Nuffield Maths Teacher's Handbook 1

Nuffield Moths 5-11
a revised and extended version of

the Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project
Nuffield Moths 1
Teachers' Handbook
11~~~!llrI~I~IIIII~
IIII
N29720
Published for the Nuffield Foundation by Longman Group Ltd
General editor:
Eric A. Albany,
Senior lecturer in mathematics
The Polytechnic, Wolverhampton
Author of this volume:
Winifred Moore,
Headmistress ~
NATrtmfMw~1
First School,
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..
1
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J:o:~meriy,Headml~tr~,s ,i,~
tMornt1[~~;;!!1JaJ!Jf'Scho~~London
eo
CJJfd Do-.dzrector of the
'
NEJzrR~thematical
Experiences Project
Eric A.f\lbany
.~CE
Illustrator:
Chris Williamson
We are grateful to Mrs. S. Dadd
and the children of Nelson Infants' School,
Napier Road, London E. 6
for the photographs used
throughout this book.
We are also grateful to
Philip & Tacey for the use of
the rubber stamps which are
part of some of the illustrations.
LONGMAN GROUP LIMITED
London
Associated companies, branches and representatives
throughout the world
The Nuffield Foundation 1979

All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying; recording , or otherzoise,
without the prior permission of the Copyright owner.
First published 1979
Second impression 1979
ISBN 0582 188849
Photo set in Monophoto Plantin 110 and 194
by Keyspools Ltd., Golborne
Printed in England
by MCCorquodale (Newton) Ltd.,
Newton-Ie-Willows, Lancashire.
II
Contents
Foreword by Geoffrey Matthews
Introduction
VI
t Sets and relations (Nt)
Nt: 1
Nt:2
Nt:3
Relations (different types of correspondence)

Early sorting experiences -leading to sets
Sorting into subsets
2 Matching (N2)
I
tl
N2: 1
N2: 2a
N2: 2b
N2:3
Matching to find equivalentsets

Two non-equivalent sets
Three non-equivalent sets
Pictorial representation and semi-tallying
3 Counting and rrurrrer-als (N3)

N3: 1
N3:2
N3:3
N3:4
N3:5
Counting
Matching a number symbol to a set
Introducing number words
The empty set
Conservation of number
4 Ordering (N4)
N4: 1
N4:2
N4:3
N4:4
Ordinal numbers
Putting non-equivalent sets in order
Signs 'is greater than', 'is less than'
Tallying and pictorial representation
5 Towards addition (N5)
I
I
N5: 1
la
Ib
lc
N5: 2a
N5: 2b
N5:3
Composition of small numbers

bead bag
duck pond
rods or strips and frames
Addition of two disjoint sets; putting sets together
Addition of two disjoint sets, using structured apparatus
Recording addition by mapping
6 Addition to to (N6)
N6: 1
N6:2
N6:3
N6:4
N6:5
N6:6
Number bonds up to 10
Counting on
Patterns in simple addition
Picture problems - additions
Introduction of addition sign and vertical addition
The addition square
2
6
9
.14
15
20
21
23
26
27
28
34
37
38
42
43
47
50
53
56
57
57
58
60
63
64
65
68
69
75
80
82
83
85
111
I I I I I I I I I I
I
8
I I I I I I I I I I
I I
9
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I II
I I I I
Length (Ll)
88
Ll: 1 Descriptive language

Ll: 2 Comparing two unequal lengths
Ll: 3a Matching lengths: matching two objects of about the
same length
Ll:3b
Matching lengths: using several objects to 'make up' a
length
Ll: 4 Ordering
Ll: 5 Measuring with repeated units
Ll:6
Using limb measures
89
92
96
97
99
101
Shape and space (SI)
103
SI: 1 Awareness of shape and space, extension of vocabulary

S1: 2 Early sorting of 3-D shapes
SI: 3 Early sorting of 2-D shapes
Appendix
105
109
111
115
Weighing
117
WI: 1 Descriptive language - heavy and light

Comparing - heavier than and lighter than
Wl:2
Wl:3
Balancing
Wl:4
Ordering
118
119
123
127
10 T'Irrre (Tl)
Tl: 1 Association - matching events to daytime or night-time
Tl: 2 Putting time sequence in order
Tl: 3a Comparisons: fast and slow
Tl: 3b Comparisons: timing
Tl: 4 Graphs and charts
131
132
134
135
136
137
11 Money (Ml)
141
Ml: 1 Recognition of 1p, 2p, 5p, lOp coins

Ml:2
Comparison of amounts of money
(a) by matching (b) by totals
Ml:3
Using coins to make amounts up to lOp
Early stages of shopping
Ml:4
Appendix: Suggestions for shops in schools
12 Capacity
Cl:
Cl:
Cl:
Cl:
Cl:
Cl:
IV
(WI)
95
1
2
3
4
Sa
5b
(Cl)
Full, empty and half empty

Which holds more? (visual judgement)
Finding the capacity by counting
Sorting containers
Comparing by emptying
Comparing by filling
142
143
144
146
149
153
154
155
156
157
158
158
Foreword
As organizer of 'N uffield Mark 1', I am delighted to have the opportunity
of welcoming the present publication, which in effect is Nuffield Mark II.
The original project started in 1964 with the aim of 'producing a
contemporary course', an urgent need at the time when the II-plus
examination in arithmetic was on its way out and there was a realization
that neither its contents nor the methods of teaching for it were producing
happy or numerate children (the overwhelming majority of people in that
era grew up to hate and fear the subject).
The decision was taken at that time to produce only guidance for the
teachers of primary children and not materials for the children themselves.
Arguments will continue to rage as to whether this was a wise decision. I
can defend it vigorously on many counts at that time, but I am also glad to
be on record as saying that about ten years later there would be the
acceptance and the need for the production of pupils' materials as well.
And so, of course, it has turned out. Very many teachers have asked for
more guidance and more materials to be put into the hands of their pupils,
and this is just what Mark II has set out to achieve. It is very fortunate that
this enterprise has been directed by Eric Albany. He is a staunch Nuffield
man who contributed a lot to Mark 1. His ability, shrewdness and sense of
both humour and proportion have ensured that Mark II should complete
the task of 'producing a contemporary course' which children can enjoy. Of
equal importance, they will be helped to think for themselves and to
acquire relevant skills to the very best of their ability. Eric Albany and his
team have produced materials which will set a standard of excellence for
many years to come.
Among the many institutions and people to whom the Foundation owes
thanks for their help, I must especially acknowledge the part played by the
Polytechnic, Wolverhampton in allowing the full-time secondment of
Eric Albany to the project and also the assistance given by Wolverhampton
and Walsall Education Committees in providing accommodation and
facilities for the project staff. We are extremely grateful to all those teachers
and schools who have taken part in the trials of the new materials. I would
also like to express our thanks to William Anderson, Publications Manager
of the project and his colleagues, to the project secretary, Kathleen Norton,
and to our publishers, Longman Group Ltd, who have devoted so much
effort and such skill to the editing, design and production of the materials.
Geoffrey Matthews
Chairman of the Nuffield Foundation
Primary Mathematics Consultative Committee
Professor Emeritus, Chelsea College,
University of London
Introduction
Nuffield Maths 5-11 is based on the original Nuffield Mathematics Teaching
Project but is revised in the light of experience, and extended to include the
full range of pupils' materials.
The materials for rising 5 to 7 year olds are:
Bronto Books, Sets A, B, C and D-colourful books linking the extension
of mathematical vocabulary with language development (4t-6 year olds);
Nuffield Maths 1 Teachers' Handbook and expendable worksheets (4t-6
year olds);
Nuffield Maths 2 Teachers' Handbook and expendable worksheets (5t-7
year olds)
Teachers' Handbooks 3, 4, 5, 6 and non-expendable pupils' books are suitable
for 7-11 year olds.
Aims and objectives

The general aim of the Nuffield Maths 5-11 Project is to promote
understanding of the concepts and proficiency in the basic skills of
mathematics in children of the 5-11 age range.
The objectives of the Teachers' Handbooks for Nuffield Maths 1 and 2 are:
a) To give teachers clear guidance on the content, methods and timing
appropriate at each stage of the course;
b) To give practical, 'down to earth' suggestions for teaching Number,
Measurement and Shape, using activities suitable for children with a
wide range of abilities and backgrounds;
c) To give ideas for making worksheets, workcards, charts, models, etc.
and guidance in the use of both homemade and commercially available
apparatus;
d) To stress the importance of linking the extension of mathematical
vocabulary with language development;
e) To suggest ways of dealing with children's difficulties.
Using the materials

The materials of the Nuffield Maths 5-11 Project can be used in a variety of
classroom organizations including individual work, group or class teaching.
This should prove particularly useful to the teacher who tends to vary the
type of organization to suit particular topics. Whichever system is used, it
is important for teachers to remember the following points:
a) Children learn at different rates and so will not reach the same stage
simultaneously;
b) Young children learn by doing and by discussion;
c) As well as finding out and 'discovering' things about mathematics,
children need to be told things about mathematics, particularly if new
vocabulary is involved.
The obvious line of development for a primary child learning
VI
mathematics would seem to be:

activity and
experimentation
thinking and
communication
f------
acquisition of skills
and reinforcement
Activity and experimentation may vary from a child 'finding out by fiddling'
to a structured or teacher-led activity.
Thinking and communication involves discussion, sometimes between
children, sometimes between teacher and children. In the latter case, the
teacher may pose a friendly 'I wonder' type of question to find out what the
child is thinking-or
indeed if the child is thinking at all. Talking leads to
some sort of recording, the first introduction to which may be merely a
placing or arranging of objects on a prepared sheet of card. Drawing and
simple writing follow, leading to 'shorthand' and eventually to the use of
symbols.
Acquisition of skills and reinforcement Apart from the obvious benefits of
having certain useful skills and facts at one's fingertips, there is the
question of building up confidence and enjoyment 'I can do these, Miss.
Can I have some more ?'
The important thing is that these three elements form a sequence.
Worksheets provided by the Project are seen as part of the last element of
the sequence. These expendable worksheets are printed in 4-page leaflet
form, with space for the date and pupils name. They should not be given to
the children before they have had ample opportunity for activity,
experimentation, thinking and discussion.
Chapters and stages

This Handbook contains: six chapters dealing with Number (labelled
Nl-N6); one chapter on Shape and Space (S 1); one chapter on Money
(Ml), and four chapter on Measurement: Length (Ll), Time (Tl),
Capacity (Cl), and Weighing (WI). Further chapters on these topics
appear in Nuffield Maths 2 Teachers' Handbook.
Each chapter is divided into stages which are also numbered. The second
chapter on Number, for example, contains three stages which are labelled
N2: 1, N2 :2, N2 :3. (See Contents for details of stages in each chapter.)
The chapters on Shape and Space, Measurement and Money need not
be introduced in the order in which they appear in this Handbook. Indeed,
the early stages dealing with descriptive language in the Measurement and
Shape and Space chapters are intended to run concurrently with the early
work on Number. Similarly, the stages devoted to sorting, matching,
comparison and ordering of Length and Weight, etc. should be 'slotted in'
at the appropriate points. A 'suggested order of development' is given on
page ix .
Vll
Next to the full list of Contents on pages iii+iv, there is a grid which
teachers may wish to use as a record of the stages reached by groups or
individuals.
Chapter format
Each chapter of the Teachers' Handbooks
will be set out as follows:
1 For the teacher:

A brief outline of what is being attempted in the chapter, where it is
leading, and what should have been covered before starting.
2 Summary of the stages:
Setting out the stages contained within a chapter.
3 Vocabulary
A list of the words and phrases which the children will need to be able to
use and understand if they are to appreciate and explore the ideas in each
chapter. The teacher may wish to include some of these words and phrases
in her work on language.
4 Equipment and apparatus
The sort of materials such as boxes, containers, pots, sticks, pictures,
sorting toys, buttons, counters, cubes, beads, string, sand, plasticine, etc.
which the teacher may need to collect in advance.
5 Working with the children
Suggestions for introducing and developing each stage through discussion,
teacher-led activities, games, etc.; hints for making workcards, charts,
models, displays and simple apparatus; how to check-up" where necessary,
that a child understands a particular stage.
The accompanying worksheets, published by the Project, are
reproduced on a reduced scale at the end of each stage after the reminder
'Worksheets should not be introduced until children have had plenty of
practical experience and opportunity for discussion.'
6 References and resources
A list of books and commercially produced materials which are appropriate
for the chapter. No commercially produced equipment is deemed essential
but is suggested as a possible alternative to homemade or environmental
r.zaterials. Occasionally the Teachers' Guides published by the original
Nuffield Foundation Mathematics Teaching Project may be listed in this
section. These guides are now out of print but may be found in libraries
and schools and they still make a valuable contribution to mathematics
education.
V111
A suggested order of development

Nutnber
Quantities and Shape
NI: 1
NI: 2
NI: 3
Relations
Sorting - leading to sets
LI: 1
SI: 1
WI: 1
TI: 1
LI: 2
WI:2
Descriptive language
Awareness of Shape and Space
Descriptive language - heavy and light
Matching events to day-time/night-time
Comparing two unequal lengths
Comparing - heavier than/lighter than
N2: 1
Matching to find equivalent sets
SI:
SI:
CI:
TI:
Early sorting of 3-D shapes

Putting time sequence in order
N2: 2a Two non-equivalent sets

2b Three non-equivalent sets
N2: 3 Pictorial representation and semi-tallying
2
3
1
2
N3: 1
N3:2
N3:3
N3:4
N3: 5
Counting
Introduction number words
The empty set
L I : 3 Matching lengths
MI: 1 Recognition of l p, 2p, 5p, lOp coins.
N4: 1
N4:2
N4:3
_N4: 4
Ordinal numbers
LI :4
Ordering length
CI: 2
CI: 3
CI: 4

Sorting containers
MI: 2
Comparison of amounts of money

(a) by matching
(b) by totals
N5: 3
Composition of small numbers

Ia bead bag
Ib duck pond
1 c rods or strips and frames
Addition of two disjoint sets
2a Putting sets together
2b Using structured apparatus
N6: 1
N6:2
N6:3
Number bonds up to 10
Counting on
N6:4
N6: 5
N6: 6
Picture problems
Introduction of' + ' sign
The addition square
N5: 1
N5: 2
LI: 5 Measuring with repeated units

TI: 3a Comparisons: fast and slow
3b Comparisons: timing
WI: 3
CI: 5a
CI: 5b
MI: 3
MI : 4
WI: 4
LI : 6
TI : 4
Balancing
Comparing by emptying
Comparing by filling
Using coins to make amounts up lOp.
Early stages of shopping
Ordering weight
U sing limb measures
Graphs and charts
IX
Chapter 1
Sets and
relations (N 1)
For the teacher

The whole of mathematics has been described as sets and relations. This
statement is particularly relevant to young children, for they are probably
familiar with sets of objects, a tea set, a train set, a set of pencils, etc., and
soon develop the idea of a set as 'a collection of things which go together' .
Relations (or relationships) arise as a result of a connection between two
objects or two sets of objects. When a child says, 'That coat belongs to me,'
or, 'There are more straws than milk bottles,' these are examples of
relations.
Much later on, we shall use these same ideas when dealing with numbers.
For example:
The set of even numbers (2, 4, 6, 8, ... )
The set of square numbers (1,4,9, 16,25,36,
2 is less than 5.
4 is half of 8.
... )
As always, it is advisable to begin with the child's present experiences and

try to extend them in the direction we want to take. Of particular
importance is the language the child uses to express all that he finds out
from his new experiences. The language of a pre-school child is often
richly imaginative in its use, but we must also extend this to include not
only the names of the new materials and activities, but also the vocabulary
of number words.
Summary of the stages

Nt: 1
Relations (different types of correspondence)
Nt: 2
Sorting-leading
Nt: 3
to sets
Sets and relations (N!)
Vocabulary
Belongs to, lives in, has the same colour as, sits next to, match, matching,
find its partner, colour, red, blue, yellow, green, silver, shiny, pretty, little,
big, set, sets of, make a set of, subset, straight, curved, plastic, glass,
rubber, wood, cork, sponge, feather, cotton, straw.
The Bronto Books produced by the Project introduce much of the
vocabulary applicable to this stage.
Equipment and apparatus

It is suggested that the following are collected:
A piece of hardboard covered with flannel, large flat shirt box, a box of
'pairs' -gloves, shoes, socks, mittens, slippers; box of 'identical pairs'-2
red beads, 2 green square beads, 2 pairs of scissors, 2 pieces of blue Lego, 2
white plastic pegs, 2 twopenny bronze coins, 2 pieces of chalk, 2 identical
rubbers.
1 red bead
1 green plastic toy
1 reel of white cotton
1 blue square
1 silver key
1 yellow piece of material
1 red piece of Lego

1 green peg
1 white brick
1 blue pencil
I silver button
1 yellow biro
Also collect 4 cut-out pictures to represent father, mother, son and baby,
and sets of possessions belonging to each. 4 shoe boxes. The cut-out
pictures should be backed with card and covered with Contact.
Cut out, back and cover pictures of things that swim, things that fly,
things I eat, things I wear, farmyard animals, wild animals, and a large
picture of a house with cut out pictures of furniture to fit in each room.
Collect sets of objects displaying properties of: colour, shape, size,
roughness, smoothness, soft, hard, holes, no holes, straight sides, curved
sides, heavy, light, will stand up, will not stand up, plastic, glass, rubber,
wood, cork, sponge, feather, cotton, straw.
Working with the children

Nt: 1 Relations
A relation (which some might prefer to call a relationship) is a connection
or correspondence between the members of one set and the members of
another.
By noticing and talking about relationships which are well within a
child's understanding, his powers of observation are improved. (My coat is
brown, Mary's coat is blue.) These experiences, whether incidental or
structured, form an important part of the development of both language
and mathematics.
The teacher needs to think about the relationships the child is to
encounter and provide situations in which they may be found. At the same
time, she must help the child to describe the relationships; gradually
working towards a more sophisticated structure of language. Recording,
2
Sets and relations (N 1)
Today
will give out
8
~Amanda~
when appropriate, should be done with the help of the teacher, in the first
instance. The arrow, with the relation written above it, is a useful
shorthand symbol which often reduces the amount of writing required.
(' At the top it tells you what to say as you slide along the arrow. ')
Name cards, which can be changed daily, slot into this more permanent
display. Children should always be encouraged to 'read' the recorded
relationship: 'John will give out the milk.' 'Amanda will give out the
straws.'
Relations involving one-to-one correspondence

In the first instance, children need lots of experience
. with the relation between single objects only:
Later, a more complex situation might involve

more objects or people:
belongs to
Peter
has
as a little lamb.
~ohn
~
Sue
The bat belongs to Peter.

The ball belongs to John.
The yo-yo belongs to Sue.
Board covered in lint or flannel
The relation is between toys and children. There is a common relationship

between the bat and Peter, between the ball and John, and between the yoyo and Sue.
Characters from well known nursery stories can be drawn or cut from
old books, stuck on cards, and faced with clear Contact. Each card can be
backed with flannel or a small round piece of plastic foam stuck on the
back, making the picture adhere. In this way the apparatus can be kept
clean, and used over and over again in different ways. A piece of hardboard
with flannel stuck on the front, and supports nailed to the back, makes an
ideal freestanding display. Another good idea is to cover the inside of a
large shallow flat box (similar to a shirt box) with flannel. This props up
nicely and all the apparatus used with it can be kept tidily in the box when
not in use.
3
Sets and relations (Nl )
A large fiat tidy box, the inside covered with felt, can be used to illustrate
stories, such as The three little pigs:
The first little pig

built his house of straw.
The second little pig
built his house of sticks.
The third little pig
built his house of bricks.
Further examples are:

pumpkin, mice, rats 'turned into' (Cinderella).
one 'for' the master, etc. (Ba Ba Black Sheep).
In these cases there is a correspondence between one object or person on
the left of the diagram and one object or person on the right of the diagram.
This early experience of matching to show one-to-one correspondence in a
relation is very important and will be used, in due course, as a prerequisite
to counting.
belongs to
Relations involving many-to-one correspondence Children who are able to

handle one-to-one correspondence with confidence may be ready to discuss
and record relations involving many-to-one correspondence:
Anne
was born in
Lynne
May
Ian
KaV'en -----~
Colin
~ut1e
Notice that only one arrow is drawn from each member of the left hand
list. Examples should be chosen so that each element on the left can be
related to one, and only one, element on the right. (In this example, each
child can only be born in one month.)
A simple piece of apparatus illustrating many-to-one correspondence
can be made by pasting pictures cut from magazines or old books on to a
sheet of card. The card is then covered with clear Contact or stapled inside
a clear polythene bag. The child records by using a felt tip pen to draw the
arrows. These arrows can be easily removed by using a damp cloth so that
the card may be used by another child.
Other examples might be: children who stay to dinners, others who go
4
Sets and relations eNI)
home; children wearing tights, long socks, short socks; things that float in
water, things that sink. There is an obvious connection between this kind
of relation and sorting.
It is also possible to have a 'many-to-many'
correspondence, for example:
likes
Ann
Chocolates
Beryl
Cleo
Biscuits
On the whole, the one-to-one correspondence and many-to-one cases are

more interesting mathematically.
Special kinds of relations such as order relations ('is longer than', etc.)
and equivalence relations ('is as many as') are considered in the chapters on
length, capacity, etc., and in the later chapters on number.
Early matching activities involving one-to-one correspondence
is the partner
of
1 (Partners' Pairs of gloves, mittens, shoes, socks and slippers, etc. are split
up so that one of each pair is in one box or pile and its partner is in the
other. One article is taken out and the children invited to 'find its partner'
or 'find the one that matches this one'. 'Are you sure they match ?'
Recording the relation 'is the partner of' needs a double-headed arrow
~
because this relation may be 'read' in either direction.
eats
2 (Twins' A collection is made of pairs of familiar objects which are

identical in every respect (colour, shape, size): two round red beads, two
green square beads, two pieces of blue Lego, two white plastic pegs, two
twopenny bronze coins, two whole pieces of white chalk, two identical
rubbers, etc. The teacher takes one article and asks the child to find one
that matches it, or one that looks just like it. Record using the relation
'looks the same as' and a double-headed arrow ~ .
3 Matching for colour, shape, etc. Prepare a box of pairs of objects which
can be matched for colour only, for example:
One
One
One
One
One
One
round red bead to match one red piece of Lego.

blue square bead to match one blue pencil.
green plastic toy to match one green peg.
silver key to match one silver button.
reel of white cotton to match one white Unifix brick.
yellow piece of material to match one yellow biro.
The teacher uses a similar instruction to the previous one, inviting the
child to find an object which 'has the same colour' or 'matches the colour
of'. Plastic or card shapes are used in a similar manner for the relation 'has
the same shape as'. Double-headed arrows are required when recording.
Matching to show a common relationship
4 Matching to show a common relationship After discussing what pets and

other animals eat, a chart could be made showing the common relationship
between each animal and its food. Notice that here a single-headed arrow is
used because the relation 'eats' can only be read in one direction.
5
On the worksheets the second column is rearranged so that the children

have to sele~t the correct 'partner' before joining ~ith an arrow.
Worksheets should not be introduced until children have had plenty of
practical experience and opportunity for discussion
~
GJj:~~"
Here
is a small
boll.
bull
Here
Draw a toy for Shanti.

Match
~.ive pe:
th:e~:~~ boll ..
. boll.
Peter
Put a long tail on the mouse.
has a
Put a short
boll.
has a
toil.
__
;,_the_po_,,"_.,o_r _~
tail on the dog.

Draw
The mouse
Draw a toy for Peter.
has a
onf}e~.
:$
is a big boll.
~~~
Shanti
sheet 1.3
sheet 1.2
Number 1
sheet 1.1
a bone for Patch.
tail.
The dog has a
sheet 1.4
sheet 1.6
Number 1
sheet 1.5
Match one-to-one.
~
~
~
~
qo
Match
i)
@>
one-to-one.
the sea
.
,
Nl : 2 Early sorting experiences (leading to sets)

Children enjoy rummaging through mummy's button box looking for 'the
shiny buttons', or 'all the pretty ones', or 'the little tiny ones'. Usually
these 'sets' are played with and then put back in the box, and further sets
selected according to new properties chosen by the child himself. The
property selected does not matter since the idea of a set is 'a collection of
things which go together'. Children see sets of many kinds all around them,
both at home and at school. Every opportunity should be taken to start a
discussion about sets of objects, for example, in the home corner there may
be a set of pans, a set of cutlery, a tea set. In the cupboard we might see a
Lego set (all different pieces for building), a train set (the lines, signals,
6
Sets and relations (NO
wagons, etc.), a Meccano set (the struts, nuts and bolts). The child may
possess a set of crayons, a set of coloured pencils, or a pencil set. It is
advantageous at this point to encourage the children to use the word 'set'
when referring to a collection of articles which go together in some way.
From this first play stage emerges the next, where the child will be asked
to consider objects as members ofa set, their relationship with each other,
and with the set as a whole. In this way sorting helps to develop logical
thought and decision making.
Examples of sorting activities using pictures or objects Cut out pictures to
represent mother, father, son and baby daughter. Back each picture with
card and cover with Contact for durability. Make cut-out pictures of sets of
clothes and possessions which clearly belong to each person. Using four
small shoe boxes, stand a figure at one end of each box and ask the children
to sort by placing each of the picture cards in the appropriate box, e.g. the
rattle belongs to baby, the pipe to father, the dress to mother, etc.
Pictures similar to those used for the example of many-to-one

correspondence, can be sorted into sets enclosed in loops of wool or chalk
lines:
These things
belong to
Pictures can also be sorted using a piece of manilla card and

appropriately illustrated labels. The child selects a label and sorts through
the pictures to find those which should be placed on the card with the label.
ThitTg5t~t
Other labels
Wild
anima(s~
fly
.c:
--u
Things ~
Iwear
Farmyard
animals
The teacher should check the child's sorting and discuss any
uncertainties. It is important that the child is able to justify his sorting, for
example, 'I've put the tiger there because it belongs to the set of wild
animals.'
Assignments may be given verbally to a small group of children asking
them to 'make a set of cars', 'make a set of animals', 'make a set of boats' ,
'make a set of red beads', 'make a set of small circles', etc. The objects may
be enclosed on trays, paper plates, tin lids or the teacher may wish to
prepare a piece of manilla paper labelled thus:
Make a set af
CII
Make a set of
I LJl~
The teacher places an object in the

frame and with the children reads
the instruction.
Should the teacher wish the child to keep a permanent record of his
work, then the instruction may be copied into the child's book. The child
can then record by drawing the objects.
A set of flat plastic toys, which are easily drawn round, are ideal for this
kind of sorting.
Another way might be to let the child cut out pictures from magazines
and catalogues and stick these directly into the child's book or on a frieze
for display.
Later, more able children may wish to draw or write the names of objects
in a set for themselves.

practical experience and opportunity for discussion.
Number 1
sheet
sheet 2.2
2.1
Nt: 3

So far, sorting has consisted mainly of making a selection of 'things that go
together'. Having obtained a set whose members all have something in
common, the next stage concentrates on the differences which may exist
between the members within the set. The original set is split or partitioned
into subsets; each object belonging to just one of the subsets.
The set of toys has been partitioned into two subsets: one of dolls, one of
cars.
Children need lots of experience in partitioning. It is helpful to provide
prestructured sets of objects displaying an obvious difference which will
enable the objects to be partitioned into two subsets in the first instance.
a set
a set
a set
a set
a set
of bricks-red and blue,

of toys-cars and boats,
of bricks-those that roll and those that do not roll,
of shapes (same colour)-squares
and triangles,
of children-boys
and girls.
Pictures pasted on card and covered in clear Contact can be used repeatedly
if children draw the rings with a felt pen.
Put a
round the things that betong together.

'"
~
)
":'\
,-...
.,"1\"
.
It is not necessary to record every activity, but paper plates or trays are
ideal for holding subsets of objects. The teacher can check these easily and
provide appropriate vocabulary.
On occasions the child may like to draw a picture of his sorting

and label it.
Other properties which may be considered for sorting are:
Large, small; heavy, light (differences must be obvious); rough, smooth;
hard, soft; wet, dry; with holes, without holes; will stand up, will not
stand up; words beginning with ch, words beginning with sh.
~Gradually,
sorting involving more than two subsets may be introduced.
A large picture of the inside of a house showing four rooms can be
'furnished' by placing cut-out pictures of furniture which obviously belong
to a particular room.
Further examples of sorting into more than two subsets:
The bath r-oom
The k itc.hen
toys: dolls, animals, cars, boats.

children: stay to school dinner, bring sandwiches,
go home.
pets: dogs, cats, hamsters, etc.
children: wearing long socks, short socks, tights.
materials: made of wood, plastic, rubber, metal, etc.
names of objects: beginning with b, d and p.
Ways of recording
Loops of string or coloured wool.
Coloured plastic hoops or P.E. hoops.
Paper plates.
Chalk marks on the floor.
Sticks or strips of card used to partition the set:
10
Sets and relations (Nl )
Trees or 'railway sidings' -each member is moved along the

track into its correct subset.
A more permanent record can be made by using a chart

showing many-to-one correspondence.
I is made of I
is made of
'to .tO~~
~----------------------~
mallet
plastio
~key
~
~
~
plastic
shape
screw
--->
J
~
0<7 ~
~g
block
.;
UHifix cube
mallet
~@~
9/
./
/
metal
car-~
plastic shape
~
This method of recording has been criticized because
the diagram can become so cluttered with arrows that it
looks like a scene from the Bayeaux Tapestry
or 'Custer's last stand'.
,;
screw
~car
A simple tabulation may provide a less confusing

alternative.
11
Children should be encouraged to talk about the way in which they have
sorted, explaining the differences and similarities and suggesting the
correct labels for the subsets. Sometimes it is a good idea for the teacher to
start the sorting and then ask, 'How am I sorting these?' 'What labels
should we put on the subsets ?'
In some worksheets the child is given the chance to decide for himself
how to sort. There is no single 'right answer', but the child should be able
to justify the way he has sorted.
~
Put aBround
e>
the things
0' 0>
that
(j>
Number 1
sheet 3.1
beLong together.
Put
as
sheet 3.2
round the things
that
belong
together.
ODD
D
b~'b~
2
sheet 3.3
sheet 3.4
Put a8round
Put aSround the things that belong together.
12
the things that belong together.
References and resources

Dienes, Z. and Holt, M. Let's Play Maths., Penguin 1973 (Sections on
sorting games and ping-pong puzzles contain many excellent ideas for
use with children from 4 to 5 + years old.)
Matthews, G. and J. Toward Number, Early Mathematical Experiences,
Addison Wesley 1978
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Mathematics Begins CD, Nuffield
Guide, Chambers/Murray 1967 (See Introduction, page viii).
Grouping and Setting Shapes, Invicta Plastics
Grouping Sets, Metric Aids
House Sorts, Sea Sorts, Tree Sorts, E.S.A.
Plastic Sorting Toys, E. J. Arnold
Rubber Stamps, Philip & Tacey
13
Chapter 2
Matching (N2)
For the teacher

When dealing with relations in Chapter 1, the children found 'partners' or
'twins' by matching one-to-one. In this chapter we extend this idea to
compare the number of objects in sets. Gradually, the emphasis is changed
from the appearance of the individual objects to the number of objects
within a set. Instead of looking at the properties or characteristics of the
objects, we shall be concentrating on a particular property of the set. This
particular property of a set could be called its 'how-many-ness' or its
cardinality.
By matching objects one-to-one we can compare sets to see if they
contain the same number of members or if one set has more members than
another. By matching one-to-one we are able to make this comparison
without being able to count.
Surrrmary of the stages

N2: 1
Matching to find equivalent sets
N2: 2a Two non-equivalent
sets
N2: 2b Three non-equivalent

N2: 3
Pictorial representation
sets
and semi-tallying
Vocabulary
Match, matching, enough, not enough, as many as, one each, some left
over, more, less, fewer, more than, less than, fewer than, too many, too few.
Some people prefer to use 'less' when discussing substance and 'fewer'
when discussing separate, countable objects, e.g. 'I prefer less sugar in my
14
Matching (N2)
tea so I will take fewer lumps.' The opposite of 'too many' is generally
accepted to be 'too few' rather than 'too less'. However, at this stage, it is
hardly worth being too pedantic especially as common usage may vary
from region to region.
Equrprnent and apparatus

Pictures of cars, eggs, etc., mounted 011 card, square beads and string,
coloured pegs and pegboard, shapes, sorting toys, bricks, cubes, etc.,
clothes pegs, Poppet beads, interlocking cubes, curtain rings, washers or
cotton reels for tallying.

N2: 1 Matching to find equivalent sets
Sets which each contain the same number of members (i.e. have the same
cardinality) are called equivalent sets. In this sense, the word equivalent
refers to the number of members; it does not apply to the type or nature of
the objects in the sets.
The members of Set A can be matched one-to-one with the members of

SetB.
Set A and Set B have the same cardinal number.
Set A is equivalent to Set B.
The classroom affords many opportunities of matching one object to
another. For example, giving one pencil to each child; 'Are there enough
chairs for the children at that table?' 'Give a piece of paper to each child on
your table.' 'Is there a girl partner for every boy?'
The amount of time given to mathematical activities with the youngest
children simply cannot be measured if we agree that mathematics should
not be separated from the other areas of work. Mathematical vocabulary
and experiences may arise at any time during the school day and it must be
left to the attitude and ability of the individual teacher as to how much or
how little she is able to extend the opportunities. Here are some further
examples of situations in which matching may be pinpointed:
Milktime A straw to each bottle, either one child doing this for a group of
children or each child matching his own; exchanging a picture symbol for a
15
Matching (N2)
bottle of milk; placing empty bottles in the crate-one bottle for each
space; taking a handful of drinking straws and finding out whether there
are enough or too many for the bottles of milk.
Home corner Laying the table-a place setting for each child round the
table; 1 cup for each saucer; 1 cup for each hook; 1 lid for each saucepan; 1
chair for each child.
Dressing up corner 1 piece of clothing hung on each peg; 1 outfit for each
child playing there.
Shop
sold.
1 wrapping paper for each 'sweet' sold; 1 paper bag for each item
Cooking 1 apron to each cook; 1 spoonful of mixture to each paper case; 1

paper case to each space in the patty-tin, 1 cake for each child; 1 cherry to
each cake; 1 spoonful of jam to each tart.
Physical education 1 blue ball for each boy; 1 yellow ball for each girl; 1
hoop for each boy; 1 rope for each girl, etc.
Eventually it will be necessary to contrive situations. For example, you
may provide a picture of a set of garages and a collection of cars made from
card.
The pictures of the garages are cut where the doors meet so that a car can
be slotted into the opening.
The child is asked to put

one car in each garage.
Later he may be asked to
draw a man for each car.
Further activities
slit
stout card
Eggs in egg cups
16
cardboard egg shapes
Matching (N2)
slit
Flowers in vases
cardboard
flowers
This is rather more difficult since more than one flower will fit into the
vase.
Later a child may be asked to match up two sets by placing pieces of
string or drawing chalk lines between each object and its partner to show
whether the sets are equivalent in number or not. If he is using concrete
objects he may wish to move them together, matching one from here with
one from there. If the two sets are unequal, matching will help the child to
see which set has more and which has fewer members. This will give the
teacher an opportunity to use the terms 'more than', 'less than', 'fewer',
'more'.
A worthwhile activity is to ask a child to make a set to match one already
made. The child is given a string of different coloured square beads (square
beads do not roll I), and asked to make a string of beads to match. Here the
colour is the important factor since the child matches each bead by its
colour.
Further examples, using concrete materials

1 Matching beads to those drawn on a card by threading on to a lace (each
bead is of a different colour).
2a Matching bricks of different shapes to a set drawn on a card.
2b Matching shapes to those drawn

on a circular shaped card.
17
Matching (N2)
3 Using a peg board and coloured pegs.

The teacher puts in a line of coloured pegs and asks the child to make a
line underneath exactly the same. This is extended by giving the child a
card with the set of pegs drawn on it. The child uses the card in order to
make a set of pegs on the peg board to match the set on the card.
e ~
R
G
II
r-ed
-green
-Dlu.e
4 The child has to make a string of beads to match one already threaded.
Here all the beads are the same colour.
Some pictorial examples of matching-one-to-one

correspondence Children
enjoy using 'plug-in-cards'. These are made by pasting cut-out pictures on
a stiff piece of card which may be covered with clear Contact for durability.
A lace is threaded through a hole in each picture in one set and knotted at
the back of the card. Each lace can now be 'plugged in' to a hole made in
the corresponding picture in the other set.
Matcn
one-to -one: -::-.--.----.....-----,
Children go on to examples in which they match by

drawing a line between corresponding members, one in
each set. It is advisable to start with two sets
which are identical.
Match
this set
.'
18
with
this set .
Matching (N2)
Gradually, more members can be used in each set and the members
themselves varied.
Match
one-to-one.

Match a set of: dogs to a set of bones.
cats to a set of mice.
monkeys to a set of bananas.
rabbits to a set of carrots.
knives to a set of forks.
hats to a set of coats.
bats to a set of balls.
~
.~lJ?
sheet 1.2
Number 2
sheetl.l
Match one-to-one.
o
Now match them up.
19
Matching (N2)
N2: 2a Non-equivalent sets (two sets)

This situation might already have arisen during earlier matching activities
with real objects, but to be sure that children understand and are able to
use terms such as 'more than', 'less than', or 'fewer' correctly, it is
worthwhile introducing some pictorial exercises.
Another version of the 'plug-in' card can be used with great effect to
show that two sets are not equivalent.
Match
this set
with
this set.
Which set has more members?

Early examples should use similar looking objects in both sets in order to
avoid confusion. Later, when matching ice-cream cornets to children,
chairs to tables, cups to saucers, etc., follow-up questions such as, 'Are
there enough ice-creams?' 'Are there too many chairs?' should be asked.
Match
this set
with
this set.
---..---....~
---;--~
.........
~--..-,..-~
Is there an ice-cream for each girl?
yes
no
These ideas are further reinforced in the Bronto Book Bird has three eggs.
20
Matching (N2)
N2: 2b Non-equivalent sets (three sets)

Matching three sets in one-to-one correspondence in order to establish
which set has least or most is merely an extension of the stage we have
already discussed. 'Plug-in' cards can be used again.
Match one-to-one.
Which nas most members?

Gradually by comparing three or more non-equivalent sets, children will
learn to order them, expressing their results in their own language, e.g.
'There's more in this set', 'That set hasn't as many and this one is the
littlest.'
When possible the teacher should ask the children to describe the sets
eliciting such terms as 'most', 'more than' and 'least'. The sets should be
arranged in both ascending and descending order according to the cardinal
value of each set.
A suggested order of development
is shown in the following illustrations:
Match one-to-one.
Match one-to-one.
Which set has the most member-s ?
Match one-to-one.
Colour in that set.

21
Matching (N2)
Worksheets should not be introduced

until children have had plenty of
practical experience
and opportunity for discussion.
r========_~;:::::::::;:=::;:=;--,
~
.'
Number 2
sheet 2.1
sheet 2.2
fS\m
Match one-to-one.
~~
Colour
Match
the set with more apples.
Colour
0:f>.~~0
one-to-one.
the set with fewer
bananas.
Match one-to-one.
4 ~ am ;1})
C~~~ ~o B
c&~~~)
Colour
the set with more members.
Colour
1]
the set with fewer
members.
~
'. ~
sheet 2.4
Number2
sheet2.3
Is there
a knife for each fork?
Yes or no?
Are there
more appLes than
Is there
bat for each ball?
Yes or no?
Are there
more squares
Match
one-to-one
Is there
a spoon
for each
cup?
Match one-to-one
Are there
Yes or no?
c:J
Match one-to-one.
fewer dogs than
bones?
(J)
Yes or no?
CD CID 00
""'"
pears?
Yes or no?
than triangles?
Yes or no?
sheet 2.5
<='
"
(5)
sheet 2.6
sheet 2.8
Number 2
sheet 2.7
" .
Match one-to-one.
(!) (!) W
OJ?
Match
one-to-one.
Which set has the most members?
Which set has the fewest members?

Colour
Is there
a knife and fork for each
Is there
a hat and coat for each boy?
22
plate?
in the members
Colour
of that set.
in the members
of that
set.
Yes or no?
Yes or no?
Which set has the fewest
Colour
Colour
in the members
of that
set.
in that set.
members?
Matching (N2)

The mathematical value of pictorial representation is that it offers children
a visual interpretation of relationships which may not be obvious from a
written collection of data. It provides an opportunity for the teacher to
discuss with the children various relationships and to use the appropriate
vocabulary. Many of the early sorting activities, for example, the number
of children going home to dinner, lend themselves to this sort of
representation. With the teacher's help each child may represent himself
by placing a peg doll on a prepared chart. (Clothes pegs, which have been
dressed, stand up if their 'feet' are stuck into a base of plasticine.)
westo.ya.t
sc'000\ fo\
0\ '(\'(\e'C.
If everyone is seen to place a doll on the chart, the children will begin to
accept that there must be the same number of dolls as there are children. If
each child has made and dressed his own doll, he can easily recognise
himself on the chart. Often other children pick out their friend's doll and
say 'Look you're there' or 'That's you.'
Later, bricks may be used to represent children whilst comparing a
different relationship, e.g. the number of boys and girls in a group or class.
The bricks may be placed in columns with suitable labels.
Other kinds of suitable materials Curtain rings placed on pieces of dowel
rod; cotton reels either strung together or placed on dowelling; washers on
knitting needles; poppet beads and plastic interlocking cubes may be
useful.
The important points at this stage are:
1 That there is one object for every child involved in the work i.e. one-toone correspondence,
2 That a comparison is made between two rows or columns only.
The graph activity serves as a link with 'semi-tallying' where objects or
people are matched with cubes, poppet beads, counters, matchboxes,
gummed squares, etc.
Put a counter for each cat"" in the bottom set.

arr-ows will help you.
The
23
Matching (N2)
Plastic interlocking cubes can be matched to the objects in a set, then

fixed together to make towers. The number of cubes in each tower will
represent the number of objects in each set. The towers are then compared.
'The tower for this set is taller than that one because there are more cubes
in it.' This highlights the number of objects in the set and draws attention
to the particular property of a set which is called its cardinality or 'howmany-ness' .
Poppet beads may be strung together and used in a similar fashion,

matching one bead to one object in each set. Here the length of the two
strings might be compared in order to establish which set has more objects.
Each time a child represents a person, object or event by a unit,

comparison is easier and his attention is being focussed on the cardinal
number of the sets. He is looking less at 'what the things in the set are like'
and more at 'how many of them there are'. He is also working towards the
idea of tallying using a more abstract representation.
sheet 3.2
Number 2
sheet 3.1
TaUy. Draw a counter
under each pig.
(~t;;;9)
(__
0
Tally. Draw a counter
)
under each rabbit.
C~~e:v~)
(
Tally. Draw a counter
under each dog.
Cw ~ ~ ~ ~)
(
24
Matching
CN2)

Dewhirst, W. Bird has three eggs, Bronto Books Set D, Nuffield
Mathematics 5-11, Longman Group Ltd 1979
Frobisher, B. and Gloyn, S., Infants Learn Mathematics,
Ward Lock 1969
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Beginnings 17, Mathematics

Begins CD, Pictorial Representation QJ, Nuffield Guides,
Chambers/Murray 1967 (See Introduction, page viii.)
Centicubes, Osmiroid
Metriblocs, Metricubes, Invicta Plastics
Multilink
Linking Cubes, E.S.A.
Unifix Cubes, Philip & Tacey

Universal Miniature
Rubber Stamps Sets 1 and 2, Philip & Tacey
25
Chapter 3
Counting and
numerals (H3)
For the teacher

Numerals, the symbols or sounds which represent numbers, are all around
us. Children meet them very early in their lives. They see them on buses,
cars, house doors, gates, etc. Children use number words in their early
spoken language but when a child says, 'It's my birthday today. I am four',
it is doubtful whether he really understands to what thefour refers. He is
merely imitating a language structure he has heard adults use. He is usi~g
the word 'four' in a descriptive manner rather as he might say, 'I am tall',
or 'I am sad.' The significance of numerals or number words will be
appreciated gradually but, in the meantime, a child needs to be familiar
with their sound and appearance both in figure and word form. (The
number word 'three' and the figure 3 are both numerals since they both
stand for a number.)
Finger plays, number rhymes and stories all help the child to become
familiar with the number names. The Bronto Book Counting with Bronto
produced by the Project, should also prove useful.
26
N3: 1
Counting
N3: 2
N3: 3
Introducing number words
N3: 4
The empty set
N3: 5
Counting and numerals (N3)
Vocabulary
One, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten, zero, colour, count,
draw, write, match, correct, missing numeral, number word.
Equiprnent and apparatus

Abacus, peg numerals, jig saws, paper plates, small corn flake boxes used
for sorting trays, bricks, plastic interlocking cubes, sorting trays.
3D reference set Square and round beads, clip on clothes pegs, table tennis
balls, plastic toys, coloured plastic abacus tablets.
Conservation activities Matching and snap cards using different
arrangements of groups. Sew buttons on to cards or stick stars or other
paper shapes on to cards.

N3: 1 Verbal counting
Children may well be able to chant numerals in order but this does not
necessarily mean they can count. Learning to count comes gradually. At
first children may well count' 1, 2, 3, 4 ... ' getting quite out of step with
the objects concerned, or perhaps getting lost and counting some of them
more than once. It is not sufficiently recognized that there is a great gulf
between the ability to recite the number words in sequence and the ability
to match the saying of the word to the moving of the object.
If children are given lots of activities, where objects 'counted' are moved
physically as the number word is spoken, then there will be less likelihood
of the child's finger overlapping two objects as he says one number name.
The large bead abacus found so often in a reception class is ideal for this
sort of grouping. The child should be encouraged to move the bead across
the wire as he says the number name.
Sometimes it is helpful to provide sets of counters, bricks or beads of
different colours, or a collection of quite different looking objects, making
it easier to remember which have been counted.
When children begin to count, saying a number name aloud as they
touch or move an object, they are not usually aware of the cardinal
numbers. They mean the last number spoken to refer to the last object
touched and not to the whole set. At this stage the counting is only verbal,
with no operational value. To the child, 'five' is just a name for a certain
object. He does not see the group of objects as five beads, but as beads in
isolation, the names of which are one, two, three, four and five. At this
stage children are not counting in an arithmetical sense by merely giving a
name to each bead.
Children need lots of experience in counting different sets of objects, and
questions such as, 'How many objects have I altogether?' should be asked
often, so that the child begins to realize that the spoken numeral describes
the cardinality or 'how-many-ness' ofa set and not an individual member.
The teacher may wish to begin such an activity by placing two or three
objects in her closed hand. She would then say to the child, 'I'm going to
27
Counting and numerals eN3)
open and close my hand quickly. See if you can tell me how many toys I
have in my hand altogether.' When dealing with small numbers, children
are usually able to give the correct number intuitively. As the number held
becomes greater, the child will have to count. The idea of the activity is
that the child recognises that he is using the number name to describe the
whole set.
As the introduction to verbal counting is a practical activity -'there are no
worksheets publishedfor this stage.
N3: 2 Matching a number symbol to a set
As children begin to count orally some of the activities will require the
labelling of objects with the symbol. Many of the symbols may be
recognized but only as descriptive words. Their order in the number
sequence may not yet be known. Practice in writing the numerals can be
incorporated in writing pattern work. To help the children remember the
direction in which each number symbol starts, their attention should be
drawn to the following facts:
1 All numerals are written from the top.
2 The numerals 0,4,6,8,9
are begun at the top and move towards the left.
3 The numerals 2, 3, 5 and 7 are begun at the top and move towards the
right. (In the case of 5, the sequence is
'.J' 5 .)
Right side
Left side
go that way
go that way
0 2')
-
16
qJ
Charts displaying this information will remind the children when they
begin to write.
The numeral 3 is preferred to 3 as it is less likely to be confused with 5.
Most children find 4 easier to write than 4. However, children are likely to
see 3 and 4 so they must be made aware that these do not stand for different
numbers but are just the way that some people write 3 and 4.
Children should also be given the opportunity to write numerals in sand,
make them in plasticine or string and to 'feel' numerals cut out of glass
paper.
t5)
----
1
There are many types of match-and-count number recognition games on
the market but it is best to begin with apparatus that is self-corrective and
later move towards a situation which demands some knowledge of
numerals and their value.
Activities
Peg numerals These are sets of numerals from 0 to 9 made out of wood
about 8 centimetres high. Each numeral acts as a peg board, with sufficient
28
holes in each to repesent its value. The child should count the pegs as he
places them in each wooden numeral and later the numerals may be put in
order.
Jigsaw dominoes Home-made jigsaw dominoes. One half displays a group

of objects; the other half the matching numeral. Children should be
encouraged to count the objects and then look for the correct numeral. The
two pieces will not fit together if the child counts wrongly or chooses the
wrong numeral. Later, the child may be asked to put them in order
matching them perhaps to a number line.
Sorting trays Paper plates or empty cornflake boxes may be painted,

individually numbered and used as sorting trays. The teacher may put
them in order to begin with or ask the child to do it.
zero
two
Counting board To help children to become familiar with numerals and

their order, both Stern and Multilink have produced counting boards
consisting of ten graded grooves into which the rods from 1 to 10 fit. A
board displaying the numerals in order can be slotted into the back of the
board to be used by the child as a guide when he fits in a set of 10 numerals
written on small blocks.
29
The apparatus is partly self-correcting but there is also a learning

element about it since, if the numeral board is left out, the child must find
the correct order in which to place the separate numeral blocks.
Unifix materials include a 1-10 Stair and 1-10 Value Boats which are
both self-correcting.
00
gQa
oe ..
There are several versions of pattern boards produced which are also
self-correcting.
'Read, match and count' 'Read, match and count' is a useful game
produced by Gaits. It consists of two master cards divided into six equal
boxes. In each is a numeral, a colour and a drawing of an object
e. g.
5 red
. There is also a set of cards
illustrating what is written in each box. These are not self-corrective, but
30
are easily matched if the child follows the clues.
Number strip A number strip, displaying sets of numbers from 1 to 10.

The child counts out a small number of beads, say five, starting with 1 on
the number strip, he counts as he touches each numeral in order until he
reaches the figure 5. He then pulls out that card and places it with his 5
beads.
Number card A homemade number card displaying numerals will allow
children to place the number of objects in correct order. This is not se1fcorrective and might be used as a checking-up exercise.
" " -.
II
Towers of Unifix bricks may be built and the correct 'numeral hat'
placed on top. The hats come in the shape of roof tops e.g. ~
.
The towers too, can be put in sequence at the end of the activity. This is
not self corrective. Some teachers prefer to place the 'hats' besides each
tower as they find that occasionally a child counts in the 'hat' as a unit.
31
Circular sorting tray There is a strong plastic circular sorting tray on the
market which can be used in several ways. The middle compartment can be
used to hold small toys or objects in which case numerals may be placed in
the surrounding compartments either at random or in order. The child
counts the correct number into each. Alternatively the teacher may place
one numeral, e.g. 3 in the middle and ask the child to put a different set of
three objects in each compartment. Or the teacher may place a pack of
cards displaying the numbers from one to ten and ask the child to take one
from the top, then place it in a compartment with the correct number of
objects.
Recording counts by drawing
Draw atl the cows

itt the picture.
The child reads and copies writing into his book, and then carries out the
instruction ...
(This instruction may have to be read to the child.)
32
Counting
and numerals eN3)
DODD
DOD
Draw 3 red f{owers
and 1 bl ue flower ..
ODD
Colour in 6 &1uares.
Colour in 4flowers.
The card is covered in clear Contact and the child colours directly on to
the card using a china graph water base pen. This is easily rubbed off with a
damp cloth.
sheet 22
dote .....
Match numeral
Match numeral
sheet 2.3
to set.
Colour and count.

Match the sets that
have the same number.
to set.
sheet 2.6
sheet 2.4
C)
Colour
end count.
Draw
set of S.
Colour
Colour
and count.
Draw a set of 6.
Write in the missing numerals.
06' 0
07
Draw
Colour
and count.
Drow
c set
a set of 7.
Draw
a set of 6.
ot Z
~~----------4
and count.
--------------33
Counting
and numerals (N3)
sheet 2.7
Match numeral
Colour
to set.
and count.
Number3
sheet2.9
Draw a set of 8.
CoLour and count.
CoLour and count.
Draw
a set of q.
Draw
a set of 8.
Draw a set of q.
Colour
Write
__________
and count.
in the numerals.
--=sh:.::.::ee~t
2:.:..:...:::.10
A busy picture.
Draw a set of 10.
sheet 2.11
CoLour and write
the numerals.
sheet 2.12
Draw the correct
number
of beads.
@~
How many?
There are
houses.
There are
There are
boys.
There are
girls.
There are
dogs.
There are
birds.
10
10
Write
11
in the numerals.
12
N3: 3 Introducing the word form of numerals

The words two, three, four etc., are also numerals and children will need a
lot of practice in matching a set of objects with the correct written number
name. Many reading schemes introduce the words one, two, three quite
early; so it is likely that some children will have met these words already. It
is helpful, however, if the words are displayed alongside the figures. When
bead threading, the cards threaded on to the lace could have both forms of
the numeral written on them.
The picture value could be recorded

on the reverse side.
34
A three-dimensional
reference set makes a useful display.
Each piece of strong card has a piece of thin elastic threaded over the
front to hold the appropriate number of objects such as: square arid round
beads; clip-on clothes pegs (the coloured plastic ones are most attractive);
table tennis balls (carefully pierced); coloured plastic abacus tablets with a
hole; or sets of strong plastic toys (a hole can be made by using a heated
knitting needle).
Similar workcards to those described earlier may be used; the written
word being substituted for the figure.
Trays or boxes with a number word in them may be filled with different
objects by the children and changed daily.
tWO~3
three
five
one
four
Individual or class books may be made about a particular number e.g.,

'My book about four'. A child may draw a picture ofa table and a chair for
example, as both have four legs. A favourite with the children is the 'Two
book'. Examples drawn seem endless-two shoes, plimsolls, gloves, eyes,
socks, wellingtons, boots, arms, legs, ears, etc.
Eventually children should be able to match numerals in words and
figures without any props.
Cards with the number word and the equivalent set of objects may be
matched to the numeral. Similarly the number word and figure may be
matched to the appropriate set. The idea is to use either the figure or set of
objects alongside the number word.
Count and draw four beads.
4- beads
count and draw four beads,

4b~Qds
When finished.
35
Display tables about a certain number may be set up in the classroom

and are a great favourite with the children. These should be changed often
in order to introduce different values.

Number 3
sheet 3.1
Draw and write the correct
number
sheet 3.2
~~f;]J
~f;]J
word.
[JI one
1D0D011
[IJI
II
1000
[TIl three
I F.;[TI~:t;:;flre::::::,
I~eeell
~I
1]]1 five
~OQ
[JOB
I F.;[D:==m:t::;;;w-:::o==~M;;;;;j
two
four
number
~e==;;;;;;:;;;;;'"
@:JI
six
I [[]
word.
five,
1~r:5i;.~
I !=[fJ=;--f=--o-ur---====
2
sheet 3.3
number
sheet 3.4
word.
6656
DDt:)
ODD
1[L] peven
~Inine
(j{j{j{j
36
I~
nine
;"""
fJP'o
fJJ)fJ
fJfJJ.)
OO{J{J
lJ1 eight
word.
OL)O
5{)(J
12]1 seven
number
j:J
I~-eight.
[!Q]I ten
4
w,
has
ta-n
~@
t-t ~@
N3: 4 The empty set

The idea of the empty set is difficult for young children to grasp but it is
very important. Each set has a number property and it is the number of
members in the empty set which is called 'zero', just as a set with four
members has a number property called 'four'. The children's
understanding of zero will be limited to : Question; 'How many sweets
have you left?' The child answers; 'None'.
Children need to encounter lots of situations dealing with the empty set
in a physical sense, and discuss them with their teacher. For example, three
children have a purse each, one child has two pennies in her purse, another
has three pennies, the third child's purse is empty.

Number 3
sheet 4.1
sheet 4.2
Match the numerals
~(!)O
Colour; count and read.
L~
'"
0 means zero.
to the sets.
O@~
~(09\
~~
C)
[i][!][i]w
Count and label.
2
sheet 4.3
sheet 4.4
Join each set to its numeral.
Count
cY({]~
o
one
two
three
4-
four
to numeral.
t~~
nine~
W2
zero
and match
eight
seven
six
80
0
00
-r.:
five
five
three~
two
one
zero
0234-5
GI3
37
Counting and numerals CN3)
N3: 5 Conservation of number

A five or six-year-old. child may readily agree that there are the same
number of counters in these two rows:
-G)
e
CD
@)
If the second lot is spread out, he may say that there are more in the
second row than in the first:
e
CD
e
CD
CD
Even counting does not always help. A child may well say there are 5 in
each row but still assert that there are more in the second row! There is a
conflict between what he sees (apparently more in the second row) and
what he knows, i.e. that he has counted the same number in each row. We
say a child can conserve number when he is quite sure that the number of
elements in a set remains constant no matter how they are arranged, i.e.
whether close together or well spread out, or stacked in piles.
Children need lots of practice in matching one-to-one the members of
two sets, then rearranging one set and matching them up again. The
invariance of the number of elements in each set may be established by
joining each member of one set to a member of the other set with string,
chalk marks or pencil lines. Further examples of this may be practised if we
introduce pictorial representations, e.g. the teacher draws a set of boys,
four or five, and asks the child to draw a set of footballs, making sure that
each boy has one football. The set can then be matched by drawing lines
between each boy and a football.
Other examples are:
a doll for a girl, a basket for each woman, a briefcase for each man, a
whistle for each policeman.
Gradually the child will develop the idea of in variance of the number of
members in a set regardless of arrangement. But although he may be able
to conserve 5 or 6 members he may still be unable to recognize the
invariance of larger numbers. Accepting the invariance of number is a
gradual process and will run through much of the number work that the
child will do later. Much practical experience of pairing and matching oneto-one is nec~ssary before such ideas are firmly established.
Activities (conservation)
1 There should be lots of matching and snap games using cards showing
different arrangements of certain groups. No numerals are used, the
child simply matches different arrangements of the same number.
38
2 Introduce numeral cards and match all arrangements to the correct

numeral.
Other cards may be made by sewing buttons on, or sticking on stars or
other paper shapes, all in different arrangements. It is important that the
sets of cards are colourful and well presented to make the game
appealing and interesting.
3 A child is asked to count out 7 coloured bricks. Then he arranges them
spatially according to their colour, making a tower of each colour.
two
one
wh'lte yellow blue
one
one
green r-oo
two
three four
yellow Dlue
He takes further sets of 7 bricks and continues to repeat the process,

looking for as many different arrangements as he can find. The teacher
should be at hand to discuss his work with him and ask questions such
as, 'Are there the same number of bricks in this set as there are in that
one ?' He may well think that the set of small towers has more bricks in it
than the set of tall towers. This can easily be disproved if the first set is
made into similar towers to the second set and the bricks matched one to
one. However, this action alone will not establish invariance since once
the bricks are again disarranged the child may lose sight of the bricks as
a group and believe the set to have grown or diminished in number.
Only by practising activities of the sort outlined above involving
counting, re-arranging, matching and handling of 3D objects, will
children develop the idea of conservation which is such an important
aspect of the concept of number.
4 Some commercially produced plastic cubes can be locked together in a
non-linear fashion. This enables children to experiment with many
different formations, not necessarily in a straight line, which all contain
the same number of cubes.
39

~
Count.
then put a cross
X on
sheelS.2
Number3
sheet 5.1
Colour
the set thot does not match.
)$)J7~;!ffi
@@
the sets which match
the numeral.
~~~~
~S0:J
~~~
~~Jk
2
sheel5.3
Colour
the sets which match the numeral.
10
40
~~

Burke, P., Counting with Bronto, Bronto Books Set A, Nuffield
Mathematics 5-11, Longman Group Ltd 1979
Ward Lock 1969
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Beginnings W-, Mathematics

Begins CD (Nuffield Guides), Chambers/Murray 1967 (See Introduction,
page viii.)
Shuard, H. and Williams, E., Primary Mathematics
Longman Group Ltd 1970
Today (chapters 1-3),
Centicubes, Osmiroid
Jigged Number Plaques, E.
J. Arnold
Metriblocs, Metricubes, Invicta Plastics

Multilink
Counting Board, E.S.A.
Names and Numbers, Metric Aids

Peg Numbers, Metric Aids
Radial Plastic Sorting Trays, Philip & Tacey
Random Dominoes, E.
J. Arnold
Stern Counting Board and Pattern Boards, E.S.A.

Unifix 1-10 Boats and Pattern Boards, Unifix 1-10 Stair, Philip & Tacey
41
Chapter 4
Ordering (N4)
For the teacher

After looking at the concept of ordering in a general sense, this chapter
goes on to deal with the ordering of non-equivalent sets. As a prelude to
this, children may have already begun to order length, capacities, shapes,
events, etc., using the appropriate language such as 'longer than', 'holds
less than', 'is larger than', 'before' and 'after'. In the Number Section
N2: 2, sets will have been compared without specific reference to their
cardinal value but on the basis that one set had more members than
another. This experience can now be carried over to enable the children to
look carefully at the number of elements in non-equivalent sets, label them
accordingly and put the sets into order.
Ordering at this stage has two aspects:
1
2
order by virtue of position in a line or a time sequence (first, second,

last, etc.),
order by virtue of size or cardinal number.
In some cases, order occurs in a repeating pattern or cycle of events:
... Friday, Saturday, Sunday, Monday,Tuesday,

42
Ordering (N4)
Where the pattern is not cyclic, however, it is important to indicate to

the children where to start and in which direction to go. For example, 'Put
these in order of size, starting with the smallest.' When using the
worksheets, children should be encouraged to 'read' the pictures from left
to right as in reading words.
A completed task would look like this:
Colour the third car.

~

N4: 1
Ordinal numbers
N4 : 2
N4: 3
N4: 4
Vocabulary
First, second, third, fourth ... etc., last, next to, in front of, behind, is
greater than, is more than, is less than, is fewer than, least, most, fewest,
continue, column.

The following are useful:
pictures of engine and six or seven carriages, mounted on dark
background; wooden ladder, spinner, pipe-cleaner dolls; two sets of paper
doll's clothes, string and dowelling to make 'washing lines' ; hoops or loops
of string, beads, counters, poppet beads, cubes.

N4: 1 Ordinal numbers
Many children are helped at home by their mothers to acquire the ability to
say number words in sequence, e.g. counting fingers or toes at bath-time.
Let us consider what happens when mother and child climb a short flight
of stairs counting as they go. As the mother's foot touches each stair she
says a word, 'one ... two ... three, etc.' The child may be joining in with
her. What are they really doing? They are giving a name to each stair. At
least, that is the probable interpretation for the child. It will be a long time
before the child will be able to tell you that, 'Stair three comes before stair
four and after stair two.' To emphasize that we are now interested in the
order, we could say, 'First ... second ... third, etc.' These are called
43
Ordering (N4)
'ordinal numbers'.
Children find little difficulty in understanding first, second, third and
last since they often jostle with each other for these positions when lining
up. Nevertheless words denoting position should be used as often as
possible by the teacher in real situations, e.g. today is the fourth of May;
today is your fifth birthday; he's read his sixth book.
A worthwhile activity is to ask the children to help make a train with six
or sevencarriages (more can be added later). Each carriage must be
distinguishable from others either by colour or by name. The engine and
carriages are then mounted on an appropriate backing in such a way that
they can easily be removed and placed in a different position. When
mounted on the wall, the words and symbols for first, second, third, etc.,
are placed in order beneath the carriages starting with the one nearest the
engine.
The children discuss the order of the carriages and their position behind
the engine. Today the blue carriage may be first, the green carriage second,
etc. Tomorrow after moving the carriages about the children may see that
the red carriage is first, the blue second and perhaps the green carriage last.
Children soon begin to realize that even though the carriages are moved
about, the name of the position in the order remains unchanged.
A simple activity which helps children to learn and recognize the words
first, second, ... etc. and the symbols Ist, 2nd, ... etc. uses a card showing
a line of animals:
Put a cou rrt.er on the
I..:;~ ===;;J~
cow.
and a set of small cards which fit into the frame:
t=:==1 s~t -=-'Ji
I second ] I
5th ]
I sixth
A small card is selected, placed in the frame and the instruction followed
by another child.
44
Ordering
CN4)
The procedure can be reversed. The teacher places a counter on a dog

and the child selects the correct card(s).
Cards covered with clear adhesive plastic can be used repeatedly if the
child is given a felt tip pen for drawing. A damp cloth clears the card ready
for another child.
~eo~~~
Draw the fifth animal.
Draw the sixth shape.

"first
8(j~
Draw the fourth face.
Many opportunities for using positional names will arise during P.E.
lessons whilst playing games where the leader of a team or first in line
quickly becomes second, third and so on, as other members of the team run
from the end of the line and take their turn at being first.
Another simple game to help put over the idea of position may be played
when using six or seven hoops. These are set out in an agreed order and
labelled accordingly. The teacher arranges one child in each hoop and asks
the rest of the children which hoop a certain child is in, e.g. Question:
'Which hoop is Derek in?' Answer: 'The second hoop/ If there are several
children in each hoop the question might be, 'How many children are
standing in the fourth hoop ?'
45
Ordering (N4)
A checking-up activity Two sets of doll's clothes are made out of paper.
These can be coloured and decorated by the children. Two parallel clothes
lines are set up between two short pieces of dowelling set in a base. The
teacher sets out one set of clothes on the top line. The child is asked to put
the second set of clothes on the bottom line, in exactly the same order. The
second part of the check is to ask the child to reverse the order of the
clothes on the top line, as he places them on the bottom line. It is better if
each set contains an odd number of items so that there is a middle one.
Cut clothes out on fold

of paper. This way
they will hang on the
line.
The test assesses the child's concept of order. Very often children who
have not achieved this level of mathematical understanding will deal with
the second stage of reversing the order of garments until about the middle
of the clothes line. At this point, the child loses sight of his starting point
and matches the second half of his own line to the order set out on the top
clothes line.
~Number4
~
sheet 1.2
sheet 1.1
Colour
the 3rd aeroplane.
_
_
~~
II
J'/
~
/1~~
n,.
11I.f"l;.
~Od
~
~
soldter
ls on th e
fint
step.
The ball is on the
step.
The boat
step.
is on the
Colour
the 4th boat.
CoLour the Last boat.
.... ~. ~~.
...,
~
~'
..
....
",
..-
~.~. ~.~..
-.
The Qer~Plane
The cat
IS
The teddy
is on the
on the
IS
on the
step.
step.
The car is on the
step.
The elephant
step.
is on the
Colour
the 5th teddy.
Colour
the 2nd ball.
step.
46
step.
on the
IS
I
II
CoLour the 2nd house.
I..
,
The dog
II:
Colour
the 8th ball.
,.-
..
....
I:
~'''.' ..'..
".
Ordering (N4)
N4: 2 Putting non-equivalent sets in order according to their

cardinal value
From the moment a child begins to recite the number jingle he is ordering
numerals although the activity has little meaning for him. Only when he
begins to match numerals to sets and put them in order is he beginning to
look at the special way in which our number system is built. Through
ample practice of matching words or symbols to the members of a set, the
child will gradually come to realize the order in which natural numbers
grow:
There is a constant difference of one between each number and the next
in sequence,
each number value has a position on a number line,
whilst being one greater than the number it follows, each number is also
one less than the number it precedes.
Initially, the children need to compare three sets only. Each set should
contain members which are easily identified and bear no resemblence to the
members of the other two sets.
For example:
A set of hen'S
A set of cat5
The sets are made by sticking pictures or printing rubber stamps on

separate cards or by placing sorting toys on paper plates.
Through discussion and matching or counting, the children decide:
Which set has the least (or fewest) members?
Are there more dogs than hens?
Are there fewer frogs than hens? etc.
Eventually, a child can be asked to move the sets so that they are in order,
sometimes ascending, sometimes descending.
Very gradually, changes or refinements are introduced into the activity
so as to reduce the difference between sets to just one member and to
increase the number of sets being ordered. The aim should be to progress
towards ordering sets containing 0 to 5 members, each displaying a
47
Ordering (N4)
difference of one from the previous set. The ability to order up to 5 can be
checked by using a card:
Fill in the missing set.
and a selection
of card pieces:
The child selects the correct set to place in the loop. (It is important to
make the set loops all the same shape and size so that the child does not
select by 'fitting' the piece of card.)
When the child is confident about ordering small numbers, greater
numbers up to 10 may be introduced using a counting board (see Chapter
3) or threaded beads:
48
Ordering
CN4)
Peg boards are useful for demonstrating the way in which numbers
grow. The numerals should be stuck in order along the bottom edge of the
peg board and the child asked to insert the correct number of pegs in each
column. The child's attention should be drawn to the number of pegs in a
particular column, comparing its number value with the columns both
before and after, for example 'Three comes after two and in front of four. ,
Putting a set of rods in order by

making a staircase within a tray
may help the child to see the
number values increasing or
decreasing by one each time.
The use of a number ladder may help towards the understanding of

number relationships. The ladder should be solidly constructed so that the
child may prop it against a wall. Two dolls can be made from pipe cleaners,
these will wrap easily round the rungs.
Make a spinner or dice on which different scores are drawn. Colour 'ups'
red; 'downs' blue; 'No move' white. To start, place both dolls on the same
rung about halfway up. After three moves, children take account of the
situation, which might be :
Girl doll (Jane) is on number 5 rung.
Boy doll (John) is on number 3 rung.
John needs to take two steps to reach Jane, so 5 is greater than 3.
49
Ordering (N4)

~
sheet 2.2
Number4
sheet 2.1
.Fill in the missing
~Number4
~
set. ~
are more
There
are fewer cups than
There
are fewer
than
birds.
than
cu ps.
and colour
the correct
Colour
6 trees.
Count,
colour
and Label.
3
sheet 2.5
sheel2.4
Count
3 cups.
DO
ODD
DODD
DDDDD
DDOOOO
DDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DODD DO DOD
DDDDDDDDDD
There ore more birds than

There
Colour
sheet2.3
Draw
number.
the missing
sets.
Write
in the numerals.
8888888888
88BBBBBBBB C]) C])DO0D@OO
B888888888
8888888888
.
DO
DO
DO
~~~99~~999
~0000
[i]~~~~@][?J~~~
10
N4: 3 Using symbols for 'Greater than' and 'Less than'

When a child begins to notice differences he should be encouraged to use
the appropriate language 'longer than' or 'shorter than' when comparing
lengths, 'holds more than' or 'holds less than' when comparing capacity,
etc. When comparing the cardinality of sets, that is comparing the number
of members of one set with the number of members of another set, the
expressions 'greater than' (or 'more than') and 'less than' (or 'fewer than')
are used.
As a child's skill in language grows, it is likely that his ability to record in
longhand will develop. To begin with, recording should be brief and
enjoyable and not detract from the pleasure of the experience. At this stage,
the written word will only supplement what has already been expressed
orally by the child. The child will still be discussing his findings with his
50
Ordering
CN4)
teacher, since only through discussion with individual children will the
teacher be able to assess development, and any writing will be a simple
record of the child's achievements.
Initially, children will record in simple graph form, using drawings of
themselves, coloured squares, beads or stamps, etc. As children begin to
consider number relationships in words,
8 is more than 7
9 is less than 10
it would seem appropriate to introduce the shorthand symbols:

8 >7
9 < 10
However, these symbols must not be introduced too early and should only
be used to compare numbers.
Before introducing them, the teacher should check that the child is able
to count, that he is completely familiar with the sequence of numbers to ten
and has some sense of both the ordinal and cardinal aspects of number.
The symbol for 'is greater 'than' is
>
5 > 3 (five is greater than three).

The symbol for 'is less than' is <
2 < 6 (two is less than six).
One way to help children to remember>
and < is to use semi-tallying:
---
51
Ordering (N4)
This idea may also be introduced
by using cubes and cards similar to these:
>
As a check-up, cards similar to this may be used:
>
<
52
Ordering (N4)

Number 4
sheet 3.1
I
Write
in the
4..
missing
in the missing
numerals.
::::>
greater
than
is greater
than
is greater
than
is greater
than
IS
Write
numerals.
than
than
2
sheel3.3
5> 3 means 5 is greater
4-<6
Write
means
than
4. is less than
in the numeral
> means "is greater
6.
and correct
I~
:>
<
sign.
1M
4-
sheel3.4
3.
than".
means "is less than",
Write in the missing Signs.

4- is less than
6 is greater
than 2.
or6
::>
2
c:::::
6.
6
~
5 is greater
<:
than
or 5
3.
3
Write and read.
Put in
>
Write
and read.
or < for these.

q
10
I
10
10
N4: 4 Tallying and pictorial representation

Tallying was used by early man to record his possessions and involved
having a model as a standard, a knot tied in a piece of string, a notch cut in
a stick or a pebble. Each knot, notch or pebble represented one of his
possessions, a sheep perhaps, and each sheep was matched in one-to-one
correspondence with his chosen model. It was his way of counting.
Today children tally when they use bricks, counters, poppet beads etc.,
to make a count of objects which cannot be grouped together easily. For
example, often a group of children will be taken out by their teacher to
make a count of the different sorts of traffic passing the school.
Each different coloured bead placed in a box represents a car, a lorry or a
motor bike. The child is gathering and storing information which he is able
to use later. Tallying is a way of counting with a check, because for each
53
Ordering (N4)
count taken there is a model.
cars
5 cars
lor-ries
z lorries
motor--
3 motOrbikes
bikes
More cars went by than lorries 5 > 2.

There were fewer lorries than motor-bikes 2 < 3.
cars
lorries
rno'tor- bikes
II/II
//
II/
5
2
---
Previously children have used only two columns or rows and have
represented themselves by concrete objects. In this stage we move towards
a more permanent form of recording and introduce more columns. The
idea of one-to-one correspondence will still pertain. Each child is now
represented by something more abstract, either a drawing or a coloured
square.
Walk
home
Travel
by bus
Travel
by car
The information gathered by tallying the number of cars, lorries and

motor-bikes may also be represented in a similar way:
When recording on a chart the teacher must be sure to see that the
drawings or squares are the same size and are stuck on in the proper place,
starting from the same 'level'. The haphazard sticking-on of pictures can
lead to confusion in the final interpretation.
Graphs must be interpreted Children should be encouraged through
discussion with the teacher to look for patterns and relationships and
express them orally using words such as 'more', 'less', 'fewer', etc. Only
through discussion with the child and listening to his comments will the
teacher be able to evaluate how much of the work being presented is fully
understood.
54
Ordering (N4)

~
sheet 4.2
Number4
sheet 4.1
'~?p
Put a stroke
for each animal
as you colour
ccts
Make a stroke
Write
for each member
of the set
it
I ,.,
III
d"9'~
in the nu.nercl.
There are more
I~
I~
than
~I
~I
ffTt
'fK
I I
I I
I I
~I
frogs
There are fewer

thon
There are more

than
2
sheet 4.3
John.
Ruth and Ian have sorted
their
sheet 4.4
toys into columns
David made
that
John'stays
Ruth's
toys
lan's
went
tally of the vehicles
past the school
toys
~cars
~
~~~
Cfiiiiijj
lorries
motor bikes
~
wrtre
~~~
buse s
11/111/
I I I
1/1 /
/11/
In the number of each.
Then David started

Can you finish
it?
to draw
a graph
Use colours.
There
~~~
are more
than
buses.
than
motor-bikes.
>
How many toys has John?

There
are fewer
How many toys has Ruth?
<:
How many toys has Ian?

Who has most toys?
There are
more buses than
...
<I)
>
<S
U
Who has least toys?

Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Beginnings W, Pictorial
Representation ITJ (Nuffield Guides), Chambers/Murray 1967 (See
Introduction, page viii.)
Multilink
Today (chapter 3),
Counting Board, E.S.A.
Stern Counting Board, E.S.A.

Unifix 1-10 Boats and Unifix 1-10 Stair, Philip & Tacey
55
Chapter 5
Towards
addition (N5)
For the teacher

The acquisition of number bonds up to lOis a lengthy process and takes a
child far longer than we realize. For this reason it is necessary to spend
considerable time exploring the variety of experiences and activities
available.
Much of the work will be of a practical nature, with recording either in
pictorial, graphical or numerical form. The aim is to give a sound basis at
this stage so that the child will be able to assimilate and understand number
bonds so well that they become part of his memory bank, to be stored and
recalled without hesitation. This chapter concentrates on number bonds
up to six.

N5: 1
Composition of small numbers:

Activities
a Bead bag.
b Duckpond
c Rods or strips and frames
N5: 2a Addition of two disjoint sets: putting sets together

N5: 2b Addition of two disjoint sets: using structured apparatus
N5: 3
Vocabulary
How many, is as many as, together make, add, count, colour, draw, strips,
rods.
56
Towards addition eNS)

Sets of beads, small polythene bags, sets of small plastic animals, small tins
of toys, counters, beads, shells, cubes, etc. Structural apparatus or
cardboard strips.

N5: 1 Composition of small numbers
Much of the early work will either arise spontaneously from the children's
play or because the teacher has structured the work herself.
Incidental activity A child may be playing in the Home Corner and there
are four cakes on the table so the teacher asks, 'How many of your friends
can have one cake each?' 'If I eat one of these four cakes, how many will be
left?' 'If I give Michael two, how many are left?' This sort of questioning
gives the child experience of four split up or partitioned in three ways, i.e.
four ones, three and one, two and two.
Structured activity In the odd five minutes at the end of a session the
teacher may draw a group of children around her and ask them to tell her
about the different ways they might arrange a group of three or four
objects.
The teacher may decide to use arrangements of the children. She may
stand three of them together to begin with, then two together and one by
himself or arrange them as three individuals. Eventually children will
progress towards working through a more structured programme,
handling materials invidually in a similar fashion.
N5: la Bead bags
Bead bags are made by enclosing 3, 4, 5 or 6 beads inside a small polythene
bag. The bag is then sealed and labelled accordingly. The label is a piece of
card stapled or Sellotaped to the bag.
The bead bags have a dual purpose:
1 the beads can be arranged within the bag without being lost;
2 since the beads are enclosed none can get in and none escape.
The idea of three remaining unchanged within the bag helps the child
towards the idea of conservation.
The child rearranges the beads within the bag, pushing some into one
corner and one into another.
57
The teacher asks him about the pattern he has made. The child should
recognize the smaller groupings within the bag and with encouragement
will then give answers similar to-'I've
put two beads in that corner and
one in this,' or 'I've put one bead in that corner, one in this and one in the
middle.' The teacher should remind the child throughout of the number of
beads in the bag, e.g. 'I've put two beads here and one there, how many is
that altogether?' The child may have to count them again, but after some
practice will begin to know that the number will remain unchanged. This
assumption will apply only to the number he is dealing with at the time.
Later, when considering larger numbers, he may revert to counting. As
soon as the teacher feels the child understands what he is doing, recording
may be introduced.
.-
The teacher fills in the numerals on the card

and the child uses the duplicated sheet
with the appropriate bead bag.
The child makes a 'pattern' in his bead bag
and draws it on the prepared sheet .
His completed sheet will look like this:
Once the sheet is completed the teacher should talk again with the child
about how he has arranged his beads to help reinforce these new ideas.
N5: 1b
The 'Duck Pond' activity
Sets of small plastic toys are ideal for grouping and children should be
encouraged to find many different ways of partitioning into two subsets
and then three subsets. Sheets may be duplicated to be used with each
activity. In this way the child does the minimum of recording and there is a
permanent record of his work. It cannot be over emphasized that it is of
paramount importance that the teacher takes every opportunity to question and
talk with the child throughout the whole of this work.
Four ducks are counted

and placed on outlines
at the top of the card. The
child then puts ducks
on the ponds.
58
Arrangements might be:

Oand4
1 and3
2and2
3 and 1
4andO
After arranging the ducks on the ponds, the child records each
arrangement on a duplicated sheet by drawing round the ducks in the
appropriate pond shape. Then he fills in the number square. Recording is
in a 'conversational style' at this stage-the introduction of symbols will
come later.
Duplicated sheet
0 C
0 CJ
CJ G
D
D
D
D
to.gether- make
and
and
and
and
Often children repeat the same grouping without realizing it. This is
usually put right if the teacher discusses it with the child and allows him
further practice. Activities such as the one above may be extended by
introducing numerals. Two frames are drawn beneath the ponds and
numerals written on small pieces of card to be inserted by the child. The
ducks are then drawn and the numerals written on the duplicated sheet. On
completion, the child would be expected to 'read' his work to the teacher.
QandO
DandO
QandQ
Card
DandO
to.gether
make
4-
-0
~
4-
-0
Numeral cards
Duplicated sheet
59
The same procedure will apply when partitioning the original set into
three subsets. The child places the objects into any of the three prepared
outlines on the card and copies his arrangement into his book.
o
Some examples:
2 and
1 and
1 and
3 and
2 and
1 and
2 and
1 and
1 and
2 and
1 ------+ 4
1 ------+ 4
2 ------+ 4
0 ----+ 4
0 ------+ 4
As an alternative to ducks and ponds, other ideas may be used such as :

aeroplanes on airfields; boats on lakes; sweets made from clay, wrapped in
toffee papers and used with pictures of children.
together
make
and
and
Throughout these activities, the teacher should question the child,

giving him the opportunity to express in words the number bonds he has
used. He should always be encouraged to read the numerical statement he
has recorded.
The teacher may ask, 'Tell me some numbers which mean the same as
four'. Often the child's first answer is one less than the number he is
considering and one, i.e. three and one make four. This seems to be the
most obvious and easiest to learn. Other answers follow later, such as two
and two, and one and one and two.
Children often answer 'Four by itself or 'Four altogether', really
meaning four and no more, this is later refined to 'Four and zero'.
N5: 1c Rods or strips and frames
Throughout the activities so far, children have been unit counting, that is,
60
'Three - four, five'
rather- than
counting in ones-'One,
two, three, four, five-that makes five.' The
teacher, through her discussions, will have emphasized counting by
grouping such as 'Two and three make five'. To reinforce this idea some
work should be done using coloured rods. If a child thinks of a certain rod
having a number value of three because of its length and colour then he
only needs to count on from three. This is known as partial counting.
'One,two, three, - four; five '.
This is not quite as simple as it sounds and requires practice on the

child's part, but it is of enormous help when the child has to deal with
larger numbers.
The teacher may select a four rod, stand it on end and ask the child to
find two more rods which together are as tall as the four rod. Standing the
rods up requires some manipulative skill, but the child does not have to
worry about the ends being level as he would if the rods were placed fiat,
side by side.
Some structural apparatus includes nesting trays, to be used with rods,
for each number from 1 to 10. For example, a five tray is the same colour as
the five rod and will take five rows of rods, thus displaying all pairs of
numbers making up five.
The story of 5
1 and 4
2and3
3and2
4 and 1
SandO
If sets of rods are not available, worksheets NS : 1.7 and NS : 1.8 will
serve as an alternative. The strips drawn along two edges of the worksheet
can be cut out, pasted on card and coloured. If more durable strips are
preferred, the teacher can make them from stiff coloured card, using the
printed strips as templates.
The strips are used on the frames printed on the worksheets for 'the
story of 4', 'the story of S' and 'the story of 6' with recording beside each
row.
It will be only after much practical experience that the child will be able
to talk about five, for instance, as:
'two and three'
or 'two and two and one'
'three and one and one', etc.
The aim of these activities is to lead the child to this facility. Some children
will learn much quicker than others and will move on, but it should be
remembered that if the child is to retain this information it must be used
and practised often.
61

Number 5
sheet 1.1
sheet 1.2
Count
Draw
and colour the rabbits.

in the dotted rings.
Count and coLour the frogs.
Draw
in
thedO~~,,".:
Write
::: ~~,,"::
Write
and say
and
and say.
',~-)::~~~",:
--,--
--.,-------
and
and
and
and
t~e
..
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and colour
Count
the balls.
Draw in the dotted
and coLour the fish.
Draw in the dotted
rings.
rings.
-, _,--
'._-,----'
Write
and say.
together
e(~')
::.'--~~@
and
and
Write
and say.
and
:j;~OV,,>~)::, ~:;
---,--
--------------","--
:~(Jr_~Q~':
..
Write
and say.
make
Count and colour the bears.

Draw in the dotted lines
ifu'-:
(if[1>; ~ \
and
Number 5
sheet 1.5
sheet 1,4
sheet 1.3
Count
-.- " - ~
and
:'e6~~e::
:"-'
:~':~~::'~~:
""~-\-
------------------,--;
- - v"
and
and
...
-"
'~
..
"'-.--~"""-
--'"
'
--"i--~--~-.'
and
and
and
and
and
(~(@
'---------,-and
and
and
sheet 1.6
sheet 1.7
Count and coLour the elephants.

Draw in the dotted lines.
The story
sheet 1.8
of a..
Use the strips
The story
to find different
ways
of making
Write and
3 and 1
and
up 4-.
S~~geth"
Use the strips

of making
make
~---->
of 6.
to find different
ways
up 6.
and
and
~..,~~.:(,~~:::.~~:
. - - . - '\ - -
.~- -
The story
Use the strips
--
and
of 5.
and
to find different
ways of making
up 5 .
5and1~
~):'.~'
"
- - --
and
and
and
62
-~
--
-"\
- _.'
and
and
Write
----->
together
make
and
5 and I
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and say.
---.
and
N5: 2 Addition of two disjoint sets

Once a child has had experience of 'taking apart' numbers up to 6 and is
familiar with the variety of ways in which these numbers may be
partitioned, the operation of addition may be introduced. Most of the early
examples will deal with the putting together of small numbers with which
the children are already familiar. At this stage addition is defined as the
putting together of members of two separate or disjoint sets and counting
how many objects there are altogether. In the early stages children should
discuss experiences involving the putting together of disjoint sets of
objects.
The first recording should be in words, 'I have two marbles, Peter has
four marbles, altogether we have six.'
N5: 2a Putting sets together leading to simple addition facts
Prepare a piece of card by drawing two small circles and one larger one.
The words 'and' and 'is as many as' are written between the circles. Draw
in three frames and words beneath the circles.
(s as
many as
and
Small tins of toys, counters, beads, shells, small bricks, etc., are stored
together in a box. Each tin should contain a small number of items with one
obvious division. At this point we want the child to sort into two sets only.
For example, 3 blue counters and 2 red counters, 2 pigs and 2 dogs, 1 red
bead and 3 green beads.
The child chooses one tin and sorts out the objects placing one set in the
first circle and one set in the second circle. He counts both sets, one at a
time, and places the appropriate number in the square frame beneath each
circle. He then moves both sets of objects into the big circle and counts
them and finds the numeral to put in the third frame.
Children need many activities of this sort in which they use different
objects. After each addition, the child should 'read' his work to the teacher
and eventually practise the writing down of the numerical statement. To
make it a little easier for the child to record, the teacher may draw the three
frames in the child's book.
63
is as mcny cs
D
D
The child then simply writes in the numerals and again reads it to the
teacher. If the bonds used are those with which the child is already
familiar, he should have no difficulty in understanding and retaining this
information.
N5: 2b Using structured apparatus for addition
The sets of 'rods' most commonly used in schools may be divided into two
types:
non-segmented: e.g. Cuisenaire, Colour Factor;
segmented (i.e. marked to show 'units'): e.g. Stern, Unifix, Multilink,
Metriblocs, Centicubes, etc.
In the case ofUnifix, Multilink, Metriblocs and Centicubes, the child
makes his own rod lengths by fixing together the interlocking cubes.
Before using any rods, it is essential that the child is familiar with them.
There is little point in confronting a child for the first time with a set of
rods and expecting him to use them immediately for addition.
When used for addition, two or more rods are placed end to end and a
rod sought to equal the combined length. We are using the placing of
lengths end to end as a 'model' for the addition of numbers. For example,
using Stern rods:
3 and 2 together make 5

64
Towards addition (NS)

sheet 2.2
~Number5
~
Write
and say.
and
sheet 2.1
How many altogether?
Write
together
and say
Colour
3-
and count
and
2.
together
make
make
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
N5: 3 Recording addition by mapping

Eventually, through a wealth of different experiences, children should be
ready to begin to formalize some of their earlier discoveries in number. At
this point the teacher may wish to introduce recording of a different sort.
Through their previous work in matching and relations, the children will
already have met the arrow and 'plug in' cards. In order to make recording
of addition easier, the idea of mapping with the use of an arrow is
in:troduced.
U sing the 'plug in' card, the child takes a lace
from a numeral on the left-hand set,
reads the operation to be performed
(in this case, 'add 1') and plugs in the lace
at the appropriate position in the right-hand set.
add (
When a worksheet is used,

the child draws the arrow for the mapping.
add I
65
Towards addition (NS)
An alternative way might be to use two columns of figures, the operation

to be performed is written above the columns and underlined with an
arrow.
or
addZ
) 5
) 6
4
2
3
0
4-
3
2
Both methods are easily understood if the numbers used are familiar to
the child. A more difficult stage is to fill in only one set of numbers in the
first circle or column, write the number to be added, and leave the second
circle or column blank. If the numbers again are kept well within the
child's experience, he will soon master the technique.
add I)
add I)
3
42
I
When using the addition operation, especially in these very early stages,
it is advisable to concentrate on the operation itself. Extra time spent with
numbers the child can add easily will be repaid later on. This stage is one of
reinforcement and consolidation of work on number bonds which the child
has done previously and no props should be necessary.
66

~
NumberS
sheet3.1
~lR
Join
add2
3
4-
i,
"'0"'''.'''0,0"
3
4-
t,.
odd
-------">
t,.
L,.
3
--------,>
Wo,,,,,,,,Po,'C

Ward Lock 1969
Pleuger, W. H. Experimenting with Numbers (Teachers' Manual for Stern),

Experiments with Structural Arithmetic in an English School,
Guide to the Use of Stern Apparatus, E.S.A. 1965
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Maths Begins CD, Nuffield Guide,
Stone, R.
Today (Chapter 9),
J. Multilink Handbook, E.S.A.
Taverner, N. Unijix Teachers' Manual, Philip & Tacey

Using Metribloc and Metricube, Invicta Plastics
Multilink
Pattern Boards, E.S.A.
Stern Nesting Trays, E.S.A.
67
Chapter 6
Addition to 10
(N6)
For the teacher

This chapter extends the work begun in Chapter S (NS) by dealing with
analysis of numbers from 6 to 10 and ways of recording addition up to 10.

N6: 1
Number bonds: numbers from 6 to 10
N6: 2
Counting on
N6: 3
N6: 4
Picture problems-addition
N6: S
Introduction of addition sign and vertical addition
N6: 6
The addition square
Vocabulary
Together make, altogether, domino, dominoes, number line, number strip,
start, count on, jumps, is as many as, add, columns, rows.

Bricks, counters, card for number lines and number strips, dominoes,
structural apparatus (rods or interlocking cubes), or card and strips
suitably ruled.
68
Addition to 10 (N6)

N6: 1 Number bonds: nurnbers frorn 6 to 10
As children progress towards the decomposition of larger numbers the
approach should be a little different. The apparatus used and the ways in
which the child records should be just that bit more sophisticated. Just as
there is a need for a variety of experiences with concrete materials in the
early stages, so there is a need for a variety of methods to help achieve
understanding. Children should work methodically through each number,
looking for as many ways as possible of decomposing and putting back
together again all the numbers up to ten.
Suggestions for activities
Partitioning of a set using real objects or pictorial representations It is
probably best to use a set oflike objects in the first instance and to
introduce unlike objects as the child gains confidence. A child is given a set
of objects and asked to count them. He uses pieces of string or wool to
partition the set into 2, 3, 4 etc. subsets. The child should be encouraged to
say how many subsets he has made. If necessary he may label each subset
by using a numeral card.
6 altogether
6 altogether
He should then read aloud the 'sum' he has made. Once he understands
fully what he is doing, he may begin to record.
2 and 4 together make 6
2 and 3 and 1
By partitioning a set of a given number, say 7, in various ways a child can

find all the combinations that have a sum of 7.
At various intervals the child should be asked to remember some of the
combinations he made and say what their sum is. Questions should be
posed both ways, e.g. 'Tell me some numbers that add up to 7?', and 'What
does 2 and 4 and 1 add up to ?'
Partitioning sets using beads A set of say eight square beads may be strung
very loosely and both ends tied securely. The child may then group them
on the thread and record either pictorially, drawing his grouping or writing
down the numerals.
69
Addition to 10 (N6)
Records
DDDanct DDandDDClndD
and/or
and
and
o~d
together make
together moke
8
8
Using dominoes Sorting through a set of dominoes looking for all the
different combinations of certain numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6) can be a
useful activity.
The children may wonder why there are so few pairs of some numbers
and this might lead to looking at the commutative property of a number,
that is, the interchanging of numbers in addition, e.g. 2 + 4 is the same as
4 + 2 and it doesn't matter which way round we write it or add the numbers
together.
Recording may be done by filling in the dots on domino outlines
(prepared by the teacher) or again in the form of a numerical statement.
1lllrlt~
togethermake
and
and
2 and 4.
6
6
Using a 'plug-in' card or curve stitching Two straight lines are drawn at an
angle on a piece of stiff card. The lines are marked in equal divisions,
numbered and holes made. Separate laces are threaded through each of the
holes on one line and knotted at the back. The child 'plugs-in' each lace to
join a pair of numbers which make the required total.
Join ~C1irs
to make 8.
70
Addition to 10 (N6)
Alternatively, the child may use one continuous strand of coloured wool
and a bodkin, joining pairs as before to stitch a curve or 'archway'. (The
straight lines form the envelope of a curve called a parabola-the
path of a
ball thrown in the air.)
00in p'airs
to make 8..
Apart from the valuable number activity and the pleasing pattern
obtained, children are often fascinated by the fact that they have used
straight lines to make a curve.
Partitioning of a set using interlocking cubes (e.g. Unifix, Centicubes,
Metriblocks, Multilink)
Partitioning by colour, the child makes a 'stick' of
interlocking cubes. In this example three colours are used to show 7
partitioned into three subsets.
and
and
together-
make
Some structural materials include Value Boats and Pattern Boards which
are self-correcting.
rn
3 and 4
together-
I11ake
II
III
71
Addition to 10 (N6)
If interlocking cubes are not available, squared paper may be used in a

similar fashion. Cut out a piece of paper a little wider than the number of
squares to be considered, leaving two squares for a margin down the right
hand side in which to draw an arrow and the numeral total. For example, if
considering the number 7 cut the paper 9 squares wide. To help the child,
draw a dark line where the margin begins. The child then colours in
different combinations of squares writing the numerals underneath each
colour.
7
L....-----.L._--L_--L-_-L..-_--L-_...L-_I._----1_--..l
A similar idea is used in

worksheets
N6: 1.5-N6: 1.8.
Partitioning of sets using rods The nesting trays mentioned in Chapter 5 :

(N5) are self-correcting and can be used for number bonds up to 10. If
segmented rods are used (Stern apparatus, for example), the child can see
that the three-rod, for instance, is made from three unit cubes.
When considering a number, let us say 8, the child places the 8 rod into
the 8 tray and then fits in all the different combinations of rods. His
recording can be either in the form of 5 and 3 ~ 8 or recorded pictorially on
a piece of squared paper similar to the one outlined above. The child would
be expected to 'read' either statement.
The story of 8
together
and 7
2- and
OVId
3 and 5
4- and 45 and 3
6 and 2
7 ond I
make
-7
........-7
8
8
8
8
~8
If non-segmented rods are used, such as Cuisenaire or Colour-Factor,

the units are not marked on the rods. The child either remembers the
colour code or verifies the length of each rod by measuring it with the 'unit'
rod-usually the white.
72
Addition to 10 (N6)
For example, using Cuisenaire rods:

Since the yellow rod is
used here to represent S
units, the red rod to
represent 2 units and the
black rod 7 units, we have
a model for:
Sand 2 together make 7.
If nesting trays are not available, a duplicated assignment sheet may be
used by the child to record his findings.
The child places the 7 rod in the top frame
and finds 2 rods to match the 7
rod, fitting them into the bottom frame.
He then records the number values.
A similar assignment sheet may be used

asking the child to find 3 or 4 rods.
The story of 7
The story of 7
Find pairs ofr-ods thtAt make

the same length as the 7 I""od.
Find three. r-ods tnat make.

the same /ehgth
7 rod
QS
th.e 71""00.
7 rod
[
Wr-ite.
WYite.
D
0
and
and
and
Both of these
frames are just
large enough
to take a
'seven rod' .
0
D
D
together
make
7
7
DandDandD
DandDandD
DandDandD
togethermake
The value of using rods is that the combinations for making up a particular
number can be shown without counting in ones.
Again, if sets of rods or interlocking cubes are not available, strips or stiff
coloured card similar to those used in Chapter S eNS: Ic): but extended to
10, may be made by the teacher.
73
Addition
to 10 CN6)

~
Find 7 bricks.
Place them
sheet 1.2
Number6
sheet 1.1
~l!?
Find 8 bricks.
Place them
on the squares.
DDDD
[0000
-------------------------------
on the squares
cDDDDDDD)7
together make
and
and
and
and
and
and
77
77
77
Write
and say the different
ways you find:

together
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
make
------>8
----->8
-----.8
----->8
---->
8
Place them
on the squares.
DDDD
[DDDDDq
-------------------------------
Number 6
sheet 1.5
sheet 1.4
sheet 1.3
Find q bricks.
Find 10 bricks.
Place them
on the squares
iDDDDD
lDDDDD
~-----------------------
Using
2 colours,
show different
ways to make 7.
Write and say:
and
10
and
and
and
and
and
and
Using 3 colours.
Write
and say the different
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
q
------>q
----->q
------>q
---->q
---->q
and
and
and
and
and
and
make
make
and
----->10
and
-----'>
10
and
and
and
ways to make 8.
Write and say:
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
Using 3 colours,
74
show different
ways
make
8.
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
------C>
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
Using 2 colours.
and
and
and
~-L
and
and
and
->8
-->8
----->8
----> 8
-->8
7
show orffcr-en
ways
show different
r-T--'---'---'--~~~~
and
7
-->7
----> 7
-->
-7
---->
7
7
----->
------>
sheet 1.8
ways to make G.
Write and say'
togcthermake
Using 3 colours,
~8
show different
-------->8
------>8
----->8
------>8
------>8
-------->8
to make
7.
and
sheet 1.7
Using 2 colours.
together
sheet 1.6
show different
and
and
10
---->10
-------'>10
------>
10
-------'>10
and
Using 2 colours.
ways to make
2
together
Write and say the different ways you find

together
show different
ways you find
together
make
6 -"-'-="'--=-->7
----->7
-----.7
---->7
---->7
---->7
------>7
ways to make
Write
together
and
----->q
and
----->q
------>q
and
and
-------->q
and
---->q
and
---->q
to make
G,
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
Using 3 colours,
-q
-->q
-->q
-->q
------>
10
and say:
-->q
------> q
show different
ways
make
10
10
----->10
------>10
------>10
----->10
----->10
to make
10
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
and
-10
---->10
---->10
-->10
-->10
-->10
-->10
Addition to 10 (N6)
N6: 2
Counting on
In order to avoid confusion,

this will be called a number strip:
(Numerals are written in the spaces.)
~- ........
--~..-- t--~."---4.t---.IJI.~-~."- -o I 2 3 4 5 6 7
and this a number line:

(Numerals are used to label
equally-spaced points on a line.)
Before using a number line, children should have had plenty of experience
in ordering numerals and have played simple dice games involving the
movement of a token from one square to another.
Another useful activity which children may work through profitably before
being introduced to the number line, is a 'colour line'.
A colour line is a straight line marked out in ten equal intervals on a piece
of strong card. On top of each of the ten dividing lines is stuck a different
coloured counter. Alternatively, a counter may be drawn round and a
different colour used to fill in each circle. On top of the mark at the left side
of the line is drawn a square. The intervals along the line should be about
5 ern. A brick, a bead, a shell, or a coin or any other small object should be
used by the child to move along the line from one point to another. Using a
colour line before a number line helps the child to become familiar with the
moves made on the line. Children are often confused by the numbers
written on a number line and the colour line gives practice in counting the
moves made in either direction.
The following verbal instructions may be given to the child, 'Put your
bead on the square. Now move two places to the right', (the teacher may
have to indicate the direction). 'Which colour is your bead on ?' Once the
child realizes that to move from one counter to the next counter is one
move or jump, then further instructions may be given. Written questions
might read,
or
75
Addition to 10 (N6)
The child should be encouraged to move his token along the line in both
directions. Other examples should be carried out until the child is
completely familiar with the activity of counting the moves made either
forward or backward. Once this is achieved a second line may be
introduced, the colours being replaced by numbers .
-...---....-...-...-...--_.
...-.....-...
01234567
How many jumps are there

from 2. to 6 ?
Assignments now might read-
or
I
There are
CIjumps from
Djumps
c. to
6.
Eventually the number line should be used as another approach to the

operation of addition. Instructions at this point might be:
Star-t at zero and count on 3 ~

Now count on four more.
3 count on 4- ~
Later, 'counting back' on the number line may be used as one of the
approaches to subtraction.
A slightly more sophisticated approach to addition on the number line
introduces the idea of a different starting point.
For example:
Put your finger on 3.

Now count on 2-.
:3 count
on
Z ~
D
Children should be shown how to keep one finger on three whilst
counting on two places with one finger from the other hand. In this way
children can see where they started and so check the number of moves they
have made.
76
Addition to 10 (N6)
This method encourages children to count on from where they are, in

preference to going back to re-count the 'jumps' in the first movement.
-~~<\ ,,;"-------~.~
4-
'Start at 3 and count on 2 to land on 5,'

reinforces further the idea of partial counting
mentioned in Chapter S (NS: lc):
, "Ihree=four;
rather than
'One,two,thr-ee,
four.
five.'
five.'
In many ways the number line serves the same purpose as the number
track supplied with some structural apparatus.
If a track is not available, the rods or sets of blocks may be lined up on a

track drawn on a strong piece of card. Care should be taken when drawing
the track to ensure that the divisions are measured as accurately as possible
and that the numerals are placed close to the dividing lines so the child may
read off the number at the edge of the last rod.
Patterns on number lines So far most children will have used number lines
for counting on in ones. In order to compute efficiently, children should be
able to count on not just in ones, but in twos, threes, etc.
Initially, to focus on the patterns being made by the 'jumps' or 'hops',
the children use colours to make two-dimensional patterns on lines of
equally spaced dots. No numerals are necessary-the child simply counts
the number of dots in each 'jump' :
Count in l's
Count in 2's
Count in 3's
Count in l's
and in 2's
77
Addition to 10 (N6)
The children then move to making patterns on the number line.

~'-
..
2. 3
4- 5
Cf
(0
..
11 12.
13
After reading out the 'stops' on which the pencil landed, the children may
record using arrows:
or in the form of a sequence:
0, 2~4-, 6,8, (0.

A similar effect is produced by using a number track and different
coloured interlocking cubes:
Some children may be ready to continue patterns up to 20. First, a check

should be made to ensure that they are familiar with the written sequence
of numerals to 20 by asking them to fill in some or all of the numerals on a
prepared line.
Patterns of 2's, 3's, 4's and 5's can now be investigated with recording as
before.
These sort of activities can be useful preparation, not only for addition
facts but for multiplication as well.
78
Addition to 10 (N6)

~Number6
~
sheet 2.2
sheet 2.1
Put
your
finger
on 3. Now
3
Start
at 0 and count
on 3. Now count
C>C:->~C:->c:->~
3counton4
Start
at 0 and count
2counton3
at 0 and count
4counton4
your
finger
Put
your
finger
on
on
count
on
Put your finger
on 5.
------?
count
on
I. Now
count on
count
count
on
on 5.
--->
on 6
on 7. Now count
7
count
count
on 2. Now
2
on 4 more.
Start at 0 and count on 5. Now count on 3 more.
2 ~"-->
on 4. Now count
on 4. Now count
4
on
on 3 more.
Put
Start
count
on 2.
on 4 more
Put your finger
on 2. Now count
count
on 3.
3 ------+
-----+
2
sheet 2.3
Jump
sheet 2.4
Start at O.
Count on in two's.
In one's
Jump
Put a ring round the numbers you stop
Qt.
~
Write the numbers
2---->
in two's.
Jump
in three's
~.
Jump
~.
Count
in four's.
on in three's.
2
here.
---->
Put a ring round
the numbers
you stop at.
Write
the numbers
Jump in one's.
Count
on in four's.
Jump in two's
Write
the numbers
here.
Count
on in five's.
Put a ring round
Write
the numbers
here.
3~
12
here.
Put a ring round
--;'
15
the numbers
you stop
Qt.
Jump in three's
the numbers
you stop at.
Jump in four's.
79
Addition to 10 (N6)
N6: 3 Patterns in simple addition

If children are to retain their knowledge of number bonds, they will need
regular practice. Gradually, they may begin to collect lists of number pairs
making a particular total. By appealing to pattern, both visual and
numerical, they may be able to spot if any pairs have been omitted.
If limited to two colours only, the children may use pegs and pegboard,
interlocking cubes or squared paper to help them to see the pattern.
(6,0)
(5, I)
(4-,2.)
~6
(3,3)
( 2,4-)
( 1,5 )
.8
(0,7)
fD.
( 1,6 )
OO.~f'j
000
0000
(2,5)
(3,4-)
( 4-,3)
00000
0000000
(5, Z)
(6,t)
~7
~
'Missing number' problems To introduce some variety and, incidentally, to

prepare for subtraction and its link with addition, this might be a good
opportunity to pose questions in the form:
4 and D together make
That is, 'Four and what together make 7?'

or, 'How many must I count on from 4 to reach 7?'
Mary, a little Birmingham girl of nearly six, was somewhat dismayed by
this problem. Her first reaction was, 'The answer's in the wrong place.'
The teacher tried, 'Some one has stuck a stamp over the second number.
Can you find out what is underneath the stamp?' Mary's solution was
practical, 'Steam it off, Miss!' Before the teacher could suggest using rods
or cubes, Mary appeared to have a sudden inspiration for she completed
several similar problems correctly and with little difficulty. When the
teacher asked why the problems had seemed difficult at first, Mary's
answer implied that she had not been given the correct instructions. 'Well
you see, they would have been easy if you'd told me they were adding-up
sums with holes in !'
80
Addition to 10 (N6)
With rods or interlocking cubes as a model, the problem looks like this:
f-------? ..-- ---1
~------------------~.~-------:--------j
Some children deal with this type of problem by remembering the
appropriate number bonds, others by counting on. The use of 'trial and
error' or inspired guesswork would suggest that further practical
experience is required.
Ways of recording The methods for recording introduced in Chapter 5:
(N5) can now be used for numbers up to 10.
and
D and D
add 5
and
0
0
is as many
make
together-
CIS
add 3
5~IO
Other ways of recording are:
count on
Qrld
(2,5)
(3.1,2)
(from the number \ine )
toge.they make
add
----#)
add
----;)
8 (missing number problems)
CStart with the.
z: and 5/
hum be.rs
add them
togetHer' and write the

cw\swer.' )
Teachers may find that some children tend to become confused if too
many ways of recording are introduced, in which case some sort of
selection must be made. It is a good policy to look at the same set of data in
several ways in order that all possible relationships may be clearly seen and
understood, but this policy should not be pursued to the extent that it
undermines a child's confidence.
81
Addition to 10 (N6)

sheel3.2
~Number6
.........,'
_'''''''.....,'..... sheet 3.1
Colour
o,
and count.
together
8
f'"-
"."...~
"""""-'
-~-
5,
6.
~7
---"""""''''''''''
?""""
""''''''
,[.,.
"'"
0,
/ ,
2,
3.
4-,
Write.
and
O.
and
make
together
and
---+8
~8
-->8
-------->
8
and
and
and
Nul!l.ldMo,~.1Wo,b_
together
make
5,
6,
7,
8.
<:f,
-->8
-->8
-->8
and
and
and
2.
.~
...
5.
6.
7,
"(""Cr:.
.... """'''''''~
~~
3,
Ito.
"'"
'"'"
0,
/
2.
7
make
-.
~~
8.
~8
?J?
0,10
r ,
2,
3,
4,
6,
~/O
5.
7.
8,
q,
/0,
'<><~C
2
sheet 3.4
4-.1
6.2
0.7
0
Z
46
3
5
7
5,4-
2.5
FiLLin the missing numbers.
together
make
together
and
-~5
make
4-
and
-~7
and
-~8
and
------> 6
and
--->3
and
1 -~3
and
-~5
and
-~4-
and
------>
and
4- -~6
-~7
and
and
add together
1.3,2
2,2,3
1.4,/
2,5.1
------->
3.3.Z
4-.4-./
10
N6: 4 Picture probletns-addition

Number problems set out in picture or 'comic strip' form are always
popular with young children. They enjoy making up stories about them
and are easily persuaded to write a word problem to represent the number
facts. This sort of activity is important because it gives the child confidence
to solve problems presented orally, pictorially and later in written form.
Care should be taken in the placing of the characters or objects in the
scene and children should be encouraged to look at both the pictures in
order to evaluate the situation as a whole.
82
Addition to 10 (N6)
Two cats are sitting

on the roof and
one more jumps up
now there are three

cats on the roof.

sheet 4.2
~Number6
together
and
make
and
and
and
and
and
N6: 5 Introduction of the addition sign + and vertical addition

When children are using the operation of addition with confidence and
understanding, recording can be made easier by introducing +, the
addition sign. ('It's lilr~ shorthand.') This is part of the gradual transition
from oral reporting '_0 written recording and then on to the use of symbols.
However, from time to time, to check that the child really understands the
numerical statement, it should be connected with a story.
3+5 ~ 8.
'Tell me a story for this.'
Now the addition sign may be introduced
into some of the examples of

83
Addition to 10 (N6)
recording that have been outlined previously.
0
0
43
2
+
+
0
D
+ 3+
+ 4 +
J ___________
+ 3~
+ 2~
~q
->:
Once the children have worked through the ideas outlined and are
familiar with number bonds to ten, vertical addition may be introduced as
another way to write addition facts. It is not suggested that children move
into the realms of tens and units with 'carrying' at this stage.
Combinations of interlocking cubes (two colours only) or two rods may
be used in a vertical position. This will help the child to understand the
layout when he records.
For example:
As always, when introducing a new operation or layout to a child, it is
best to use numbers with which he is already familiar so that he should
2 know the answer without counting. These examples should be kept very
simple, with totals coming to no more than ten.
Care should be taken to show the child how to record one figure beneath
the other, with the addition sign on the left and two lines at the bottom for
the answer.
2~1I
3~1
+3
5

~Number6
~
sheet 5.2
sheet 5.1
1+/0
2+2
altogether
and
We can write the number
sentence
like this.
3+ 4 ----.
Copy.
1+1
1+3
3+2
2+0
3+1
3+3
/0+2
2+3
altogether
and
Write the number sentence.
0D
1+5
/0+/0
5+1
/0+3
2+5
6+1
6+0
2+6
5 +
/0+
1+
3 +
2+
2 +
3+
3 +
2 +
+
84
3+/0
0+5
5+
1+
+1
Addition to 10 (N6)
-----=_.'~_
sheet 5.4
~Number6
Add
0
using
number
t.,. count
8+
-+
on
--->
Scounton3
->
o count
on
0+6
6 --).
-->
I,.
1,.+5
W", h ",,,,~c
8+
~~
8~ ~
-+
5+3
.L
4countonS
Hwlf,dM.th.!
1,.+1
~~
~~
I,.
like this 5+2
.5
p'ut your pencil on S. Count on 2.

We can write 5 count on 2 ------:1>
sheet 5.3
line.
,,""'''''
th.
i....
-->
t>e'
I .
01""1
w.'"
i....
.L
I,.
i....
+ "'In
N6: 6 The addition square

Tables or squares such as the following can be most useful for observing
the commutative property e.g.
2 + 3 is as many as 3 + 2
0
I
1 2 3 4- S
2-
3 4- 5 6
2. 3
'+ 5 6 7
3 4- 5 6 7 8
4 5 6 7 8 ct
5 6 7 8 q 10
Initially, it is sufficient to include numbers 0 to 5 on both axes. Later,

when the children are ready, the table may be extended. The children learn
to use the table by confirming number bonds. When the L-shaped piece,
cut from the corner of worksheet 6.N6.1, is correctly placed; a number in
85
Addition to 10 (N6)
the side column is added to a number in the top row, the answer being in
the' corner' of the L.
For example:
b
7
Questions such as, 'Does it matter which number you write down first?'
will help the children to realize that changing the order of numbers being
added does not change the answer.
The table may also be used to solve 'missing number' problems such as
3 + D ~ 7. The L-piece is slid along just below the '3-row' until the 7
appears in the corner position. The number in the top row above the 7
gives the solution.
Some children find it difficult to read off both the number facts ofa
certain total. The teacher can help to overcome this by making an 'Lwindow'.
Cut two strips of thin card just a little wider than the columns and rows
in the table. Carefully cut out the middle leaving just a frame. The frame is
then covered with clear Contact with one strip at right angles to the other.
'.r~r.:
Ii
2 3 i~l~
r---~---r---r--"
[!]O
00
..
~
23I4-.
r--H----+---+-~-___II: r--- :,::

~
centre
box~
2 3
4- '5 .XI---..
2 2 3 4 5
6/17
t---4~--+---+---I---I'~
44-567SQ
5 5 6 7 8 q /0
The children are shown how to fix the centre box on to the number in the
body of the table. Then by following both strips to the edge of the table,
they find the number bonds.
86
Addition to 10 (N6)

sheet 6.2
Use the Addition
to find
0
I
2
3
45
2+2
5+2
4+0
8
q
10
I
2
3
45
-->
---->
the
Square
missing
numbers
10
2+
2+
2+
4+
3+
2+
0+
5+
5+5~
+2
--->
+5
----->
----->
5
7
+3~
+5~
10
3+3~
Cut
out
'L'
shape.

Ward Lock 1969
Pleuger, W. H. Experimenting with Numbers (Teacher's Manual for Stern),

Experiments with Structural Arithmetic in an English School) Guide to the
Use of Stern Apparatus, E.S.A. 1965
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Maths Begins 0, Nuffield Guide,
Shuard, H. and Williams, E. Primary Mathematics
Stone, R. J. Multilink
Today (Chapter 9),
Handbook, E.S.A.
Taverner, N. Unifix Teachers' Manual, Philip & Tacey

Using Metribloc and Metricube, Invicta Plastics
Addition Mapping Rubber Stamps, Philip & Tacey
Metline) Osmiroid
Multilink
Pattern Boards, E.S.A.
Rubber Stamp Number Lines, Philip & Tacey

Stern Nesting Trays, E.S.A.
Unifix 1-;-10Boats, Philip & Tacey
87
Chapter 7
Length
un
For the teacher

The language of the pre-school child will depend very much on his home
background. In some cases the variety of experience he has had may be
limited and his language development inhibited. Later, when he comes to
school, the experience given in the home environment and the child's
ability will help us to decide where to begin.
When the child uses words during his early years he is merely imitating
and does not necessarily understand their meaning. Often words are used
initially as names: the big chair, the high shelf and the little dog. Imitating
words tends to cause confusion to begin with. It seems all right to the child
when he says:
Daddy is big.
Mummy is big.
The house we live in is big.
These are straight forward ideas because they are all big in relation to the
child. But he may also hear:
You've got a big bruise on your knee.
I've eaten a big dinner.
The words, although descriptive of amount, are used in a relative sense by
the adult; but the child who is merely imitating them may find this relative
use confusing. The same idea of the relative use of words will apply to the
whole range of mathematical language, e.g. many, few, high, low, wide,
narrow, more, less. Eventually, with help, the child will learn to sort out
these two kinds of statements. The first step for most childrenis to help
them refine and widen their vocabulary so that 'big' is supplemented by:
tall, high, wide, long and so on. This chapter deals with the stages leading
from pre-measuring activities to the recognition of the need for standard
measure.
88
Length eLl)

Ll: 1
Ll: 2
Ll: 3a Matching lengths: matching two objects of about the same

length
Ll: 3b Matching lengths: using several objects to 'make up' a length
Ll: 4
Ordering
Ll: 5
Measuring with repeated units
Ll: 6
Using limb measures
Vocabulary
Big, small, long, tall, short, wide, narrow, fat, thin, large, longer than,
shorter than, longest, shortest, etc., ends, level, about the same length as,
about as tall as, hands pan, palm, cubit, footprint, paste, bit left over, half,
quarter.

Ribbons, string, laces, tape, pieces of dowelling, strips of Meccano or
structural material, canes, lengths of rope, unmarked metre lengths of
wood.
A collection of real objects such as coloured straws, bricks, board-rubbers,
crayons, empty matchboxes, dominoes, postage stamps, envelopes, plastic
spoons, boxes, tins, paint brushes, pencils, etc.
Pictures, cut from magazines and pasted on card, of caterpillars, ladders,
crocodiles, towers, rockets, lighthouses, etc.
Cardboard for making stand-up models.

Ll: 1
During children's play, the teacher will find many opportunities to refine
their descriptive vocabulary. Questioning children about their activities
and discussing their findings with them will enable the teacher to offer
children the right word for each situation. A child's first attempt at
comparison of objects will be to compare one object to himself. Things
which are fatter, taller, wider and longer at this stage of the child's thinking
will all be big to him. As a structured activity, a small group of children
may be taken out of school especially to look for things which are big in an
upward direction, in other words, tall. Children generally offer things
which are extremely tall. Objects like houses, church spires, factory
chimneys, trees, lamp-posts, telegraph poles are some of their favourites.
After much discussion with the teacher, the children may wish to make a
picture of their particular choice and perhaps draw themselves standing at
89
Length (LI)
the side of their object, just to prove that it was tall to them. The pictures
may be displayed in some way and discussed with the rest of the children.
Further activities of a similar nature may be used, looking at big in a
different sense and introducing the opposites like short, narrow, thin,
shallow etc.
A child's early attempts to compare two objects will be to describe them
in separate terms:
'The dog is little.'
'The horse is big.'
Until he reaches the stage when he is able to compare them directly and say
'The horse is bigger than the dog,' we must give him the language and the
opportunity to use it.
Activities to encourage descriptive language Children in a group taken
outside are asked to 'Go and stand by something taller than yourself.' Each
child should choose an object, and by measuring with his own body and
discussing the result, give his reasons for his choice. This sort of activity
should be repeated using the instruction, 'Find something shorter than
yourself.' This should help the child realize that he may be short in one
context (e.g. compared with a tree) and tallin another (e.g. compared with
a flower). These and similar exercises should lead to individual or class
books such as 'Taller than me', 'Out of my reach', 'Above my head' and to
'Shorter than me', etc.
Through discussion the children can be encouraged to make individual
or class books on-tall and short things, long and short things, fat and thin
things or wide and narrow things.
They may like to make an 'Opposite book' :
90
Length eLl)
Sorting activities which enable the children to handle, compare and sort
real objects can be carefully structured and stored in boxes.
The 'long and short' box, for example, would contain pairs of objects
identical in every respect except length.
Two
Two
Two
Two
Two
Two
pieces of dowelling rod.

pencils.
pieces of ribbon.
strips of Meccano.
candles.
cardboard tubes ... etc.
The child sorts these by placing the objects on a piece of manilla divided
into two sections labelled 'long' and 'short'. Later, a simple record can be
made by drawing.
Similar boxes for 'fat and thin', 'wide and narrow', 'tall and short', can
be assembled and used in the same way. It is possible to buy a set of
attribute cylinders which display differences in height, length and
thickness.
date
Length 1
sheet 1.1
sheet 1.2
j"JE [~
This is a wide scarf.
Drawa
~
This is a short
1 <A
~
narrow
scarf.
pencil.
_JI
Draw a Long pencil.
Draw a short snake.
91
Length eLl)
Ll: 2 Comparing two unequal lengths

In the first stage, we helped the child to refine this descriptive vocabulary,
relating his judgements of size to himself. The next stage is to help him
consider two objects, and compare them with each other. At first, his
comparisons will be made in separate terms, only later will he be able to
synthesize his judgments of both, in one statement involving the
construction 'bigger than' or 'taller than' ..
Children at this stage of learning recognize differences in linear measure
more easily than similarities, so we ask them first to consider differences.
Only when their skill and confidence and understanding have developed
sufficiently do we look at equalities.
Two or three children may be asked to work on one assignment. The
teacher may read to them an instruction which is printed on a piece of
manilla, for example:
The object with which comparisons are to be made is

placed in the frame drawn in the corner of the paper.
The children then bring objects to fit the specification
and put them on the paper. They can be stuck on if the
recording is to be displayed so that a completed
assignment might look like this:
Other examples might be: All these are, shorter than, wider than, taller
than, etc. A one-to-one comparison can be made between home-made
stand up figures. Use pictures cut from magazines, pasted on card and
covered with clear adhesive plastic. Leave a broad base at the foot of the
figure, cut a vertical slot about 2 em long in the middle of the base and fit a
I
piece of cardboard 2 x 5 em into the slot making a four point star base. In
this way the figures become free-standing and their height can be
compared.
This man is taller than this man.

92
Length eLl)
istaller than
This rocket
is taller than
this rocket.
Introduce a box of ribbons, tapes, string, etc. and ask each child in a
small group to choose one and use it to 'measure' with. In discussion with
the group, encourage the children to use expressions like 'longer than' and
'shorter than'. Each child goes off to compare his ribbon with objects in the
room and report back his findings. At this stage it is most important that
the teacher finds time to observe each child's method of working. If the
child chooses only objects vastly different in length from his ribbon, he
should be encouraged to investigate objects closer in size to his ribbon. The
teacher will then be able to see if-the child has grasped the idea of a
common starting point, that is, that the child puts the end of the ribbon
level with one end of the object being 'measured'.
When the teacher is satisfied through her observations that the children
understand what they are doing, they can begin to record their work using
an arrow to show the relationship.
Cards, covered with clear adhesive plastic and used with felt tip pens,
will help the child to record his findings.
There are two cards for each length, one stating 'is longer than' and the
other 'is shorter than'. To help the non-reader the coloured length is drawn
as well as written, and the relationship 'longer than' has a long arrow
beneath it, whilst the 'shorter than' has a short arrow. These points are
drawn to the child's attention before he begins his assignment. If the child
cannot read, then a pictorial recording is equally acceptable providing the
child can understand it.
93
Length
CLI)
Similarly a box of rigid objects may be compared in the same way and
work cards, again in the form of statements, rnay be used by the children.
A step towards later measuring may be made by asking the child to

compare other objects with a cut out representation of his own foot or
handprint.
Comparison-a check Before moving on to the next stage, the teacher may
wish to use a 'check-up' activity to ensure that a child really understands
'longer than' and 'shorter than'. Pairs of articles are put out on a card
asking the child 'Which is longer?' or 'Which is shorter?'
The two articles should be of almost the same length so that the child has
to 'make sure the ends are level' in order to make the correct comparison.
94
Length eLl)
The check-up can be done orally or with cards on which the child places
the articles as a temporary record of his comparisons.
The child then 'reads' the card to the teacher. As before, the long arrow
is used with 'is longer than' and a short arrow with 'is shorter than'. Cards
and necessary equipment should be kept together in a box for convenience.
sheel2.2
Length 1
sheet 2.1
Colour
Put a ~
the things that are taller

round
that are shorter
than you.
the things
than you.
A matchbox
Ll: 3a Matching lengths: marching two objects of about the

same length
As there are not likely to be many examples in the classroom of two objects
of approximately the same length, it is necessary to provide a box of objects
carefully selected so that the child will be able to find two things which are
'about the same length'.
95
Length eLl)
The 'same length' box might contain such items as crocodiles or snakes
made from cardboard, pieces of structural material, strips of Meccano,
coloured straws, etc. The child chooses a workcard from the box and
carries out the matching activity.
Notice the use of the double-headed arrow +-----+, since the relation may
be 'read' in either direction and still make sense.
The 'same height' or 'as tall as' box
could contain toys which stand up,
or plastic or cardboard models
such as these shown below:
Ll: 3b Matching lengths: using several objects to 'make up' a

length
This is an extension of the previous activity but this time the length of one
object is matched to a 'train' of objects fitted together to make
approximately the same length. For example,
The red ribbon is about the same length as 3 pencils and a straw.
96
Length (Ll )
For this activity, long lengths of

different coloured ribbons (30 em to
2 ern), carefully selected objects and
work-cards are kept in a box.

practical experience and opportunity for discussion
A paint brush
2 dominoes and
I crayon and
, brick.
A pencil
spoon
Ll: 4 Ordering
Children will already have had experience of such activities as finding
things 'shorter than Daddy', or things 'taller than a dog'. Now they can be
taken a step further and asked to find something which fits both criteria.
This is virtually an introduction to ordering and the way the children
tackle the task of finding something which fits the specifications will be a
useful indicator for the teacher. Those children who find this very
difficult need more experience of the stages outlined earlier.
This is
Daddy.
Draw something shorter This is

than Daddy ana taller
adog"
than a dog.
97
Length (Ll )
The children should now be asked to put in order three lengths of card
or dowel, each of which differs obviously from the next, and by a regular
amount. Most children will find this easy, and if the word 'order' presents
difficulty, then such phrases as 'building a staircase' may make the
teacher's requirements clearer. For most children, a second box of strips
will soon be necessary-still
with regular intervals, but introducing finer
differences and more pieces, say five or six. Structural apparatus such as
Stern or Cuisenaire rods have an obvious part to play here too.
Simple apparatus can be made by drawing or cutting out pictures
(varying in height) of men, dolls, ladders, buses, etc. If backed and made
into stand-up figures, these can be used for ordering height. Each figure
should be of a different colour or labelled in some way.
Similar apparatus, perhaps a set of streets, can be made for ordering

length using appropriate workcards.
98
Length (Lt)

sheet 4.1
~"l CJ
sheet 4.3
sheet 4.2
This is the Smith family.
Colour
the largest
Draw these in order
of
their real sixe.
red.
shor-test
CoLour the smaLLest blue.
CoLour the toLlest red.

Colour
the shortest
blue.
is the tallest.
is the smallest.
Mother
is shorter
Tina is taller
than
than
Simon is talLer than
and
Ll: 5 Measuring with repeated units

In a previous stage an assortment of objects, placed end to end, was used
to make up the length of one object. The next step employs sets of identical
units placed end to end, or piled on top of each other, to match a length or
height. This repeated use of a 'unit' is a step towards standard
measurement. In the first instance a suitable 'unit' is suggested to the
child:
II
{j';~;,
-:.:.:<:>
~f~
~~~I~+
Later, after practice, the child will be left to select a suitable unit for
measuring:
,
..
..
'
' '.
..
' "",
,:
..
",
,..
...."
'
,':,
:::' ", "
'
: ,',' ,:: :'
99
Length eLl)
This is in preparation for his choice, at a later stage, of an appropriate

standard unit of measure. (For example, it is appropriate to measure the
length of a pencil in centimetres; but the length of a corridor in metres.)
At this stage the question of the accuracy of measurement has to be
considered. The children will begin to notice 'the bit left over' when they
use a repeated unit.
'The stick is as long as 5 straws and a bit.'

With plenty of experience they may be helped to appreciate that all
measurement is approximate, limited by the accuracy of our measures and
the care with which they are used.
Children may also begin to look at 'the bit left over', assess its
relationship with the unit, and call it a half or a quarter. This is good
provided they understand, through their work with shapes, that a half is
one of the two equal parts of a whole. The milk straw is a useful unit when
dealing with parts since it can be folded and cut to fill 'the bit left over'.
Envelopes, postage stamps, straws, dominoes, plastic spoons, bricks,
pencils and carefully cut pieces of dowelling are some of the items which
can be used as repeated units.
After some experience the children should occasionally be asked to make
an estimate before measuring- 'How many straws do you think you are
going to use to measure that?'
Estimating first, that is thinking about the sort of answer you expect to
get, is a good habit to encourage. However, it is important to avoid
describing any estimate as 'wrong'. In this context it is not possible to have
'wrong' estimates-it
is just that some estimates are better than others.
Repeated units can be used as an 'in-between' measure when comparing
lengths which cannot be placed side by side.
Longer lengths may be measured by introducing new sets of units such

as sets of canes, metre lengths of wood (no markings), lengths of rope or
string. After some practice with these new measures, children may be
asked to compare the lengths of two rooms, for instance.
100
Length eLl)

Length 1
sheet 5.1
sheet 5.2
~
My shoe is about
My friend's
cubes
long.
shoe is about
cubes long.
shoe is shorter
~TeaCher's
desk is about
The cupboard
My desk is about
the same length as
pencils.
My desk is about
the same
enveLopes.
S'lJll.
My reading
book is about
The jug is about
The paint
brush
is about
the same
length
as
as wide as
as tall as
length
is about
the same
Q.
bout
the same
the same
shoe.
length
length
as
as
pencils.
pencils.
cubes.
IS
longer
The jar is about
r====?1
The box is about
lj)
The
than
cubes deep.
cubes
is deeper
deep.
than the
matchboxes.
[01.
U
The door is about
I~DDI
as
The window
My pencil
IS
than
Length as
straws
is about
The
wide.
straws
is wider
than
wide
the
Ll: 6 Using Iirnb rrieasur-es

Parts of the body are very useful measuring equipment. Children will often
hold up their arms in a wild gesture to show a great size, and their fingers to
demonstrate a tiny object. This is rather different from the much more
accurate use of bodily measures leading towards standard measure.
Children enjoy using their hands and feet as measuring devices. It is,
however, far more difficult for a child to measure the length of his desk
using handspans than matchboxes. The matchboxes he lays end to end and
counts them. If he is using handspans, he has to count the number of times
he stretches his hand across the desk. His only way of checking is to repeat
the whole process. To begin with, it is suggested that the teacher helps
children to make sets of cut-out handprints and footprints. Cut-outs also
have another advantage-they
can be folded in half or in quarters for the
'bit left over'. Lengths of string or strips of paper may be cut to the size of
the child's pace and cubit to be used for measuring greater distances.
a footprint
Gl
pace
a hondspan
a cubit
101
Length (Ll )
The use of parts of the body, particularly hands and feet, as measuring
devices, opens the way for discovering the need for standard measure.
When children are working together on the same assignment they may
discover that the span of their hands is different, giving different answers.
This will highlight the need for a standard unit of measure.
Measure
in paper
hand-spans
and cubits.
The corridor
My table is
spans long.
My table is
cubits Long.
The cloakroom
is about
paces wide.
is about
paces wide.
Which is wider?
Teacher's
cable is
spans wide.
Teacher's
cable is
cubits wide.
The cupboard is
spans Long.
The cupboard
cubits
I.........--==c ......._
is
length
lonq.
The bookcase
is
spans wide
The bookcase
is
cubits
wide.
....11
The width
of the mat is about
footprints.
The length
of the mat is about
footprints.
Which
is shorter?

Churchill, E. M., Counting and Measuring, Routledge & Kegan Paul 1961
.
Attribute
Cylinders, E.
J. Arnold
First Metre Rod (no figures), E.S.A,

Metre Stick (ungraduated), Metric-Aids
102
Today (chapter 5),
Chapter 8
5hapeand
space (51)
For the teacher

Children begin to gain experience of shape and space at a very early age.
They will handle three-dimensional objects, natural or man-made, and will
encounter objects which display a surface such as desk tops, trays, pictures,
etc. In the early stages, the main task for the teacher is to encourage in
children an awareness of the shapes, patterns and space around them. Each
child needs not only to look at shapes but to feel and manipulate them. He
should be given the opportunity to run his fingers along the edges of
objects, to find the corners, to feel the difference between flat and curved
surfaces. The teacher must also choose the right moment to introduce the
appropriate vocabulary either by offering new words or by adding
precision to existing language.
A child's natural curiosity can be channelled into experiment. How do
shapes behave? Do they roll, stand still, stand up to weight, bend, balance,
fit together, fit inside each other or fit over something else? The kind of
activities which are part of other aspects of mathematics-sorting,
partitioning, matching, moving, putting in order, combining-also apply
to shapes.
Teachers often have misgivings about where to begin with work on
shape. From the point of view of mathematical analysis, three-dimensional
shapes are far more difficult than two-dimensional and it would therefore
seem natural to begin with the easier and progress to the more difficult. On
the other hand, it could be argued that from the child's point of view, since
we live in a 3-D world, solid shapes are recognized before flat shapes and
therefore should be introduced first. However, when talking about 3-D
shapes we often need to know how to describe their faces, using words for
2-D shapes. A five-year-old boy did not know the word 'cube' but when
given one and asked to talk about it said, 'It's squares put back to backoh, and there's one on top and one on the bottom.' There would seem to be
a case for building on the child's previous experience and proceeding from
103
Shapes and space (SI)
the known to the unknown without necessarily keeping to a '3-D only' or a

'2-D only' approach.

SI: 1
Awareness of shape and space-extension
SI: 2
SI: 3
of vocabulary
The order of stages SI: 2 and SI: 3 is not critical. In fact, they may be
developed simultaneously.
Vocabulary
up/down,
high/low,
over/under,
in front/behind,
open/closed,
on top of/beneath,
straight/curved (for lines),
flat/curved (for surfaces),
cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone, sphere, prism, square, oblong, rectangle *
circle, triangle, next to, across, through, between, along, slide, roll, face,
side**, edge, corner, surface, upright, level.
Many of these words occur in the Bronto Books: Comparing with Bronto,
Poor Bronto, Snail's Walk., Round red apple, Up and doum, Left, right,
Animal shapes, In and out, 3 buses, At the zoo, Bronto and the rocket.
*Squares and oblongs are both rectangles. The word oblong may be used
for those rectangles which do not have four equal sides.
oblongs
Rectangles
Children may differentiate between them by saying:
'A square looks the same when it is turned,
but an oblong looks different.'

104
Shapes and space (S 1)
,
_---1,
side or edge
'-----""',
",/
**There are problems involved in the use of the word 'side'. When
discussing two-dimensional (flat) shapes, either 'side' or 'edge' may be
used to describe a line forming part of the boundary of the shape.
For three-dimensional (solid) shapes, the word 'side' may refer to a

surface-as in 'the side of a house'. To avoid confusion when dealing with
3-D shapes we shall use 'edge' and 'face'.
Equfprnent and apparatus

A large selection of solid, hollow and flat shapes: building blocks, Lego,
Poleidoblocs, construction sets, boxes, cartons and containers of all sorts,
cylinders, beads, balls, hoops, plastic tiles, stiff cardboard shapes, pictures
of shapes, attribute blocks, jig saws.
Also wet and dry sand, moulds, plasticine, clay, dough, etc. are useful.

Sl: 1 Awareness of shape and space-introduction
and
extension of vocabulary
The opportunities for drawing the child's attention to shape and space will
vary considerably from school to school. What follows therefore is a list of
some of the activities which may lead to discussion about shape and space.
The list is by no means exhaustive but, hopefully, will give an indication of
the sort of opportunities which may arise. The introduction and extension
of the vocabulary of shape and space is a long, gradual process requiring
regular practice and reinforcement.
Activities and materials
Vocabulary
In the classroom
shapes of cupboards, table tops, boxes,
jars, windows, floor or ceiling tiles,
bricks, cut-out shapes etc.
Shapes Table displaying containers of
all sorts, bricks, Poleidoblocs, leaves,
pictures of shapes, etc.
'Feely bag' containing various shapes.
Child feels a shape in the bag and then
either describes it, draws it, or picks
out a similar shape which is on display.
long, longer; tall, taller; high,

higher; wide, wider; narrow,
narrower.
straight/curved (for lines)
flat/ curved (for surfaces)
cube, cuboid, cylinder, cone,
sphere, prism.
square, oblong, rectangle,
triangle, circle.
105
Workcards which are read with or to the children will lead to simple
recording in the form of drawings. For example, these workcards deal with
straight edges and curves:
Drnw them.
The home corner

tablecloth and table, doll's bed, and
blankets, i.e. covering surfaces.
Folding blankets, putting pillows into
pillow-cases, filling cups.
Sand and water play

Experience of filling 3-D space leading
to the concept of volume and capacity
(see Chapter 12 Capacity).
By filling different sized and different
shaped containers, the relationships
between them can be noted, preferably
by the child making the discovery, but
when necessary, by it being pointed
out by the teacher. Using different
materials to fill containers helps
children to appreciate that some
materials are better 'fillers' than
others. Dry sand is ideal for filling
containers and wet sand is useful for
making shapes with a variety of
moulds. When using these moulds the
child may be encouraged to look at the
similarity of the 'look' of the mould
and the 'shape' that it makes in the
sand.
106
too big/too small, too wide/too

narrow, too long/too short (see
Chapter 7 Length), too much/too
little, full/empty, etc. (see
Chapter 12 Capacity).
holds more/holds less, deep,

deeper, full/empty, half full, half
empty, cupful, container.
Shapes and space (Sl)
Painting and drawing

Straight and curved lines, zigzag patterns, filling 2-D space
by painting and crayoning.
'Blot' pictures, 'printing' with
sticks, potato-cuts, etc., often
produce balanced or symmetrical
patterns.
Make patterns
straight/ curved
zig-zag, long/ short,
wide/narrow, etc.
space, fill, cover,
flat, edge, pattern.
with str-aight
Model m.aking
Boxes, bricks and containers, some of
which fit together or stack and some
of which do not. Empty cartons large
enough for children to get inside.
With clay, plasticine or dough,
children experience continuous solid
material. Later this will help with the
concept of invariance of volume, i.e.
the same amount of material may have
different shapes. At this stage it is
sufficient if they are aware that a round
ball of clay can be formed into a long
cylinder or several small cubes, etc.
Music and physical education
When children leave a smaller
classroom for music/movement or
P.E. in a larger hall or playground they
usually need instruction on how to
'use' the space available, as they
inevitably all crowd together. Music
'high' or 'low' becomes more
meaningful if accompanied by
movements high and low and ring
games certainly help with ideas of
large circles and 'inside' and 'outside'.
Apparatus like balls and hoops will
also involve useful vocabulary.
lines.
hollow, solid, inside/outside, ft.at,

curved, surface, top, bottom,
face, pile, stack, fit, slide, roll,
topple over.
ball, sphere, cylinder, cube,
cuboid, ft.at, thick/thin, spread
out, squeeze together, roll.
high/low, stretch, curl, tall/short,

inside/outside.
round, rolls, circle,

curved/straight, etc.
107
Outdoor play
Slide, swing, climbing-frame, painted
lines in the playground, larger
building blocks, etc. Scooters, trolleys,
tricycles, etc.
up/down, high/low,
higher /lower, top/bottom,
under/over, through, between,
inside/outside, next to, on top of,
below, straight/curved, slanting,
upright, level, comer, edge, face,
fiat, etc.
The environment
Looking for shapes around the school
or during visits. Bringing examples of
shapes for the Shapes Table or
representations of shapes too large to
bring. As children begin to learn the
names of shapes they should be
encouraged to match the 'standard
shape' with the 'environmental shape',
for example, a cylinder and a tin of
beans.
square, circle, triangle, oval,

cube, cuboid, prism, etc.
large/small, larger/smaller,
length, width, depth, height,
etc., is the same shape as.

sheet 1.2
~dsp.ce,
name
date
Put o cross
inside
the square.
. sheet 1.1
Putacross
"'outside the square.
D D
Drawacup
on the table.
under
the table.
Ff4
~
. , w
Draw a dog ~
-,
108
'"'-"'i;"~
Draw
fence
m:
Draw a cat
Draw a flag
next
.,._
FE3
to the soLdier.
II
Puzzle
!l:Y
picture
df
behind
'
sheell.4
sheell.3
the chair
Draw a man
between
ft
the posts.
How many are there?

cups
teapots
plotes

Collect an assortment of bricks, containers, sweet and chocolate boxes,
food cartons and fancy boxes of all kinds and ask children to put together
those that look alike. (To start with, you may decide to restrict the number
of different shapes to two or three-perhaps
cubes, cuboids and cylinders.)
During the activity, ask the children how they are sorting the shapes. It is
interesting to note some of the names the children use to describe solids.
Cylinders are referred to as wheels, chimneys and rollers; cubes and
cuboids as bricks and blocks; cones are hats or cornets and triangular
prisms are often called rooftops.
A more direct approach would be to suggest ways of sorting:
Those which roll; those which do not roll.
Those with corners; those without corners.
Those which are solid; those which are hollow.
Those with flat faces only; those with curved faces only;
those with both flat and curved faces, etc.
Flat faces
Flat and curved faces
Curved faces
Gradually the correct name for each shape should be brought into the
discussion by the teacher. Labelled collections will help the children to
learn the names and encourage their use in conversation. In the first
instance it is less confusing for the children if the actual shapes are used.
109
Later, charts showing pictures or drawings of solid shapes may be

displayed. (See section on the problems of depicting 3-D shapes on paper
in the appendix of Teacher's Notes for this chapter.)
Modelling from junk is a useful activity as it involves handling and
fitting together three-dimensional shapes. Sometimes a child is able to
visualise what his finished model will look like; at other times the model
may just 'grow'. He will have the opportunity to learn from experience
such things as :
some shapes 'stack' better than others,
two flat surfaces stick together easily but curved surfaces or one curved
and one flat do not,
wheels usually need to be matched in pairs,
the model will fall over ifit does not have a firm base, etc.
If the children lack ideas, they may find simple pictures such as these
helpful:
The obvious connection between squares and cubes, oblongs and

cuboids, circles and cylinders, often leads to the use of the names of 2-D
shapes when describing solids. Many teachers, therefore, may prefer to
develop this section of the work at the same time as the next section.
110
Shapes and space CSl)

sheet 2.2
~ape
Space 1
'. vaandsheet
2.1
isthesume
Join.
shape
Colour
the
red and thel~uboidS~
blue.
as
I can
cubes
count
and
cuboids.
Colour
the
sheet 2.4
sheet 2.3
red and the (~yJi,\de[s() blue
[CYlinders
[SPheres)
[ cuboids
[ cones
Sl: 3 Early sorting of 2-D shapes

The problem with a two-dimensional shape is that, strictly speaking, it is
not possible to pick it up on its own-even a fiat, oblong piece of paper is
really a cuboid! Fortunately, children readily accept a circular piece of
paper or thin plastic as a 'circle' and not a 'fiat cylinder'. In fact our models
of 2- D shapes are usually acceptable to children provided that the
thickness is very small compared with the other dimensions.
The teacher first ensures that the children know the names of the more
familiar plane shapes: square, circle, oblong, triangle; and that they can
recognize these shapes. Squares and oblongs may be classified together as
rectangles. (See note in Vocabulary Section.) Children can then sort flat
prepared by the teacher (gummed paper, card, postage stamps, etc.), or use
stencils and templates. Each set of shapes can be placed or glued on to a
111
Shapes and space (S1)
large sheet of the same shape.

Coins, tin lids, boxes, etc., may be used as templates but in the case of
boxes, it is important to point out to the child that in drawing round the
box he is really making a picture of the face which he has put on to the
paper. It is helpful if, occasionally, the teacher allows a child to 'peel off'
the faces from a solid which has had a paper 'skin' loosely affixed to it. This
will emphasize that it is the surface which is being studied.
A circle from the
fiat top ofthe cylinder.
\
\
\
An oblong from the

curved face of the cylinder.
The making of class or group scrap books, 'Our book of circles', 'Our
book of triangles', etc., is a very worthwhile activity and the results can be
quite attractive-especially
if the pages' of each book are cut in the relevant
shape.
Drawing round objects and colouring in the shapes obtained is a
valuable activity for children as it is the beginning of experiences which
will eventually lead to perimeter and area.
Sorting coloured shapes A child is asked to sort a collection of twodimensional shapes (circles, squares, oblongs, triangles), made in different
colours and sizes from stiff paper, card or plastic.
Paper plates, each labelled with a shape and its name are used as sorting
trays.
112
After the sorting, the teacher may take the opportunity to ask the child
about the number of sides (or edges) each shape has, how many corners it
has, or which shapes have both long and short sides, etc. This may lead, in
the case of the straight-sided figures, to the child making shapes using
spills, straws or narrow paper strips.
Making pictures with shapes Coloured shapes made from stiff card or
plastic fitted together to make pictures provide valuable experience,
especially if the proportions and sizes of the pieces are carefully chosen to
make fitting easier. (See Animal shapes, Bronto Books Set C.)
These examples (approximately quarter-size) are from Invicta's Early
Cognitive Experiences-a
kit of plastic shapes in red, blue and yellow.

~e
:.
sheet 3.2
and Space 1
f!!'/J:1 sheet 3.1
Finding the shapes.
p[QQ:]
I00 00looD
00
I
Drow,",," "",
I D,"w'
'M
"w""
=.
There are
circles.
There are
squares.
There
oblongs.
are
There are
squares.
There are
oblongs.
There are
triangles.
There are
oblongs.
There are
There ore
D,"w' ,ro'" "'"".'"
'"
There ore
There are
There are
sheet 3.3
Put a ring round
COIO~8B
[:]<D[iJ
The black shapes are all
The bLue shapes
are all
The red shapes ore aLL

The green
shapes
111_
circles.
triangLes.
squares.
sheet 3.4
~.~i
et
0~
IIIaI ~~.
8~7Y
V
~
the shape that fits .
squares.
triangles.
."
,<'
are aLL
-,
-. ~
113

Ingleby, T. and Taylor, J., Shapes (six books), Longman Group Ltd 1969
Matthews, G. and J. Space and Shape, Early Mathematical Experiences,
Addision -Wesley 1978
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Beginnings W, Environmental
Geometry, Nuffield Teachers' Guides, Chambers/Murray 1969 (See
Introduction, page viii.)
2 Centimetre Cubes, Metric-Aids
3-D Geometry Rubber Stamps, Philip & Tacey
Basic Shapes Metrirule,
Invicta Plastics
Basic Shapes Set, Invicta Plastics

Early Cognitive Experiences, Invicta Plastics
Geometry Models, Metric-Aids
Geoshape Stencils, Osmiroid
Lowenfeld Poleidoblocs, E.S.A.
Mammouth
Table and Floor Tiles, Philip & Tacey
Mosaic Shapes, Invicta Plastics

Multi-purpose
Mosaic Shapes, Taskmaster
Plane Geometry Rubber Stamps, Philip & Tacey

Position Words Strip Books, Philip & Tacey
Related Shapes, Invicta Plastics
Shape Silhouettes, Metric-Aids
Shapes Board Set, Metric-Aids
Shape Tracer and Recognition Kit, Invicta Plastics
Tracing Shapes, E.
J. Arnold
Variform Inset Placing Trays, Philip & Tacey

Wooden Cones, Cylinders, Spheres, Taskmaster
114
Shapes and space (S1)
Appendix
These diagrams are to help teachers overcome the problem of depicting
three-dimensional figures on paper.
They are not intended as exercises for young children.
Cube-a
prism with six square
faces all of the same size.
D
1 Drawone
square face.
Cuboid-a
prism with six
rectangular faces, opposite faces
being of the same shape and size.
(Sometimes called a rectangular
prism.)
cW c:w
2 Draw another
square, slightly
smaller, to one
side and higher.
I
2
Triangular prism-a
solid with
equal, parallel triangular ends of the
same shape and rectangular lateral
faces.
~D
Prism -a solid with parallel ends

of the same shape and size, and
rectangular lateral faces.
D
2
Example: Hexagonal prism
4 Erase unwanted lines

and shade to give a
'solid' appearance.
t3 CJ
3
Example: Square prism
3 Join up
corresponding
corners to make
a 'glass' cube.
7
3
115
Cylinder-a solid with a circular

face and two equal, parallel circular
ends. A cylinder could be thought
of as a circular prism.
Pyramid-a solid with a straightedged base and sloping triangular

faces meeting a point (the apex).
Example: A square pyramid
Cone-a
solid with a flat circular
base and a curved surface coming to
a point (the apex). A cone could be
thought of as a circular pyramid.
Sphere-a solid with a surface on

which every point is the same
distance from the centre of the
solid.
2
116
Chapter 9
Weighing (Wl)
For the teacher

This chapter introduces early weighing activities and the use of balances
leading to arbitrary units as measures of the mass or 'bulk' of objects.
Apart from getting children to appreciate that the larger of two objects is
not necessarily the heavier, there is a language difficulty. Should we refer to
the 'weight' or the 'mass' of an object?
In the strictly scientific sense, we can differentiate between weight and
mass because weight is aforce-the gravitational pull exerted on an object;
whereas mass is the amount of matter in an object. Children may have seen
the examples of weightlessness when watching television programmes
about space travel. Although the astronauts are weightless, they still have
mass. The weight or 'downward force' of an object can change, depending
on where the measurement is made. The mass of an object remains the
same no matter where the measurement is made.
Young children will be confused by any attempt to differentiate between
weight and mass especially as they live in an environment where certain
words and modes of speech are firmly entrenched. Packages often show
their 'nett weight'. If Dad has a 'weight problem' he does not say he is
'overmass'! It is generally accepted that the mass of an object is assessed by
'weighing' it on a balance against a known standard mass. (How long will it
be before a kilogram weight becomes generally known as a kilogram mass ?)
At this stage, what the children are experiencing by holding, lifting and
balancing objects is weight.
117
Weighing (WI)

WI: I
Descriptive language-heavy
WI: 2
Comparing-heavier
WI: 3
Balancing
WI: 4
Ordering
and light
than and lighter than
Vocabulary
Light, heavy, heavier than, lighter than, heaviest, lightest, balances,
making balance, level, weighs about the same as, weighs more, weighs less.

Heavy magnets, pebbles, stones, closed empty cartons, balsa bricks, large
polystyrene balls, pairs of empty cartons or bottles, match boxes, pill
boxes, pill jars, face cream jars, cereal packets, tobacco tins etc. Set of
balances, cotton reels, buttons, rulers, shells, funnels, marbles, wooden
beads, twopence pieces, bricks, pencils, tins, dominoes, counters, rice,
sand, feathers, corks.

WI: I Descriptive language-heavy
and light
Before a child comes to school he may already be familiar with the words
heavy and light, push and pull. Through his own experiences of lifting he
will be aware of the strain or pull on his arm and begin to appreciate the
greater or lesser effort required. Something is heavy if it takes a great deal
of effort to lift it or when it cannot be lifted at all. An object is light if it
takes little or no effort to pick up.
118
Weighing (WI)
It is interesting to ask a group of children to bring things which are

'heavy' and similarly to search for things which are 'light'. It may be
necessary to point out that, in this case, 'light' does not mean 'the opposite
of dark'.
Usually at this stage of their thinking children will bring objects that are
noticeably heavy or light.
The teacher can add to these experiences by discussing with the children
what they think is heavy. Children tend to assume that large things are
heavy. Here is an opportunity for the teacher to let the children handle
small heavy objects such as heavy magnets, pebbles or stones. Similarly the
children should be given experiences of handling large lightweight objects
such as closed empty cartons, balsa bricks and large polystyrene balls (used
for art and craft).
--------(
'~
~
..,.
, 1:.------
heavy.
Th.ese.thingSa~e
These things are light
~~
adrawmg
Bring
a ladybird
pin
It. more
is light
light
things
to your
desk
and
This is light
=_ 0
a sack
aholtyleof
draw
Draw
them.
4 more
,------This
~.!!J
-0
sheet 1.2
Weighingl
sheet 1.1
heavy
or
coot
things
-
,----------,
This is light
This
is heavy
This
is heavy
This is light
This
is heavy
This
is heavy
WI: 2 Comparing-heavier
By comparing pairs of objects the children begin to realize that the heavier
object may not be the larger. Holding one object in each hand, rather like a
human balance, he 'feels' the difference in weight by comparing the
pressures exerted on each hand.
Initially, the difference in weight should be very noticeable and the
appropriate language introduced.
'This one is heavier because it is pushing down harder.'
Comparing one object with several others. Once children are able to compare
two objects by handling them, then they should be asked to find as many
things as possible about the room which are heavier than a given objectfor example, the board rubber. Again the recording might be made on a
prepared manilla sheet.
119
Weighing (WI)
Find enddrew things
which are heavier than the
The activity can then be repeated later, finding things

which are 'lighter then' and recorded
in the same fashion.
board
rubber,
A permanent record may be kept in the child's book.
The instruction set out in the workcard should be read by the teacher to
the child. After finding suitable objects the child should draw pictures of
them. When checking the child's estimations the teacher can clarify any
uncertainties before the names of the objects are written below the
pictures.
An extension of this activity might be to ask children to sort through a
box of objects putting those which are 'heavier' than an object (say a
reading book) in one hoop and those which are 'lighter' than the same
object in a second hoop. Both hoops should be clearly marked and
understood by the child.
It might help at this stage to introduce a pair of balances and relate the
downward pull on one pan, when the heavier object is placed in it, to the
strain felt on the arm when holding the same object. Questions such as,
'How do you know one object is heavier than the other?' will help the child
to understand that the weight of the heavier object pulls his hand down
more than the lighter one does. This idea may be related to the mechanics
of the balance. Once the child knows how to use a balance, he may want to
check some of his earlier estimations.
120
Weighing (WI)
To check that children really understand heavier and lighter and also
that they know how to use a balance, extreme examples of weight are used
for comparison. For instance a child might be given a small bead and asked
to find things lighter than it, or, the assignment might be to find something
heavier than a 'heavy stone'. This really makes the child think and search
for the appropriate objects. To find something lighter than a bead demands
that the child makes comparisons to a very fine degree of accuracy. To find
something heavier than an object which is already heavy to the child,
employs a certain amount of reasoning.
The interesting aspect of this activity is the child's choice of objects as he
searches for the 'right one' . He has to find something heavy yet small
enough to fit on the scale pan.
Before starting this activity the teacher must know that somewhere
within the classroom there are objects which meet the specified criteria and
that they are accessible to the child.
Comparing objects which look alike. Pairs of identical containers such as
cartons, matchboxes, pill boxes, polythene bottles, cereal packets or
tobacco tins can be used for this activity which aims at isolating the weight
of an object from its appearance. One of the containers may be filled with
sand, salt or plasticine, etc. If filled with sand or salt, the corners of a carton
will need sealing up with first-aid strapping. Do not forget to seal its empty
twin so that they look alike. Each pair must be identical in every respect
except that of weight so that the child may not perceive which is heavy or
light until he handles both objects, one in either hand. He is then able to
'feel' a noticeable difference. The child records his findings by simply
placing one object opposite the other on a prepared piece of manilla card as
illustrated.
The teacher should ensure that the child understands and can 'read'
what is shown on the card, pointing to or lifting each container as he does
so. 'This box is heavier than this box.' Children tend to spot the heavier
121
Weighing (W 1)
one before the lighter but at times they should be encouraged to place the
lighter container on the left, using the relation 'is lighter than'.
This type of activity can be extended to compare two containers of the
same size but filled with different materials. For example, 'Which is
heavier, a cup of peas or a cup of sand?' Discussions about this type of
activity often give the teacher an indication of the level of the child's
thinking about weight.
Comparisons: a checking up activity. Children are given simple assignment
cards and asked which is the lighter or heavier of two given objects. Before
handling the objects the children have to say or record what they think.
Then they put one object in each pan of the balance, check their estimation
and write out the correct answer if their estimate was wrong. Both the
cards and the objects should be stored in the same box, thus making it easy
for the child to locate the two objects in question without handling them.
List of pairs to compare

The cotton reel or the button
The shell or the funnel
A dice or a twopenny piece
The ruler or the magnet

The marble or the wooden bead

sheet 2.2
UA
Lift these-which
Lift
these-which
~
is heavier?
A drawing
pin
or
boord rubber? ~
------~~G
is lighter?
aball?(])
cotton reel
Write or draw
Write or draw
is lighter
~ArUbber
~AlegObriCk
OAteapot
I~
I~I
I~
QPenCil?~
aShell?~
aShOe?,..
a beOd?a
is hinter than
122
than
I
3
I~
Weighing 1
sheet 2.3
Weighing
sheet 2.5
sheet 2.4
which you think are lighter
"~@..
sheel2.6
Look at the pictures
Colour the things

than your shoe.
Write or draw
Find 3 things
,ffl
~7t:i1
~.
~Chai''-
"
..
lighter
than
t!{)
ball.
Use the balancesv
Lwrite_orJdrOWi'h~Viec'haoLJ
-~
L~ 1 IJ
~[J~[l
~. Li.li~~~ U
~Ua~n
a doll
Jti-1-...,
~ble~
hecvter tbon
~~~
Is
Find 3 things lighter

Use the
o cup
-.
~~one
Find 3 things
a peg board
Use
the
lighter
than
a jug.O
balance~
-----:::~[Po.
~.,,<
hao
hce,'
"~~~~'
Jiii)
Ie:!
h n
~U.l$
thon a stone.
balQnce~
=:
Which is the lighter?
(W 1)
a point brush
~I
Weighing 1
sheet 2.8
=~~~~~}
t:;a
------..-..<
Write or drow
~.~
sheet2.7
Find 3 things heavier thon a domino.
Use the balances.
''","',_.
O.e),o,
Which weighs more?
fSl::J
weighs
a domino
Acup
of mcrbtes
~I~~
Find 3 things heavier

Use the balances.
IJ.
~'"'"'<"~"
weighs
of sc nd
more than a cupof
A cup of
than your shoe.
more [hanacupof
A cup of
I ---------
m~
weighsmorethanacupof
A cup of
-~
Find 3 things
heavier
Use the balances.
~..,v;_.
~~
---------
thon a clothes peg. '\
clothes
peg
WI: 3 Balancing
In the course of their investigations children may find two objects which
'balance' -that is two objects which 'weigh about the same'. The
children's attention should be drawn to the idea of balancing by asking
them to describe what happens when these objects are placed one in each
pan of the balance. The word 'level' may be introduced to describe the
position of the bar of the balance. It is often difficult for children to find
further pairs of objects which balance each other and much time may be
wasted in the search. In order to overcome this, the teacher should make a
careful selection of 'matched pairs' of objects and keep them in a box with
assignment cards. Each object should be dearly labelled either by a
picture, a colour or in writing.
Notice the use of the double-headed arrow here, emphasizing that the
statement may be 'read' in either direction.
123
Weighing (WI)
The child may record his findings either pictorially or by copying his
assignment card.
Balancing one object against a set of objects. Next, collections of objects are
introduced to balance an object. Children are encouraged to find out how
many bricks balance a balsa brick, or the number of counters needed to
balance a crayon tin. Once again the teacher should provide sets of objects
to be used as non-standard units. At this point it is advisable not to choose
units which are too light, such as corks, as the number required to balance
the object might be beyond the child's counting ability.
The need for accuracy should be discussed and the child encouraged to
look for the 'best' unit to use. To begin with, balancing will be a matter of
trial and error. The child may perhaps put too many units on the pan to
start with, and then remove some only to proceed to put more on than he
took off. It is through this method that the idea of balancing, at least in its
physical sense, will become established.
124
Weighing (WI)
Activities like these also help the child to find out a great deal about the
materials he is handling. It may take much more of one material, wooden
beads for instance, than it does of another such as marbles. It is important
to balance the same object with more than one set of 'units', in order that a
child may gain his first experience of differences in density.
This links with the activity in which a cup of peas and a cup of sand were
compared on a balance.
/
_____
Use the balances.
sheet 3.2
Weighing 1
sheet 3.1
-----((;;L~-:
Use the balances.

Wl!:i9hSoboutthesOmeQs/
~
~APencil
~
How moo,
beods ,",""".
-----..
"<,
sharpener
noils
crayons
beads
,.enCi!?
beads~"apencll
cupfuls of sand
~_
~U~
~
~U~
~
~U~
A rubber
ball
Howmanynails~abeanbag?
eggcupfuls
of sand
spoonfuls of sand
nails~abeanbag.
Hawmanybricks~aruler?
eggcupfuls
of beads
eggcupfuls
of rice
eggcupfuls
of sand
bricks~aruler
How many
marbles
~a
bOO.k?
".","~.
marbl.,~abook
peas
small pegs
drawing
pins
The following activity, suitable for a group of children working with an

adult, is a good example of a practical application of balancing with nonstandard units.
Recipe for 12 small cakes
You need 2 eggs.
You need enough margarine to

balance 2 eggs.
125
Weighing (WI)
You need enough sugar to balance 2

eggs.
You need enough flour to balance 2

eggs.
Cream the margarine and sugar

together in a bowl.
Add the 2 eggs and beat together in

the bowl.
Add the flour and a little milk to

make a creamy mixture.
Put in small cake tins and bake for

15 minutes to 20 minutes until
golden in a moderately hot oven
(Gas No.5. Electricity 380F).
126
Weighing (W 1)
WI: 4 Ordering
Only after a great deal of experience involving all the matching and
comparing activities outlined earlier, should a child attempt to put objects
in order using the words heaviest and lightest. The first attempt at ordering
should involve only three items which have on obvious difference in weight.
The child should place the objects in order on a manilla card, sometimes
starting with the heaviest and sometimes with the lightest. Small labelled
cards can be placed between the objects to show the relationships.
It is important for the children to realize that, in this case for instance,
each object is heavier than the object it precedes and lighter than the object
it follows so that the cup is heavier than the drawing pin but lighter than the
jug.
Once the child has arrived at a final order he will be able to check his
estimations by using the balance.
Children should also be shown how to order weights by balancing each
object against sets of arbitrary, non-standard units.
First, two objects are compared:
John's book
Linda's book
balances r0r\l
.
@Qj pencils
+------+
[!1]
pencils
John's book is heavier than Linda's book.

This quickly leads into the ordering of three objects:
. balances
Th e green tm +-----~
bricks
The blue tin
bricks
The red tin
@]
bricks
The red tin is the heaviest.

The green tin is the lightest.
The blue tin is heavier than the green tin.
Expendable assignment sheets allow the child to choose objects and

suitable units and to record his results. Various questions about the result
of the activity are answered by completing statements:
127
Weighing (WI)
The
_ balances
The
~--~
The
+--------4
D
D
D
The
is the heaviest.
The
is the lightest.
The
is heavier than the
A more permanent display of results can be in the form of a simple graph.
balance
~
pencils ~-~
[l]
~
[QJ
pencils
+------4
a toy car
pencils
+---~
a box
pencils
+------4
Look at the graph

Which is the heaviest?
Which is the lightest?
The egg cup is lighter than
The car is heavier than
and lighter than
128
an egg cup
scissors
_
_
_
Weighing (WI)
When ordering parcels, children tend to think that the largest parcel will
be the heaviest, so materials should now be extended to include boxes and
parcels of varying size, shape and weight. For example, a matchbox might be
filled with sand whilst a cereal box might be left empty. There should be no
obvious relationship between the size of the container and its weight. The
parcels should be easily identifiable-a colour or letter coding might be
used. The first experience of this kind should involve only four parcels.
The child should order them first by holding them in his hands and
estimating and then check by using a balance.
Alternatively, the children could be asked to place in order a set of
seemingly identical containers, boxes or tins, each of a different weight.
Plastic bags filled with sand, beads, pebbles or bricks could be used and a
coloured bead or button tied round the neck of each plastic bag for
identification.
Expendable assignment sheets might be used to record the child's
estimations and his results when using a balance.
Before the activity the teacher writes in the square the number of parcels
the child has to order. The first dotted space describes the sort of container
the child has to use, e.g. parcel, polythene bag, tin box, and the second
dotted space refers to the manner in which the containers should be
ordered. A completed sheet might look like this:
129
Weighing (WI)

Weighing 1
sheet 4.2
sheet 4.1
~'r_-------
--------------~. ~
C7'
Which
lift these
Colour the heaviest
the lightest
A teddy
bricks.
bear
red
Colour the heaviest

Colour
is heavier?
is heovierthon
Which
balances
A bean bog
naiLs
nails.
~Aball
is hec-ier
::I"'" .:
Colour the heaviest
is heavier?
red.
blue.
~"'~'
bricks
~AdOIl
Which
~
is lighter?
paste
brush
peas.
peas
A cotton reel
islighterthon
red.
tbcn
Which is lighter?
~Thescissors
bricks.
bricks
~Thekeys
~the
The
2
sheet 4.3
Which
sheet 4.4
is the lightest?
A glove
Loltthese.
weighs the some os
beads.
reading
book
A cup
<--
The
is the lightest.
r~TD~D-r~1
beads
beads
Ashoe
shoe
is the heaviest.
The
is the lightest.
Use balances to check the order.
lift these ..
ti)
Which
is the
heaviest?
~P<"'"
~hQrpener
An apple
weigh'
,he ",me a,
is the heaviest.
The
The
is the lightest.
cubes.
~banana
\,
'"P
cubes.
Apear
cubes
is the heaviest.
Use balances to check the order.

Williams, M. E. Come and Measure--Mass,
Ward Lock 1969
Macmillan 1975
Bucket Balance, Plastic Simple Balance, Simple Balance, E.

Equal Pan Balance, Nicolas Burdett
Primary Balance (with buckets or pans), E.S.A.
Rocker Scales, Simple Scales, Invicta Plastics
Simple Scales, Metric-Aids
Super Beamer Balance, Osmiroid
130
J. Arnold
Chapter 10
Time
rm
For the teacher

Time is not an easy concept for the young child to understand. At five or
six years old the child may be able to use words related to time, such as
yesterday, today and tomorrow, he may be able to tell the time by the clock,
but as yet he has no appreciation of the measurement of time nor its
duration.
Young children live almost exclusively in the present. One of the first
time words the young child learns is the word now. In order to understand
time words, children have to relate them to an actual event which was
important or easily remembered for one reason or another-for
example,
the name of the month in which their birthday falls, Christmas in
December, Guy Fawkes in November, etc.
Children need to acquire some idea of the continuity of time, perhaps by
watching sand run through a timer. Listening to the chimes of a clock and
noting the beginning and ending will help the child appreciate that an
event or activity has duration.
The different times taken for a group of children to run the length of the
playground may be compared, and the words fast and slow given a real
meaning; the winner being a 'fast runner'. Here it is the speed of the
runner that denotes the time element and not the distance covered. These
and other activities will help the child to understand that time is
continuous and measured by a series of events and the intervals which
separate them. Initially, day and night perhaps mean more to the child than
other actual events. Gradually the day itself is recognized as being broken
up into a succession of events.
Before attending school the young child may have begun to associate
happenings in his daily routine with different times of the day. For
example, breakfast time is early in the day, 'Watch with Mother' or some
other children's programme on television usually follows the mid-day meal
and bath-time usually comes after the evening meal but before bed-time.
131
Time (TI)

Tl: 1
Association-matching
events to day-time or night-time
Tl: 2
Putting time sequence in order
Tl: 3a Comparisons: fast and -slow

Tl: 3b Comparisons:
Tl: 4
timing
Graphs and charts
Vocabulary
Night, day, night-time, day-time, after, before, last night, yesterday,
tomorrow, to-day, first, last, next morning, afternoon, evening, early,
earlier, late, later, same time, fast, faster, slow, slower, quick, quicker, long
time, longer time, short time, shorter time. Days of the week. Months of
the year.

Pictures of day-time and night-time events, animals, sunny days, rainy
days, etc.; pictures of sequenced events (comic strips); thread and beads;
peg-board and pegs; shapes; clock-work toy.

Tl: 1 Association-matching events to day-time and night-time
A set of pictures illustrating happenings during the day-time and nighttime are prepared. These are sorted into two sets and placed on a flannelgraph or something similar. The pictures of activities are displayed under
the shape of the sun for day-time and a crescent moon for night-time.
Suggestions for pictures
Day-time
Lollipop man and children crossing
the road
Houses with curtains open-people
about
Children in the playground
Children shopping outside with
mother
Cricket match in open air
Swimming in sea and playing on the
beach
Night-time
Floodlit game of football
Stars at night
Street lights-motorcar
Illuminated buses
Curtains drawn on house windows

Children in pyjamas climbing stairs
Fireworks at night
132
headlights
Time (Tl)
A group of children might eachbe invited to draw two pictures, one

about something they do in the daytime and the other about what they do
or see at night. These can be displayed as a wall picture.
We do these things during the day.
We d.o these things at night.
Another idea might be to put both sets in some sort of time order. This
should be done as a group or class activity to begin with, so that the teacher
has the opportunity of using words like after, before, last night, yesterday,
today, first, next, daytime, night, afternoon, earlier, same time, etc. Whilst
questioning the children about the order.
The pictures are displayed on an upright concertina style piece of card.

The day-time pictures have a light coloured backing and the night-time
pictures a dark one.
For those children who are beginning to appreciate the continuity of
time, a more sophisticated mode of display might be introduced. The
children are each invited to draw two pictures, one depicting day-time and
one night-time. The teacher should prepare a circular wall picture divided
into 6 or 8 sectors on which the children will stick their pictures once the
order is decided upon. If the pictures chosen represent fairly routine
events, this will help the child to obtain some perception of continuity.
Eventually, he will see that one event follows another; that time is made up
of a succession of happenings; that day turns into night just as night turns
into day; and, most important, that time moves in one direction-it is not
reversible.
133
Time (TI)
The children's attention may be drawn to particular parts of the day by

asking them to discuss, draw or write about any of the following:
What do you do before you come to school in the
Draw pictures and write about the things you do
to bed.
What do you do at dinner time?
Which time of day do you like best?
Write about what you do then.
Some children may wish to draw a set of pictures
sequence of part of their day. These can be made
by the rest of the class.
morning?
after tea before you go
showing a time
into a book and shared

sheet 1.2
Time 1
sheet 1.1
m~t !mil
Put a ~round
Drawo
ott the things
that
happen
Put a
round
all the things
that
happen
in the day-time
at night
~ ~.,~... "Ifif\""
Ij~
Xc
~"",
"
-~
nj.~
picture of whot you do at night.
Draw
a picture
of what
you
do in the
day-time
Tl: 2 Time sequence-putting events in order

These activities should be simple to begin with, having not more than 3 or
4 pictures in each sequence.
&.
~
The second set gives the idea of continuity since the last picture is the
same as the first. This could imply that the sequence can be repeated again
and again-a 'cycle' of events.
134
Time CTI)
A birthday party
Some comic strip or cartoon drawings, cut up and mounted, provide

suitable materials for sequencing.
Time 1
sheet 2.2
sheet 2.1
Colour
the pictures
Label them
Which
comes first?
Switch
on
The
picture
comes
in the correct
order
on
~~~
Eotlng
banana.
Peeling
a banana
Scoring
a goal.
~~~
Kicking the ball.
Tl: 3a Com.parisons: fast and slow

Children should be made aware of different speeds in a very simple way.
For example-children
might be asked to travel fast across the hall and
then find a way to travel slower across the same distance. The class might
be asked to compare the times of two children covering the same distance.
'Did they both finish at the same time or was one faster than the other?'
The teacher may ask, 'Who is the fastest runner in the whole class?' 'Who
can dress himself the quickest?' 'Who can skip for the longest time,
without stopping?' 'Who can bounce the ball the longest length of time ?'
'Who is always the last or takes longest to finish drinking his milk?' All
these activities help to focus the child's attention on different lengths of
time.
In P.E. lessons children are often asked to move about like an animal
such as an elephant, a tortoise or a horse. They very quickly alter their
135
Time (Tl)
shape and, most noticeably, their speed and gait. Most children seem to
have a growing awareness of the speeds at which different things move.
Facts such as these can be displayed on wall pictures or in class books.
Children may wish to stick cut-out pictures in their books and write
something about the animals.
Tl: 3b Contparisons: tinting
Simple timing devices may be used in order to help the child understand
that time is measurable. If he uses the same device several times he begins
to formulate some idea of the length of that particular span of time and
what he is capable of doing within it. For example, ifhe uses the same eggtimer, through experiences he will know how many words he can write,
how many numbers he can count and how far he can run or walk.
Again using the egg-timer he can find ifhe is quicker or slower than his
friends in carrying out some task, such as threading beads, or building
brick towers, within that set time.
He may use a different timing device (perhaps a clockwork train running
down), in a similar fashion and establish a new set of attainments which
may take a longer time. He may reverse the process by setting himself a
particular task and timing the extent of its duration. For example, he may
set out to write his name and address and ask a friend to count the number
of swings on a pendulum. If two or three children are assigned the same
task, then the teacher may draw the children's attention to the length of
time taken by each child.
Some examples of timing devices are:
Sand timer, either commercially produced or
home made. To make a sand timer, use two small
bottles-one
with a screw-on cap. Pierce a
small hole in the cap. Put fine, dry sand into
one bottle, screw on the cap and join the necks
of the bottles with adhesive tape.
Clock-work toy-fully wound and allowed to run down.
Spinning a plate, coin or knife on a smooth
surface. (Children find the knife easiest to
spin.)
A top or spinner.
-136
.....
Time (Tl)
Some examples of activities to be timed:

Threading beads on to laces;
Putting pegs into peg-boards;
Building towers each 5 cubes high;
Making 'sticks' of 10 interlocking cubes or poppet beads;
Sorting particular shapes, squares for instance, from a box of mixed
shapes;
Sorting out all the 5p coins from a box of mixed coins;
Counting in whispers;
Writing numerals or words;
Counting how many times a ball can be bounced.
Through activities such as these and the ordering of their duration, the
child will, at a later stage, begin to realise the need for a standard unit of
time.
Time 1
sheet 3.1
the correct
[~..~
[~-
sheet 3.2
Who
answer
You
..] ~ :~~~IY
.J~:~:~IY
See
is quicker.
need
who
an
can
you
egg
or
timer
make
your
most
and
towers
while the sand is running
L-7
friend?
a box
cubes
through
of cubes.
high
~~
ill
the egg timer
Turn the egg timer and begin together

I made
made
~I~fast
~.
sLowly
was
I ~
I~:~~~IY
I-~ I~ :~~~IY
I ~~:~~~IY
quicker
than
Who is slower at threading
beads?
You
need
a bOX. of
beadS~
'.
~
and
0 threading
Laces.
('!)(!Jo~(!)
Turn the 'egg

I threaded
ttrner
and begin together

beads
threaded
beads
was slower than

Charts or simple 3D and 2D graphs representing times, associated
happenings, birthdays, ages, etc., provide an ideal opportunity for
recording and discussing calendar words.
Activities
Young children, in their first school year, may record their ages on a very
simple age graph. In the same class there may be some children who have
already had their fifth birthday and others not yet five. The children could
record in one of the following fashions:
137
Time (TO
The children draw a

picture of themselves,
stick it on the
prepared picture and
join it to the
appropriate cake by
a piece of coloured
ribbon or string.
This picture tells
I How old are you?
how old we
are.
~
Again children draw a picture of

themselves and stick it in the
appropriate column.
At this stage two things are important:

1 that each child involved has his own picture, i.e. one-to-one
correspondence,
2 that a comparison is made between only two rows or columns.
When children are able to say in which month their birthday falls, then
they may record their birthdays by sticking a matchbox, with their name
on it, in the appropriate column.
r.:
TIl
Jan.
138
Feb.
r~;D
Mar. Apr.
May
-.
rp)
L~::n
rr4t
l~n rar
June July Aug'. Sept. Oct. Nov.
Dec.
Time (Tl)
A daily weather chart may be kept by the class and certain children
might be asked to remember what the weather was like on Saturday and
Sunday and record on the following Monday.
The chart is ruled into seven columns with the days of the week written
at the top. Four or five lines are ruled across making sufficient squares for
the number of days in that particular month. A box of pictures are kept
nearby. The pictures illustrate different types of weather and may possibly
be drawn by the children. One of these is stuck on to the chart each day by
a child. Much discussion may ensue once the chart is complete. The
teacher may ask the children to count how many rainy days there were, or
she may ask, 'Was this month a cold one, should we have expected snow?'
The children with birthdays in such a month would be the most likely to
answer correctly.
Examples of some of the weather pictures:
The value of this kind of activity is in the layout of the chart. It shows
the order of the days of the week, the name of the month, the number of
days in a particular month (though this means very little to some children)
and also the fact that there are seven days in a week.
139
Time CTl)

sheel4.2
Time 1
sheet 4.1
Here is
weather
chart for the first week in March.
Today is
T omo.-row will be
Yesterday
was
Tuesday is the day after

Wednesday is the day
before
I do not go to school
on
and
Which days were rainy?
Draw
picture
'9
and
of what you do on Sunday.

When was
it
cloudy? ~
and
When did the sun shine?
Tociay is
The weather
is
and'
Which day wos it windy?
~~~ ..-

Bendick,
J. The First Book of Time, Edmund Ward 1964
Burke, P. Bronto Time, (Bronto Books Set C) Nuffield Maths 5-11,

Mathews, G. and J. The Passage of Time, Early Mathematical Experiences,
Addison-Wesley 1978
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Pictorial Representation IT! ,
Nuffield Guide, Chambers/Murray 1967 (See Introduction, page viii.)
Williams, M. E., Come and Measure-
Time, Macmillan 1975
Sand Glass, Metric Aids

Sand Glass Timer, E.
J. Arnold
Ten Seconds Timer!, Time Glasses (10 min., 30 min.) Taskmaster

Tocker Timers, Transan Timers (1, 3 and 5 minute intervals), Water Timers,
Osmiroid
140
Chapter 11
Money (Ml)
For the teacher

It is not necessary to go through the stage of using arbitrary or nonstandard units for money since most children will already be familiar with
different coins, even though they may have only vague notions about the
relative values.
The relation 'is worth the same as' or 'has the same value as' is not so
easily demonstrated as 'is the same length as' or 'balances'. Children
cannot, for instance, put two I p coins end to end to make a 2p coin or
balance five Ip coins against a Sp coin. Recognition and the appreciation of
relationships between coins are therefore of paramount importance.
There is no satisfactory substitute for handling real money. If teachers
feel that money in the classroom is undesirable, then good cardboard or
plastic replicas are the next best thing. These should be good facsimiles or
reproductions of real money, not just discs with a value stamped on them.
Sticky paper coins are useful for recording but may prove expensive.
Rubber stamps of coins are now available and these can be used for the
preparation of workcards and, possibly, for recording.

Ml: I
Recognition of Ip, 2p, Sp, I Op coins. Ways of making up the

value of a coin.
Ml: 2
Comparison of amounts of money (i) by matching (ii) by totals
Ml: 3
Using coins to make amounts up to lOp
Ml : 4
Early stages of shopping: Recording pictorially, numerically,

and introducing combinations of coins up to lOp.
Appendix: Suggestions for shops in schools.

141
Money(Ml)
Vocabulary
Penny, pence, coin, value, has the same value as, is worth the same as, side,
other side, 'heads and tails', more money, most money, least money, less
money, amount, worth more, make up, missing coin, spend, spent, shop,
cost, costs, cheaper, buy, altogether, change.

Plastic coins, cardboard coins, sticky-backed paper coins, rubber stamps of
coins, real coins, paper plates, toys, etc. for shop, price labels.

Ml: 1 Recognition of coins
The children begin by sorting according to colour, size and shape. They
are given a sorting tray and a box of mixed cardboard or plastic coins and
asked to sort them into sets that 'go together'. Next paper plates are
prepared, each with a cardboard coin stuck in the middle and the name of
the coin written beneath.
Again children are asked to sort into the correct sets and are given the
names of the coins.
Coin value In order to help children ascertain the value of the coins their
attention is drawn to the figures written on the coins. Children soon learn
to recognize and name coins correctly whilst still remaining unsure of the
relationship between them. To overcome this, sets of 'missing coin'
worksheets are prepared.
@@
@Q!)
Alongside these worksheets the child will need an assortment of sticky

paper coins (as an alternative, real, plastic or cardboard coins may be used).
The child first 'reads' the mathematical sentence and records by sticking,
or placing, the appropriate coins in the proper place. The size of the outline
142
Money (MI)
of the coin and its number name will help him.

Further examples of this idea might be to leave out the number name.
The child might then proceed to fit a cardboard, plastic, or real coin into
the appropriate outline and record by writing its value in the outline.
nasthesamevalueas
0000
f2:::.. has the seme value as f2."::\1i,;\
'0
Before the child records:
Ii:\ tf.:\
~~~~
After the child has recorded:

sheef 1.2
~!i'~'r,.l' Money 1
"jr"t$~J,. sheetl.l
(:/V1
\;,Juse
Coins up to Sp
coins or st:Cky paper coins.
ffina
Use coins or sticky paper
coins
u
~
..,n.,am.,alu.a,
~~--......,8
ab~8
~?\coins
~
up to 10p
Use real coins o"r sticky
paper
coins
Ml: 2 Cornpanison of arnourrts of rnoney a) by rnatchlng ; b) by

totals
It is possible for the children to compare two amounts of money simply by
matching the coins. They will then be able to say who has more or who has
less.
trane
1 has more .
143
Money (Ml )
The next stage is slightly more difficult because it is not always possible
to match coins in 'pairs'.
This set is
worth more.
Practice in totalling amounts of money shown pictorially then follows,

the total being recorded in a frame. The next step involves totalling
amounts, recording totals in frames and then comparing the totals.
Paul
EIre
Paul
ha5 more.
Wor ksheets should not be introduced until children have had plenty of
"~{'i)t"r~
/t"t'!' ~\
sheet 2.2
Money 1
sheet 2.1
has more
Who has most
money?
least
money?
Who
has
MI: 3 Using coins to make amounts up to lOp

There are domino and lotto games that can be played at this stage to help
the child recognize the value of two or three coins added together.
144
Money t Mt )
Example of player's card
Examples of caller's cards
Money lotto This can be played with four players and one banker. Each
player has a card marked out in four or six sections, depending on the
ability of the children playing. In each section is stuck one, two or three
paper coins. The caller holds up a card, cut to the size of a section of the
player's card, and calls out what is written on it.
The child who has the corresponding value in coins on his card, puts up
his hand and points to the appropriate section. If he is correct the caller
gives him the card and he covers up that part of his card. The first child to
cover all his card wins and becomes the caller.
Money dominoes This is simply a set of dominoes cut out of card. On one
half of each domino is written an amount, either in words or figures, and on
the other half is a picture in coins of a different amount. The dominoes are
organized so that each coin picture has a corresponding written amount on
another domino. The game proceeds in the normal domino fashion, each
player may match one of his dominoes to either end of the line. If a player
'cannot go', he takes an extra domino from the pile placed face downwards
in the centre. The winner is the first player to be left with no dominoes.
A game in progress might look

like this.
Children need plenty of practice at 'making up' amounts of money (up to

lOp at this stage) in various ways. Given a total and some coins, the
children need experience in putting in the 'missing coin' required to make
up, the total. This operation is similar to 5 + D ~ 7 in number work, i.e.
'What do I add on to five to make it up to seven?'

sheet 3.2
Find 4 ways
to make
Bp.
sheet 3.3
Draw
the
missing
coin
in the
box
Choose the correct coins. draw round them and label.

Find'" ways to make 6p
Choose the correct
coins. draw round them and label.

2p
2p
2p
'p
Find" ways to make 10p.
145
Money(Ml)
Example of money box lid
Ml: 4 The early stages of shopping

A wide range of shopping experiences should be made available to the
young child. He will gradually pass through the stage of imitative play,
where imaginary goods are used, into the creative stage where he begins
to improvise play materials. Later, the child may wish to use more
representative goods and money, and may help to construct some of the
goods to be sold. With the increased ability of the children, the teacher may
wish to enter into their games by 'playing' the shopkeeper with a small
group of children. In doing so she can help the children with language and
vocabulary. Eventually the shop will cease to bean item of play and take its
place in the classroom as a further source of mathematical experiences.
Items sold in the shop at this stage should cost Ip, 2p and 3p. The
shopkeeper's till could have one penny and two penny pieces, whilst the
shoppers could each have their own money box with a recorded amount on
the lid. At the beginning of the activity it is suggested that children always
check their money box. This is good practice in counting and matching and
it indicates whether or not the correct amount of money is in the box before
starting. A similar check should be made at the end of the lesson.
At the end of the activity the children and the shopkeeper collect their
money together in order to put the right amount back in the money boxes.
The children count out ten one penny pieces, five two penny pieces, etc.
and place the coins on the lid. The teacher then checks the coins, puts them
back into the box and takes the box away.
An extract from the original Nuffield Project's Guide Beginnings W,
giving a list of suggestions for shops, is in the appendix at the end of this
chapter.
Shopping assignments Before recording his transactions the child will have
had lots of experience of carrying out verbal instructions given by the
teacher. For example, 'Here are two pennies, go to the shop and buy two
penny buns.' The teacher will observe his actions and help him if
necessary.
Next the teacher will write
on the child's worksheet
his shopping assignment.
The child takes four pence from his moneybox and spends it as he
wishes- bringing his purchases back to his desk. He then records his
transactions by drawing or writing. His sheet will then look like this:
COsts
CS3
(V
@
<
Ispent
146
16p~nt
(IV
@@
4P
CA
tr<l~'(\
a.C!A.'(
QYl
C.Osts -7
"/
Qerop\~f\e--7
Ispent
Ip
2p
lp
4f
Money eM!)
Whether the child draws his purchases and the coins or writes both will
depend on his level of attainment.
To begin with, children will take their allotted shopping money in
bronze coins-2 two penny pieces or 4 one penny pieces. Their shopping
will be simply an exchanging of coins for goods. If all the goods are priced
at one penny and a child is given three pence then he will do three separate
transactions of Ip for an article. On his sheet he will record that he has
spent 3p.
.
Later goods costing 2p and 3p may be introduced into the shop. If the
child is recording pictorially, the use of the two pence coin often causes
confusion since in the total the child tends to record the number of coins
spent and not their value.
Example
3 coins
Is~nt
Child has counted

number of coins.
This often means that this sort of recording has been introduced too
early. However, once the child has overcome this, his shopping money may
be increased. A child may be asked to spend an amount, 6 pence for example,
several times and encouraged to break it up in different ways.
3p
3p
2p
2p
2p
Ip
3p
2p
@E]
@]
Children should next be encouraged to use 1 penny and 5 pence coins.

The instruction on the work sheet may then look like this:
147
Money (Ml )
=.
Further suggestions for specific shopping practice

Spend 6 pence and buy 2
Spend 6 pence and buy 3 things
Spend 7 pence etc.
Parallel activities in number might

be the decomposition and
composition of numbers 6 and 7.
Buy a doll and a train

Buy an aeroplane
Buy two dolls and a pram
Parallel activities in number might

be the decomposition and
composition of numbers 8, 9 and 10.
The child must find the cost of each article before he shops and take from
his money box the total amount needed to buy all items.
Simple shopping involving the giving of change:
Take
fA
doll
costs
4p
Ispent
My
change
IT]
lS
Take
to the shop.
Buy a train and a boat.
costs
a boat
Ispent
My
148
change.
Child is told which coin(s) to take and which toy(s) to

buy-the purchases costing less than the shopping
money.
The shopper should be encouraged
to ask for his change and the
shopkeeper should check that he is correct.
Gradually the tp might be introduced

but the first shopping activity would
be simply the addition of two articles
with only one tp in the bill.
This is rather more difficult since it

involves addition as well as the giving of change.
a tr-ain
to the shop an~ buy a doll
3p
a doll
3p
ball
costs
4 p
2~p
IS
De]
Ispent
~~
Money CM!)

sheet 4.1
Draw
the coins

Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Beginnings W, Nuffield Guide,
Cardboard Token Coins, Coin Stamps, Plastic Token Coins, E. J. Arnold
Handy Coin Rubber Stamps, Philip & Tacey
Appendix:
Suggestions for shops in school
1 Toy shop Children can bring old toys or make simple ones themselves
using junk material, papier-mache, off-cuts of polystyrene, chip-board,
etc. They can make very simple cars, lorries, dolls' prams, cots, and houses
and many other toys.
2 Sweet shop. Many different sorts of sweets can be made from clay,
plasticine, paper-and-paste, or ftour-and-salt mixture. Old wrappers can
be collected and put round clay or card to make toffees, bars of chocolate,
or bubble gum.
Large tins or coffee jars can be used for containers or local shops will
often supply old counter display boxes which the children like to use for
the sweets they have made. Old paper bags can be saved for use in the shop
or some children might like to make their own from kitchen paper.
3 Grocer's shop. This can include empty containers from home, eggs made
from papier-mache, dried fruit from dough mixture, biscuits from the
same, bacon and cooked meats from layers of paper and paste.
149
Money (Ml)
4 Greengrocer's. Heavy vegetables and fruits can be mal e from clay or

plasticinecores with paper pasted in layers over the top. Lettuces and
greens and cabbages can be made from a ball of newspaper with leaves of
crepe or tissue paper pasted on the outside.
5 Frozenjood.
A deep freeze can be included in either of the above two
shops, or be a separate interest. There would doubtless be discussion about
temperature.
The refrigerator could be made out of a very large box and empty frozen
food cartons could be included as well as meat and fish, as a fishmonger's or
butcher's shop on its own is rather limiting. Ice creams and ice lollies could
also be sold from the deep freeze.
6 Small self-service, supermarkets and markets. Any of the above interests
can merge into the more contemporary type of shop and children living
near a street market or in a market town would be very familiar with the
latter. If there is spare space in a school, a room, part of the hall, or corridor
could be used for this type of shopping interest. Old bags and baskets, or
boxes with wire handles, can be provided and the children can serve
themselves, a particularly able child being cashier.
Some schools set aside a market day when all classes provide a stall and
all children shop.
7 Chemist's. This type of interest is usually very popular with children
who like to include scales for weighing and often the whole thing will turn
into a chemist's-cum-clinic. Empty bottles and tins can be collected and
filled with tablets and pills made of flour and water (the usual type of
mixture including salt would cause sickness if eaten). Medicine bottles can
be filled with water coloured with cochineal, orange juice, or other fruit
juices.
8 Hat and/or dress shop. This can be made with clothes from jumble sales,
washed and ironed, or children can make simple hats from card decorated
with tissue paper.
9 Draper's. This shop is full of measuring possibilities and could be
incorporated with the above. Children can draw, colour and cut out socks,
gloves, mittens, ribbons from paper. Cotton reels can be collected and
painted different colours, books can be made of patterns for knitting and
dressmaking and buttons can be sewn on cards.
10 Flower shop. Children would probably bring old plastic flowers from
home, but they could also make them from tissue paper and wire with twigs
as a starting point. They might also have tiny flower pots growing a bean or
pea, or grass or mustard-and-cress seed, and so combine 'nature table' and
'shop' for a while.
11 Baker's. Loaves, cakes and tarts could be made from flour and salt
dough. This shop is limited in interest for little children and would
possibly be more successful when combined with a coffee bar or restaurant.
12 Jeweller's. Children enjoy making necklaces, bracelets and rings from
plasticine, clay or paper beads threaded on to cotton. Macaroni can be used
150
Money t Ml )
in the same way and then painted. Clocks and watches can be made by the
children from card and paper.
13 Decorating shop. Old rolls of wallpaper, off-cuts of wood, chip-board,
hardboard and sorted boxes of junk material could be included in this kind
of a 'Do-it-yourself" shop. It offers many opportunities for measuring and
counting. Some items might be sold by weight, e.g. cotton reels, nails.
Wood blocks might be sold: Small-1p, Large-2p.
14 Hairdresser's. Both boys and girls enjoy playing in a hairdresser's shop.
It is, perhaps, more concerned with social and dramatic play than most of
the other examples, but prices that the children know about from real life
include higher amounts and interest in a shop of this kind would give
opportunities of giving change from coins of higher denomination.
15 Stationer's. Children can make all types of book for this shop:
dictionaries, story books, books for painting and drawing, puzzle books, all
linking well with English work. The classroom pencils and paper could be
kept in the shop and used in shopping. For a short time the class library
books might form a lending library as part of the stationer's or as a separate
library where loan of a story book cost a penny. Children could make
birthday and other greetings cards to sell.
16 Fish and chip shop. Although a fish shop on its own is limited in its
appeal and variety, a fish and chip shop is a very lively interest for a town
child. Fish can be made from card, padded and covered with tissue paper
and painted. Chips can be made out of flour and salt dough; onions,
gherkins, pepper, salt and vinegar can be supplied also.
17 Christmas shop. This is a wonderful seasonal idea. Children can make
cards, calendars, crackers, decorations and presents to sell.
18 Seaside shop. This is another seasonal interest. Children can make pails
and spades, the former from tins painted and given a handle, the latter
from canes and strong carcl.
Kites can be made from canes and tissue paper or thin material, fishing
nets from canes and old net curtaining. Children will doubtless be able to
think of many more things to make.
19 Post offices. A Post Office interest often begins in a class where the
children already have an interest in exchanging letters with another school
or an adopted ship, or where they look after their own shop or collect
dinner or biscuit money. However, occasionally an interest in Post Offices
will arise for no apparent reason: usually with older infants rather than
younger ones.
The children can build their own counter-if space is limited, a table can
be used and the 'grille' and equipment stored separately. The 'grille' can be
made by attaching string to a wooden frame, this being a valuable
experience in measuring; the whole operation can be carried out without
the use of a ruler. Other ideas for a 'grille' are: chicken wire on a frame,
plastic-covered wire fencing, and plastic mats or mesh. Stamps and postal
orders can also be made by the children (sheets of plain or graph paper can
be perforated first by a sewing machine). Alternatively, old stamps can be
151
Money (Mt)
collected and stuck on to the perforated sheets; if the children become very
interested they might easily issue their own stamps, commemorating a
special event.
Any other Post Office business can be included if it is within the
children's own experience: air mail letters made of tissue paper, books of
stamps, Post Office savings books, National Savings, telegrams, Family
Allowances, licences for T. V. and dogs, parcel post. The last can give
interesting experience in the fact that the size of a parcel does not always
indicate how heavy it is.
Country schools will probably be more familiar with a Post Office and
general stores. Any of the above ideas can be adapted into this kind of shop.
Flagging interest can be restored to a shop by having a week when prices
are all cut by 2p or another week when goods are all half-price. A sale at the
end of term, or when the real shops are holding theirs, might catch the
children's interest. Days when different lines are sold as special offers will
be well-known to the class as also will be ideas such as vouchers made for
different articles. A 'trading stamps' scheme might even be tried with older
infants who are very keen on their shop.
A 'cut-price' week could be recorded like this:
4p-------+--~~
qp----+---I----~
6p
152
7p
Chapter 12
Capacity (Cll
For the teacher

Children need lots of experience in just filling one container from another.
As hand and eye co-ordination develops, they will learn to pour water
without spilling, particularly if they use a funnel when dealing with
narrow-necked containers.
There are a whole range of things to be discovered about water-it
cannot be squeezed or stretched, it takes the shape of its container, some
things sink in it while others float, some things dissolve, others rust.
Water which is slightly warmed is more comfortable for the children to
work with in cold weather and the addition of a drop of washing-up liquid
makes the bubbly water more interesting. Of course children should always
wear some sort of protective clothing to keep themselves dry.
Ideally, children should also have access to both wet and dry sand and to
a great variety of familiar containers such as cups, beakers, bowls, buckets,
margarine tubs, washing-up liquid containers, bottles of all shapes and
sizes, plastic containers, plastic tops from aerosols, yoghurt pots, etc.
Other 'filling materials' such as sawdust, dried peas or beans, beads,
Centicubes and bricks sho~ld also be used and children should be given
practice in making efficient use of available space when tidying away
materials- big bricks into their box, rods into trays, books stacked or
placed side by side on shelves, etc.
Since research has shown that children within the primary school age
range will have only a limited understanding of the concept of volume, the
teacher must not expect too much in the way of recording at this stage.
Nevertheless certain kinds of activities will help the child to recognize that
when he fills a container he is finding a way of measuring its capacity or
internal volume.
153
Capacity (Cl)

Cl: 1
Cl: 2
Cl: 3
Cl: 4
Sorting containers
Cl: Sa Comparing by emptying

Cl: 5b Comparing by filling
Vocabulary
Full, empty, half empty, half full, holds more, holds less, spill, pour, least,
most, container, cup, tub, bucket, spoon, capacity, level.

Cups, beakers, washing-up liquid containers, margarine tubs, yoghurt
tubs, plastic bottles of all shapes and sizes, plastic bowls, buckets, etc. ;
funnels, egg-cups, thimbles, spoons (all sizes), teapots, kettles, wide and
narrow necked bottles, jars, large plastic containers, plastic tops from
aerosol tins, etc. ; sets of small identical containers; different filling
material-sawdust,
beads, bricks, dried beans, peas, Centicubes, sand, etc.

Cl: 1 Full, empty and half empty
Early directed activities might be aimed at finding out what 'full and
empty' mean since children tend to overfill containers, especially when
using sand. Perhaps this would be a good moment to introduce a 'level'
spoonful or egg-cupful.
A further stage might be to ask children to half fill some containers and
for this activity wide necked or transparent containers make estimation
easier. To record use two hoops labelled 'empty' and 'full', and later 'full'
and 'half full'. The children carry out the instructions and place each
container in its appropriate hoop.
Children are encouraged to repeat this activity using different 'filling'

materials, e.g. sawdust, beads, bricks, dried beans and peas, small
Centicubes etc. Some useful discussion may follow from such questions as,
'Can you fill the tub with bricks or beans? What about the spaces
inbetween ?'
154
Capacity (1)

______________
~~~~~7-'
__C_~_~_~~_~_~_.~
o [}
Get
a jam
jor
and
some
Half (ill the jor with sand.
Half fill the jug with
Draw
Draw
Get
the sand
bottle
in the jar
and some water
Half fill the bottle
sheet 1.2
Get Q jug and some beads
sand
the beads
beads
in the jug.
Get an egg cup and some peas
with water.
Half fill the egg cup with
peas
Draw the level of the water
Draw the peas in the egg cu p.
in the bottle.
Cl: 2 Which holds more?

Much discussion must go on between a child and the teacher about the
meaning of capacity and a useful activity with a small group of children is
to hold up two obviously different sized containers and ask, 'Which has the
greater capacity?' or 'Which holds more?' Later they might be shown three
or four containers and asked to point out the one which holds the most and
which the least. When the difference between containers becomes too
difficult to judge visually, children may be asked to think of some other way
of finding out.
ji~~
________
Wi""'[i
I
Which
This one holds less
holds
sheet 2.2
Capacity 1
sheet 2.1
~~~~/
0 ~
y
This one holds less.
O~
more?
Which will hold least water?

Colour
The jug or the egg cup?

The
it blue.
~~.
c poo
~~~
holds more than the
a swimming bath
e99 cup
n~
on egg cup
Qf'I
a baby's both
acup
a rhtmbte
your both
155
Capacity (Cl)
Cl: 3 Finding the capacity by counting

Following on from the last stage and as children become more dextrous in
the filling of containers without spilling, the use of a small container as a
measuring unit may be introduced.
A child is given a set of four or five containers of differing shape and size.
He is then given a smaller container, an egg cup, a doll's cup or a yoghurt
pot, etc., to use as a measure. The child is asked to find out how many
cupfuls of sawdust or sand each container holds. At first, although the child
will be filling more than one container he will not necessarily be comparing
them. The activity is merely introducing the use of a smaller vessel as a
measuring unit. The child records by sticking a flag in each filled vessel.
The flags, prepared earlier, show the appropriate number of measures and
look like this:
If the child appears confident the teacher may ask him which container
holds the most. At this stage the child will probably compare the number
of measures and not relate his answer to the size or shape of the container.
He might also be able to put the vessels in order of size but only by
comparing the number of measures. It would be wrong to assume that the
child had discovered the invariance of volume. However, it is well
worthwhile even at this early stage to ask children to estimate how many
egg-cupfuls each container holds before filling. The accuracy of their
answers will help the teacher to determine the level of their thinking.
How many full cups of sand

will
a jam
jar
hold?
in the
COlour
cups.
jam
jar
full cups.
How mony full cups of water

will a teapot hold?
Colour in the cups.
~
A
156
teapot
holds
full cups.
Capacity (1)
Cl: 4 Sorting containers

A set of carefully selected containers is presented to the child. A vessel such
as a beaker is chosen and the child is asked to sort the containers into two
sub-sets-one
showing all the containers which he thinks will hold more
water than the beaker, and the other showing all the containers which he
thinks will hold less than the beaker. He does this first by estimating, and
places each container in one of the hoops.
In this activity the child will first judge the capacity of the containers
visually-probably
being influenced mainly by the height of each container
Much practice of this sort will bring about increased understanding and
later he will begin to take into consideration all dimensions. This will lead
to more accurate estimates. 'This is taller than the beaker but it's very thin
so I think it holds less.'
After estimating, the teacher may wish the child to record his findings by
drawing the two sub-sets in his work book. The child can then check his
estimations by a practical test: the beaker is filled with water or sand and
poured into each container in turn. The child may now wish to change the
position of some of the containers. The teacher should discuss both results
with the child and comment on any differences between them.
Obviously, the finer the differences between the vessels in the set and the
container with which they are being compared, the more difficult becomes
the activity.
sheet 4.1
Find
as many
different
containers
as you
can
Draw those which hold more than a cup
Draw those which hold less thon a cup
157
Capacity (Cl)
Cl: 5a Comparing by emptying

Two different shaped containers are filled with water-for example, a
teapot and a jug. The child must establish which holds more by finding out
how many smaller containers can be filled from each. The teacher will need
to collect two sets of identical smaller vessels, such as aerosol tops,
margarine pots, etc.
The child first fills both containers, then empties one carefully by
pouring the water into the small identical vessels, filling each to the brim.
He then repeats the process with the second container and compares the
number of filled pots in both sets.
'
..:,,..
...
,....
11:..:.:'..:,
......
:: i'::,:~:~:;:.~:::.::,:,,: .
.
'1
';'";;
:>
I
.
The activity is difficult from a manipulative point of view and demands a

steady hand and a quick eye. However, the child does not have to
remember the number of times he filled the smaller vessels from the larger
one since the filled pots are still there to be counted and compared.
Cl: 5b Comparing by filling
The containers being compared should be labelled by colour, letter or
name. The recording might be set down by the teacher in the form of a
statement and read before the activity begins.
158
Capacity (1)
The child counts the number of cups of water it takes to fill each bottle
and writes the number in the appropriate square. On the third line he may
write the name or draw the picture of the bottles or containers he is
comparing, in the correct order. He must, of course, understand and be
able to read all he has recorded. The relationship 'holds less than' may be
illustrated in a similar fashion.
If necessary, whilst one child is filling each container, another child may
wish to help by keeping tally on the number of times the small container is
poured into the larger one. One way of doing this is by sticking cut-out
shapes on to a prepared sheet.
<UJ
~
o
CO
lJ
~
'-Y
o
~
to
~
The children can easily see from

this graphical picture which
holds more and by how much.
159
Capacity (Cl)

sheet 5.2
Capacity 1
______________
'~~_
Which holds more-the
~/
s_h_ee_t_5_.1
Find 4 conrciner-s
How
jug or the teapot?
a square
for each full pot of beads
The:
holds more than
Which holds less-the

Colour
a square
for
Draw
full
egg
rz
~
~
~
of sand
rz
SZ
The
holds less than
--
I--- -
the
cup
full
pictures
in these
basin or the beaker?

each
many
egg
cups
of
will fill each container?
.'rn .~ ..rn
Colour
Use on egg cup as a meosure
g
~
~
the
Colour
of the containers
boxes
for
f-. -
~
~
~
~
~
I;'Z
~
~
~
~
f----
~
~
~
~
2
~
~
~
~
~
I----
'2
g
~
~
~
~
~
l-]
in the egg cups
each container
Put your
contcmer-s
m
order of capacity
beginning
[]
With
the smallest
Now draw (hem
n
D
c " .

J. Water, Early Mathematical Experiences, Addision-
Matthews, G. and
Wesley 1978
Nuffield Mathematics Teaching Project, Beginnings W, Nuffield Guide,

Williams, M. E. Come and Measure-Capacity
1975
Capacity Measures, Invicta Plastics
Odd Bottle Set, Six to Twelve
Sand Play Set, E.
J. Arnold
Set of 3 Funnels, Nicolas Burdett

Set Plastic Funnels, E.
J. Arnold
Spoon and Cup Measures, Osmiroid

Water Play Set, E.
160
J. Arnold
(pages 1-13), Macmillan
,.
Index
addition
addition
addition
addition
63, 64, 76, 80, 82

sign' +' 83
square 85
(vertical) 84
balance
119, 121, 123, 124, 125, 127, 128
Bronto Books
2,25,26,41,14,113,14
cardinal number 15,24,42
cardinal value 2 I, 47
cardinality 14, 24, 27
commutative 70
comparingamounts of money 143;
capacity 155, 158, 159;
fast and slow 135, 136;
length 92-95;
weight 119, 121, 122
circle 110
cone 109, II6
conservation of number 38,39, 57
counting 27,43
counting board 29, 48
counting on 75, 77
cube 109, 115
cubit 101
cuboid 109, II5
curve stitching 70
descriptive languagecapacity 106,155;
length 89, 90 ;
shape 105-113;
time 133;
weight 118, 119, 123
disjoint sets 63
edge 105
element 4, 38, 42
empty set 37
equivalence relations 5
equivalent 15
equivalent sets 15,20,35
estimatingcapacity 157 ;
length 100;
weight 120
face 105, 112
fewer than 50
greater than 50, 5I
hand span 101
hexagonal prism
15
invariance of number 38
less than 50, 5I
limb measures 101
many-to-many correspondence 5
many-to-one correspondence
4,5,7, II, 14
mapping 65
mass or weight? I 17
matching
4,5, 15, 17, 18, 19,20,27,28
matching coins 143, 144;
length 95, 96
matching one-to-one 38
measurement (approx. nature) 100
measuring length 94, 99
member of sets 17, 18, 19,47
non-equivalent sets
20,21,42,44,47
non-segmented rods 64, 72
number line 75, 76, 77, 78
number strip 31, 75
number track 77, 78
numerals 26, 27, 28, 34, 35, 59
partial counting 61,77

partition
9,10,57,58,69,71,72
pattern boards 30, 71
pictorial representation
7,9,11,23,24,38,48,53,54,61,
80,128,133,138,139,156,159
'plug-in cards' 18,21,65,70
prism 115
pyramid 116
rectangle 104
relations! relationshi ps
1,2,4,5,23,49,54,93,95,159
segmented rods 64
semi-tallying 23,51
sets
1,2,6,8, 14, 15, 17, 18, 19,24,48
shopping-early stages 146
side 105
sorting
1,6,7,8,9,
10, 12,91, 109, 112
sorting containers 157
sorting trays 29, 32
sphere 116
square 104
subsets 9, 10, I I, 58,69
surface IIO, 112
tallying 53
timing devices 136
triangle I I I
triangular prism I 15
unit counting 60
vertical addition 84
oblong 104
one-to-one correspondence
3,4,5,18,21,23,53,54,138
ordering 42, 46, 47, 48
ordering length 97, 98 ;
weight 127, 129
ordinal numbers 43
weather chart 139

weight, comparison of 119, 121, 122
zero 37
pace 101
161
N uffield Maths 5-11 : Course contents
Nuffield Maths 5-11

Nuffield Maths 1
Contents
Teachers' Handbook
Sets and relations (Nl)

Nl: 1 Relations (different types of correspondence)
Nl: 2 Early sorting experiences-leading
to sets
Nl : 3 Sorting into subsets
2 Matching (N2)
N2: 1 Matching to find equivalent sets
N2: 2a Two non-equivalent sets
N2: 2b Three non-equivalent sets
3 Counting and numerals (N3)
N3: 1 Counting
N3: 2 Matching a number symbol to a set
N3: 3 Introducing number words
N3: 4 The empty set
N3: 5 Conservation of number
4 Ordering (N4)
N4: 1 Ordinal numbers
N4: 2 Putting non-equivalent sets in order
N4: 3 Signs 'is greater than', 'is less than'
N4: 4 Tallying and pictorial representation
S Towards addition (NS)
NS: 1 Composition of small numbers
1a bead bag 1b duck pond
1c rods or strips and frames
NS: 2a Addition of two disjoint sets; putting sets together
NS: 2b Addition of two disjoint sets, USing structured apparatus
NS: 3 Recording addition by mapping
6 Addition to 10 (N6)
N6: 1 Number bonds up to 10
N6: 2 Counting on
N6: 3 Patterns in simple addition
N6: 4 Picture problems-additions
N6: 5 Introduction of addition sign and vertical addition
N6: 6 The addition square
7 Length
Ll: 1
Ll: 2
Ll: 3a
Ll: 3b
Ll: 4
Ll: 5
Ll: 6
(Ll)
Matching lengths: matching two objects of about the same length
Matching lengths: using several objects to 'make up' a length
Ordering
Measuring with repeated units
Using limb measures
S Shape and space (SI)

SI: 1 Awareness of shape and space, extension of vocabulary
Appendix
9 Weighing (WI)
WI: 1 Descriptive language-heavy
and light
WI: 2 Comparing-heavier
WI: 3 Balancing
WI: 4 Ordering
10 Time (Tl)
Tl: 1 Association-matching
events to daytime or night-time
Tl: 2 Putting time sequence in order
Tl: 3a Comparisons: fast and slow
Tl: 3b Comparisons: timing
11 Money (Ml)
Ml: 1 Recognition of l p, 2p, 5p, lOp coins
Ml: 2 Comparison of amounts of money (a) by matching (b) by totals
Ml: 3 Using coins to make amounts up to lOp
Ml : 4 Early stages of shopping
Appendix: Suggestions for shops in schools
12 Capacity (Cl)
Cl: 1 Full, empty and half empty
Cl: 2 Which holds more? (visual judgement)
Cl: 3 Finding the capacity by counting
Cl : 4' Sorting containers
Cl : 5a Comparing by emptying
Cl : 5b Comparing by filling
162
Nuffield Maths 2
Contents
Teachers' Handbook
Early stages of subtraction

(N7)
N7: 1 Finding the difference
N7: 2 Counting back
N7: 3 Taking away
N7: 4 Recording subtraction
N7 : 5 Practice sheets
2 A first
NS: 1
NS: 2
NS: 3
look at place value (NS)

Early grouping activities and games
Grouping using cubes, etc.
Grouping in tens
3 Addition to 20 (N9)
N9: 1 Number bonds up to 20
N9: 2 Counting on
N9: 3 Waysofrecording
4 Subtraction
involving numbers up to 20 (NlO)
NlO: 1 Difference by matching and counting
NlO: 2 Subtraction by counting back
NI0: 3 Taking away
NI0: 4 Ways of recording
S Introducing
multiplication
(Nll)
NIl: 1 Recognising and counting equivalent sets
NIl: 2 Multiplication as repeated addition
NIl: 3 Arrays and the commutative law
Nil: 4 Activities and games for 'table facts' up to 30
6 Introducing
division (NI2)
N12: 1 The sharing aspect of division
N12: 2 The repeated subtraction aspect of division
N12: 3 Division as the inverse of multiplication
N12: 4 Remainders
7 Length
L2: 1
L2: 2
L2: 3
L2: 4
L2: 5
(L2)
Appreciating the need for a standard measure
Introduction of the metre
Comparison with a 10 ern rod (decimetre)
Measuring in centimetres-straight
and curved lines
Personal measurements in m and em
S Shape and Space (S2)

S2: 1 Sorting for shape and size
S2: 2 Fitting shapes together
S2: 3 Surfaces and faces
S2: 4 Covering surfaces-leading
S2: 5 First ideas of symmetry
to area
9 Weighing (W2)
W2: 1 Introduction of kilogram and -k kilogram
W2: 2 Using the kilogram and ~ kilogram
W2: 3 Introduction of the 100 gram weight
10 Time(T2)
T2: 1 Ways of measuring time
T2: 2 Reading a dial
T2: 3 Telling the time (hours, halves, quarters)
T2: 4 Telling the time (five-minute intervals)
T2: 5 Simple calculations involving time
T2: 6 Other units of time
11 Money
M2: 1
M2: 2
M2: 3
M2: 4
M2: 5
M2: 6
(M2)
Reinforcement of coins up to lOp and introduction of 50p
Breakdown of coins-equivalent
values
Making amounts up to 20p
Addition-simple
shopping bills
Giving change and finding difference by counting on
Subtraction by taking away
12 Capacity (C2)
C2: 1 Introduction
C2: 2 Comparing a
C2: 3 Introduction
C2: 4 Cubes, boxes
of the litre
litre with non-standard
of ~ litre and t litre
and walls
measure
Nuffield Moths 5 -11

~~
General editor:
E.A.Albany
-~o
Longman
My dad's garage
Pauline Burke
BOOKS
SETe
Bronto Books have two main aims:

to give practice in using and reading
simple mathematical vocabulary, to support and extend the basic mathematical
concepts introduced to young children.
My dad's garage
ILlustrated by Nicholas Brennan
Mathematical
content
The ideas of 'lots of' and 'a few' are expressed simply in the
context of a garage.
Vocabulary content
Mathematical
words
a few
lots of
Words with picture clues

garage
pumps
oil cans
tyres
spanners
motor-bikes
money
cars
Other words
my
dad's
has got
and
The Bronto at the foot of some pages

has two fu nctions :
to provide elements of surprise,
security and fun,
to make comments that underline
or extend the ideas
iLLustrated on that page.
mechanics
My dad's qcrcqehos .g~dt

:' .. ~':'.:j.' ..':~ :;
--
~~,---~'-~
.;!-
-~-'-:
..
~~..
~.-
.....
~--~
I,ulS.el
'6iUillil8(
a few pumps,
I've r,lever been
In a garage.
lots of oil cans,
a few tyres,
Lots of cars,
Which one
fits me best?
a few mechan ics,
lots of spanners,
a few motor-bikes,
I like
the blue one
in front.
and lots of money.
What'S
money?
Further activities
These suggestions are planned to extend the mathematical
ideas that are found in this book, and to give additional
practice in using and reading the vocabulary involved.
Shop books Make a collection of shop books, e.g. toy shop,
greengrocer's,
supermarket,
etc. Group the picture items
separately on each page and label, 'a few dolls', 'lots of cars',
etc. Display. Zig-zag books are easy to make and add variety
to displays.
Button box Children sort the buttons into sizes or colours
and select the right label for the piles, 'a few, 'lots of'.
Walk round the school grounds. Discuss what there is 'a lot of'
and 'a few of'. During the walk make a collection of small
items such as stones, sticks, or daisies. Write labels 'we saw
lots of stones', etc. and place on the display.
Column graphs Make a
favourite food, colour
can tell you, e.g. "lots
cucumber." Write this
children to read.
match box column graph of pets,

of shoes, etc. Discuss what the graph
of children like chips", "a few like
information on a large chart for the
Tallying the traffic from inside the school gate Children work in
pairs. Each pair will need counters of a given colour, e.g. red
for lorries, and an empty box. Limit the time. In the classroom
compare one lot of red lorry counters with the green bicycle
counters etc. putting them in a line and matching one to one.
Record the results, "We saw more cars than lorries. We saw a
few bicycles.' A match box graph or beads th readed on to a
string will record the information in a different way. Some
children may be able to say, "We saw four more lorries than
bicycles.'
Nuffield Maths 5 -11
~o
BOOKS
SETC
BRONTO BOOKS
SetA
ISBN 0 582 18880 6
Counting with Bronto

Counting backwards
Comparing with Bronto
Poor Bronto
Up and down
Round red apple
Set B
ISBN 0582
Bronto joins the circus

Action words
Mini half-os-big
Left, right
Greedy pig
Snail's walk
18881 It.
Set C
ISBN 0 582 18882 2
Animal shapes
My dad's garage
Bronto time
Words for things
In and out
3 buses
Set D
-ISBN 0 582 18883 0
Bird, Frog and Bronto

Bird has three eggs
Bronto and the rocket
Bronto at the zoo
Bronto at the fair
Bronto visits the dentist
LONGMAN
London
GROUP
LIMITED
Associated companies, branches and representatives throughout the world
Nuffield Foundation
Iq7q
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the Copyright owner.
Published for the Nuffield Foundation
by Longman Group limited Iq7q
ISBN 0 582 18882 2
Printed in Great Britain by
Ebenezer Baylis & Son Ltd., Worcester
and London
name
...
date
Colour and count.
Colour and count.
Write
in the numerals.
Nuffield Moths I Worksheets
Pock B
Number 3
sheet 2.9
Draw a set of 10.
sheet 2.10
A busy picture.
...
,,\I,
~ -II
.". \,H/
~,\I I
How many?
trees.
::;.
< ... ...
boys.
There are
dogs.
There are
"
girls.
bi rds.
sheet 2.11
.
C~lour and write the numerals.
sheet 2.12
Draw the correct
Write
number
in the numerals.
of beads.
Based on
Teaching
extended
materials,
the original Nuffield Mathematics

Project, it has has been revised and
to include a full range of pupils'
as well as the Teachers' Handbooks.
The publication of the gfoject is well-timed in

view of the recently exp .essed concern over the
lack of understanding and proficiency in the
basic mathematical skills.
The first stage of the project - N uffield Maths 1
- is ready now while Nuffield Maths 2 will be
published in September (see back page of this
prospectus)
Nuffield oths:
The mater"als
Teaohe(s Hand QOK1
*Worksheets Pack B: 12 copies each of 40

different worksheets
N umber: counting and numerals; ordering
o 582 18887 3 5.00
*Worksheets Pack C: 12 copies each of 36
Number: towards addition; addition to 10
o 582 18888 1 4.50
Worksheets Pack D: 12 copies each of 24
Length; shape and space 1
o 582 18889 X 3.00
Worksheets Pack E: 12 copies each of 32
Weighing 1; time 1; capacity 1
o 582 18890 3 4.00
Worksheets Pack F: 12 copies each of 8
Money 1
o 582 18897 0 1.00
*Some of tfie w)rksheets are being produeed
as spiritmasters which enable teachers to run
off their own worksheets. This method is
initially being fied out with the first three
pae s and may be extended if the demand is
sufficient.
Spiritmasters
58z 18318
Spiritmasters
o 882 18319
Spiritmasters
o 582 18320
Pack A: 25
9 probably
Pack B: 41
7 probably
Pack C: 37
0 probably
masters
5.50
masters
9.00
masters
8.15
104-
iddle infant.
"'4
~
"r
j: ..~
""':";
",.,~
And you don't need special apparatus]

Von ean eithe make your own or use the commercially pr.oduced
materials you already have.
All t)Ie \orksheets are reproduced in the Teachers' Handbook"
(I)
...
2
w
...
2
C,)
0>"
0>",
".-
'-0
"Ceo
Q).~N
:=:eo
..cit')
5.0
-2
~m
-- C/)
lJ.._
Introducing the .. .
Nuffielo Moths 1Worksheets
A major part of the Nuffield Maths 1 materials is the provision of worksheets
printed in 4-page leaflet form, each leaflet containing four different worksheets.
This is an attempt to overcome the rigidity' inherent in workbooks where there
is often a tendency for every child 'to work through every page whether it is
necessary or not, so that the workbook becomes a textbook.
Apart from their flexibility,
worksheets have the additional advantage of econ9my.
Instead of paying for workbooks only to find that they contain sections which you'
I may not wish to use, packs of worksheets
may be selected so that you only pay for
I those
you really need. Using worksheets also means that a child who has made'
a mess of his first attempt may be given a spare copy fora second try.
When combined with the activities suggested in Nuffield Maths 1 Teachers' Handbook,
the worksheets should give children plenty of scope to practice using new
language and skills, "I do and I understand" can also be interpreted as
"Now I am beginning to understand, give me a chance to do."
,Whether used (qspart of cla$s"g~qup Qriqd!i~iqtJal;wQ:rk,.i~ ismost important
; that the worksheets should not be gIven tochildren untl! after they have had
ample opportunity
for activity, experimentation,
thinking and discussion.
(See the section 'Usinq the Materials' in the I ntroduction
to the Teachers' Handbook.)
The amount of reading required is kept to a bare minimum and key words such as
colour" count, draw, write, etc. fre all contained in the Project's Bronto Books
linking mathematics to language development.
,
The enclosed worksheets

The accompanying examples are P?rt of a series of 12 vyorksheets which provide
practice in writing numerals, nh~tc~ing them to sets and viae versa. These are
~;
designed to follow the practical work involving sorting trays, peg numerals,
jig-saw dominoes, counting boards, recording counts by drawing, etc.,
suggested in Stage 2 of'<Numerals and Counting',
pages 28-34 of Nuffield Maths 1 Teachers' Handbook.
General Editor
Nuffield Maths 5-11

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Nuffield Moths 5-11

a revised and extended version of

The Nuffield Foundation 1979

t Sets and relations (Nt)

Relations (different types of correspondence)

Matching to find equivalentsets

3 Counting and rrurrrer-als (N3)

5 Towards addition (N5)

Composition of small numbers

Ll: 1 Descriptive language

Shape and space (SI)

SI: 1 Awareness of shape and space, extension of vocabulary

WI: 1 Descriptive language - heavy and light

Ml: 1 Recognition of 1p, 2p, 5p, lOp coins

Full, empty and half empty

Aims and objectives

Using the materials

mathematics would seem to be:

Chapters and stages

will be set out as follows:

1 For the teacher:

A suggested order of development

Quantities and Shape

Matching to find equivalent sets

Early sorting of 3-D shapes

N2: 2a Two non-equivalent sets

Which holds more? (visual judgement)

Comparison of amounts of money

Composition of small numbers

LI: 5 Measuring with repeated units

For the teacher

As always, it is advisable to begin with the child's present experiences and

Summary of the stages

Relations (different types of correspondence)

Sorting into subsets

Sets and relations (N!)

Equipment and apparatus

1 red piece of Lego

Working with the children

Sets and relations (N 1)

Relations involving one-to-one correspondence

Later, a more complex situation might involve

The bat belongs to Peter.

Board covered in lint or flannel

The relation is between toys and children. There is a common relationship

Sets and relations (Nl )

The first little pig

Further examples are:

Relations involving many-to-one correspondence Children who are able to

Sets and relations eNI)

correspondence, for example:

On the whole, the one-to-one correspondence and many-to-one cases are

2 (Twins' A collection is made of pairs of familiar objects which are

round red bead to match one red piece of Lego.

Matching to show a common relationship

4 Matching to show a common relationship After discussing what pets and

Sets and relations (N!)

On the worksheets the second column is rearranged so that the children

Draw a toy for Shanti.

Put a long tail on the mouse.

tail on the dog.

Draw a toy for Peter.

a bone for Patch.

The dog has a

Nuffield Maths Teacher's Handbook 1

Nuffield Maths Teacher's Handbook 1