How Earthquake-resistant Buildings Work

Earthquakes occur when masses of rock in Earth's crust slip and slide against
one another. This kind of movement is most common along a fault, a break in a
body of rock that can extend for miles or even hundreds of miles. When pieces
of crustal rock suddenly slip and move, they release enormous amounts of
energy, which then propagates through the crust as seismic waves. At the
Earth's surface, these waves cause the ground to shake and vibrate, sometimes
violently.
Geologists classify seismic waves into two broad categories: body and surface
waves. Body waves, which include P and S waves, travel through the Earth's
interior. P waves resemble sound waves, which means they compress and
expand material as they pass. S waves resemble water waves, which means they
move material up and down. P waves travel through both solids and liquids,
while S waves only travel through solids.
After an earthquake strikes, P waves ripple through the planet first, followed by
S waves. Then come the slower surface waves -- what geologists refer to
asLove and Rayleigh waves. Both kinds move the ground horizontally, but only
Rayleigh waves move the ground vertically, too. Surface waves form long wave
trains that travel great distances and cause most of the shaking -- and much of
the damage -- associated with an earthquake.
If earthquakes only moved the ground vertically, buildings might suffer little
damage because all structures are designed to withstand vertical forces -- those
associated with gravity -- to some extent. But the rolling waves of an
earthquake, especially Love waves, exert extreme horizontal forces on standing
structures. These forces cause lateral accelerations, which scientists measure
as G-forces. A magnitude-6.7-quake, for example, can produce an acceleration
of 1 G and a peak velocity of 40 inches (102 centimeters) per second. Such a
sudden movement to the side (almost as if someone violently shoved you)
creates enormous stresses for a building's structural elements, including beams,
columns, walls and floors, as well as the connectors that hold these elements
together. If those stresses are large enough, the building can collapse or suffer
crippling damage.

Another critical factor is the substrate of a house or skyscraper. Buildings

constructed on bedrock often perform well because the ground is firm.
Structures that sit atop soft or filled-in soil often fail completely. The greatest
risk in this situation is a phenomenon known as liquefaction, which occurs
when loosely packed, waterlogged soils temporarily behave like liquids, causing
the ground to sink or slide and the buildings along with it.

earthquake
Damage Caused by Earthquakes
The effects of an earthquake are strongest in a broad zone surrounding the
epicenter. Surface ground cracking associated with faults that reach the surface
often occurs, with horizontal and vertical displacements of several yards
common. Such movement does not have to occur during a major earthquake;
slight periodic movements called fault creep can be accompanied by
microearthquakes too small to be felt. The extent of earthquake vibration and
subsequent damage to a region is partly dependent on characteristics of the
ground. For example, earthquake vibrations last longer and are of greater wave
amplitudes in unconsolidated surface material, such as poorly compacted fill or
river deposits; bedrock areas receive fewer effects. The worst damage occurs in
densely populated urban areas where structures are not built to withstand
intense shaking. There, L waves can produce destructive vibrations in buildings
and break water and gas lines, starting uncontrollable fires.
Damage and loss of life sustained during an earthquake result from falling
structures and flying glass and objects. Flexible structures built on bedrock are
generally more resistant to earthquake damage than rigid structures built on
loose soil. In certain areas, an earthquake can trigger mudslides, which slip
down mountain slopes and can bury habitations below. A submarine earthquake
can cause a tsunami, a series of damaging waves that ripple outward from the
earthquake epicenter and inundate coastal cities.