as clip art and scanned material). Sound bites can be recorded and attached to
documents. And hypertext links can enable readers to move easily from one document to the next
and back again.

Page layout is an important consideration: there is only one chance to make a good first impression.
In business communication as in haut cuisine, presentation is a vital element. The essential factors
in document design are
Consistency in margins, typeface, type size, spacing, paragraph indentations, between
columns, and around photographs
Balance of text, visuals, and white space
Restraint in use of design elements, highlighting, decorative touches
Detail in placement and appearance
Several design elements will make a message look professional, interesting, and up-to-date. White
space provides visual contrast with the text, allowing the reader to stop from time to time to rest.
Headings and subheadings orient the reader; they can be centered, but placing them flush with the
left margin improves readability, as does increasing the font by one type size. Captions are the first
text read in any document; be sure to use them for their full effect.
Margins have a notable effect on business messages. Fully justified (left and right) margins give
the appearance of form letters; in addition, they are difficult to read because of inconsistent gaps
between words. Margins flush on the left but ragged on the right give the message an informal,
contemporary appearance. Centered text creates the most formal appearance (like a social
invitation), but it is difficult to read because the eye must search for the beginning of each line.
Flush right and ragged left margins - would anyone actually do that???
Typeface refers to the physical appearance of the text characters, making the message look formal
or casual, authoritative or friendly, classic or modern. Serif typefaces such as Times New Roman
(used throughout this summary) are most often used for text, but they can look cluttered when used
in larger font sizes for headings.
Sans serif typefaces such as Helvetica and Arial (used in this paragraph) look best when
surrounded by white space; they are effective for headings and other displays but are
difficult to read in long passages. While it is effective sometimes to vary the typefaces for
emphasis, no more than two should appear on a single page. Too much variety is
distracting.
Type style refers to modifications made by the writer for contrast or emphasis - such as italics,
underlining, and highlighting. Boldface headings are especially helpful in breaking up long
passages of text. But too much boldface will result in a checkerboard appearance. Italics are also
used for emphasis, but there are specific rules governing their use in some instances indicating
titles of books, for example. Of course, any type style that impedes the readers progress does more
harm than good. Underlining, italics, boldface, and ALL-UPPERCASE LETTERS should all be
used judiciously.
Type size is a consideration as well. The most common for business messages is 10 or 12 point;
anything less is too small to read, and anything larger looks childish.
Most word processing programs provide enough elements to produce an appealing, professionallooking document, but the next step up is desktop publishing (DTP) software such as Quark
Xpress and Adobe PageMaker. These specialized programs include features such as color graphics
and additional typefaces. Moreover, they employ style sheets to insure that the formatting
commands are applied consistently throughout a particular document or indeed any document
produced by a department or entire organization.

Outline
I. Graphics, sound, and hypertext
A. Presentation software
1. Transparencies and slides
B. Graphics software
1. Diagrams and flowcharts
2. Clip art
3. Scanned pictures
C. Sound bites
D. Hypertext (HTML)
II. Page layout
A. Consistency
1. Margins, typeface, type size, spacing
2. Recurring design elements
B. Balance
1. Text
2. Graphics
3. White space
C. Restraint
D. Detail
III. Design elements
A. White space
1. Visual contrast
2. Resting place
B. Headings and subheadings
1. Centered
2. Flush left
C. Captions

D. Margin justification
1. Justified
2. Flush left
3. Centered
4. Flush right
E. Typeface
1. Serif
2. Sans serif
3. Number and variety
F. Type style
1. Boldface, italics, underlining, etc.
2. Judicious use
3. 10 to 12 point font
IV. Desktop publishing
A. High-tech finish
B. Consistency in style

Section Review
Summary

Even though typos, misspelled words, and incorrect punctuation might seem
insignificant compared to the larger issues of content and organization, these details
make a difference in ones credentials as a professional. Attention to details in a letter
or a rsum indicates of how much attention the applicant will give to the job. We
have only one chance to make a good first impression.
It is important to proofread not just for grammatical, mechanical, and spelling errors
but also for the following:

Omissions in text or documentation

Inconsistent design elements, e.g. type face, italics, underlining, and boldface

Misalignment of text or white space

Use of symbols which should be written out

Headings left hanging at the bottom of the page or short lines of text carrying over
to the next page

Seemingly insignificant points as extra spaces between words.

Proofreading the overall format is important as well. Some organizations have

conventions or guidelines for margin widths, numbers of columns, running heads, and
so on. Formal business letters consist of traditional elements such as the heading,
inside address, formal salutation, and complimentary closing; if the document calls for
these, they should be there.
Naturally, short, routine messages are likely to have fewer errors than longer, more
complex documents. Since proofreading is a vital part of the writing process, it should
be allotted sufficient time. And because most business correspondence is produced
under time constraints, it is important to stick to the schedule. Writing is a step-bystep undertaking, but ultimately the focus must be on the product rather than the
process.
As with every other skill, practice makes for, not perfection, but at least proficiency.
The more experience you have as a writer, the more you will know what kind of errors
to anticipate. It cannot be stated too often: proofreading, editing, and revising are
essential.
Outline

I. Effect of minor errors

A. Credibility of the writer
B. Impact on larger issues
II. Proofreading
A. Grammar, usage, punctuation
B. Spelling and types
C. Missing material
1. Source notes
2. Exhibits
3. Paragraphs
D. Design errors
1. Typeface
2. Type style
3. Column and exhibit alignment
4. Symbols rather than words
5. Extra spacing
6. Tops and bottoms of pages
E. Overall format
1. Company conventions and guidelines
2. Traditional elements
3. Consistency
a. Page numbers
b. Heading styles
c. Exhibit titles
d. Source notes
III. Adapting the proofreading process

A. Time required
1. Short messages
2. Longer documents
B. Allotting time
1. Schedule
2. Process/product
3. Practice

Section Review 6
Key Terms

photocopied

print shop
mail merge
broadcast faxing

Summary
The final step in completing a business message is to distribute it. Multiple copies can be printed
on the computer or one copy can be printed and photocopied. If large numbers of copies are
required, or if high quality resolution is desired, the document can be taken to a print shop to be
copied by professionals.
Mail merge is a computer feature which enables one document to be addressed for distribution to a
large number of recipients. The names and addressees can come from a customized database or
from commercially acquired mailing lists.
Broadcast faxing is a similar feature in which the names and numbers are entered into a fax
machine and the document instantly transmitted to everyone on the list. Fax machines are
especially useful in international communication; the postal service is too slow and time-zone
differences can cause delays and other inconveniences.
CD-ROMs or computer disks are being used increasingly to provide large amounts of information.
They are inexpensive and easily mailed.
Finally, the Internet is a valuable resource for distributing information to the widest possible
audience at virtually no cost. Documents of all sizes can be attached to e-mail, and especially long
ones can be compressed for faster loading. In addition, documents can be encoded for secure
transmission.
Outline

I. Multiple copies
A. Inkjet or laser printer
B. Photocopier
C. Print shop

1. High volume
2. High resolution
II. Mail merge
A. Custom database
B. Mailing lists
III. Broadcast fax
A. Delay of regular mail
B. Time-zone inconvenience
IV. CD-ROM
A. Storage capacity
B. Low cost
C. Convenience
V. Internet
A. E-mail attachments
B. Compressed files
C. Encoding

Section Review
Key Terms

planning

writing
completing
purpose
audience
schedule
Summary
Business professionals undertake a wide variety of communication tasks everyday, many in the form of
written messages. To compete for an audiences attention, the writer must produce messages that are
purposeful, audience-centered, and concise.
An effective method for producing written messages is to view writing as a three-step process:
planning, writing, and completing.

Planning entails determining the purpose for writing, establishing a schedule or time frame for
producing the message, and analyzing the needs of the audience. The writer first gathers sufficient
information to inform, persuade, or motivate the readers. In addition, the writer must adapt the message
to the appropriate channel or medium to suit the convenience of the audience.
The second step is to compose the first draft to put thoughts into words, words into sentences, and
sentences into paragraphs and to develop main ideas with supporting details.
After producing a first draft, the writer completes the message by reviewing the content and organization
for organization, clarity and style. Several revisions in content and structure are usually necessary to
make the message clear and effective and to produce it in the format in which it will be read. Finally, the
writer proofreads the message for errors in grammar, punctuation, spelling, and mechanics and edits it as
necessary.
Producing effective business messages can be challenging indeed frustrating and time consuming.
Scheduling a time frame in which to plan, write, and complete the message is essential. Generally, the
writer should dedicate half the allotted time to planning, less than a quarter to writing, and more than a
quarter to completing the message.
While it is important to complete all the steps in the process, it is not always necessary to do so in order.
Effective writers often shift back and forth from one step to another - sometimes drafting and then
revising, sometimes revising while they draft. The writing process allows flexibility, but to produce an
effective message, the writer should ultimately complete each step.
Outline

I.

Three-step writing process

A.

B.

C.

II.

Planning
1.

Determine purpose

2.

Analyze audience

3.

Adapt message to channel and medium

Writing
1.

Organize information

2.

Compose first draft

Completing
1.

Review style, structure, readability

2.

Revise and rewrite

3.

Edit grammar, punctuation, format

4.

Produce in format

5.

Proof final draft

Three-step writing process at work

A.

Time frame
1.

_ for planning

2.

_ (-) for writing

3.
B.

_ (+) for completing

Flexibility steps do not have to be completed in order

Section Review
Key Terms

general purpose

specific purpose
informing
persuading
collaborating
time frame
audience profile
primary audience
Summary
The first consideration in planning a business message is the purpose. Every business message had both
a general purpose and a specific purpose.
The general purpose of any business correspondence is to inform, to persuade, or to collaborate.
Informing an audience requires little direct interaction: the writer has maximum control of what is being
imparted. Persuading an audience requires some active participation from the audience: the writer must
adjust his message according to the feedback from the audience. Collaborating with an audience
requires maximum participation from the audience: thus the writers control is minimized.
Some examples of the specific purpose of a business message are placing an order for products or
services, communicating the results of a survey, or convincing management to hire personnel. The key
point in determining the specific purpose is the audiences response to it: what should the audience think
or do after reading the message?
There are four important questions the writer should consider with regard to the purpose of a business
message:
1) Is it realistic? Will the audience accept it as proposed? Or am I asking for too much too fast?
2) Is the timing right? Organizational flux, impending changes, and cost factors should all be taken into
account.
3) Who has the most credibility in delivering the message? That is, whose name should appear on the
signature line?
4) Is the message in the best interest of the organization overall? Have I cleared this message with other
elements to make sure there will not be repercussions up, down, or across the infrastructural lines?
The second step in planning a business message is to establish a time frame so that all three steps in
the process can be completed. As a rule, planning the message should take about half the time allocated
for the entire process. Writing the message should take somewhat less than one-fourth of the time, and
completing it should take somewhat more than one-fourth.
The third step in planning a business message is to develop an audience profile. Audience analysis
within a small organization is generally easy; people know each other and can usually predict one

anothers reactions. But as the size of the audience increases, it becomes increasingly important to
ascertain the needs of its members.
There are six important considerations in developing an audience profile:
1) Identify the primary audience: who are the decision makers who will have the final say as to whether
or not your purpose is realized?
2) Determine the audiences size: the larger the audience, the more needs must be met.
3) Ascertain the audiences composition: similarly, the broader the composition of the audience, the more
needs its members will have. Appealing to a wide range of cultural, educational, social, and ideological
needs requires skill and often finesse.
4) Gauge the audiences level of understanding: it is easy enough to communicate with an audience with
the same background, skill level, and understanding as the writer. But often an audience will have to be
educated before it can be persuaded. Establishing a clear and relatively narrow focus is essential in this
regard; otherwise, an audience might lose interest.
5) Consider the audiences expectations and preferences: perhaps the most important general guideline
in appealing to an audience is to anticipate the needs of its members. What format will be most
appealing? How much detail is necessary? What questions will they be likely to ask?
6) Estimate the audiences probable reaction: again, anticipating the audiences response enables the
writer to deal with skepticism and counter arguments effectively.
Outline

I.

Purpose
A.

B.

b.

General purpose
1.

To inform little interaction/maximum control

2.

To persuade moderate interaction/moderate control

3.

To collaborate maximum interaction/little control

Specific purpose
1.

What to accomplish

2.

How audience should respond

3.

How to proceed

1.

Is purpose realistic?

2.

Is timing right?

3.

Is the right person delivering the message?

4.

Is purpose acceptable to organization?

Audience profile
A.

Primary audience decision makers

B.

Size

C.

Composition

D.

Level of understanding

E.

Expectations and preferences

F.

Probable reaction

Section Review
Key Terms

Journalistic approach

Summary
Before beginning the composing or writing stage of the process, the writer usually finds it necessary to
gather information about the subject. Sometimes this takes the form of formal research, but sometimes,
depending on the subject, informal information gathering is sufficient.
Among the effective ways to gather information informally are the following:
Putting oneself in the position of others to anticipate their thoughts, questions, and responses;

Researching company reports, files, press releases, surveys, and other documents;

Gathering information from the grapevine: chatting with co-workers, colleagues, supervisors, and
customers;

Asking the audience directly for input.

One of the most important maxims in professional communication is to anticipate the audiences
questions and to have the answers ready at hand. Often those questions are readily apparent: the
audience will have asked them directly by contacting the company or organization. Sometimes, however,
the request is vague; the consumer may not be able to explain what he or she wants or may not even
know what it is. In these instances, the writer should attempt to clarify the audiences need by restating
the request more specifically. In other cases, the writer might try to focus on the priority of the request in
order to determine its relative importance.
Sometimes it is necessary to anticipate questions the audience might not even have thought of yet.
Providing the answer to a question before it has been asked is frequently an excellent means of
establishing goodwill with a business customer or client.
After the audiences needs have been defined, they must be satisfied. A familiar means of making sure all
the necessary information is included in a business message is to use the journalistic approach to
ask the questions who? what? when? where? why? and how? about the text of the message in order to
insure that no important information has been left out. Anytime one of these questions has not been
answered, the writer should consider providing more detail.
It is essential not only to anticipate and answer all the audiences questions but also to answer them
correctly. Providing incorrect or misleading information can result in the companys being held culpable
and possibly being sued. The writer should always confirm information that is being supplied to make
sure that it is correct and that he or she has the authority to release it. Outside sources, especially on the
Internet, should be checked for accuracy and currency. International sources, in particular, can vary in
terms of points of detail. Any numerical information, especially dates and financial calculations, should be
checked and double-checked.
Ethics is a paramount issue in the professional world, thus any information provided in a business
message must conform to high standards of honesty and sincerity. An example of an unethical message

is one in which pertinent information has been omitted. Of course, organizations often have sound
reasons, legal and otherwise, for not including every detail about a business matter. In these instances,
the best course is for the writer to provide as much information as he or she believes appropriate and
then offer to provide more if required. Honest mistakes are made in the business world, and the ethical
course of action is to correct them as soon as possible.
Just as the writer must be sure to include as much information as can be provided, he or she must be
careful not to overwhelm the audience with irrelevant information or too much detail. Once again,
analyzing the audience and understanding its needs and preferences it key to writing an effective
business message.
Outline

I.

II.

Obtaining initial information

A.

Others viewpoints

B.

Company reports and documents

C.

Informal input from co-workers and customers

D.

Direct input from audience

Ascertaining audiences needs

A.

Direct requests

B.

Vague requests

C.

Unanticipated needs

III.

Providing complete information journalistic approach

IV.

Making sure information is accurate

V.

VI.

A.

Legal obligation

B.

Double checking
1.

Calculations

2.

Dates and schedules

3.

Assumptions and conclusions

Making sure information is ethical

A.

Honest mistakes

B.

Missing information

Making sure information is pertinent

A.

Emphasizing key points

B.

Adjusting to audiences needs

Section Review 4
Key Terms

communication channel

teleconferencing

media richness

videotape

letters

computer conferencing

memos

fax

e-mail

instant messaging

you attitude

websites

bias-free language

credibility

voice mail

Summary
After collecting the necessary information, the writer should ascertain the best way to
adapt the message to the purpose and audience. This step entails choosing an
appropriate communication channel and medium and establishing a good
relationship with the audience.
A communication channel can be either oral or written. Examples of oral media are
face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, and videotaped addresses.
Examples of written media are letters, memos, e-mail, and reports.
The first consideration in choosing the appropriate channel and medium is media
richness the effectiveness of a medium in a particular communication undertaking.
Media richness is gauged in terms of the mediums effectiveness in conveying the
message in more than one informational cue (visual, verbal, vocal), 2) generating
feedback, and 3) establishing a personal focus.
The richest communication medium is face-to-face conversation, which provides the
opportunity for immediate feedback and enables both speaker and audience to convey
emotional responses. However, face-to-face conversation is the most restrictive
medium because of the logistical constraint i.e., the speaker and the audience
must be in the same place at the same time. An example of lean media is
advertising fliers distributed to an unspecified audience. The advantage of this type
of media is that routine information can be communicated to a large unspecified
audience.
The choice of channel and media is important in terms of the tone the writer wishes to
impart: letters, memos, and presentations can be used to establish a formal tone;
voice mails, personal letters, and private conversations can be used if the speaker
wishes the tone to be confidential; visual media such as videotapes and video
conferencing are effective in moving an audience emotionally; and, as noted above,
face-to-face conversation is the best way to achieve immediate feedback.

The choice of channel and media is also affected by the time frame. The quickest way
to send a message is by phone, fax, or next-day mail. But these are also the most
expensive.
The most important consideration with regard to channel and media is audience
expectation and preference. The nature of the message and the culture and customs
of the audience are factors to consider.
Business professionals often choose oral channels because of the speed and the
availability of immediate feedback: if an audiences response is an important
consideration, oral communication provides the best means of gauging it. However,
the drawback to oral communication is that the speaker cannot edit and revise a
message before the audience hears it. Once a comment has been made, it cant be
taken back.
Written messages provide the obvious advantage of control; the writer can consider
and revise his or her words until they are right. But when the writer is distanced from
the audience, he or she loses the advantage of immediate feedback. Written media
are most appropriate when the information is complex or lengthy, when the audience
is large or widely dispersed, when a permanent record is desirable, and when direct
contact with the audience is unnecessary or undesirable.
Memos and e-mails are the optimal media for day-to-day internal communication.
Letters are used for more formal communication outside the organization. Of course,
e-mail is used with increasing frequency for external communication, especially when
speed is more important than formality or public relations.
The most important difference among letters, memos, and e-mail is the format.
Letters, the most formal of the three, are usually written on letterhead stationary; then
comes a dateline, inside address, salutation, the message, the complimentary close,
and the signature block.
Memos, which can contain the same information as letters, include a title and then a
heading with the words To, From, Date, and Subject, in that order. The tone is often
conversational, and memos are less confidential than letters because they are often
sent via inter-office delivery or e-mail.
E-mail messages are the least formal of the three: most e-mail programs provide
space for a heading To, From, and Subject. The date is automatically inserted by the
software. Salutations and complimentary closes are often used, indeed are highly
advisable for the sake of tone; however, sometimes they are omitted altogether, and
the only text is the message itself,
Other types of written media are reports and proposals. These media are used
internally and externally to provide factual, often documented, information. They are
generally more formal than letters and often considerably longer, sometimes several
hundred pages.
Electronic media oral and written are most effective when speed, distance, tone
zone variations, and audience dispersion are considerations. Their disadvantage is
their lack of confidentiality. Among the available means of electronic conversation
are:

Voice mail used for short messages that require no response. Voice mail has the
advantage of enabling the speaker to communicate emotion or tone, usually for
the sake of promoting goodwill and other positive factors. It also reduces
paperwork.

Teleconferencing an alternative to face-to-face meetings when distance is a

factor. It is most effective for imparting information and does not allow for
secondary conversations during a presentation. The drawback is that
participants are limited in their ability to share information and to negotiate.

Videotape effective for communicating motivational messages to a wide

audience. It offers even less opportunity for feedback than teleconferencing.

Computer conferencing enables participants to meet in real time and to share

visual documents on a screen. It emphasizes the message rather than the sender,
thus media richness is compromised.

Fax - used to provide a hard copy when the mail is too slow or time zone
differences are a problem. Faxes are not confidential and the quality of the image
might be poor.

E-mail quick, low cost (or no cost), and accessible virtually anywhere, e-mails are
very effective in producing short, simple messages.

Instant messaging e-mail in real time, instant messaging allows immediate

response to individual or group e-mail. Instant messages are not saved, so there is
no permanent record.

Websites hyperlinks to various sites are an effective way of doing research and
following ones own course of interest.

Electronic messages have their advantages and disadvantages. Email is informal, but
there is still more distance between the writer and the receiver than in a face-to-face
conversation. Often the tone of an email message is misinterpreted, and conflicts
result. In addition, people overuse e-mail, generating hundreds of junk messages
which have to be filtered or deleted. Moreover, electronic messages lack the privacy
of written messages. Electronic messages are often unintentionally sent to a wider list
of readers than intended, and they can be forwarded by the original receiver to others.
Furthermore, e-mail can be legally monitored by employers and can be subpoenaed as
legal evidence. Finally, electronic communication can result in loss of productivity
when employees are constantly interrupted or when they use it for personal reasons.
These disadvantages notwithstanding, electronic media is being used with increasing
frequency because of its speed and convenience.
Good communication involves not only effective channels and media but also a good
relationship with the audience. Honesty and sincerity are important considerations for
the writer. In addition, using the you attitude, being polite, using bias-free
language, and projecting a positive company image can go a long way to establishing
a good relationship with the audience.
Adopting the you attitude means trying to see a situation through the audiences
eyes and expressing information in terms of the audiences needs and interests. Of
course, using the you attitude does require some finesse: overusing it or using it in
an imperative tone can sound pushy or forward. For example, it is more diplomatic to
say All copies must be corrected by noon rather than You must correct all copies by
noon.
Emphasizing the positive is another way of establishing a good relationship with an
audience. Sometimes a business message contains bad news, but in most instances
something positive can be said. Also, even though it is sometimes necessary to point
out other peoples mistakes, it is better to focus on what can be done to rectify the
error rather than the fact that it was made in the first place.
The language used in a business message is important, and the writer should avoid
wording that might seem hurtful or insensitive, even though he or she must be honest.
One way to do this is by using euphemisms. On the other hand, it is important not to
use euphemism in a way that they hide or distort the facts. For example, relocating
refuse does not mean the same thing as burying toxic waste.
An important consideration in establishing a relationship with an audience is building
credibility. (The classical philosopher Aristotle refers to this as ethos, the root of our

word ethics.) One way of doing so is for the writer to establish some common ground
with the audience in terms of background or professional interest. Another way is to
refer to a recognized authority; this is one of the effects of research. Of course, the
best way ultimately to achieve credibility is to provide accurate and sufficient
evidence to persuade the audience.
Similarly, credibility will be lost if the information provided is insufficient or incorrect.
Exaggerated claims that cannot be supported, insincere flattery, false modesty, and
genuine lack of confidence are all impediments to credibility.
It goes without saying that politeness is an important factor in writer/audience
relationships. Courtesy, kindness, and tact are obvious means of communicating
effectively. And of course, the writer should never vent frustration or express anger,
no matter how exasperated he or she gets.
Written communication usually requires more tact than oral; when one is speaking, the
tone of voice and body language can indicate the attitude behind the words.
Moreover, feedback from the audience helps the speaker gauge the effect of his other
words and moderate them accordingly.
Another important courtesy to observe is promptness. And if a response to a message
is going to be delayed, it is well to let the sender know when a response can be
expected.
Most people naturally want to be unbiased, ethical and fair. But being so is not always
enough. In the multicultural modern world, it is just as important to appear to be
sensitive. Bias-free language is an important consideration in dealing with audiences
made up of different genders, races, ages, and physical and mental abilities.
A final consideration in developing a good audience relationship is to project ones
company image positively. Ones own views and personality must sometimes be
subordinated in order to effect the best interest of the organization.
Outline
I.

Selecting a channel and medium

A. Communication channel
1.

Oral

2.

Written

B. Media richness

II.

1.

Multiple cues

2.

Feedback

3.

Personal focus

Relative degrees of media richness

A. Face-to-face communication
1.

2.

Richest
a.

Extends and humanizes ones presence

b.

Communicates caring attitude

c.

Gains employee commitment

Restricted by proximity

B. Routine day-to-day communication

III.

Other factors

A. Formality letters, memos, faxes

B. Confidentiality voice mail, letters, private conversation
C. Emotional commitment speeches, videotapes, videoconferences
D. Immediate feedback face-to-face conversation
E. Time phone, fax, next-day mail
F. Audience preference and expectation
IV.

Oral media
A. Advantage: immediate feedback
B. Disadvantage: reduced ability to revise

V.

Written media letters, memos, and e-mail

A. Letters
1.

More formal

2.

Format
a.

Letterhead

b.

Date

c.

Inside address

d.

Salutation

e.

Message

f.

Complimentary close

g.

Signature block

B. Memos
1.

Less formal

2.

Format
a.

Title

b.

Heading

c.

Message

C. E-mail messages

VI.

1.

Heading

2.

Salutation (optional)

3.

Message

4.

Complimentary close

5.

Name

Written media - reports and proposals

A. Factual and objective
B. Internal or external
C. Various formats and lengths
D. More formal than letters, memos, email

VII.

Electronic media
A. Voice mail
B. Teleconferencing
C. Videotape
D. Computer conferencing
E. Faxing
F. E-mail
G. Instant messaging
H. Websites

VIII.

Disadvantages of electronic media

A. Candor - tension and conflict
B. Overuse junk mail
C. Lack of privacy
1.

Inappropriate distribution

2.

Forwarding

3.

Monitoring

4.

Subject to subpoena

D. Interruption of employee productivity

IX.

Good audience relations

A. You attitude
1.

Audiences wishes, interest, needs, preferences...

2.

Finesse

3.

Drawbacks

4.

Cultural factors

B. Emphasizing the positive

1.

What is/what isnt

2.

Redeeming features

3.

Improvement

4.

Advantage to audience

5.

Euphemisms

6.

Unethical euphemisms

C. Establishing credibility
1.

Confidence in competence and integrity

2.

Overcoming audience preconceptions

a.

Common ground

b.

Credentials

c.

Reference to authority

d.
3.

Evidence

Not losing credibility

a.

Exaggerated claims

b.

Insincere flattery

c.

False modesty

d.

Lack of self confidence

D. Being polite
1.

Courtesy

2.

Not venting

3.

Diplomacy and tact

4.

a.

Inflection and expression

b.

Disadvantage of written messages

Promptness

E. Cultural sensitivity

X.

1.

Appearance of fairness

2.

Bias-free language
a.

Gender bias

b.

Racial and ethnic bias

c.

Age bias

d.

Disability bias

Company image

Section Review
Summary

Routine messages serve a lot of functions in business communication, from requesting

information from other companies to responding to customers. Routine messages are
usually short and relatively simple, but they still require careful attention. The threestep writing process is as effective for them as for more complex messages.
The steps in the writing process are already familiar: analyze the purpose and
audience, collect information and do research, and adapt the message to the
audience's needs and expectations.
The purpose for writing should be clear and the timing appropriate. Most routine
messages are well received because they are necessary for the conducting of daily
business matters, but even so the writer should not take the audience for granted.
The second step, as usual, is to gather relevant information. Again, this entails
anticipating the audiences needs and response to the message.
The third step, naturally, is to adapt the message to the audiences needs. Should the
message be written or oral, formal or informal, letter or e-mail? And, of course, as in
any business message, the you attitude is always appropriate.
Organizing and composing routine messages is usually not difficult or time consuming.
The main idea is often already defined; so it remains only to cover the relevant points
in a logical organizational pattern. The direct approach is most often effective, as

most readers of routine messages are receptive or, at least, neutral. The pattern of
development is already familiar: start with a direct statement of the main idea,
develop it sufficiently with details, and end with on a cordial note. There is one
caveat, though: if the audience is an international or multicultural one, it is wise to
make sure the readers will prefer the direct approach. In some cultures, the direct
approach is considered too abrupt.
Once again, as with every form of professional correspondence, revision, production,
and proofreading are essential steps in the process. The content and organization
should be carefully scrutinized and, if necessary, revised to produce the desired effect.
In addition, the message should be reviewed for readability i.e., conciseness and
clarity. Then suitable design elements should be chosen to best reflect the messages
purpose and appeal to the audience. Finally, a good proofreading should take care of
any types, spelling and mechanical errors, misaligned text, and other minor problems.
Outline

I. Function of routine messages

A. Requesting information
B. Responding to customers
II. Routine messages
A. Short
B. Simple
C. Planned
III. Planning routine messages
A. Purpose and audience
1. Clarity and timeliness
2. Audience reception
B. Research
1. Relevant information
C. Adaptation
1. Channel and medium
2. Format
3. Relationship with audience
IV. Writing routine messages
A. Direct approach
1. Main idea
2. Details
3. Cordial closing
B. Cultural sensitivity
V. Completing routine messages
A. Revision
1. Overall effect
2. Readability
3. Clarity and conciseness

B. Production
1. Design elements
C. Proofreading
1. Typos
2. Spelling and mechanical errors
3. Text alignment
4. Print quality

Section Review
Key Terms

claim

adjustment
Summary

Routine requests for information, action, products, adjustments, references, and so on are a part of
the normal course of business. They should not be made unnecessarily, and when they are made
they should be efficient and effective.
Routine request messages, like all other business messages, have an opening, a body, and a
conclusion. The direct approach is appropriate in most routine requests the main idea is stated in
the opening. Relevant details about the request and, in some instances, a justification for it are
included in the body. The closing includes a call to action and a cordial concluding statement.
Routine requests might seem simple, but all professional correspondence requires careful thought
and wording to avoid misinterpretation or ill will.
A routine request should begin with a direct statement of the request itself. But directness can
sometimes be misunderstood as abruptness; so it is important to moderate the tone by avoiding the
imperative mood (making a command). In addition, the writer should
assume that the audience will comply,
avoid personal introductions which will bury the main idea, and
be specific in stating exactly what is being requested.
(A fine point about writing a request is that a polite request in question form does not require a
question mark at the end of the sentence.)
The body of the request message should explain the reason for the request, show how the reader can
benefit from complying, and provide details about the request. Often the details are written as a
series of questions. The key points in using this approach are as follows:
Ask the most important questions first.
Ask only relevant questions.
Deal with only one topic per question.

The closing of a request message has three parts: a specific request for action, information about
how the writer can be contacted, and an expression of appreciation or goodwill. It is not
appropriate to thank the reader in advance for complying with the request; doing so might seem
presumptuous. Any expression of appreciation should occur after the request has been granted, in
the form of a thank-you note or other follow-up letter.
Routine requests take several forms. Among the most frequent are requests for information and
action, claims and requests for adjustments, and requests for recommendations and references.
Requests for information

Requests for information and action are usually simple: a direct statement of what is needed or
desired, a justification for the request, and a specific statement of what is desired and when it is
needed. In some instances the justification for the request should include a statement of the
advantage to the reader for complying.
These requests often are directed to company insiders fellow employees or supervisors. In such
cases, short, clear, and thoughtfully written memos or e-mails are usually sufficient. On the other
hand, requests directed to outsiders customers, other businesses, government officials, and so on
usually require a formal letter, although conciseness is still regarded as a virtue.
Businesses sometimes use request letters to re-establish relations with customers or suppliers,
especially in instances when customers have become dissatisfied. These letters of inquiry, as they
are called, encourage customers to reconnect with the business by using idle credit accounts,
address what has gone wrong, and re-establish good relations. This sort of personal attention can
go a long way toward creating goodwill.
Claims and requests for adjustment

Claims against a company and requests for adjustment are special messages that require some
degree of finesse. A phone call might solve the problem, but a letter serves as documented evidence
of the claim and the date it was made. Even though the writer might be angry because of defective
product or poor service, he or she should write a clear explanation in a courteous tone.
The best way to achieve the desired tone in a claim letter is to assume that the adjustment will be
made to ones satisfaction. As with any request letter, the writer should start with a clear statement
of the reason for writing; provide clear, specific details, including any information an adjuster might
need to verify the complaint; and close with a polite request for specific action and an indication
that a good professional relationship will continue if the problem is resolved satisfactorily.
To maintain good relations, most companies will accept a customers explanation of what is wrong;
so it is important that claims be filed ethically. Even so, companies will often expect the
dissatisfied customer to provide verification of the transaction, such as receipts, invoices, cancelled
checks, dated correspondence, and so on.
Requests for recommendations and references

Another type of routine message is the request for recommendations and/or references. These
letters can attest to an employees or applicants ability, skill, integrity, education, background, or
suitability for a particular job. Since these letters are almost always written to people who will
respond favorably to the request, a direct statement of the reason for requesting a reference works
best. This opening should be followed by a brief account of the professional relationship with the
person being requested to write the reference and the time frame in which the relationship occurred.
In other words, it is a good idea to suggest to the person who will write the reference what the letter
should include. It is also helpful to include a rsum to remind the reference writer of background
details and to apprise him or her of recent activities.

A few more important points about asking for recommendations or references: the full name and
address of the person to whom the letter is to be directed must be included, as well as an addressed
and stamped envelope. Also, if there is a deadline, it should be mentioned in the letter.
Outline

I. Routine requests
A. Opening: Direct approach
1. Avoid imperative mood
2. Assume reader will comply
3. Avoid personal introductions
4. Be specific
B. Body: Explanation and justification
1. Benefit to reader
2. Request for information
a. Most important questions first
b. Only relevant questions
c. One topic per question
C. Courteous closing
1. A specific request
2. Contact information
3. Expression of appreciation or goodwill
II. Request for information and action
A. Contents or letter
1. Direct approach
2. Explanation and justification
3. Expectation and deadline
4. Benefit to reader
B. Recipients of requests
1. Company insiders
2. Company outsiders

3. Disaffected customers
III. Claims and requests for adjustments
A. Tone
1. Courteous, clear, concise explanation
2. Assumption that adjustment will be made
B. Contents of letter
1. Statement of problem
2. Explanation of details
3. Request for action
4. Goodwill
C. Supporting evidence
IV. Requests for recommendations and references
A. Relationship
B. Time frame

Section Review 7
Key Terms

resale

sales promotion
Summary

The goals when responding to routine requests or sending positive messages are 1) to communicate
the information or good news, 2) to answer the readers questions, 3) to provide sufficient details,
and 4) to leave the reader with a positive feeling about the writer and the organization. Just as the
writer of a request message has used a courteous tone and employed the you attitude, so should
the writer of the reply.
Replies to requests and other positive messages have an opening, a body, and a close, just like
virtually every other business message. As usual, the direct approach works best. The message
should begin with the main idea written clearly and concisely.
The body of the message explains anything that might be ambiguous and provides supporting
details. If the message is not entirely positive, the disappointing information can be stated directly
but should be explained in as favorable a context as possible. However, this technique requires
some finesse; it should be used only when it is reasonably certain that the audience will respond
positively. The body of the message can also provide a good opportunity to engage in resale, the
technique of persuading a customer that he or she has made a good choice. Similarly, sales
promotion can be accomplished by promoting interest in a good or service that the customer has
not already purchased.

Once again, the close should be courteous and appreciative, even when the message is a response to
a request. The reader should always feel that his or her best interest is of paramount importance and
consideration.
Routine replies and positive messages generally fall into six categories, each of which will be
discussed below:
Informative messages

Informative messages sent to company personnel include information about organizational changes,
upcoming events, new procedures, and changing policies. Informative messages sent to customers
and suppliers deal with shipping and return policies, sales discounts, and other company
developments.
Informative messages are generally neutral; the readers response is neither positive nor negative.
However, in instances in which the message might seem detrimental to the reader, extra care should
be taken to indicate how it will in fact be to the readers advantage.
Granting requests for information and action

The direct approach is obviously the best method for communicating a positive response to such a
request. Even form letters, when composed thoughtfully, can express a positive image of the
organization and the writer. In addition to providing the information that has been requested and
creating a positive image of the organization, a letter written in response to a request for
information or action should always encourage future sales.
Granting Claims and Requests for Adjustment

Settling claims and granting adjustments are important aspects of maintaining good customer
relations. Few customers make claims or request adjustments unless they have reason to;
nevertheless, all complaints should be investigated to determine what the problem is and why it
occurred. In some instances it will be the customer or even a third party at fault, not the company.
When the company is at fault, though, it is important to make appropriate adjustments but at the
same time to maintain the companys good image. If a mistake has been made, it should be
rectified but without blame being assigned to any individual or group and without excuses.
When the customer is at fault, the company has no obligation to settle claims or make adjustments,
but it should consider the negative aspect of making a customer unhappy and losing future business.
To avoid this, the writer should start with the good news that the claim will be granted. However,
the body of the letter should include some explanation of what the customer did wrong. Otherwise,
a precedent might be set and other customers will want the same service.
When a third party is at fault, such as the manufacturer or a carrier, there are three possible courses
of action: 1) honor the customers claim and write off the expense, 2) honor the claim but explain
that the company was not negligent, or 3) refer the claim to the third party. The third choice is the
most undesirable because the company is not meeting its customers needs, but there are instances
in which it is necessary to shield the company form any legal ramifications that might result from
the third partys negligence. In these instances there is not much to do except write a bad-news
message.
Writing Recommendations and References

Recommendations and references attest to a candidates suitability for a job or other desired
position. The letter should include relevant information such as the candidate's name and the
position being sought, the reference writers relationship with the candidate, an indication of

whether the reference has been solicited or not, relevant information about the candidates
suitability, and an overall evaluation.
Writing recommendations for outstanding candidates can present a problem: it is difficult to sound
sincere when the praise is effusive. The key is to support assertions with specific examples and
details and to discuss the candidates merits in relation to those of any competitors.
Discussing a candidates shortcomings is difficult as well. It is important to be honest, but one is
also subject to a charge of libel if the information provided is both injurious and false. The best
course is to be honest, avoid subjective judgments, and include any criticism in the context of a
recommendation that is positive overall. If the writer cannot do this, perhaps he or she should
decline to write the letter. Recommendation letters are usually kept confidential, but the Freedom
of Information Act gives the candidate the right to access those letters unless he or she has signed a
waiver.
Sending Goodwill Messages

Personal goodwill messages, such as letters of congratulation, thank-you notes, and condolences,
can go a long way to establishing strong positive relations. These notes must be sincere and honest;
otherwise, the recipient might suspect ulterior motives. One of the best opportunities for sending a
goodwill message is to congratulate a colleague or associate for some achievement, such as a
promotion or an impressive sale. Other reasons for sending congratulatory notes are more personal
weddings, births, graduations, and so on. Indeed, some companies go so far as to maintain files
on potential customers and then to use the important events in the customers life as a way of
establishing contact.
Letter or notes of appreciation for contributions to the companys success are always appreciated
and encouraging to further success. In addition, these letters often become a part of an employees
personnel file.
Written condolences for losses are a nice touch, but they require a certain amount of finesse or they
might sound insincere and self -serving. The keys to effective condolence letters are
brevity
sincerity (in ones own words)
tact
special care with names and facts
mention of special qualities of the deceased
mention of special qualities of the bereaved
Outline

I. Goals
A. Communicate information or good news
B. Answer questions
C. Provide relevant details

D. Establish goodwill
II. Strategies
A. Main idea
1. Clarity
2. Conciseness
B. Details and explanations
1. Relevant information
2. Positive tone
3. Favorable context for negative statements
4. Resale
5. Sales promotion
C. Close
1. Readers benefit
2. Appreciation and goodwill
III. Informative messages
A. Purpose
1. Reminder notices and company policies
2. Organizational changes, upcoming events
3. Procedures and new policies
B. Benefits to customer
IV. Granting requests for information and action
A. Positive reply to straightforward request
1. Direct approach
2. Prompt, gracious, courteous response
3. You attitude
B. Form letters
C. Potential sales inquiries
1. Respond to inquiry and answer questions

2. Leave reader with positive impression

3. Encourage future sales
V. Granting claims and requests for adjustment
A. Companys fault
1. Protect image
2. Regain goodwill
3. Avoid blame and promises
B. Customers fault
1. Refusing the claim
2. Granting the claim
C. Third partys fault
1. Honoring the claim
2. Honoring the claim but not accepting fault
3. Referring the claim to the third party
VI. Providing Recommendations and references
A. Including relevant details
B. Recommending outstanding candidates
C. Dealing with candidates shortcomings
D. Avoiding libel
VII. Sending goodwill messages
A. Congratulations
1. Promotions
2. Personal highlights
3. Sales pitches
B. Appreciation
C. Condolences
1. Brevity
2. Own words

3. Tact
4. Special care
5. Qualities of deceased
g. Qualities of bereaved

Section Review 12
Key Terms

synopsis

index
abstract
cover
executive summary
title fly
opening
title page
body
letter or authorization
close
letter of acceptance
bibliography
letter (memo) of transmittal
Summary

After writing the first draft of a report or proposal, the next step is, of course, to revise it. The
writing step entails getting the main ideas down in some semblance of logical order. But the report
is not complete until you have revised it, produced, it and proofread it.
Revising a report or proposal is basically the same as revising any other business message. First, set
the report aside for a time and then re-read it to make sure it says what you want it to say. Then,
check it closely for readability, and edit it if necessary for clarity and conciseness.
The next step is to produce the report that is, to decide which design elements will make it most
effective and to incorporate them into the text. Among the design elements covered in Chapter 6
are typeface, margins and white space, alignment, and visual aids. Formatting takes time; so be
sure to account for it in your production schedule.

Two of the distinguishing characteristics of a formal report are its format and its tone. Whether it is
long or short, informational or analytical, internal or external, the formal report is distinguished by
the number of components it contains and the degree of polish it receives.
The components of a formal report depend upon the purpose, length, and requirements of the
audience, but most formal reports have three main divisions: prefatory parts, text parts, and
supplementary parts.
Most of the prefatory parts of a formal report are written on separate pages - that is, separate from
the other parts while most of the components of the text are run together. The prefatory parts
serve as an introduction, giving the reader some sense of what the report is about and what it
includes. Each will be discussed briefly below.
Prefatory Parts

The cover gives the report the appearance of formality. It is usually made of heavy paper, and it
includes such information as the title of the report, the authors name, and the date. Sometimes a
company logo will appear on the cover as well. The most important information on the cover is,
naturally, the title. Make sure the title is clear, telling the reader exactly what the report is about.
The cover is sometimes followed by the title fly, a separate page with only the title on it. The title
fly is usually optional, but it does give the report an additional bit of formality.
The title page is not optional: it includes a) the reports title, b) the name, title, and affiliation of the
person who group who authorized the report, c) the name, title, and affiliation of the person or
group that wrote the report, and d) the submission date. The words Prepared for or Submitted to
and Prepared by or Submitted by are used before the names, titles, and affiliations of the recipient
and the writer respectively. If the report is relatively short, the title page serves in place of the
cover.
The letter of authorization - a formal letter or memo requesting that the report be prepared - is
sometimes included, as well as the letter of acceptance a letter or memo in which the writer of
the report acknowledges the request.
Next comes the letter (or memo) of transmittal, a necessary document that conveys the report to
the reader and makes some comments on why and how it was prepared. If the report is to be sent to
a wide audience, it is sometimes a good idea to include the letter of transmittal only in the copies
going to the specific members of the organization who authorized it. In these instances, you might
not want your personal opinion or recommendations to be made public. On the other hand, if the
audience is likely to receive your report badly, the letter of transmittal provides a good opportunity
to address the audiences concerns directly.
The letter of transmittal usually follows the format of a routine or good-news message, beginning
with a statement of the reason for writing, followed by highlighted or detailed information on the
reports contents, and ending with a statement of you appreciation for having been given the
assignment and your offer to provide any additional assistance.
Following the letter of transmittal is the table of contents titled simply Contents - an outline of
the major components of the report broken down by topic headings. The number of levels of
headings depends on the length and scope of the report - i.e., how far you want to break it down.
Of course, the table of contents is written after the rest of the report has been typed so you can
indicate the page numbers of the various sections and headings. All of the prefatory parts and
supplementary parts are included in the table of contents.
A list of illustrations may or may not be included, depending, of course, on whether there are any
illustrations. If it is included, it lists the titles and page numbers of the material. The list of

illustrations can be included on the same page as the table of contents, if there is room. Or it can
appear on the next page. If tables and figures are number separately, they should be listed
separately.
A synopsis, called an abstract in a long, formal report, is a brief (no more than a page) summary of
the report's content. It should summarize the entire report, not just the introduction, and thus should
enable a reader to know what is included without reading the report in detail. The synopsis can be
either informative or descriptive: If it is informative, the main points of the report are summarized
in the order in which they occur. If it is descriptive, it simply refers generally to the subject of the
report and lists the points to be covered.
If you are using the indirect approach to present the report, the descriptive synopsis is
recommended because it tells what the report is about without stating the actual findings or
recommendations. If you are using the direct approach, the informative synopsis will state directly
what the key points and conclusions of the report are.
Sometimes an executive summary is used in place of either a synopsis or an abstract. This
document is more fully developed and detailed than a synopsis, sometimes broken down into
headings and sometimes even including its own visuals and graphics. The executive summary
might be termed the Cliff Notes version of the full report; it is intended to meet the needs of readers
who want to get the gist of the report but dont have either the time or the inclination to read the
whole thing.
Reports that are fewer than ten pages long sometimes omit the synopsis or executive summary, or
they combine it with the letter of transmittal.
Text

The text has three parts an opening, a body, and a close. Like a well-written business message,
the report has an opening that engages the readers attention and persuades him or her to keep
reading. But be careful to avoid duplication of the material included in the synopsis. The body
includes the detailed information that will support your main idea, conclusions, and
recommendations, if any. Tables and charts are helpful here wherever they can be used in place of
text. Finally, the close should summarize the main idea, highlight conclusions and
recommendations, and list any courses of action the reader should undertake.
Supplementary Parts

The supplementary parts are all the detailed information placed at the back of the report. An
appendix is a collection of ancillary material related to the topic but not included in the report
because it is either too long or its relevance is only tangential. Among the information included in
the appendix of a business reports are sample questionnaires and cover letters, sample forms,
computer printouts, statistical formulas, financial statements and spreadsheets, copiers of important
documents, and complex illustrations. Sometimes a glossary will be included in the appendix;
sometimes it will be a separate document. Each type of information should be listed in a separate
appendix e.g. one for questionnaires, one for computer printouts, and so on.
A bibliography in a business report, is a list of all secondary sources consulted in the preparation of
the report. A bibliography entitled Works Cited includes only those sources actually mentioned
and cited in the report, while one entitled Sources or References includes those mentioned in
the report as well as those consulted but not directly referred to in the text.
Bibliographical sources must be also cited in the text in footnotes, endnotes, or parenthetical
documentation. Sometimes, to establish ethos, you can mention your sources right in the text itself,
letting your reader know that your information is reliable because it comes from a credible source.

An index is an alphabetized list of the names, places, and subjects in the report followed by the
page numbers on which the information can be found. Most unpublished reports do not include an
index.
Formal Proposals

A proposal is a specific type of report that includes a bid for the contract on a job or a request for
financial support. The format of a proposal is similar to that of a formal report but with a few
distinguishing differences. The most notable difference in the prefatory parts is the inclusion of a
request for proposal (RFP) in place of a letter of authorization.
A proposal often does not include a synopsis or executive summary, these components being
unnecessary when a letter of transmittal is included or when the reader is the one initiating the
proposal in the first place.
The opening, body, and closing of the text of a proposal depend on whether the proposal is solicited
or unsolicited. The opening states the problem and summarizes the solution, focusing on benefits to
the reader. The body explains the solution in detail, indicating how the problem will be solved,
when, by what method, and at what cost. It also persuades the reader that your company or
organization is best qualified among the competition to do the job. The closing reemphasizes the
benefits of your proposal to the reader and ends with a call to action.
Once youve composed and produced your formal report or proposal, the next step is to proofread it
and then to get feedback from your audience. Proofreading a formal report or proposal is just like
proofreading any other business message: check carefully for typos and errors in spelling and
punctuation. In addition, be sure to check the visuals, making sure they are placed correctly on the
page and that nothing has been left out.
Getting feedback from your audience can be a positive or negative experience. If the feedback is
lukewarm or even highly critical, try to learn from it. If you dont get any feedback at all, you
might contact the reader to make sure the report has been received. If it has but there has been no
feedback, you might be able to generate some by offering to answer any questions the reader might
have.
Outline

I. Revising
A. Readability
B. Clarity and conciseness
II. Producing
A. Design elements
B. Format and tone
III. Components
A. Prefatory parts
1. Cover
2. Title fly

3. Title page
4. Letter of authorization
5. Letter of acceptance
6. Letter of transmittal
a. Omission of
b. Routine good-news
7. Table of contents
8. List of illustrations
9. Synopsis
a. Abstract
b. Executive summary
B. Text
1. Opening
2. Body
a. Detailed information
b. Tables and charts
3. Close
a. Summary
b. Recommendations and conclusions
c. Course of action
C. Supplementary parts
1. Appendix
a. Questionnaires. etc.
b. Glossary
2. Bibliography
a. Works Cited
b. Sources or References
3. Index

IV. Formal proposals

A. Request for proposal
B. Solicited and unsolicited proposals
C. Opening
1. Summary of solution
2. Benefits to the reader
D. Body
1. Detailed explanation
2. Solution to the problem
E. Close
1. Benefits to reader
2. Call to action
V. Proofreading
VI. Feedback
A. Learning from mistakes
B. Stimulating feedback

Section Review
Summary

Virtually anyone planning a career in business should expect to deliver oral

presentations, if not to large constituent groups or the media, then to colleagues, new
employees, or customers. The best way to develop an oral presentation is to follow a
three-step process: planning, writing, and completing.
Planning an oral presentation is like planning any other type of business
communication: analyze the purpose and audience, do the necessary research, and
adapt the presentation to the occasion and establish a good relationship with the
audience.
An oral presentation offers an opportunity that a written message does not the
immediacy of audience contact. You will not only impart information but also receive
feedback as you go along, enabling you to make constant adjustments depending on
the audiences response. In addition, you have the advantage of using nonverbal cues
to communicate with your audience, giving them much richer stimuli than they would
receive from a written document.
The biggest drawback to an oral presentation is loss of control: audiences can be
unpredictable, and your interaction with your audience can result in unexpected
responses. Be ready to make adjustment in content and even delivery if the
audiences response warrants such changes. Do your best to anticipate the
audiences response, but be on your guard.

Planning your presentation also requires some special consideration because you will
have only one chance to make your point; the audience will not be able to go back and
re-peat the experience unless, of course, the presentation has been videotaped. The
first consideration, as always, is purpose. There are four basic purposes for giving an
oral presentation: to inform, to persuade, to motivate, and to entertain.
Of course, an audience can be informed by reading information from a document, but
an oral presentation affords the speaker much more opportunity for audience
interaction and, thus, for persuasion. Motivational speeches are something of a
specialty, and many professionals engage solely in presenting them to organizations
that are willing to pay for the service. Entertainment speeches are not used
specifically to conduct business, but they are a part of the social milieu of the business
world, being used on certain occasions to break the ice and put people in a good
mood.
The second consideration is the audience. Knowing your audience gives you an
advantage: you can anticipate their reaction. But sometimes you have to speak to a
group whom you dont know; so youll need to do a bit of research to find out what to
expect.
To analyze your audience effectively, follow these guidelines:
Ascertain the size and composition of the audience

How many will there be?

What do they have in common ?

What differences are there?

Anticipate their reaction to the presentation

Why are they there?

What is their attitude toward the topic?

What is their mood?

What kind of support information do they expect?

What biases might they have

What questions might they ask?

Estimate the audiences level of understanding

How varied is their background and experience?

What do they already know about the subject?

How much supplemental information will they need?

Are they familiar with the vocabulary or jargon?

What do they expect from you as an expert and a speaker?

Outline

I. Audience contact
A. Adjustment to feedback
B. Stimulus of non-verbal cues
C. Loss of control
a. Anticipation
b. Adjustment

II. Purpose
A. Inform
B. Persuade
C. Motivate
D. Entertain
III. Audience
A. Composition
1. Size
2. Common ground
3. Differences
B. Anticipation of reaction
1. Purpose
2. Attitude
3. Mood
4. Support information
5. Biases
6. Questions
C. Level of Understanding
1. Background and experience
2. Prior knowledge
3. Supplemental information
4. Vocabulary and jargon
5. Expectations of speaker

Section Review
Summary

While you might not actually write out your presentation, you do need to give it just as
much attention as you would any written document. Indeed, preparing an oral
presentation may take just as much time as preparing a written document, if not
more.
The organization of an oral presentation is determined by your audiences needs and
expectations. Once you have determined these, the next steps are to define the main
idea, determine the scope, decide which approach to use, make an outline, and
choose a style of presentation.
The best way to define the main idea is to decide exactly what you want the audience
to do after you have made your presentation. And by using the you attitude, you
persuade the members of the audience that what you are asking them to do is in their
best interest.
The time available for an oral presentation is often predetermined, and it is important
to stay within the allotted time frame. Making an outline will help you gauge how
much time is available for each point you want to develop. As a rule, think in terms of
125-150 words a minute for an oral presentation or 20-25 double spaced pages of

text per hour. If the average paragraph is 125-150 words long, thats about one
paragraph per minute.
The amount of time available and the number of points you have to make will
determine the amount of time left for audience interaction.
The approach you choose direct or indirect depends, as with a written message, on
the audiences likely reaction to what you have to say. If the audience is likely to
respond positively, use the direct approach. If not, then use the indirect approach.
Either way, base your structure on your purpose. Use the appropriate organizational
pattern, depending on whether your purpose is to entertain, motivate or inform or to
analyze, persuade, or collaborate.
I big difference between a written document and an oral presentation is the audiences
ability to respond directly to an oral presentation. Be ready to adjust your
presentation accordingly by planning organizational alternatives.
Organizational simplicity is the key to effective oral presentations. Since your
audience cant go back and re-read as they can with a written document, you must
make sure they can follow the line of development easily. Its a good idea to tell the
audience from the beginning how you have organized your points so they will know
what to expect. Moreover, you should limit the number of points you cover to three or
four most audiences just cant keep more than that in mind at one sitting. Finally, it
is a good idea to keep your audience oriented by summarizing each point before
moving on to the next ones.
Keeping your audience focused is one thing but keeping yourself focused is even
more important. And a good way to do so is to start with an outline. The steps to
follow are

State the main idea and purpose

List main points for development and subpoints of each

Divide the presentation into an introduction, body, and conclusion

Write out transitional sentences

Identify your sources with a bibliography

Decide on a title

While it is acceptable to read parts of an oral presentation, you should try to deliver it
using either the outline or notes rather than the written-out version. The steps to
developing a speaking outline from a written one are as follows:

Use the written outline as an organizational guide.

Use keywords to help you move from one point to the next, but write out
quotations, statistical information, etc.

Write in cues for delivery pauses, words to emphasize, references to visual aides,
etc.

Put your notes in order (if you are using cards or multiple pages), and make sure
everything is legible.

Delivery style is an important consideration in oral presentation. And your style will be
determined largely by the environment formal or casual, large group or small, and,
as always, purpose and audience needs and expectations.
A small- group presentation lends itself to audience participation; thus the style is less
formal and more intimate. A large-group presentation is usually more of an occasion
and thus calls for more formality. In either case, though, your style should be genuine:
dont try to impress the audience with a vocabulary that isnt natural to you. And
make sure you can pronounce all the words!

The opening of an oral presentation should engage the audience, establish your
credibility, and let the audience know what is to follow. It is easy to engage your
audience if the members are naturally interested in the topic; but if not, you will have
to use a bit of finesse by appealing to human nature in general as well as to the
particular audiences personal needs. One way to do this, especially in small groups,
is to introduce ideas and encourage the audience to respond. However, in a largegroup presentation, this technique can interrupt the flow; therefore, it is often better
to include a question and answer session at the end.
Establishing credibility with the audience is essential you want the audience to
respond positively to your personality and to believe what you have to say.
Credentials can go a long way toward impressing an audience, but it is difficult to refer
to ones own accomplishments without sounding boastful. One way to make an
audience aware of credentials such as academic degrees, published works,
experience, and so on is to have someone else introduce you. If you are introducing
yourself, you can bring your accomplishments to the forefront often just by saying who
you are and why you are speaking on the topic. In either case, though, the key is to
connect your credentials with the audiences needs.
Once you have engaged the audience and established your credibility, the next step is
to tell the audience where you will go with the presentation. You should summarize
the main idea, list the key points for development, and tell the audience in what order
you will cover the points. Remember that the organizational pattern for an oral
presentation should be relatively simple.
The main part of your presentation is the body the discussion of the three or four
main points you have chosen to present. While a written report can use headings and
subheading to keep the reader oriented, an oral presentation must rely on transitional
words and phrases such as therefore, consequently, in contrast, in addition and so on.
In addition (there, Ive just used one), transitional sentences are a good way to move
from one topic to the next in an oral presentation. And finally, summarizing what you
have just covered and previewing what you are about to address will help keep your
audience oriented.
Now that weve covered transitions, lets consider some tips for holding the audiences
attention. (See how well these transitional sentences work?) Here are some
suggestions:

Focus on the audiences interests and needs.

Anticipate the audiences questions.

Use specific, concrete terms the audience can understand.

Use analogies.

An effective close is as important as an effective beginning, so much so that devoting

about 10 percent of your total presentation time to your close is a good idea. Again,
use a transition to let your audience know what to expect even one as simple as in
conclusion or finally. Then make sure you accomplish three things: summarize what
youve already said, tell the audience what to do next, and leave the audience with a
memorable conclusion.
In summarizing what youve already said, re-state the main idea and the three or four
key points youve covered. If you expect the audience to do something specific in
response to your presentation, make sure they know what it is: issue a call to action,
and give a timetable for completing it. Having your audience make a commitment to
the course of action you have suggested is the best way of having it accomplished.
Finally, end on a strong note a memorable phrase or quotation, some encouraging
words, or a question that will stimulate the audiences thinking even further.
Outline

I. Organization

A. Audiences needs and expectations

B. Main idea
1. Audiences response
2. You attitude
C. Scope
1. Outline for gauging time
2. Audience interaction
D. Approach
1. Anticipated response
2. Organizational pattern
3. Alternatives
4. Organizational simplicity
1. Preview of points
2. Three to four key points
3. Summarizing of points
E. Style
II. Opening
A. Engaging the audience
B. Establishing credibility
1. Introductions
2. Connecting with audiences needs
C. Orienting the audience
1. Summarizing the main idea
2. Listing the key points
3. Simplifying the pattern
III. Body
A. Transitional devices
B. Summarizing and previewing
C. Holding audiences attention
IV. Close
A. Transition
B. Summary
C. Call to action
D. Memorable conclusion

Section Review
Summary

A good oral presentation is often supplemented by visual aids which stimulate the
audiences interest and illustrate points that are difficult to cover in words alone. In
addition, visual aids can help the audience learn up to 400% more than just a text by
itself. Furthermore, visual aids can help you the speaker remember details of your
presentation and in general seem more prepared and professional than if you rely on
oral presentation alone.
Among the most effective and readily available visual aids are:

overhead transparencies

electronic (e.g. PowerPoint) slides

35-mm slides

chalkboards and whiteboard

flip charts

audiotapes, models, movies, TV and videotapes, and so on...

The most frequently used and popular visual aids are overhead transparencies and
electronic slides. Each has its advantages and disadvantages. Transparencies are
cheap, easy to make, and easy to use. They can be created by computer or by hand
and require only an overhead projector to show. One of their disadvantages is that
once created they cannot be changed. Also, you have to sort and show them
manually, aligning them on the plate one at a time. In addition, they are easily
damaged or lost. Furthermore, the overhead projector can be noisy.
Electronic slides, most popularly known as PowerPoint slides, have the decided
advantage in that they can be changed easily on the computer and various graphics
and multimedia elements can be added to enhance the performance aspect. They are
easy to sort and store on either the hard drive or a disk. And they can be viewed all
at once, making it easy to determine the correct order and add or delete as necessary.
The disadvantages of electronic slides are that they have to be shown on expensive
projection equipment that is not always readily available and that the technical
aspects can be distracting to both the speaker and the audience, often at the expense
of the content
But electronic slides do offer clear advantages, and most professionals who make oral
presentations frequently rely on them. To use them to their greatest advantage, be
sure to prepare for what can and most likely will go wrong:

Set up the equipment in advance.

Bring two of everything just in case laptops, projectors, modems, etc.

Back up the slide presentation on a floppy disk.

Have tech support available.

Avoid real time Internet presentations.

Have a general back-up plan.

Designing the slides is an important part of the process, but design elements must not
take precedence over content. In any presentation, written or oral, the first
considerations are organization, development, and audience focus. Slides must be
written; so they should be planned, composed, and completed just like any other
written message. The design elements should enhance, not eclipse, the text, which
should be simple and readable. The guidelines for creating effective slides are as
follows:

Put only one thought, concept, or idea on a slide.

Keep the content to about 40 words, with no more than six lines on a slide.

Use short bulleted phrases instead of sentences and paragraphs.

Use grammatical parallelism and telegraphic wording.

Use the active voice.

Use short informative titles.

Graphic visuals such as charts, diagrams, pictures, maps, and tables, can greatly
enhance a presentation as well as help an audience understand complex information.
The key to their effectiveness is simplicity:

Eliminate extraneous material keep only what is relevant.

Dont repeat information.

Round off numbers.

Limit chart data to five lines or sets of bars.

Highlight key points.

Adjust the size to accommodate the slide.

After youve composed your text and graphic elements, you can design the visual
components. Five important elements of effective design are covered in Chapter 11:
continuity, contrast, emphasis, simplicity, and experience. They are all important
considerations when it comes to deciding on

color

background design and clip art

fonts and type styles

consistency

An added feature of electronic slides is the fact that special effects such as sound,
animation, and video can be added to enhance the presentation. Slide shows can
even be fully automated, eliminating the need for a speaker altogether. In addition,
some of the interesting and useful special effects often used in slide-show
presentations are

slide transitions

builds points appear one by one on the screen

hyperlinks slides are linked to other slides, other computer files, or webpages

Special effects definitely have their place in oral presentations, but be careful not to
overdo them. Too many special effects can distract or overwhelm the audience; so be
sure that yours enhance and support your presentation.
Finally, a somewhat less glamorous but nonetheless effective means of enhancing an
oral presentation is the use of handouts. Handouts are useful when the information is
too complex or too voluminous to be displayed effectively on slides. A good rule to
remember is to include need to know information in the presentation and nice to
know information in the handout. But handouts must be planned, composed, and
designed as carefully as anything else. So be sure to eliminate repeated information
and make sure everything included in the handout is relevant to the presentation.
One last thing about handouts: consider your timing in giving them to the audience. If
you give them out at the beginning, the audience might be distracted by the handout
and not listen to the oral presentation.

Outline

I. Uses of visual aids

A. Stimulate audiences interest
B. Enhance learning
C. Assist speaker with details
II. Most popular visual aids
A. Overhead transparencies
1. Advantages
a. Cheap
b. Easy to make
c. Easy to use
2. Disadvantages
a. Permanent
b. Cumbersome
c. Easily damaged or lost
d. Distraction of projector
B. Electronic slides
1. Advantages
a. Easy to change
b. Easy to sort and store
c. Able to be viewed
2. Disadvantages
a. Expensive, complicated equipment
b. Technical problems
C. Anticipating problems
III. Content of slides
A. Organization, development, audience focus
B. Design elements
1. Enhancing, not distracting
2. Guidelines
C. Graphics and visuals
1. Simplicity
2. Design
a. Color
b. Background and clip art
c. Fonts and type styles
d. Consistency
D. Special effects

1. Transitions
2. Builds
3. Hyperlinks
IV. Handouts

Section Review 13
Summary

The last step in developing an oral presentation is to complete it to evaluate the

content and then revise it for clarity and conciseness. In addition, with an oral
presentation there are three steps that do not apply to written messages: you must
practice it, overcome your anxiety, and be able to answer any questions effectively.
There are several delivery methods you might consider: memorizing it, reading it,
speaking from notes, or speaking impromptu.
Actually, memorizing an oral presentation is probably the least effective method. You
might forget some of it, you will probably deliver it in a monotone, and it will sound
unnatural. If you are going to memorize part of it though, knowing the introduction
and the conclusion by heart will give you the confidence to get started and finished
easily.
Reading can be an effective way of delivering a complex or technical presentation or a
policy statement in which the exact wording is important. In order not to read too
quickly or to sound stilted, practice so that you can pause to look up at the audience
from time to time.
The most effective means of delivery is to speak from an outline, notes, or slides. You
will have the most interaction with your audience, and you will know from the
audiences reaction when you need to adjust your material to suit the audiences
needs.
Speaking impromptu or off the cuff is difficult for most people. Without preparation
it is easy to get confused and nervous. If you ever do have to speak impromptu, take
a minute to collect your thoughts and try to stay focused.
One method to avoid, whatever other methods you use, is to read bulleted slides word
for word. The slides should serve as a supplement to the presentation, not a
substitute for it.
Practicing a presentation requires some time about five times, actually. Being able
to deliver your presentation seamlessly will enhance your credibility with your
audience and give you self confidence. If you are using slides, take advantage of the
speakers notes feature most electronic presentation software provides. The notes
help you provide additional comments as your slides are shown, but only you can see
them.
Practicing in front of a mirror has its advantages, but if you can find a live audience
friends or family, for example practicing in front of them is the best way to prepare
for the real thing.
When using slides, introduce them before they appear on the screen. If you are using
builds or fades, you can have each point appear separately as you discuss it. When
you use overhead transparencies, introduce each page as you remove the old one,
and cover everything but the first points to be discusses so the audience does not
read ahead and get distracted.
If you are using a pointer, avoid letting it become the center of the audiences
attention and thus a distraction from you and the presentation. Use it only when you
need to, and then collapse it or set it aside. Similarly, dont let a laser pointer become
a distraction.

Having too many slides can be a problem if you cant get through them all in the
amount of time youre allotted, and having too many visuals can be a distraction. It is
better to move at a moderate, relaxed pace than to try to cover too much information
in one presentation.
You can save yourself some anxiety by checking out the location in which you are
going to do your presentation, making sure that the seating arrangements are suitable
and that the electrical outlets are accessible, if you need them. In addition, check to
make sure any equipment you might need, chalkboards (and chalk!), extension cords,
projector anything your presentation will depend on - is available. And if possible,
rehearse your presentation in the area in which you will give it.
If your audience doe s not speak English, you will obviously need an interpreter. If
your audience does speak English but is from a different culture, you might have to
make some adaptations to avoid misunderstanding or offense.
Fear of public speaking ranks number one even higher than the fear of death or
financial ruin. But there are several ways you can deal with your anxiety:

Over-prepare knowing that you have more than enough material should help
reduce your anxiety about going blank.

Rehearse the more times, the better.

Think positively think of yourself as confident and in control.

Visualize success anyone who has played high school or college sports knows this
one.

Remember that the audience wants you to succeed!

Memorize your first few sentences.

Breathe deeply and drink some water but avoid alcohol!

Dont panic pause, connect with the audience, and go on.

Keep going the audience wont notice most of what you think is a disaster.

Also, try to focus on the audience and the subject rather than on yourself. But be
aware of the nonverbal signals you might send and consider how you look and sound:

Slow down! make your beginning especially controlled.

Use eye contact probably the signal rule of public speaking.

Stand up straight just as your mother always told you.

Go easy with the hand gestures as Shakespeares Hamlet says, Do not saw the
air too much with your hands... And keep your hands out of your pockets.

Modulate your voice lower your tone a bit, avoid speaking in a monotone, and
articulate your words. Avoid filler syllables and phrases such as um, uh, like, and
you know what Im sayin.

Oral presentations often end with a question-and-answer session, and it is important

to leave the audience with a good impression. Having some additional information
prepared is a good idea, and you should know in advance that some of the questions
might challenge your authority. Here are some suggestions for dealing with this part
of the presentation:

Make sure you understand the question: listen carefully, interpret the questioners
body language, and restate the question for the rest of the audience. If you dont
understand the question, ask for a clarification.

Answer the question that has been asked: dont avoid it, ignore it, or act like it isnt
worth answering

Keep control: establish ground rules for the question-and-answer session, putting a
limit on the amount of time for each question, asking the questioner to identify him
or herself, or limiting questions to one per questioner.

Dont get rattled: stay poised and in control; dont get angry; dont get drawn into
an argument.

Stimulate questions if the audience doesnt have any: use the question-and answer
session to re-emphasize your main idea and key points.

Finally, when you dont want to answer more questions or dont have time, say, We
have time for just one more question. After youve responded to it, take one last
opportunity to summarize your main idea, and then thank the audience, gather your
notes, and leave.
Outline

I. Delivery
A. Memorizing
B. Reading
C. Speaking from notes or outline
D. Speaking impromptu
II. Practice
A. Speakers notes feature
B. Mirror v. live audience
C. Using slides
1. Using a pointer
2. Too many slides
D. Location
1. Seating arrangement
2. Equipment
3. Rehearsal
III. Non-English speaking audience
IV. Fear of speaking
A. Dealing with anxiety
B. Focusing on the audience
C. Nonverbal signals
V. Question-and-Answer sessions
VI. Finishing

Section Review
KeyTerms

rsum

Summary

The workplace has changed considerably over the past twenty years or so, and it is undergoing
constant changes still. In order to enter it successfully, you need to know how these changes affect
the process of searching and applying for a job.
Many employers are looking for temporary or part-time personnel or consultants rather than fulltime employees. Similarly, many employees move frequently from one company to another
through the course of their careers.
Many large companies are downsizing. And increasing numbers of people are becoming self
employed.
Successful employees today have a range of abilities and are adaptable to frequent and quick
changes. Employees are expected to function as members of a team, and sensitivity to diverse
cultures is an important consideration in a global marketplace.
As you consider entering the business world or making a change from your present job, do a bit of
preliminary analysis, taking stock of your skills and interests. Here are some suggestions:
Make a list of 10 accomplishments you are proud of.
Examine your background, education, experience, and interests.
Consider your personal characteristics, and make a list of your five best qualities.
Various organizations such as college placement offices and professional career counselors can
provide an aptitude test to help you determine your strengths and weaknesses in terms of jobs you
might consider. But even more important is determining what you want to do. Job satisfaction and
self-fulfillment are very important considerations, maybe the most important in the long run.
Consider the following questions:
What kind of work would you like to do day after day - routine? varied?
How do you like to work - alone? with a team? with people? with information? with
computers?
What kind of compensation do you want how much in earnings and benefits? salary or
commission?
What are your career goals where do you want to be five years from now? ten years? How
will you get there?
Do you want to work for a large organization or a small one?
What kind of operation do you want service? non-profit? And what kind of routine nineto-five? flex time? summers off? cyclical?
Where do you want to work what section of the country? small town or city? indoors or
outdoors?
What kind of work environment do you want atmosphere? aesthetics? commuting?

 What sort of corporate culture makes you comfortable structured? competitive? aggressive?
supportive? What kind of boss do you want to work for?
Even while you are still in college or are looking for a job, you can prepare to take the next step:
Start an employment portfolio save documents, transcripts, letters of recommendation
anything that will attest to your accomplishments and suitability for employment.
Consider developing an e-portfolio putting your relevant information on a web page with
links to more detailed accounts of your experiences and background.
Look for temporary and freelance job or internships continue to develop your background
and skills as you wait for the right full-time job to come along and establish valuable reference
sources.
Join networks, groups, associations anything that will help you further your skills and
contacts.
And even after you get a job, consider professional development courses, seminars, workshops, and
publications. Make the decision to be a life-long learner; keep abreast of developments in your
field, work collaboratively, accept challenges, and be flexible to changes.
But, of course, you have to get the job first. So do some advanced planning and preparation as you
begin the job search. Decide where the jobs are and where they will be in the future. Here are
some specific tips:
Pay attention to news of the business world, in the paper, on TV, or online. Locate some
employment publications in your field and consult them regularly.
Make a list of specific companies you would like to work for, and do some research on them.
Establish a connection with them, if you can, and make your interest known.
Find specific sources of job openings newspaper want ads and online employment listings.
Respond to job openings have a cover letter and rsum prepared and adapt it to the job
requirements.
Network establish contacts with people in the field who can help you.
Use career counseling services college placement offices and professional career counselors
can help you write a rsum and cover letter, polish your interviewing skills, and focus your
job search. Be careful, though, about professional career counseling services: some of them
provide little help but charge a lot of money.
As you get underway with the job search, you need to prepare employment messages a rsum
and a cover letter that will attract the attention of a potential employer and showcase your
suitability. Like all business messages, these need to be carefully developed according to the threestep process, the first of which is planning.
A rsum is a structured, written summary of a persons education, employment experience, and
job qualifications (Thill & Bove, 2004). Planning an effective rsum entails ascertaining your
purpose, analyzing your audience, gathering information, and adapting the message as needed.
Sound familiar? Its just like planning any other business message.

Your rsum must be more than just a list of the jobs youve had; you should determine the best
way to present your background in order to engage the readers interest and focus on your skills and
qualifications. Later in this chapter well cover the different methods of arranging the parts of a
rsum.
To start, you should collect as much information about your education, job history, and other
relevant personal experiences as you can. Not all of it will be included on the rsum, but it is
useful to have on hand.
As always, adapt your rsum to what your audience will want or need. Customize the format to
best suit the job requirements. Think in terms of a theme academic achievements,
administrative abilities, technical skills - and build your rsum around it. But dont pad your
rsum by claiming to have skills or experiences that you dont really have.
Outline

1. Changes in the workplace

A. Temporary and part-time employment
B. Downsizing
C. Adaptability, teamwork, and sensitivity
II. Entering the job market
A. Taking stock
1. Ten accomplishments
2. Background, education, experience, interests
3. Personal characteristics
B. Ascertaining what you want to do
1. Type of job
2. Type of work
3. Compensation
4. Career goals
5. Size
6. Nature of operation
7. Location
8. Environment
9. Corporate culture
C. Taking the next step

1. Employment portfolio
2. E-portfolio
3. Temporary and freelance jobs and internships
4. Networks, associations, groups
5. Professional development
D. Planning and preparation
1. Employment news and information
2. List of specific companies
3. Source of job openings
4. Response to job openings
5. Networking
6. Career counseling
III. Planning a rsum
A. Purpose
B. Audience
C. Information
D. Adaptation

Section Review
Key Terms

rsum

functional rsum
combination rsum
Summary

There are seven qualities sought by employers that you should indicate on your rsum: you want a
potential employer to know that you are 1) result-oriented, 2) competent, 3) well rounded, 4)
forward-looking, 5) ethical, 6) versatile, and 7) articulate.
You should tailor your rsum to the job you are applying for, emphasizing the skills and
experiences that most directly apply and de-emphasizing those that dont. However, be careful not
to be deceitful or to distort the facts. You can use either the traditional chronological format or the
functional format or a combination of the two to highlight your strengths.

A chronological rsum focuses on your employment history, listing your jobs in reverse order
beginning with the most recent. For each job, describe your duties and accomplishments, putting
the greatest emphasis on your more recent jobs. Three advantages of this type of rsum are 1) its
familiarity among most employers, 2) its focus on career growth and progression, and 3) its
indication of continuity and stability. This is the type of rsum to use if you have been in the
workplace for some length of time and have established a strong employment record. But if you
have just recently finished school and have not established an employment history, you should list
your academic credentials first.
A functional rsum highlights your skills and accomplishments in general rather than your job
history. It is useful for people who have not yet established a job history, have a varied job history,
or want to change careers. It too has three advantages: 1) employers can zero in on the skills they
are looking for, 2) you can put the focus on positive skills rather than a short employment record,
and 3) you can de-emphasize a negative employment record or periods of unemployment.
A combination rsum includes elements of the other two: emphasis on abilities, skills, and
accomplishments, as well as a complete employment history. But it has two disadvantages: 1) it is
usually longer, and 2) it is often repetitious.
Whichever type of rsum you decide on, be sure to focus on your audiences needs and interests as
you compose it. Use a simple and direct style, avoiding sentences when phrases will do. Also
avoid the pronoun I, beginning instead with action verbs such as developed, generated,
accomplished and so on. And, of course, be sure to include the relevant contact information such as
name and full address, phone numbers, and e-mail address. In most cases this information can
appear at the very top of the page, centered as in a letterhead; you dont need to use the word
Rsum as a title.
The inclusion of a career objective statement is debatable; some experts advise that defining your
objective might disqualify you for possible jobs by limiting your interests. It is probably advisable
not to include such a statement but, rather, to leave open your specific career objective until you
have the opportunity to decide whether to accept a job or not. If you do decide to include a career
objective statement and you have more than one objective, be prepared to produce separate rsums
for each. Or if you have a short-term objective and a long-term one, consider combining them in
one statement. On the other hand, if you decide not to state your objective, you can simply state
your qualifications briefly, highlighting those that most directly apply to the job you are interested
in.
Formal educational is usually given less emphasis on a rsum after you have been out of school for
a year or more. But if you are still in school, or if formal education is a deciding factor in a job you
are applying for, start by listing your educational background. Start with the school or college most
recently attended and work backwards, listing the location, time of enrollment, major and minor
subject areas, degrees or certificates you earned, and any significant skills or abilities youve
acquired (fluency in Arabic, for example). You can also include less formal educational experiences
such as seminars or workshops. It isnt necessary to list your grades, but if you do, be sure to
indicate the grading scale on which they are based.
The work experience section of a traditional rsum includes all the jobs youve had, including
part-time, summer, or internships, listed in reverse chronological order. For each job listed, include
the name and address of the employer, a brief description of the type of work, your specific
function, and the dates you held the job months and years.
Outline

I. Qualities sought by employers

A. Result-oriented

B. Competent
C. Well rounded
D. Forward-looking
E. Ethical
F. Versatile
G. Articulate
II. Types of rsums
A. Chronological
1. Focused on employment history
2. Jobs in reverse chronological order
3. Three advantages
a. Familiarity among employers
b. Focus on career growth and progression
c. Indication of continuity and stability
B. Functional
1. Focused on skills and accomplishments
2. Three advantages
a. Skill oriented
b. Focuses on positive accomplishments
c. de-emphasizes negative record and unemployment
C. Combination
1. Focuses on work history as well as skills
2. Two disadvantages
a. Longer
b. Repetitious
III. Audience centered
A. Simple and direct style
B. No first-person pronouns

C. Action verbs
D. Relevant information
IV. Career objective statement
A. Including it
B. Not including it
V. Education section
VI. Work experience section

Section Review
Summary

The last step in writing a rsum is to complete it that is, revise it, produce it in the
proper form, and proofread it one last time. You might also consider doing an
electronic rsum and an online version.
Revising a rsum is just like revising any other business document: the key is to
reflect the you attitude; even though the rsum is about you, it is important to
tailor it to fit the needs of the reader. Among the mistakes job applicants make in their
rsums are the following:

too long

too short or sketchy

hard to read

wordy

too slick - not genuine

amateurish - unsophisticated

poorly reproduced

incorrect - spelling and grammatical errors

boastful

dishonest

gimmicky inappropriate design elements, wording, structure, etc.

A rsum needs to look sharp and make a good impression from the very first. Most
rsums are read in about 45 seconds and then either discarded or kept. So it is
important that yours stand out from the rest. A traditional rsum should always be
word- processed on high-quality, standard letter-size bond paper with a matching
envelope. The margins, fonts, and typeface should all be conventional.
The length depends on your experience. If you are just entering the workforce, a onepage rsum should be sufficient. If you are experienced, especially if you are
applying for executive positions, two or even more pages will be necessary.
The information should be ordered so that it is easy to locate and understand; use
headings such as Work Experience and Education, underline or capitalize key points,
use bullets or numbers for items in a list, and be sure to leave plenty of white space to
make it easy to read.

The traditional printed rsum is, of course, mailed to a potential employer, but
because some companies are overwhelmed by applicants, they have begun to suggest
that rsums be submitted electronically. Rsums written as plain-text (ASCII)
documents can be scanned and stored on the computer. The advantage to this is that
the scanned image on the recipients computer can be searched and sorted by
keywords and other criteria. To save it as plain-text, you must do the following:

Remove all formatting and formatting codes.

Remove shadows and reverse print.

Remove graphics and boxes.

Use a scannable typeface.

Use 10 to 14 point fonts.

Remove columns.

Save under a different name, selecting text only with line breaks.

But because scanned rsums look odd, you should also use the following techniques
to enhance their appearance:

Align text by adding blank space.

Create headlines and separate paragraphs by adding blank lines.

Indicate bullets with an asterisk or lower case o.

Use white space so scanners and computers will know when one topic ends and
another begins.

Do not condense the space between letters.

Use all caps for section headings (but dont let the letters touch each other).

Put your name at the top of the page, on a separate line with no text above or
beside it.

Use the standard address format below your name.

List each phone number on its own line.

Use white or light-colored paper 8 1/2 x 11 on one side only.

One of the advantages to a scanned rsum, as noted above, is that the employer can
do a keyword search to find the exact criteria he or she is looking for. To enhance your
chances of being chosen, take advantage of the keyword concept and be sure to
include a keyword summary. As a rule, use nouns rather than verbs. A good way to
make sure you have included all the keywords in your summary is to note the skills
and qualifications listed in the ads for the jobs you are applying for. In addition to
skills and qualification keywords, some employers search for interpersonal keywords
as well, which indicate things like willingness to travel and team player.
To maximize hits on your electronic rsum, be sure to use words the employer will be
most likely to key in for example, keyboard rather than input device. Also, learn the
jargon and buzzwords of the jobs you are applying for and be sure to include them.
And, of course, be sure to check and double-check the spelling of keywords, as well as
the grammar, mechanics, and parallelism of the rsum in general.
After youve created your rsum, be sure to update it periodically as your skills and
experiences change. Try to find some rsum enhancers, such as membership in
professional organizations or special projects youve undertaken, to show that your
career is progressing.

If you have the option of submitting a scannable rsum by mail, fax, or e-mail, use email so that your rsum will go directly into the database without having to be
scanned by hand. Also, find out in advance whether or not the company will accept
your rsum as an attachment; some will not accept attached documents because
they are concerned about viruses. If they will not accept it, just paste it into the body
of the email message. If there is a job number in the ad, put it in the e-mail subject
line. Some companies provide an online rsum builder; in this case, just copy and
paste the sections from your rsum directly into the form.
If you do fax a scannable rsum, be sure to set the fax machine on fine mode to
enhance the quality of the print. If you mail a scannable rsum, send a traditional
version as well, using post-it notes to indicate which is which.
If you are posting your rsum on your Webpage, be sure to send the potential
employers a complete URL; dont expect them to look for your site with a search
engine. Also, take advantage of the hyperlink feature, linking key words in your
rsum to papers youve written, letters of recommendation, and even sound and
video clips. But use hyperlinks sparingly and judiciously, making sure that they refer
directly to your own relevant background and experience.
Outline

I. Revising
A. You attitude
B. Mistakes to avoid
II. Making a good impression
A. Appearance
B. Length
C. Headings
III. Scannable rsums
A. Using plain text
B. Enhancing the appearance
IV. Using keywords
A. Listed skills and qualifications
B. Interpersonal keywords
C. Jargon and buzzwords
V. Updating your rsum
VI. Submitting a scannable rsum
A. Using e-mail
1. Attachments
2. Subject line
D. Faxing a scannable rsum
E. Posting on a Webpage

Section Review 14
Key Terms

unsolicited application letters

 solicited application letters

application form
Summary

Most of your time and effort will go into preparing your rsum, but you must also prepare cover
letters to go with it application letters, job-inquiry letters, and application follow-ups.
An application - or cover - letter should always accompany a rsum; it gives you the opportunity
to address the reader directly, stating what job you are applying for and showing the reader your
communication skills and personal idiom.
When you plan an application letter, do some background research on the company you are
applying to; let the reader know that you are interested enough to have taken the trouble to find out
names, titles, and departments. Directing the letter to the key person might make all the difference
when it comes to getting the job. Avoid using To Whom It May Concern or Dear Sir or Madam
if you can.
Also, realize that the person reading your letter will probably read dozens or more letters; so respect
his or her time. Here are some suggestions:
Be specific about the job you are applying for; dont expect the employer to find a slot for
you.
Indicate your salary expectations if you cant take a job because of the salary, there is no
point in pursuing it further.
Make e-mail cover letters even briefer than formal letters.
Proofread carefully you have only one chance to make a good first impression.
A solicited application letter is written in response to a job that has been posted. Usually the
specific qualifications are included in the job announcement; so it is important to address your
suitability in terms of them. Since the competition for these jobs is often intense, be sure to
highlight your relevant experiences. The term proven skills can be used effectively in bringing
your background to the recruiters attention. But be sure that the skills you list can actually be
substantiated; avoid vague, general claims such as people person.
An unsolicited letter is one that is not in response to an announced opening; therefore, you will not
only have to sell yourself but also have to persuade the employer to find a place for you. Since it is
a variety of sales letter, you should use the AIDA method to engage your audiences attention and
interest and to emphasize the benefits to the reader.
The difference in format between the two types of application letters is in the first paragraph: in an
unsolicited letter you need to start with something that will engage the readers attention. Whatever
it is, it should be based on the you attitude, indicating the benefits the writer can provide to the
reader. After that, you should state your specific reason for writing, just as you would in a solicited
letter.
The body of your letter another paragraph or possibly two - but rarely more- highlights your
selling points with supporting evidence. Be careful not to repeat the detailed information in your
rsum, but do call attention to it and if necessary explain it. Be sure to tailor the information in the
cover letter to the requirements of the particular job you are applying for. What you highlight in
one letter might be different in another.

If you are writing a solicited letter, cover each of the job requirements in the ad. Do not simply
repeat them, but, rather, show how your background and experience make you qualified. Naturally,
you will stress your strengths over your weaknesses.
As noted above, dont make vague claims that cant be supported, such as your willingness to work
hard or ability to get along with people. Rather, give verifiable information about prior experiences
that will prove these qualities hours worked, customer complaints resolved, and so on.
If the organization you are applying to has asked for your salary requirement, this is the place to
state it. But unless you have a general idea of what the salary will be, it is best to suggest a range or
say that you are open to negotiation. One way to get a general idea of the salary ranges for various
types of jobs is to consult the governments Area Wage Survey, available at a public library.
The last paragraph of your letter should ask the reader for a specific action and provide contact
information. But be careful in asking for an interview: dont demand one; in fact, avoid the
imperative mood altogether. That is, dont tell the reader to contact you but instead just state how
and, if applicable, when you can be contacted. Be sure to make the interview you are requesting as
easy and convenient for the reader as possible: offer to come to his or her office or to meet with an
area representative at his or her convenience. Stating that you will follow up with a phone call
gives you some control over the situation, but some readers might find this approach too forward.
Being aware of cultural differences is increasingly important in the business world. If you are
applying for a job overseas or with an organization based on a different culture, you might need to
adjust your approach. Some cultures consider self-promotion offensive; others put more emphasis
on group accomplishments than individual. Personnel officers in some countries, such as France,
expect your first communication with them to be hand-written rather than printed. It is always best
to do some research before you contact an organization to inquire about a job, whether it is in the
U.S. or abroad.
Part of the application process with some organizations is the filling-out of an application form.
You can request one through the mail or, in most cases now, download one. Or you can stop by the
office and pick it up in person, thus having a chance to get an impression of the organization and to
show that you are seriously interested in the job.
Have your rsum close by when you fill out an application form so that you will be sure the dates
are consistent. If there is a section on the form which does not apply to your experience, just write
Not Applicable or N/A. And, of course, be sure to fill out the form in ink. Filling out
application forms can be frustrating. Sometimes the information they call for is too detailed or
insignificant to your experience; sometimes there is not enough space to include the detail you
would like. Dont worry about it; just fill out the form and then, if you get an interview, you can
provide more information on the important topics.
If you send an application letter and rsum but do not receive a response within a month, you
might want to follow-up with a second letter in order to make sure your file is kept active. This
follow-up letter also gives you a chance to update the experience section of your rsum and to
express yourself again in your individual written idiom. If you have received an acknowledgment
of your application letter stating that it will be kept on file, you might want to send a follow-up
letter after about three months just to show that you are still interested in that particular organization
and that you are persistent in pursuing your goals.
Outline

I. Application letters
A. First contact with company

B. Background research
C. Getting attention
II. Solicited application letters
A. Competition
B. Focus on relevant skills and experience
III. Unsolicited application letters
A. AIDA method
B. First paragraph
1. Engage the reader
2. Use the you attitude
C. Body
1. Highlight selling points
2. Avoid duplicating rsum
3. Tailor the information to the job
4. Support claims with verifiable details
5. State salary requirement, if asked
D. Closing
1. Ask for specific action
2. Provide contact information
3. Dont be too forward
IV. Researching cultural differences
V. Application forms
A. Filling it out
B. Sending a follow-up

Section Review
Summary

Persuasion is an attempt to change someones attitudes, beliefs, or actions. A

persuasive message takes the form of an argument which the writer hopes the
audience will agree with and in some instances act upon. The process of writing such
an argument occurs in three steps.

The first step is to plan the message, which is often more difficult than planning a
routine positive message because the audience is more likely to be resistant. Thus,
persuasive messages are usually longer, more detailed, and more strategically
planned. The important considerations in writing persuasive messages are purpose,
audience, credibility, and ethics.
The purpose of a persuasive message is to convince people to do something they are
not likely to do on their own. In business, persuasive requests are numerous; so make
the purpose of every such message clear and necessary. In addition, consider the
medium and ascertain that a written message is the best of the possible choices.
Appealing to the audience of a persuasive message requires careful analysis to find
common interests, points for development, and an effective pattern of presentation to
suit the audiences needs. The most effective persuasive messages appeal to existing
needs.
In addition to determining the audiences needs, consider how the audience might
resist and what alternative the reader might propose. Moreover, ascertain the primary
decision-makers among the audience. Finally, be certain to accommodate cultural
differences.
Twentieth-century psychologist and therapist Abraham Maslow posed the famous
hierarchy of needs theory. Depicted as a pyramid, the hierarchy includes the most
basic needs such as food, water, and air at the base and then higher level needs such
as self-esteem and self-actualization farther up the figure. Maslow contended that
higher level needs could be considered only after the lower level needs had been
fulfilled.
Several factors come into play in assessing an audiences needs. Demographics
includes factors such as age, gender, occupation, income, education and other
measurable entities. Psychographics includes less quantifiable characteristics such
as personality, attitudes, lifestyle, and other psychological factors. Another important
consideration is cultural differences; some persuasive approaches might have
undesirable effects on members of various cultural groups.
Organizational cultures and subcultures also affect the way a message is received.
Each organization has its own cultural traditions, and appealing to them will give you
an advantage, while rejecting them might undermine your credibility.
Indeed, establishing credibility (what Aristotle called ethos) is the first step in
persuading a skeptical or hostile audience. You can gain the audiences trust and
acceptance by following these steps:

Support assertions with facts

Name sources

Demonstrate expert knowledge

Establish common interests, beliefs, attitudes, and background

Show enthusiasm for the subject

Consider all sides of the issue objectively

Be sincere

Be honest and dependable

Keep your audiences best interests at the forefront

Be certain that your motives and methods are ethical. Some audiences are naturally
suspicious of the idea of persuasion, regarding it as deceitful and associating it with
fast-talking charlatans. Ethical considerations go far beyond just what the law
requires. They are based on a genuine desire to act honestly and in the audiences

best interest. The you attitude comes into play here more so than perhaps in any
other message.
The second part of the process is to write the persuasive message, and the steps
include defining the main idea, limiting the scope of the message, and grouping key
points logically. Moreover, you must decide whether the direct approach or indirect
approach will be more appealing to the audience. The direct approach is most
effective when the audience is receptive or objective, when cultural considerations call
for directness, and when the message is detailed or complicated. However, because
most persuasive messages attempt to convince an audience to change an attitude,
belief, or action, the indirect approach is more often used. Choosing between the
direct and the indirect approach calls for experience, finesse, and tact.
The final step is to complete the message. Important considerations are the effect of
length and complexity on the success of the message, the objectivity and credibility of
the writer, and the effect of design elements on the audiences needs. The final step,
naturally, is to proofread the message carefully to identify and correct any distracting
errors.
Outline

I. Persuasion
A. Attempt to change attitudes, beliefs, actions
B. Argument
II. Planning
A. Effects of audience resistance on message
1. Longer
2. More detailed
3. Strategically planned
B. Purpose
1. Competition
2. Clarity and honesty
3. Medium
C. Audience
1. Common ground
2. Resistance
3. Alternatives
4. Needs
a. Maslows hierarchy of needs
b. Demographics
c. Psychographics
d. Cultural differences
D. Credibility
1. Facts
2. Sources
3. Expertise
4. Common ground

5. Enthusiasm
6. Objectivity
7. Sincerity
8. Honesty and dependability
9. Consideration of audiences needs
E. Ethics
1. Suspicion
2. You attitude
III. Writing
A. Defining the main idea
B. Limiting the scope
C. Grouping key points
D. Direct or indirect approach
IV. Completing
A. Length and complexity
B. Objectivity and appraisal
C. Clarity and Conciseness
D. Design
E. Proofreading

Section Review
Key Terms

emotional appeal

logical appeal
Summary

To get the maximum positive response from the audience, you must frame your argument. The
AIDA plan is an effective organizational pattern that will help cast your argument in its best light.
The acronym stands for Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action.
The opening sentences of a persuasive message should engage the audiences attention without
making extravagant claims or irrelevant points. If possible, refer directly to the audience personally
in the opening, and use the you attitude.
Next, pique the audiences interest by explaining the relevance of the message and developing it in
detail. This is also a good opportunity to show the audience exactly what benefits the plan will
have for them.
As you continue to develop your argument, use evidence to prove your claim and thus to enhance
the audiences desire for what you have to offer. Be sure that the evidence is relevant to the main
idea.
Finally, issue a call for action in the last section. Say specifically what you want the audience to do,
reminding the readers of the benefits of taking this action. To make sure that the action is easy;

provide the means for the audience to respond without undue effort a toll-free number, an
enclosed order form, a prepaid envelope, and so on. And if there is a deadline, be sure to say so.
The AIDA plan can be used with either the indirect or the direct approach. When using the indirect
approach, save the main idea for the action step of the plan. When using the direct approach,
stimulate your audiences interest with the main idea, continue to develop it in the interest and
desire stages, and then re-emphasize it in the action stage.
One important point to remember when your message is being delivered by e-mail or memo: if you
are using the indirect approach and thus delaying bad news until after the reader has been led into
the message gradually, dont state the bad news in the subject line. An important consideration
when using the direct approach is to be sure to support your assertions sufficiently with evidence.
Finally, when using the AIDA plan to write persuasive messages, focus on just one main idea at a
time; dont overwhelm the audience with too many decisions or conflicting ideas.
Two effective methods of persuading an audience are the emotional appeal and the logical appeal.
(The Greek philosopher Aristotle refers to these as pathos and logos.)
Most persuasive messages include some of each, and finding the right balance of the two is an
important consideration based on four factors:
the actions you want to motivate
the readers expectations
the degree of resistance
the scope of your persuasive effort
The emotional appeal is focused on the audiences feelings - the heart, as it were. Diction plays a
large part here, for certain words evoke strong emotional responses, words such as freedom,
prestige, credit rating, saving, value, and comfort. These words can get a readers immediate
attention effectively, but they usually have to be supported with rational arguments.
Rational arguments are the basis of logical appeal appealing to the mind. Three types of
reasoning are generally used:
Analogy reasoning from specific evidence to specific evidence. An example would be
comparing an organizational planning session to a town meeting in order to encourage
employees to attend.
Induction reasoning from specific evidence to a general conclusion in other words, the
indirect approach.
Deduction reasoning from a generalization to a specific conclusion a form of the direct
approach.
Whichever method or combination you use, be careful to avoid errors in reasoning based on faulty
logic. Several examples are listed below:
Hasty generalizations conclusions which are not supported by sufficient evidence
Begging the question Restating the assertion without actually supporting it

 Attacking the opponent (ad hominem) focusing your argument on the person rather
than the idea
Oversimplification Resorting to an either/or situation when there might be other
alternatives
False cause (post hoc ergo propter hoc) assuming that because one thing happened
after another, it happened because of it
Faulty analogy Just because A resembles B in one respect doesnt mean it does in all
others
Insufficient support leap of faith, missing premise, irrelevant evidence
Once you have framed your argument using emotional or logical appeal or both, you need to
support your assertions. Evidence is essential, but sometimes evidence alone is not enough. The
associative meanings that words have, called semantics, will go a long way toward persuading your
audience or not. Recognizing a words positive or negative connotation and using abstractions to
enhance emotional appeal are examples of how semantics comes into play.
Some other considerations with regard to word choice are as follows:
Ask for moderate changes
Stay focused on your goal
Use simple language (Plain English)
Anticipate opposition
Provide sufficient support
Be specific
Create a win-win situation
Time the message appropriately
Speak metaphorically
Use anecdotes and stories
The last topic in this section is how to deal with resistance. The best way to deal with it is to
eliminate it, and the way to eliminate it is to anticipate it and plan in advance. Common mistakes in
dealing with audience resistance are
using an up-front hard sell
refusing to compromise
relying solely on logic and ignoring emotion
assuming that persuasion is a one-shot effort

Successful persuasion results from a balance of logical and emotional appeals, a well-framed
argument, a stance reinforced by compelling evidence, and an effective method of overcoming the
natural resistance you are likely to meet.
Outline

I. AIDA plan
A. Attention You attitude
B. Interest
1. Relevance
2. Benefits
C. Desire
D. Action
1. Means
2. Deadline
II. Approach
A. Indirect
B. Direct
C. Subject line
III. Appeals
A. Emotional (pathos)
B. Logical (logos)

1. Analogy
2. Induction
3. Deduction
C. Balance
1. Actions to motivate
2. Readers expectation
3. Degree of resistance
4. Scope of persuasive effort

IV. Faulty logic

A. Hasty generalizations
B. Begging the question
C. Attacking the opponent (ad hominem)
D. Oversimplification
E. False cause (post hoc)
F. False analogy
G. Insufficient support
V. Supporting assertions
1. Evidence
2. Semantics
3. Other considerations
VI. Resistance common mistakes

Section Review 9
Key Terms

selling points

benefits
central selling point
Summary

There are many uses of persuasive messages in business - selling, collecting debts, asking for
support, and so on. The three main types covered here are persuasive requests, sales messages, and
fundraising messages.
When you write a persuasive request, be sure to make your request reasonable and specific. Do not
make it so general or inclusive that granting it will inconvenience your reader. Be sure to make it
clear that granting the request will be to the readers benefit, directly and indirectly.
When you make a persuasive request for some action, use the AIDA plan already discussed in the
previous section of this chapter stimulate Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action. Get the readers
attention by making it clear that you know his or her concerns or needs and that granting the request
will be in his or her best interest. You might also take the opportunity to make a flattering comment
about the reader, but be sure it is sincere.
Stimulating the readers interest and desire to grant the request will help establish your credibility
and persuade the reader that he or she will be responding to a genuine need of problem. But make
sure that you dont ask the reader to take on anything that will be inconvenient or too demanding.

For example, dont ask the reader to do your research, go out of his or her way just to save you time
or inconvenience, or provide total financial support for an undertaking that no one else is behind.
Once youve gotten the readers attention, interest, and desire to help, close with a call for action.
This is the most sensitive part of the request; so it is important to word it carefully. If the request is
routine and undemanding, use the direct approach. However, if it is something out of the ordinary
or inconvenient for the reader, use the indirect approach to persuade the reader gradually.
Regardless of the approach, be sure to include all the information the reader will need to make a
decision. Again, the most important persuasive point you need to make is that granting the request
will be to the readers benefit or in his or her best interest.
When asking a reader to make an adjustment, you are in a somewhat better position than when
asking for a favor: you have been injured or inconvenienced, and there is a natural obligation on the
readers part to put things right. The direct approach works well for most claims letters, but there
are instances in which you will need to persuade your reader to go perhaps a bit farther than he or
she is obligated to. For example, you might have a product that has become defective after the
warranty has expired. In these instances a persuasive letter can often get the attention and action
the writer desires because most companies want to maintain good customer relations.
To make a persuasive claim, be sure to include all relevant factual information and to use a tone
which suggests that you assume your request will be granted. Be specific about the claim dont
confuse the claim by raising other issues. Try to include information that both you and the reader
will agree on. Dont complain or threaten, but do make it clear that you want to be treated fairly. In
the close, state specifically what action you would like taken, and if time is of the essence, state the
deadline by which the adjustment needs to be made. End with a reminder to the reader that he or
she should maintain good customer relations.
A sales letter is a special kind of persuasive message that requires some extra planning. Sales
letters are often accompanied or followed by other material; so audience analysis and timing are
especially important. The bottom line in producing a successful sales letter is to identify a
particular need and to persuade the reader that it is indeed his or her need. To do this, you have to
know the selling points of the product or service you are offering and highlight its benefits to the
audience. The selling points focus on the product, while the benefits focus, obviously, on the
audience.
The legal ramifications of sales letters are an important consideration. Since letters are considered
binding contracts in some states, be sure not to include offers or promises that you cant make good.
If you intentionally deceive a customer by misrepresentation and the customer is damaged (in the
legal sense), you have committed fraud. Notwithstanding recent legislation on freedom of
information, using a persons name, picture, or other identifying feature as an endorsement can lead
to legal trouble, including lawsuit for invasion or privacy.
The law is not the only concern though; the writer of a sales letter must also conform to a high code
of ethics. A good way to do this is to regard the goal as not just selling the product or service, but
also accommodating the audiences needs and interests.
To write an effective sales letter, like any other persuasive message, use the AIDA plan once
again, thats Attention, Interest, Desire, and Action. Several techniques work well to get an
audiences attention; one of the most effective is a rhetorical question which entices the audience by
suggesting a goal that they had not previously considered. Other methods for engaging the
audience and stimulating interest are as follows:
State a piece of recent news
Appeal to the readers emotions and values (what Aristotle calls pathos)

 Focus on the products premier features and associated benefits

State a specific number of benefits (usually three)
Use anecdotal evidence
State an interest in common with the audiences
Challenge the reader
Provide the solution to a problem
A picture probably is indeed worth a thousand words; so using graphics and other visuals in a
persuasive sales message can be highly effective. Variations in size, font, type color and the use of
bullets, underlining, and highlighting can all make a message more appealing.
To pique your audiences interest, state your central selling point, the single most attractive feature
of your product or service after other features have been pointed out. Doing so will help you focus
on the most important consideration: the benefit to the potential customer.
To stimulate your readers desire for the product or service, repeat the main benefit several times,
expanding each time and explaining in more detail. Here, again, graphics and visuals can be
especially helpful. As you develop interest in the primary benefit, begin to mention the other
benefits as well. Of course, the you attitude is essential here; the benefits mentioned are those of
the reader, not those of the writer.
The final step in the AIDA plan is action. The call to action can very from asking for payment to
asking for authorization to send a sales representative. Whatever action you are asking for, ask the
reader to do it as soon as possible, or at least by a certain date. If the product or service is available
indefinitely, the reader is more likely to forget about it.
Adding a P.S. (postscript) at the bottom of the page has proven an especially effective means of
getting a response. Sometimes it is in the form of an offer for additional benefits or products if the
reader acts within a prescribed time frame.
There are several important considerations regarding the format and delivery of sales messages.
Spamming - sending bulk electronic mail - is illegal in some states, and federal legislation is
pending. In order to keep the reader interested, keep the message short only the necessary details
- and highlight the key points with bullets. When it comers to writing the letter, be sure to use
action words (strong verbs and active voice) and colorful adjectives and adverbs that appeal to the
readers imagination. But dont ruin the effect by using clichs or making spectacular claims that
are too good to be true.
Talking about the price of a product or service requires some finesse: before stating the price,
compare it with the prices of similar products or services, suggesting, of course, that it is lower. If
the price is the central selling point, it could be stated at the very beginning of the letter. On the
other hand, if the audience is going to have to be sold on the price, it could be effective to leave the
price out altogether or to include it in accompanying literature. Or, of course, if the price is going to
be mentioned, it can be buried in the middle of a paragraph and thus de-emphasized. Another
advertising ploy is to break the total price into separate units for example, say each bottle costs
$12 rather than a case costs $144. Still another method is to compare the cost to that of another
good or service.
Naturally, you will have to support any claims you make. Supporting information can include
samples or brochures, testimonials and references, statistical information, and guarantees and

warranties. The key to providing adequate support is to anticipate any question your audience
might have and answer it in advance.
The final topic in this section is fundraising messages. These are even more challenging than sales
letters because you are, in effect, asking the reader to provide money for something intangible. On
the other hand, there really isnt a lot of difference between these and sales messages in terms of
technique. Both attempt to persuade an audience to do something to their benefit, both generally
follow the AIDA plan, and both are often supplemented by enclosed material such as brochures or
reply forms. The key, of course, is to persuade the reader that there is some benefit to him or her in
donating a sense of altruism and public spirit.
Because fundraising is a highly competitive enterprise, it is important that your letter be more
persuasive than your competitors. As always, audience analysis is essential knowing as much as
possible about potential donors and appealing to their interests and needs. Many professional
fundraisers keep competitors letters on file and study them to find out what potential donors are
most likely to respond to and what they are not.
Fundraising is based on emotional appeal (Again, Aristotle called this pathos); therefore, your
fundraising letters should be personally crafted. A human-interest story or an anecdote is a good
way to begin, bringing to life the faces of the people the donor is being asked to help. However,
several typical approaches that you should avoid are as follows:
Making the letter sound like a routine business message
Wasting space on a warm-up or buffer
Assuming that the organizations goals are more important than the readers concerns.
This last point is crucial: The mores space you spend writing about the reader, the better response
youre likely to get. The four major goals of fundraising letters are to 1) explain a specific need, 2)
persuade the reader that his or her help is crucial, 3) ask for a specific amount of help, and 4) state
the benefits to the reader. To accomplish these goals, you should follow these guidelines:
Engage your readers interest immediately.
Use simple and personal language.
Make the donor feel needed.
Make the request hard to turn down.
Be specific about how much money you want.
Be as concise as possible.
Provide an easy reply form.
Use enclosures that provide more detail.
Outline
I. Types of persuasive messages
A. Persuasive requests

B. Sales messages
C. Fundraising messages
II. Persuasive requests
A. AIDA plan
1. Attention
2. Interest
3. Desire
4. Action
B. Asking for adjustments
1. Injured party advantage
2. Direct and indirect approach
3. Making a claim
III. Sales letters
A. Selling points
B. Benefits
C. Legal ramifications
1. Binding
2. Misrepresentation
3. Fraud
D. Ethical considerations
E. AIDA plan
1. Rhetorical question
2. Other methods
3. Graphics and visuals
F. Central selling point
G. Format and delivery
1. Spam
2. Action words

3. Highlighting
H. Price
I. Supporting assertions
IV. Fundraising messages
A. Challenge
1. Intangibles
2. Competition
B. Similarity to sales messages
1. Audiences benefit
2. AIDA plan
3. Supplementary material
C. Competition
1. Audience analysis
2. Files
D. Emotional appeal (pathos)
1. Human interest approach
2. Approaches to avoid

Section Review
Key Terms

employment interview

structured interviews

open-ended interviews

panel interviews

group interviews

stress interviews

video interviews

situational interviews

Summary

Most employment recruiters know what qualifications they are looking for in a
potential employee, and the interview is a means of learning as much as they can
about the candidate. An employment interview is an opportunity for both the
employer and the applicant to meet face-to-face and ask each other questions. The
type interview enables the organization to find the best-qualified candidate and allows
the applicant to decide whether or not the job is suited to his or her interests and
skills.
Since the employment process, including the interview, takes some time, you should
start well in advance, even before graduation if you are in school. When the economy
is slow, opportunities are not as plentiful and recruiters are not seeking candidates as
actively as when the economy is strong; therefore, it becomes even more incumbent
on you to find the opportunities available. You might have to go through 10 or even
more interviews before you get one job offer, and it might take 20 or 30 before you
find the job you want.
Most employers will interview strong candidates several times before making an offer.
The first part of the process is a preliminary or screening interview. All candidates will
be asked the same questions, and unqualified candidates will be removed from the
pool. Sometimes this interview is conducted by phone, videotape, or computer.
The best approach to this interview is to let the interviewer take the lead. Keep your
answers short, and try to focus on one key element in your background so the
interviewer will have something to remember you by. But make sure that key element
is relevant to the job. Also, be prepared to answer questions about how you would
deal with a particular situation such as solving a problem.
The second step in the process is the selection stage; the field of candidates has been
narrowed, and the contenders are called back to talk with several members of the
organization, including a human resources representative, the potential supervisor,
and other people the candidate will work with. Part of the intention of this interview is
to see how well a candidate will fit in.
The best way to deal with the selection stage is to focus on the job and how your skills
and background will suit the organizations needs. Be sure to refer to all your
qualifications, but capitalize on the ones that most directly apply to the position. Also,
this is your opportunity to ask some questions about the organization to help you
decide how well you will fit in. At this point, you might be offered the job, or you might
be called back again, depending on how many qualified candidates are applying.
The third and final stage of the interview process is a meeting with someone who has
the authority to offer you the job and to negotiate the terms of employment. Again,
this is an opportunity for the interviewer and you to determine whether or not the job
is right for you; so make the most of it.
Interviews take different forms, depending on the needs of the organization.
Structured interviews, such as the screening process, are controlled by the
interviewer. As noted above, they take the form of a set of prepared questions, each
candidate being asked the same ones in the same order. This is an important
procedure for some companies when uniform hiring practices are an issue.
Open-ended interviews are less structured, giving the candidate more opportunity
to express his or her personality. The interviewer asks general questions, allowing the
candidate some latitude in response. The danger here is in talking too much going
on about personal issues rather than focusing on the job qualifications.
Panel interviews consist of several members of the organization supervisors, coworkers, division or department heads, and so on asking questions in order to
ascertain your suitability on different levels.
Group interviews are used to determine how candidates interact with each other
and thus how they will interact with co-workers on the job. The interviewer meets with
several candidates at the same time and observes group dynamic factors.

Stress interviews are used to see how candidates respond under pressure. The
interviewer will create an unsettling situation in order to see how you respond.
Video interviews are conducted via videoconferencing. They require some
preparation: 1) Try to speak with the interviewer on the phone first in order to
establish a relationship. 2) Arrive at the videoconferencing site early and make sure
you are comfortable with the equipment. 3) Speak clearly but in a normal tone and
pace. 4) Sit up straight and look straight ahead. 5) Show some animation (Look
alive!)
Situational interviews focus on the job, not the candidate. You will be given a
hypothetical situation and asked how you would deal with it.
Whatever the type of interview, make the most of it. Your rsum cant show your
personality; so be prepared to do so in the interview.
Outline

I. Sequence of interviews
A. Screening stage
1. Pre-planned questions
2. Elimination of candidates
3. Strategy
a. Following interviewers lead
b. Focusing on key points
B. Selection stage
1. Several members of organization
2. Fitting in
3. Strategies
a. Relating interests and skills to job
b. Probing for information
C. Final stage
1. Meeting with higher-ups
2. Negotiating terms
II. Types of interviews
A. Structured
1. Employer controlled
2. Uniformity in hiring
B. Open-ended
1. Candidates personality
2. Danger of rambling
C. Panel
1. Various organizational personnel
2. Candidate as a good fit
D. Group
1. Response to group dynamics

E. Stress
1. Responding under pressure
2. Unsettling situations
F. Video
1. How to prepare
H. Situational
1. Response to hypothetical situation

Section Review
Summary

Before you go for a job interview it is absolutely essential to prepare. Here are some suggestions:
Knowing what an employer wants is perhaps the most important way to prepare. Every employer
wants an applicant who will meet the organizations needs by doing a competent job and working
well with other employees. Basically, the qualities every employer is looking for are as follows:
A good fit having a positive, self-confident attitude and being willing to learn.
The right qualifications having flexibility, diversity, and versatility in addition to the basic
job requirements listed on the rsum.
Strong pre-employment test scores showing intellectual and psychological capability, a good
work ethic, and potential for advancement. In addition, many companies now require drug
and alcohol screening. Pre-employment testing must adhere to criteria established by the
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
You will no doubt have done some research before applying to a company for a job, but if you are
called for an interview, you should do some more. Most companies today realize the value in
having employees understand the way the company works its market, its strategy and tactics, and
its organizational structure. Knowing about the company in advance gives you the advantage of
being able to persuade the interviewer that you can help the company meet its goals. And by
knowing what company goals you are focusing on, you can emphasis the skills and experiences in
your background that are most relevant.
Anticipating an interviewers questions is a good way to handle them with confidence and
intelligence. And you should go a step farther and formulate some questions of your own. Among
the questions you should anticipate are ones that have to do with your skills, achievements, and
goals. In addition, you will no doubt be asked about your background school and previous
employment, your relationship with colleagues and supervisors, and possibly your hobbies and
interests. In a group interview you might be asked to collaborate with other candidate on a
hypothetical issue and even to give a group presentation.
While it is a good idea to anticipate an interviewer's questions, it is not advisable to memorize your
answers. Anything memorized is going to sound unnatural. However, it wouldnt hurt to make up a
list of questions and practice answering them with a friend playing the role of the interviewer.
It is just as important to ask the right questions in an interview as to answer questions right. In
doing so you show that you have done your research and that you know about the companys
organization and goals. Moreover, asking questions helps you control the interview, directing it
toward the aspects of your background and interest you want to emphasize. To prepare for an

interview, make up a list of about twelve questions you might ask about the organization. You
probably wont ask them all, but it is better to be overprepared than underprepared.
In addition, you should ask yourself some questions as the interview progresses:
Are these the kind of people I want to work with? do I like or at least respect the people I
will be working with?
Can I do the job? do I currently have the skills it will take to do the job correctly?
Will I enjoy the job? - do I really want to do this day after day?
Do I want this job? You might never find the perfect job, but make sure that you truly want a
job before you accept it.
Does the job pay what Im worth? will I be able to live on the salary I make? Will I be
satisfied with it?
What kind of boss will I work for? will our personalities mesh or will they conflict?
What opportunities for advancement are there? where do I want to be five years from now?
ten years? Is there a pension plan? what other benefits are there?
Asking question is a good way to show your interest, but be careful not to ask too many all at once.
Give the interviewer the chance to take the lead and direct the course of the interview, but take
advantage of opportunities to ask questions that show your interest and establish a rapport with the
interviewer. Here are a few questions you might ask about the job:
What qualities are you looking for in the ideal candidate?
How often has this position been filled in the past five years?
Why did the previous occupant of this position leave?
What would you like the next person in this position to do differently?
What support does this position have?
What might be the next career step for a person in this position?
In addition, you might ask some questions about the organization:
What are the organizations strengths and weaknesses
What are the major markets? Who are the competitors? How is this organization different?
What are the plans for the future?
What is the organizations managerial philosophy?
What kind of training do you require and provide?
Does the organization provide opportunities for continuing education?

A good technique is to write down your questions on a notepad, which you take to the interview,
and make notes as you go along. Doing so will show your genuine interest not just in a job but in
the organization in all its aspects.
Because an interview can be rather daunting, you need to build up your confidence in order to make
a good impression. The best way to do so is to remove any source of apprehension. Rather than
worrying about weaknesses or gaps in experience, concentrate on strengths. Emphasize what you
have done, not what you have not. Make a list of your strengths, and use them to counterbalance
any weakness you perceive. And always remember that your weaknesses are more evident to you
than to the interviewer.
Oscar Wilde once said, In matters of grave importance, style, not sincerity, is the vital thing. Of
course, that isnt true, but a lot can be said for the effect of style in an interview. The impression
you should convey is one of self-confidence, polish, and sound judgment. If self-confidence and
polish dont come naturally to you, you can cultivate them by practicing. One way is to hire a
consultant who will charge you $125 to $500. A less expensive way is to practice with friends,
staging mock interviews and then having the friends critique your interview style. Videotaping
these mock interviews can help too. Being in front of the video camera can be somewhat
intimidating itself, but getting used to it can go a long way to helping you get over interview
anxiety.
If you do videotape yourself in a mock interview, pay particular attention to nonverbal
characteristics. Teach yourself to maintain eye contact, smile, appear attentive, and use hand
gestures. Also, be aware of cultural differences and be sure to accommodate them in your interview
style.
Another consideration you should be aware of and might want to practice is your voice. If you
speak too fast or two slowly, too soft or too loud, or if you have distracting verbal mannerism like
you know or like or um, you should practice to correct these.
Your physical appearance is the aspect over which you have the least control, but you do have
some. As a rule, dress conservatively in dark, solid colors. Avoid any colors, patterns, or styles that
will attract attention. Even if the atmosphere in a company is somewhat casual, it is better to be
overdressed for an interview than underdressed. If you have doubts about how to dress, you might
do a bit of detective work and find out: a few days before the interview, stop by the office to ask for
a copy of the annual report or newsletter, and while you are there notice how the employees are
dressed.
Good grooming is absolutely essential. Whatever you wear, make sure it is clean and well pressed
and that your shoes are clean, well shined, and in good repair. Get a haircut if you need one, and
make sure your fingernails are clean and your breath fresh. If possible, check you appearance in a
restroom mirror before you go in for the interview to make sure nothing is out of order. And
remember to smile.
When you go to the interview, take a small notebook and pen, along with a list of the questions you
want to ask. And be sure to take at least two copies of your rsum. In fact, it is a good idea to take
five copies in case you are interviewed by a panel or by more than one recruiter. In fact, it wouldnt
hurt to take along your entire portfolio, including samples of your written work, performance
reviews, and other tangible proof of your qualifications and experiences.
Be absolutely certain to arrive on time; if you are delayed, call and explain why. Make sure you
know how to get to the location where the interview will be held; in fact, you might want to drive
there in advance to check the route and traveling time.

When you arrive, try to relax. You might have to wait; so try to look cool and casual. Bring
something to read, or at least to appear to be reading. Be polite to the receptionist, taking the
opportunity to establish rapport if it presents itself. But remember that anything you say might get
back to the interviewer. Dont smoke or chew gum. Go into poise mode as soon as you arrive, and
that way you will be prepared when the interview actually begins.
Outline

I. Knowing what employers look for

A. Good fit
B. Right qualifications
C. Pre-employment test scores
II. Researching the company
A. Focusing on company goals
B. Emphasizing personal skills and experiences
III. Answering and asking questions
A. Anticipating interviewers questions
B. Formulating questions of your own
1. Showing your interest
2. Establishing rapport
IV. Building your confidence
V. Interviewing with style
1. Hiring a consultant
2. Practicing with friends
3. Videotaping
VI. Using your voice
1. Pace and volume
2. Verbal mannerisms
VII. Looking good
A. Dress
B. Grooming
VIII. Going to the Interview

A. Take a notebook and pen

B. Take your rsum
C. Arrive on time
D. Relax

Section Review
Summary

No matter what the type of interview, there is a three-step process that should enhance your chances
of success: warm-up, question-and-answer session, and close.
Just as planning is the most important step in the writing process, warm-up is the most important
step in interviewing. Making a good first impression is critical: interviewers make 50 percent of
their decision within the first 30 to 60 seconds of meeting a candidate and another 25 percent within
the next 15 minutes.
Since most of the impression you make within this period will be nonverbal, body language counts
for a lot. Shaking hands firmly indicates confidence, but be sure to let the interviewer extend his or
her hand first. Address the interviewer by last name, preceded, of course by a courtesy title; if you
didnt hear the last name, ask him or her to repeat it. Wait to be seated until invited, and wait to
speak until the interviewer has initiated the discussion.
The question-and-answer stage will be the longest part of the interview, comparable to the body of a
written message or speech. The interviewer will ask specific questions about your qualifications
and experience. And you should be prepared to ask questions as well.
Always allow the interviewer to ask the first question, and wait until he or she has finished before
answering it. Dont just answer yes or no, but embellish your answers so that they reflect positively
on your interest and attitude. Stop and think before answering difficult questions, showing the
interviewer that you give ample consideration to important issues.
It is a good idea to have prepared some questions of your own to indicate your interest in the
company and the extent of your background research. Asking the questions will help you to
ascertain what the company is looking for and then to tailor your answers to best meet that need. If
you sense any reservations about you from the interviewer, try to find a way to bring up the subject
and change his or her mind.
Listening to the interviewers questions and noting his or her body language is especially important.
If the interviewer is not nodding and smiling, you might want to consider another approach.
Since discrimination in employment is against the law, you should not be asked questions about
your religious affiliation or organizations and lodges you belong to; national origin, age, marital
status, or former name; spouse, spouses employment or salary, dependents, children, or child-care
arrangements; height, weight, gender, pregnancy, or health conditions or disabilities not directly
related to job performance; arrests or criminal convictions not directly related to job performance.
There is no federal law that prohibits these questions, but the Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission regards them with extreme disfavor. However, an interviewer may ask questions
such as the following:
What is your name?

 What is your place of residence?

Did you graduate from high school?
Can you perform [a specific job or task]?
Can you work on weekends, including Sundays, if necessary?
Do you have a legal right to work in the U.S.?
Have you ever been convicted of a felony?
Are you fluent in Spanish [or any other language]?
If your interviewer does ask any of the questions not allowed by the EEOC, you must decide how to
respond. If you tell the interviewer that the information is none of his or her business or that the
question is unethical, you might compromise your chances of getting the job. If you dont want to
run this risk, you might ask how the question is related to your qualifications, say that the
information is personal, give an answer that you think will satisfy the interviewers concern, or
answer the question and explain the concern.
If a business can prove that the safety of its employees or customers is an issue, it can ask certain
questions that might otherwise be considered discriminatory. But if you believe that the
interviewers questions are discriminatory, you can file a complaint with the EEOC or the state
agency that oversees employment practices. If your complaint is based on discrimination because
of age or physical disability, you should file a complaint with the companys equal opportunity
officer or the U.S Department of Labor. Be advised, though, that filing a complaint is a lengthy and
frustrating process, and there is no guarantee that you will win.
The interviewer will usually give you a signal that the interview is about to end; when you sense
that this is the case, be ready to close, but dont jump up and leave immediately. Be sure to say
thank you and emphasize your interest in working for the company, if indeed you are interested. If
you can, ascertain what the next step will be, but dont seem pushy.
If an offer of employment is made usually after the second or third interview you can either
accept it or ask for time to consider it. Waiting until youve had time to think it over is usually the
better course. If no offer is made, you might ask tactfully what the time frame for making the
decision is.
If you do receive an offer, the next step is to negotiate salary. Always let the interviewer introduce
the subject. If you are asked what your salary expectations are, you can say either that you will
expect the usual salary for the position or, if you have stronger qualifications, you might say you
would expect to start in the middle of the salary range.
If the salary is not acceptable to you and the company is in a position to be flexible, you might
consider negotiating for a higher salary. Your chances of success are good if you have special
skills that are in demand and if you have had offers from other companies as well. While many
organizations have a strictly defined salary scale, it is perfectly all right in the U.S. and most
European countries to ask if there is room for negotiation.
If there is no chance of negotiating for a higher salary, you still might be able to bargain for extra
benefits or perquisites. Most companies offer a cafeteria plan of benefits, meaning you have some
latitude to trade benefits you dont need or want for those you do.

Finally, as you go through various interviews, be sure to keep notes of the points you discussed and
the names and titles of the people you met with. Analyze your performance in each interview, and
consider changes you might make in the future. And, of course, having the notes will be invaluable
if you are called back for a follow-up interview.
Outline

I. Warm-up
A. First impression
B. Body language
II. Question-and-answer
A. Deference to the interviewer
1. Wait until finished
2. Embellish your answers
3. Think what you will say
B. Your own questions
1. Tailoring answers
2. Countering reservations
C. Listening to questions and noting body language
D. Discriminatory questions
1. Extreme disfavor
2. Allowable questions
3. Deciding how to respond
4. Filing a complaint
III. Ending the interview
A. Interviewers signal
B. If an offer is made
1. Accept it
2. Consider it
C. Negotiating salary
D. Negotiating benefits and perquisites

E. Keeping notes

Section Review 15
Summary

It is a good idea to touch base with a potential employer after an interview; doing so lets him or her
know you are seriously interested in the job and brings your name to the forefront. A follow-up
message can be in the form of a thank-you note or an inquiry; the format can be formal letter, email, or phone call, each having its own advantages. Other types of follow-up messages are
requests for more time, acceptance letters, decline letters, and resignation letters. These messages
should always be put in writing to document the contents.
Thank-you messages should always be written within two days of the interview. Even if you dont
think you will get the job or, indeed, have been told you are not qualified, making this contact and
establishing goodwill might help you at a later time. Always keep the message brief, reminding the
interviewer of the job you have applied for and the circumstances of the interview, focusing on the
advantages to the organization of your employment, and sounding positive but not overconfident.
A letter of inquiry is appropriate if you have not heard back from an interviewer by the promised
date or within two weeks. It is especially appropriate if you have received another job offer in the
meantime and are trying to decide whether or not to accept it. The tone of this type of letter is
important: be sure to write as though you assume the delay in apprising you of the decision has
been an oversight, not necessarily a rejection. And write as though your first choice is a job with
the organization you are writing to, even if it isnt.
If you are in the enviable position of having more than one job prospect, you might need to write to
request a time extension on your decision. Be sure to show a positive attitude toward the
organization to which you are writing, again even if it is not your first choice. If you feel that your
request for an extension will be denied, ask that a quick decision be made. The best method for this
type of letter is the direct approach, but be sure to temper it by stating that you are still interested in
the position.
A letter of acceptance is as important as a letter of application, for a written job offer and
acceptance has the affect of a legally binding contract. You should write the letter of acceptance
within five days of receiving the offer. Use the direct approach, i.e., start the letter by accepting the
position. Then clarify details such as salary, starting date, and so on. Make sure your tone indicates
your interest in the job and your eagerness to get underway.
If you are offered a job which you decide not to take, you should, of course, write a letter declining
the offer. The indirect approach works best here: start with a friendly opening, thanking the reader
for the opportunity to interview; then express your reasons for declining the offer, state specifically
that you are declining it, and close with a tone of goodwill and appreciation. Even if you have
declined this job, you might want to apply for another one with this organization later.
Just as you want to maintain good relations with an organization whose job you are declining, you
also want to stay on good terms with the organization you are leaving to accept a new job.
Therefore, you should, naturally, write a good letter of resignation. Again, use the indirect approach
as you would with a bad-news message. Start by saying how much you have enjoyed working for
the organization or, if you havent, say how much youve learned. Then state that you are resigning
and give the date of your last day on the job, making sure to give at least two weeks notice. As
always, close on a positive note
Outline

I. Following-up

A. Expressing interest
B. Bringing your name to the forefront
II. Thank-you letters
A. Within two days
B. Making contact and establishing goodwill
C. Sounding positive
III. Letter of inquiry
A. Re-establishing contact
1. By promised date
2. Within two weeks
B. Another job offer
C. Importance of tone
IV. Request for time extension
A. Positive attitude
B. Direct approach
V. Letter of acceptance
A. Legally binding
B. Within five days
C. Direct approach
VI. Declining a job
A. Indirect approach
B. Maintaining good relations
VII. Letter of resignation
A. Maintaining good relations
B. Indirect approach

Section Review
Summary

Saying no is often part of a professionals job, but the way in which it is said can make all the
difference in future customer relations. Being methodical and thorough in decision making helps a
professional to be clear and objective when it comes time to say no.
There are three steps in the process of writing a bad-news message the same three as n writing a
good-news message: planning, writing, and completing. In the planning stage the writer must
consider purpose and audience response. Bad-news messages should always be sent in writing
rather than delivered face-to-face or over the phone; so one consideration is already determined.
The main question, then, is should the bad news be delivered directly or indirectly.
It is essential that the facts be ascertained before a decision is made and announced. Reversing a
decision because new information has come to light can be counterproductive and embarrassing.
And the reasons for the decision should be communicated clearly from the start.
Even though the news is sometimes bad, a thoughtful and careful writer can maintain a good
relationship with the audience by adapting the medium and the tone.
Writing the bad-news message entails defining the main idea clearly and developing it fully and
logically. Choosing between the direct approach and the indirect approach is especially important
in writing a bad-news message. A careful analysis of the audience can help the writer decide which
approach will get the point across with minimal bad feelings. Similarly, the writer must be careful
in choosing the right words to avoid sounding abrupt or unfriendly.
Completing the bad-news message is similar to completing a good-news message: a careful revision
and editing will ensure that the ideas are clear and logically arranged, the design and format are
appropriate to the purpose, and the grammar, spelling, and mechanics are correct.
Outline

I. Necessity of saying no
II. Three-step Process
A. Planning
1. Ascertaining facts
2. Communicating reasons
3. Maintaining goodwill
B. Writing
1. Defining the main idea clearly
2. Developing it logically and fully
3. Choosing the direct or indirect approach
a. Audience analysis
b. Diction
C. Completing

1. Revising and editing

2. Choosing design and format
3. Correcting errors

Section Review
Key Terms

buffer

Summary

The desired effect of a bad-news message is that 1) the readers will feel that they
have been taken seriously and their interests considered and 2) that the decision is
fair and reasonable. More specifically, the five goals of delivering bad news are as
follows:

to convey the bad news

to have the audience accept it

to maintain good relations with the audience

to maintain companys image and reputation

to reduce or eliminate further correspondence on the issue

The strategies for accomplishing these goals are 1) to create an audience-centered

tone, 2) to use the direct or indirect approach judiciously, and 3) to account for
cultural differences and modify the message accordingly.
The tone of a message, the attitude implied by the words, can have a considerable
impact on the effect. Adapting the tone to the audiences needs will enable the reader
to

better understand the message

accept the bad news as final

accept the decision as fair and reasonable

continue to be well disposed toward the organization

maintain pride

Bad news should generally be put into writing, but in instances in which it is delivered
orally it is important to acknowledge the emotional impact on the audience. One way
to do so is to listen before speaking to give the recipient of the bad news a chance to
express his or her feelings.
Even when delivering bad news in writing, it is still important to anticipate the
audiences response and take feelings into account. The you attitude is especially
important in this instance; if the bad news can somehow turn out to be in the
audiences best interest, then it will be easier to take.
Also, it is important to choose words carefully to create the desired tone. A
professional often has an ethical obligation to convey bad news, but using positive,
complimentary words to do so will help maintain the audiences feelings. Similarly,
respectful language will help maintain pride, even when the reader is at fault. This is
an instance in which the passive voice comes in handy: instead of saying, You
shouldnt have immersed the appliance in water, it will soften the impact to say, The
appliance shouldnt be immersed in water.

If the bad news is not likely to cause a negative reaction, then the direct approach is
usually best. Stating the bad news first makes the overall message shorter and easier
to write, and it saves the reader time. Moreover, it suggests firmness and strength.
For these reasons, some organizations always use the direct approach for internal
correspondence and for external correspondence in which hurt feelings are not a
likelihood or consideration. Even so, the language must be carefully chosen to avoid a
discourteous or inconsiderate tone. The formula is as follows:

State the bad news first

Explain the reasons or rationale

End with a positive statement to maintain good relations

The indirect approach is used when a blunt no might result in the audiences not
understanding or even reading the reasons. The formula for this approach is different:

Open with a buffer

Proceed to a logical, neutral explanation of the reasons

State the bad news

Close with a positive statement to maintain goodwill and retain future business

A special consideration when using the indirect approach in an e-mail is not to defeat
the purpose by carelessly stating the bad news in the subject line. Of course, it would
be equally self-defeating to raise the readers hopes or expectations by using a
misleading subject line. Therefore, the desired technique is to be neutral.
The opening of the message should include a buffer, a noncontroversial statement
that broaches the topic while establishing common ground that both the writer and
the reader will agree on. A buffer does not cushion the bad news; it simply gives the
writer the chance to begin by explaining the reasons behind the decision. The buffer
should be sincere and relevant. If it seems to avoid the issue, the reader might
interpret it as manipulative or even deceptive.
Examples of effective and ethical buffers are those that 1) express appreciation, 2)
assure the reader of your effort and attention, 3) compliment the readers effort, and
4) suggest an understanding of the readers needs. If possible, the buffer statement
should be made in response to questions asked or statements made by the reader. A
few key points about writing buffers follow:

Dont build up the audiences hopes and then dash them.

Dont say no in the buffer.

Be direct and relevant; dont pad the message

Avoid an authoritative tone

Dont apologize

Be concise

After composing the buffer, the writer should consider four questions: 1) Is it pleasant?
2) Is it relevant? 3) Is it neutral? and 4) Will the reasons for the decision flow smoothly
from the buffer?
If the answers to these questions are positive, the next step is to explain why the
decision was made before stating what the decision is. The positive points come first,
followed by the negative ones. It is tactful not to state that the decision has been
made in the companys or organizations best interest; if possible, the benefits to the
reader, even though the decision is negative, should be highlighted.

The writer should never apologize for a decision; doing so is a sign of vacillation and
weakness. Also, the writer should not hide behind company policy when delivering
bad news; policy by itself is not a justifiable reason for evaluating people's merits or
wishes.
Once the reasons for the decision have been outlined, the writer should state the bad
news. Even though the audience has been prepared, though, it is important to be
tactful and diplomatic. There are three techniques that can help.

First, a) be concise - minimize the time spent on the bad news; b) put the bad news
in a subordinate clause in the middle of a sentence the least emphatic position;
and c) embed the bad news in the middle of a paragraph

Second, use a conditional construction (using the words if or when) to suggest that
the audience might have been successful or might still under other conditions.

Third, use positive statements of what you did do, will do, or can do to perhaps
partially meet the audiences needs. However, it is essential to be clear in telling
the audience what the decision is; it is unethical to give the impression that a
decision might turn out differently when in fact it will not.

Once the unpleasant task of actually delivering the bad news has been accomplished,
the writer can breathe a figurative sigh of relief and end the message on a positive
note. Several ways of doing this are to offer suggestions for further action, look
toward a promising future, or propose an alternative solution. In any case, the
guidelines to writing a successful positive close are as follows:

Be sincere

Be confident

Be positive

Discourage further correspondence

Be optimistic about the future

The final point in this section deals with the special considerations necessary for
delivering bad news to members of different cultures. Many cultures have traditions
and conventions that very dramatically. It is imperative that the writer take these into
consideration to avoid embarrassing him or herself and the organization and possibly
losing the goodwill of a client of customer.
Outline

I. Bad news: desired effect

A. The reader has been taken seriously
B. The decision is fair and reasonable
II. Strategies
A. Audience-centered tone
B. Direct or indirect approach
C. Cultural difference
III. Tone
A. Listening to audience
B. Anticipating response the you attitude
C. Choosing words carefully
1. Positive words

2. Respectful language
3. Passive voice
IV. Direct v. indirect approach
A. Direct
1. State the bad news
2. Explain reasons
3. End positively
B. Indirect
1. Open with a buffer
2. Use neutral reasons
3. State the bad news
4. End positively
C. E-mail subject line
V. The buffer
A. Noncontroversial
B. Response to question or statement
C. Effect on reader
VI. The reasons
A. Positive first
B. Benefits to reader
C. No apology
VII. The bad news
A. Tact and diplomacy
B. Conciseness
C. Conditional constructions
D. Partial accommodations
VIII. The positive close
A. Further action
B. Promising future
C. Alternative solutions
D. Guidelines
IX. Different cultures

Section Review 8
Key Terms

defamation

Summary

Bad news messages fall generally into three categories: negative responses to routine
requests, negative organizational news, and negative employment messages.
Professionals sometimes have to say no to specific requests, and doing so tactfully is
a mark of a good communicator. Sometimes people request information which for
various reasons cannot be supplied, for example, information about projected sales
figures.
Either the direct approach or the indirect approach can be used, depending on the
audiences likely response. The bottom line is that if the message is likely to offend a
reader, it should be recast. If the writer knows the reader and is certain that no
offense will be taken, the direct approach will work. If not, then a message which
sincerely compliments the reader, suggests an alternative, and establishes goodwill,
all while saying no, is more appropriate.
Refusing a customers claim or request for adjustment usually calls for the indirect
approach. The writer must at once avoid accepting responsibility for the situation and
avoid blaming or accusing the customer. The right tone is essential in this situation:
the writer must indicate that he or she understands the problem and has considered it
but that the decision is no. The explanation should be rational and clear. The writer
should not apologize or hide behind company policy. Even if the claim is
unreasonable, the writer should reply in a respectful and moderate tone.
Using a business message to vent anger is unwise; doing so will almost certainly result
in ill will, and, indeed, can lead to a charge of defamation. Written defamation is
called libel; spoken defamation is slander. The three legal elements of defamation are
1) that the statement is false, 2) that it is injurious, and 3) that is has been published.
Still, even an accusation of defamation is unpleasant at best. The best ways to avoid
it are as follows:

Dont write in anger.

Be honest in what you say and write.

Be accurate and factual.

Avoid abusive language.

Avoid personal opinions when writing as an organizational representative

Consult the legal department when in doubt.

Sometimes it falls to a writer to deliver bad news about the companys or

organizations products or services. As usual, the situation determines whether to use
the direct or the indirect approach. Usually, if the news is about products and is being
delivered to in-house entities, the direct approach is effective, but if it being delivered
to customers or stockholders, the indirect approach is called for.
When the bad news is about company operations, the writer needs to be even more
thoughtful. Examples of such bad news are problems with company performance,
controversial or unpopular operations, and changes in policy or plans that will affect
readers adversely. In these instances, an apology might be called for, along with a
clear explanation of the situation, followed by a positive note in closing.
The most difficult and unpleasant bad-news messages involve employment situations:
terminations, negative performance reviews, and negative references to prospective
employers. The situations in which these letters are written are emotionally charged,
so the letters require considerable finesse.
Under the Freedom of Information Act, an employee has certain rights to access any
information written about him or her. Consequently, many employers are reluctant to
write references for fear of legal ramifications. The best approach when reluctant to
provide recommendations is to state only that the candidate worked for the company
for a certain period of time. It is a bit more difficult, though, to tell an employee that

you are unwilling to write a recommendation; such a refusal might seem like a
personal slight and a threat to the employees future. The way to deal with this
situation is to make positive comments where possible, imply an unwillingness to write
anything more direct, suggest alternatives, and wish the employee the best of luck.
Anyone who has applied for a job and never heard back knows how annoying it is to
be left hanging. Employers have an ethical obligation to respond to applications, with
a form letter or card if nothing else. When an employer does write a rejection letter, it
should include the following:

a direct statement of the rejection, without a buffer

the reasons another applicant was hired

suggestions of alternatives future openings

Perhaps even more difficult to write than a rejection letter is a performance review.
These evaluations serve to emphasize and clarify job requirements, give employees
feedback on their performance, and develop plans of action for future performance.
Whether the performance review is positive or negative, the tone should be objective
and unbiased, the language, nonjudgmental, and the focus on problem resolution.
Performance reviews can be the basis of lawsuits: if they are positive but the
employee is fired for incompetence, the employee can claim that there was no basis
for termination. On the other hand, if they are negative and the employee was not
given a chance to correct deficiencies, the company can be sued for negligence. So it
is vital that they be written with care and attention. The guidelines are as follows:

Confront issues immediately but be sure to do so in an objective frame of

mind.

Plan the message carefully be clear and specific; avoid personal bias, get
feedback from other sources; collect and verify information

Deliver the message in private dont send out performance reviews by e-mail
or fax.

Address the problem compare the performance with the standard, not with the
performance of other individuals; address the consequences of continued poor
performance; be supportive.

Ask for a commitment finalize decisions jointly, if possible; set up a schedule

for improvement and evaluation.

Finally, perhaps the most difficult letter of all to write is the termination notice. Still,
this sometimes has to be done; so the writer should focus on three goals: 1) state the
specific reasons, 2) avoid litigious statements, and 3) leave the relationship as
favorable as possible.
Outline

I. Bad-news messages
A. Have to be written
B. Direct or indirect approach
II. Tone
A. Avoid venting
1. Ill will
2. Defamation
B. Be honest, accurate, unbiased, and courteous
III. Company bad news

A. Products and services

1. Direct in-house entities
2. Indirect customers and stockholders
B. Operations
1. Company performance
2. Controversial or unpopular operations
3. Changes in policy or plans
C. Employees
1. Refusal of references
2. Performance reviews
3. Termination
IV. References and recommendations
A. Freedom of Information Act
B. Reluctance to write
C. Refusal to write
V. Rejecting applications
A. Direct approach without buffer
B. Reasons for hire
C. Suggestions for alternatives
VI. Performance reviews
A. Objective, unbiased, nonjudgmental, focused
B. Avoiding legal implications
1. Confront issues
2. Plan message
3. Deliver in private
4. Address problem
5. Ask for commitment
VII. Termination letters
A. State reasons
B. Avoid litigious language
C. End favorably

Section Review
Key Terms

topical organization

2+2=4 approach

scientific method

yardstick approach

Summary

After youve planned your report or proposal, the next step is to organize it and then
compose it. To organize it, you need to decide 1) its format, 2) it length, 3) its order,
and 4) its structure.
Sometimes, when the report has been requested, the format and length are
predetermined. There are four options for format:

preprinted form

letter

memo

manuscript (for lengthy reports)

The length is determined by the subject, purpose, and, of course, audience. When the
audience is not likely to respond positively because the report is non-routine or
controversial, you probably need to go into more detail, thus making the report longer.
If you and the reader have already established a positive relationship and the reader is
likely to respond positively, then the report can be more concise.
Most business reports rely on the direct approach: it saves time and makes the rest of
the report easier to follow. The direct approach is also more straightforward, making
you, the writer, sound confident. But if your readers are the least bit reluctant or
hesitant, the indirect approach works better. Such readers might respond negatively
to strongly stated ideas and might perceive confidence as arrogance. The indirect
approach will enable you to develop your ideas gradually. However, the
disadvantages of the indirect approach are that some readers will go straight to the
recommendations without having read the rest of the report, that longer reports
become increasingly less effective, and that the indirect approach is harder to follow
than the direct approach.
Sometimes the direct and indirect approaches are combined by stating the
recommendations and conclusions as the report develops rather than putting them
first or last.
When writing an instructional report, you are dealing with facts. Most readers will
accept facts, so the direct approach usually works. But you do have to structure the
report by presenting the facts logically and accurately. One method is to use heading
and subheadings, making it clear to the reader what each section of the report will
cover. Several familiar methods of topical organization are as follows:

Order of importance

Sequence

Chronology

Spatial order

Geography

Category (classification)

Of course, when reports are prepared using pre-printed forms, the method of
organization is already determined.

The structure of analytical reports depends on the response you are most likely to
receive from the reader. If the audience is likely to agree, use a structure focused on
recommendations and conclusions. If the audience is likely to disagree, focus the
attention on reasons and logic.
When you focus on conclusions, you can usually use the direct approach. However, as
noted above, some readers might find it too forceful and thus feel naturally resistant.
Moreover, focusing on conclusions might make the argument seem too simplistic or
superficial.
The direct approach works best with readers who already know you, trust your
judgment, and are likely to accept your conclusions. Knowing pretty much what to
expect, they can understand your conclusions readily, but if they want to know more,
they can refer to the rest of the text for a thorough analysis.
When you focus on recommendations rather than conclusions, you take a slightly
different approach. In this instance you are being asked to solve a problem rather
than just to analyze it. The recommendations become the main focus of the report.
Using the direct approach again, you should develop your recommendations in five
steps

State the need for action

Explain the benefits that will be gained

List the recommended course of action

Explain each step in more detail

Summarize the report

When your focus is on logical argument, your purpose is to persuade the audience to
work with you to solve a problem or to take a specific action. In this instance, your
structure is focused on the arguments, or reasons, rather than the conclusions or
recommendations. The indirect approach works well here to draw the readers
attention to the facts before you state your conclusions or recommendations. There
are three common organizational structures typically used:
The 2+2= 4 approach put all the pieces of the argument together, and it all adds
up
The scientific method use inductive reasoning to examine alternatives, eliminating
those which do not work, and then draw a conclusion.
The yardstick approach measure all the alternatives against the same standard or
criterion to see which one is the best fit.
These methods can be used severally or in combination, but always remember that in
report writing, as in any other kind of professional writing, conciseness is one of the
cardinal virtues.
Finally, the method for structuring proposals, like that for structuring reports, depends
on your anticipation of the audiences reaction. Audiences are typically more
responsive to solicited proposals; after all, the reader is the one who initiated a
solicited proposal. Thus the optimal method would be the indirect approach with a
focus on recommendations in response to the criteria in the RFP.
With unsolicited proposals, the audience is less likely to be receptive; therefore, the
optimal approach is to convince the reader that there is a problem, establish your
credibility, and then make solid and logical arguments to support your ideas.
Outline

I.

Organizing your material

A.

B.

C.

D.

Format
1.

Preprinted forms

2.

Letter

3.

Memo

4.

Manuscript

Length
1.

Detail skeptical audience

2.

Conciseness responsive audience

Order
1.

Direct approach

2.

Indirect approach

3.

Combined approach

Sequence topical organization

1.

Order of importance

2.

Sequential order

3.

Chronology

4.

Spatial orientation

5.

Geography

6.
II.

Structuring analytical reports

A.

Agreeable audience
1.

B.

IV.

V.

Conclusions and recommendations

Skeptical audience
1.

III.

Category

Reasons

Focusing on conclusions
A.

Direct approach

B.

Drawbacks

Focusing on recommendations
A.

Direct approach

B.

Development of recommendations
1.

Need for action

2.

Benefit to be attained

3.

Recommendations

4.

Detailed explanation

5.

Summary

Focusing on logical arguments

A.

Indirect approach

B.

VI.

Statement of reasons
1.

2+2=4 approach

2.

Scientific method

3.

Yardstick approach

Combination of methods

VII.

A.

Clear, comprehensible arguments

B.

Conciseness

Structuring proposals
A.

Solicited proposals
1.

Receptive audience

2.

Direct approach

B.

Unsolicited proposals
1.

Skeptical audience

2.

Indirect approach

Section Review
Key Terms

table

flow chart

line chart

organization chart

surface chart

computer graphics

area chart

informative titles

bar chart

descriptive titles

Summary

Visuals (graphics, pictures, charts, etc) are an important and valuable addition to
reports and proposals. But visuals need to be used judiciously and, indeed, sparingly,
to have the desired effect.
The first consideration is to decide whether or not visuals will actually be effective. A
picture is sometimes worth a thousand words, but not always; some information needs
to be explained in words. When you do decide to use visuals, make sure there is an
appropriate balance between them and the text. Since readers often associate the
amount of space given to a topic or visual with its relative importance, be sure the
visuals and text are balanced in terms of space as well as importance.

As a practical note, be sure to consider the time and effort required to produce
effective visuals. And be sure you have both the technology and the expertise to
produce them effectively.
Once you have decided to incorporate visuals and are confident that you can produce
them, you must decide what type of visuals will best suit your audiences needs.
Some of the types of visuals and their uses are as follows:

tables to present detailed, exact values

line charts or bar charts to show trends or correlations and to compare single
items

segmented bar charts or surface charts to show frequency or distribution

pie chart to compare parts with the whole

map to show geographic relationships

flowchart or diagram to show progression or procedure

A table is a systematic arrangement of date in columns and rows, used to make it

easier for the audience to understand complicated information in the text. Tables can
range in size from two columns to many. To produce a good table, follow these
guidelines:

Make sure the units you are using are common and easily understood dollars,
percentages, etc.

Use the same unit for all items in a column, and round off fractions.

Label the column headings and, if necessary, subheadings.

Use lines or space to separate columns or rows

Give column or row totals if appropriate

Document the source in a footnote.

A line chart shows trends over time or the relationship between variables. The
vertical axis indicates the quantity, and the horizontal axis the time. The most
common variety of line chart uses two or more lines to indicate variation in quantify
over a period of time. Normally, no more than three variables should be compared.
Line charts can indicate both positive and negative numbers.
A surface chart, or area chart, shows changes in the composition of something over
a period of time. It is a variety of line chart, which is used to show a cumulative effect
with all the lines adding up to the top line.
A bar chart indicates variations or changes in quantities by using rectangular bars. It
is easy to read and is especially effective in comparing a number of items (more than
just two or three), changes in one item over time, the composition of several items
over time, and, in the case of segmented bar charts, the relative sizes of the parts that
make up a whole.
A pie chart, like a segmented bar chart or an area chart, shows how the parts go
together to make up a whole. It is used effectively to show percentages or to compare
segment sizes with each other. Of course, you should try to limit the number of
segments to make the chart easy to read; consider the effect of trying to understand a
pie chart with 50 or 100 slices.

A flow chart shows relationships in physical or conceptual terms rather than

numerical terms. As its name suggests, it shows a sequential flow of events from
beginning to end. It is especially useful in showing the steps or progression of a
procedure or process.
An organization chart shows the parts of an organization and the ways they are
related. It is almost essential for communicating the chain of command or
communication in an organizational management.
Reports and proposals frequently include drawing, diagrams, and photographs in
addition to charts. The adage that a picture is worth a thousand words does often
hold true, for words usually fall short in describing such things as a piece of property
or equipment, a building, or a product.
Contemporary technology makes it possible to edit photographs, making changes that
are not detectable in the document. There are important ethical considerations here
and a potential for liability if this technology is misused.
Contemporary technology has also made it possible, indeed easy, to produce high
quality photographic images computer graphics - on the PC. Computer graphics
are quick, easy, and effective, and they are available in a wide variety, giving the
writer considerable latitude in finding the right medium to communicate with his or
her audience. Among he design principles for creating effective visuals are the
following:

Be consistent throughout the report with colors, shapes, sizes, etc. in indicating
elements on the graphics; dont switch from red on one page to blue on another to
show the same quantity or element.

Use contrast to show distinctions subtle contrast if the distinction is slight, bold
contrasts if it is blatant.

Similarly, emphasize the most important items on the visual with color, position,
size, etc. and de-emphasize less important items.

Limit the number of colors, shapes, and other elements you use. Strive for simplicity;
avoid chartjunk useless information, often merely decorative, which might confuse
the reader.
Cultural issues can also impact the effectiveness of visuals; some colors, shapes, and
symbols that have recognizable meanings in one country might have different
meanings elsewhere.
It is a good idea to consider these points before designing your visuals; waiting until
after you have created them and then deciding to change them can cost you a lot of
time and effort.
When you incorporate visuals with the text, be sure to label them sometimes they
are called exhibits - and refer to them by number. And be sure your numbering is
consecutive throughout the text. Sometimes if the text is long, this will require using
double numbers, one representing the chapter, the other representing the individual
visual.
Always make textual references to visuals before they appear. And be sure to explain
the date in the visual rather than merely repeat it.
Many word processing programs make it easy to place visuals on the same page as
the text they refer to. If you cant put the visuals on the same page with the text, put
them on a separate page as close as possible to the corresponding text. Alternatively,
put all the visuals together at the end of each chapter or at the report in an appendix.
And if you have four or more visuals, prepare a List of Illustrations to go with the
Table of Contents in the preliminary matter of the report.

A good way to correlate your visuals with the text is to use captions, titles, or legends
especially when the visual and the text are separate. Be sure the caption, title, or
legend makes the content of the visual clear. Titles and captions are usually single
words or brief phrases. Legends are usually several sentences which explain the visual
when it is separated from the text. Complete sentences are usually more informative
than short phrases; so use them to reflect the use of informative titles throughout
the report.
Whether your titles and legends are informative or merely descriptive titles, be
consistent in the way you use them throughout the report; dont mix the forms.
Similarly, be consistent in the font, size, capitalization, and other matters of form.
Finally, unless directed to do otherwise, place table titles at the top of the visual and
figure titles at the bottom.
Visuals are used to enhance a report or proposal; so it is important that they do so
rather than detract from it. Fine points of usage and format such as typing,
punctuation, spelling, as well as color consistency and alignment, are key
considerations. Moreover, the use of visuals should be based on several other key
factors, Notably,

Is the visual necessary?

Is it accurate?

Is it honest?

Is it properly documented?

Outline

I.

Considering visuals
A.

B.
II.

III.

Effectiveness
1.

Text or visual

2.

Balance

Time and effort

Types of visuals
A.

Tables

B.

Line charts

C.

Surface chart or area chart

D.

Bar chart

E.

Flow chart

F.

Organization chart

Computer graphics
A.

Ethical editing

B.

Design principles
1.

Consistency

2.

Contrast

3.

Emphasis

C.

Elimination of chartjunk

D.

Cultural issues

IV.

Incorporating visuals with text

A.

Labeling and numbering

B.

Textual references

C.

Pagination

D.

V.

1.

Same page

2.

Appendix

3.

List of Illustrations

Correlation with text

1.

Informative titles

2.

Descriptive titles

Considerations
A.

Necessity?

B.

Accuracy?

C.

Honesty?

D.

Documentation?

Section Review 11
Summary

After youve organized your materials, the next step is to compose the first draft of your report or
proposal. You will do well to create an outline, usually intended to be the final one, although even
it may be subject to some revision as you go along. Seeing the key points laid out in an
organizational pattern will help you decide whether to proceed as planned or make changes.
The next consideration after youve fine-tuned the organizational pattern is to focus on style and
tone, diction, and sentence and paragraph structure. One effect of style and tone is formality, the
degree of which you must decide as you compose the paper. An informal tone used when writing
to someone you already know is characterized by the use of first- person (I, me) and secondperson (you) pronouns. This style is usually more appropriate to memos and informal letters.
Formal letters, long reports, and letters to people from other cultures are more often characterized
by a more formal tone: first- and second-person pronouns should not be used, but avoiding them
sometimes results in other pitfalls such as beginning sentences with there or here and using the
passive voice (just as Ive done here).
Examples of the appropriate style for reports can usually be found within your own organization. If
the general tone of reports sent out from your company is informal, then using an informal style and
tone is probably appropriate. However, each situation should be judged on its own merits i.e., on
the purpose of the report and the expectations of the audience.
An important consideration in writing reports is time perspective. Avoid shifting back and forth
from present to past tense or vice versa. Sometimes these shifts can be confusing; invariably they
are annoying. Similarly, be sure to use chronological order to present sequences of events that you
are recounting.
Helping readers find their way through a report requires some thoght and effort. You know what
you mean, but without a clear guideline as to the structure of the report, the reader might become

lost. Three effective methods of helping your reader stay oriented are 1) headings, 2) transitions,
and 3) previews and reviews.
Headings and subheadings, often indicated by bold type, let your readers know what the
information that follows will be about.
Transitions are words and phrases that link sentences by showing a relationship between one idea
and another. Transitions are used to achieve coherence within the paragraph and from one
paragraph to the next.
Previews and reviews, as their names imply, tell the reader what is coming or what has just been
covered.
Development is a key concept in any piece of writing: the material covered in the body must be
sufficiently detailed to gratify the readers needs and desires. Formal documents such as RFPs will
make it clear exactly what should be covered and developed within the proposal. But the level of
development required for other undertakings depends on the purpose of the document, the pattern
of organization, the scope of the material to be covered, and, of course, the audiences needs and
expectations. While the appearance, style, format, and other considerations are important, the
development of the body of the report will go farthest toward the reports success. The important
considerations in developing the body of the report are

Accuracy
Completeness
Balance
Structure
Documentation
Proposals have the particular purpose of trying to persuade someone to do something, buy
something, or accept an idea. Since they are, in effect, sales messages, the AIDA plan works well:
attention, interest, desire, and action. In addition, you can make your proposals effective if you do
the following:

Establish credibility through your knowledge

Use concrete examples
Ascertain the competition
Show how your proposal will work
Always use the you attitude
Make your proposal attractive and appearance
Outline

I. Outline of organizational pattern

A. Style and tone

1. Informal
2. Formal
B. Time perspective
C. Reader aids
1. Headings
2. Transitions
3. Previews and reviews
II. Development of body
A. Level of development
1. Purpose
2. Pattern of development
3. Scope
4. Audience
B. Considerations
1. Accuracy
2. Completeness
3. Balance
4. Structure
5. Documentation
III. Proposals
A. AIDA plan
B. Keys to effectiveness
1. Credibility
2. Concrete examples
3. Awareness of competition
4. Workability
5. You attitude

6. Appearance