Modern Manufacturing Techniques NUST

Non Traditional Machining (NTM)
Processes
Comparison of Conventional and

Non- Conventional Machining Processes
CONVENTIONAL
NON-CONVENTIONAL
Generally macroscopic chip formation by

shear deformation
chips are of generally microscopic size
There may be a physical tool present
There may not be a physical tool present
Energy domain can be classified as

mechanical
Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily

use mechanical energy to provide
material removal
Conventional machining involves the

direct contact of tool and workpiece
Non-conventional machining does not

require the direct contact of tool and
workpiece
Comparison of Conventional and

Non- Conventional Machining Processes
CONVENTIONAL
NON-CONVENTIONAL
Lower accuracy and surface finish
Higher accuracy and surface finish
Suitable for every type of material

economically
Not Suitable for every type of material

economically
Higher waste of material due to high

wear
Lower waste of material due to low or no

wear.
Noisy operation mostly cause sound

pollutions
Quieter operation mostly no

sound pollutions are produced
Lower capital cost
Higher capital cost
Skilled or un-skilled operator may

required
Skilled operator required
Non Traditional Machining (NTM)

Processes
The term non traditional machining refers to the group of
processes, that remove excess material by various
techniques involving;
Mechanical energy
Thermal energy
Electrical energy
Chemical energy
Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes

The NTM processes have been developed largely in response to the
new and unusual machining requirements that could not be satisfied
by conventional methods.
These requirements include:

The need to machine newly developed materials (metals, non
metals, composites etc.). These new materials often have
special properties (e.g., high strength, high hardness, high
toughness) that make them difficult or impossible to machine by
conventional methods.
The need for unusual or complex part geometries that cannot
be easily accomplished and in some cases are impossible to
achieve by conventional machining.
The need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies the

stresses created by conventional machining.
Types of NTM Processes

The NTM processes are often classified according to principal
form of energy used to effect material removal. By this
classification, there are four types:
1. Mechanical Erosion of the work material by a high velocity

stream of abrasives or fluid is the typical form of mechanical
action in these processes.
2. Electrical These non traditional processes

electrochemical energy to remove material.
use
Types of NTM Processes

3. Thermal These processes use thermal energy to cut or
shape the workpart. The thermal energy is generally applied
to a very small portion of the work surface, causing that
portion to be removed by fusion and/or vaporization of the
material.
4. Chemical Most materials (metals) are susceptible to

chemical attack by certain acids or other corrosive
chemicals. In chemical machining, chemicals selectively
remove material from portions of the workpart, while other
portions of the surface are protected by a mask.
Mechanical Energy Processes

Some of the NTM processes that utilizes mechanical
energy for material processing are:
(1) Ultrasonic Processes

(2) Water jet cutting
(2a) Abrasive water jet cutting
(2b) Abrasive air jet machining
Ultrasonic Processes
Ultrasonic processing of solids utilizes the effect of the high
frequency mechanical vibration producing friction and abrasion
actions.
Common ultrasonic processes are:
Ultrasonic machining
Ultrasonic welding
Ultrasonic homogenizing
Ultrasonic cleaning
Ultrasonic degassing
Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a non traditional machining
process in which abrasives contained in a slurry are driven at high
velocity against the work by a tool vibrating at low amplitude
(around 0.075mm) and high frequency (ultrasonic) approximately
20 kHz.
The tool oscillates in a direction perpendicular to the work
surface, and is fed slowly into the work, so that shape of the tool
is formed in the part.
It is the action of the abrasive, impinging against the work
surface, that performs the cutting.

Common tool materials used in USM include soft steel and stainless
steel.
Abrasive materials in USM include boron nitride, boron carbide,
aluminum oxide, silicon carbide and diamond.
Grit sizes ranges between 100 and 2000 microns
The vibration amplitude should be set approximately equal to grit
size, and the gap size should be maintained at about two times grit
size. To a significant degree grit size determines the surface finish on
the new work surface.
The slurry in USM consists of a mixture of water and abrasive
particles. Concentration of abrasives in water ranges from 20% to
60%.
The cutting action in USM operates on the tool as well as the work.
As the abrasive particles erode the work surface, they also erode the
tool, thus effecting its shape.

Applications:
Tight-tolerance round thru-holes
for semiconductor processing
equipment components
Micro-machined
and
microstructured glass wafers for
micro-electromechanical
systems (MEMS) applications
Ultrasonic machining can be used to

form intricate, finely detailed graphite
electrodes

Applications:
Ultrasonic machining centers can

perform both conventional and
ultrasonic machining operations.
By combining these technologies in
one machine, the user has the
capability to machine across the
entire material spectrum.
Ultrasonic machining of a carbide die for

the aerospace industry.
Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

Sonotrode: A tool that creates ultrasonic vibrations and applies this
vibrational energy to a gas, liquid, solid or tissue. A sonotrode usually
consists of a stack of piezoelectric transducers attached to a tapering
metal rod.
Piezoelectric transducer is a device that
transforms one type of energy to another by
taking advantage of the piezoelectric properties of
certain crystals or other materials. When a
piezoelectric material is subjected to stress or
force, it generates an electrical potential or
voltage proportional to the magnitude of the
force. This makes this type of transducer ideal as a
converter of mechanical energy or force into
electric potential.

Advantages:
Welding occurs at low temperatures relative to other methods
The process occurs in fractions of a second to seconds.
It's a safer process as it does not require flammable fuels and open
flames.
Ultrasonic welds are as strong and durable as conventional welds of
the same materials
Disadvantages:
Workers' hearing may be damaged by exposure to high-frequency
sound
The depths of the welds are less than a millimeter
Ultrasonically welding dissimilar materials requires an additional
material

Applications:
An ultrasonic welder compressing onto the contact.
The materials in the upper portion of

this New Balance athletic shoe were
assembled by ultrasonic welding
rather than traditional sewing.
Two materials are welded together
Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

WJC uses a fine, high pressure, high-velocity stream of water
directed at the work surface to cause cutting of the work. (also
called hydrodynamic machining)
To obtain the fine stream of water a small nozzle opening of
diameter 0.1 to 0.4 mm is used.
To provide the stream with sufficient energy for cutting, pressures
up to 400 MPa are used and the jet reaches a velocity up to 900
m/s. The fluid is pressurized to the desired level by a hydraulic
pump.

Important process parameters includes
standoff distance
nozzle opening diameter
water pressure
cutting feed rate
The standoff distance is the separation between the nozzle

opening and the work surface. It is generally desirable for
this distance to be small to minimize dispersion of the fluid
stream before it strikes the surface.
(m3/s)

Size of the nozzle orifice affects the precision of the cut; smaller
opening is used for finer cuts on thinner materials.
The cutting feed rate refers to the velocity at which WJC nozzle is
traversed along the cutting path.
The WJC process is usually automated using computer numerical
control or industrial robots to manipulate the nozzle unit along the
desired trajectory.
Water jet cutting can be used effectively to cut narrow slits in flat
stock such as plastic, textiles, composites, floor tile, carpet, leather
and cardboard.

Advantages:
(1) No crushing or burning of the surface (2) Minimal material loss (3)
No environmental pollution (4) Ease of automating the process using
NC or industrial robots.
Disadvantages:
(1) Cuts slower than plasma cutting process, reducing material
processing productivity (2) Not suitable for cutting brittle materials
because of their tendency to crack during cutting (3) higher entry
cost than the plasma cutting machines (4) abrasive material used for
cutting harder materials tends to be quite expensive.
The WaterJet Orifice (Jewel Orifice)
The waterjet orifice is the single

most overlooked component in a
waterjet cutting machine; without it
the entire system would fail to
function.
Waterjet orifice design utilizes

materials like diamond, corundum,
ruby, and sapphire mainly due to
their high hardness property.
Orifice Failure Modes

1. FAILURE DUE TO IMPACTS
Debris and Garnet particles pulled back through the jewels orifice via the
vacuum created when the stream is cycled off.
Metal or plastic particles from High Pressure tubing and filters.
Other line born contaminants.

2. FAILURE DUE TO OVAL SHAPED THROUGH HOLES
Faulty manufacturing of orifices may lead to oval shaped or out-of round through
holes within the orifice if proper quality control processes are not followed.
If this type of failure mode has occurred, typically you will see a fluctuating jet
stream and may also hear spitting and sputtering sounds while this occurs.

3. FAILURE TO SEAL
When a manufacturer machines an orifice mount, it is very important that it is
machined in a way that leaves concentric machine lines. If inconcentric machine
lines result, the jewel is unable to seat properly in the mount and therefore will
not seal.
If unable to seal, water as well as foreign debris is able to pass around the jewel
and cause immediate orifice failure.

4. ORIFICE RETAINER FAILURE
The key objective of the orifice retainer is to hold the jewel in place without
affecting the coherency of the jet stream.
If the optimal retaining method and materials are not used for each varying
application, this can cause improper jewel retention leading to blown out orifices,
angled jet streams and fractured jewels.
The Effects of Cutting with a

Defective Orifice
Damaged work piece material
Premature failure of mixing tube
Slower cut speeds
Poor edge cut quality
Decreased pressures
Over stroking
Increased flow rate
Inefficiently focused garnet
Abrasive Water Jet Cutting (AWJC)

When WJC is used on metallic parts, abrasive particles must
usually be added to the jet stream to facilitate cutting. This
process is called abrasive water jet cutting (AWJC).
Introduction of abrasive particles into the stream increases the
number of parameters that must be controlled. Additional
parameters (other than previously seen) are abrasive type, grit
size, and flow rate.
Aluminum Oxide, silicon dioxide and garnet (a silicate material) are
typical abrasive materials used, grit sizes ranging between 60 and
120 microns.
One possible configuration is when abrasive particles are added to
the water stream after it has exited the WJC nozzle.
Abrasive Water Jet Cutting (AWJC)
Difference b/w WJC and AWJC

Abrasive waterjet cutting differs from pure waterjet cutting:
In pure waterjet cutting, the supersonic stream erodes the

material. In the abrasive waterjet, the waterjet stream
accelerates abrasive particles and those particles, not the
water, erode the material.
The abrasive waterjet is much more powerful than a pure
waterjet and is capable of cutting hard materials such as
metals, glass, stone, and composites.
Abrasive Waterjet Attributes
No Heat Affected Zones

No mechanical stresses
Easy to program
10 inch thick cutting
Stack cutting
Little material loss due to cutting
Simple to fixture
Low cutting forces
One jet setup for nearly all abrasive jet jobs
Quickly switch from pure waterjet to abrasive waterjet
Reduced secondary operations
Little or no burr
Fish
Metal
Metal
Composites
Abrasive Air Jet Machining (AJM)

Abrasive jet machining (AJM) is a material removal process
that results from the action of a high velocity stream of gas
containing small abrasive particles.
The gas is dry and pressure of 0.2-1.4 MPa is used to propel
the gas through the nozzle orifices.
Gases include dry air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and helium.
The process is usually performed by directing the nozzle at
the work. The work station must be arranged to provide
proper ventilation for the operator.
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

AJM is normally used as a finishing operation rather than a
production cutting process. Applications include deburring,
trimming and deflashing.
Cutting is accomplished successfully on hard, brittle
materials (glass, ceramics) that are in the form of thin flat
stock.
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
Electrochemical Machining Processes

An important group of nontraditional processes use electrical
energy to remove material. This group is identified by the
term Electrochemical processes, because electrical energy is
used in combination with chemical reactions to accomplish
material removal.
Electrochemical Machining
Electrochemical machining (ECM) removes metal from an
electrically conductive workpiece by anodic dissolution (the
process of dissolving a solid substance into a solvent to make
a solution)
The shape of the workpiece is obtained by a formed
electrode tool in close proximity but separated from the
workpiece by a rapidly flowing electrolyte.
ECM is basically a deplating operation (reverse of
electroplating)
The workpiece is the anode (+) and the tool is the cathode ().
The workpiece material is deplated from the anode and
deposited onto the cathode in the presence of an
electrolyte bath.
The electrolyte bath flows rapidly between the two poles to
carry off the deplated material, so that it does not become
plated on the tool.
The electrode tool, usually made of copper, brass or

stainless steel is designed to possess approximately the
inverse of the desired shape of the part.
An allowance in the tool size must be provided for the gap
that exists between the tool and the work.
In addition to carrying off the material that has been
removed from the workpiece, the flowing electrolyte also
serves the function of removing heat and hydrogen bubbles
created in the chemical reaction.
Electrochemical machining is generally used in applications
where the work metal is very hard or difficult to machine,
or where the workpart geometry is difficult to accomplish
by conventional methods.
During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes
i.e. at the anode or workpiece and at the cathode or the tool
along with within the electrolyte.
Let us take an example of machining of low carbon steel which is

primarily a ferrous alloy mainly containing iron.
For electrochemical machining of steel, generally a neutral salt
solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) is taken as the electrolyte.
The electrolyte and water undergoes ionic dissociation as
potential difference is applied
As the potential difference is applied between the work piece
(anode) and the tool (cathode), the positive ions move towards
the tool and negative ions move towards the workpiece.
Thus the hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the
cathode (tool) and from hydrogen gas as:
Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode

(work piece) as:
Within the electrolyte, iron ions would combine with chloride ions to
form iron chloride and similarly sodium ions would combine with
hydroxyl ions to form sodium hydroxide
In this manner, the work piece gets gradually machined and gets
precipitated as the sludge
As the material removal takes place due to atomic level
dissociation(separation), the machined surface is of excellent surface
finish and stress free.
Process Parameters
(Output)
(Output)
Advantages: (1) Little surface damage to the workpart
(2) No burrs (3) low tool wear (4) Relatively high metal
removal rates for hard materials
Disadvantages: (1) significant cost of electrical power
(2) problems of disposing of the electrolyte sludge.
Applications: (1) Machining of irregular shapes and
contours into forging dies, plastic molds and other
shaping tools (2) Multiple hole drilling, especially holes
that are not round (3) Deburring
Applications:
Thermal Energy Processes

Material removal processes based on thermal energy are
characterized by very high local temperatures; hot enough to
remove material by fusion or vaporization.
Because of the high temperatures, these processes cause physical
and metallurgical damage to the new work surface.
Processes of commercial importance are:
(1) Electrical discharge machining (EDM)

(2) Electron beam machining
(3) Laser beam machining
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

EDM is one of the most widely used non-traditional processes.
The shape of the finished work surface is produced by a formed
electrode tool.
The sparks occur across a small gap between tool and work
surface.
The EDM process must take place in the presence of a dielectric
fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as the fluid
becomes ionized in the gap.
The discharges are generated by a pulsating direct current power
supply connected to the work and the tool.
Ram EDMs have four sub-systems:

a DC power supply to provide the
electrical discharges, with controls for
voltage, current, duration, duty cycle,
frequency, and polarity
a dielectric system to introduce fluid into
the voltage area/discharge zone and flush
away work and electrode debris, this fluid is
usually a hydrocarbon or silicone based oil
a consumable electrode, usually of copper
or graphite
a servo system to control feed of the
electrode and provide gap maintenance

Once the power supply is turned on, thousands of direct current,
or DC, impulses per second cross the gap, beginning the erosion
process.
The spark temperatures generated can range from 7760 to

11,649 Celsius so that small portion of the workpiece is suddenly
melted and removed. The flowing dielectric flushes away the
small particle.
Two important process parameters in EDM are discharge current
and frequency of discharges. As either of these parameters is
increased, metal removal rate increases.
Surface roughness is also affected by current and frequency. The
best surface finish is obtained in EDM at high frequencies and low
discharge currents.

Electrodes are made of graphite, copper, brass, copper tungsten,
silver tungsten and other materials.
The selection of the electrodes depends on the type of power
supply circuit available, the type of work material, and whether
roughing or finishing is to be done.
Graphite is generally preferred for many applications because of
its melting characteristics. In fact it does not melt and vaporizes at
very high temperatures.
Dielectric fluids used in EDM include hydrocarbon oils, kerosene
and distilled water. The dielectric serves as an insulator in the gap
except when ionization occurs in the presence of a spark. Its other
functions are to flush debris out of the gap and to remove heat
from tool and workpart.

Advantages:
EDM is a non-contact process that generates no cutting forces,
permitting the production of small and fragile pieces
Burr-free edges are produced

Intricate details and superior finishes are possible
Disadvantages:
Low metal removal rates compared to chip machining
Lead time is needed to produce specific consumable electrode
shapes
The high spark temperatures that melt the work also erodes/melts
the tool
Chance of flash fire in the dielectric fluid if the level falls too low

Applications of electric discharge machining include
both tool fabrication and parts production.
Most of the tooling equipments are made by EDM,
including molds for plastic injection molding,
extrusion dies, wire drawing dies, forging dies and
sheet metal dies.
EDM is also used for certain parts production.
Examples include delicate parts that are not rigid to
withstand conventional cutting forces, hole drilling
where the axis of the hole is at an angle to the surface
and production machining of hard metals.
Comparison between EDM and ECM

The tool and workpiece are separated by a very small gap,
i.e. no contact in between them is made.
The tool and material must both be conductors of electricity.
Needs high capital investment.
Systems consume lots of power.
A fluid is used as a medium between the tool and the work
piece (conductive for ECM and dielectric for EDM).
The tool is fed continuously towards the workpiece to
maintain a constant gap between them.
High metal removal rates are possible with ECM, with no
thermal or mechanical stresses being transferred to the part,
and mirror surface finishes can be achieved.
Electric Discharge Wire Cutting (EDWC)

or Wire EDM
Electric discharge wire cutting commonly called wire EDM is a
special form of electric discharge machining that uses small
diameter wire as the electrode to cut a narrow kerf in the work.
The cutting action in wire EDM is achieved by thermal energy from
electric discharges between the electrode wire and the workpiece.
The workpiece is fed continuously and slowly past the wire in order
to achieve the desired cutting path. NC is used to control the
workpart motion during cutting.

or Wire EDM
As it cuts, the wire is continuously advanced between a supply pool
and a take up pool to present a fresh electrode of constant
diameter to the work.
As in EDM, wire EDM must also be carried out in the presence of
dielectric.

or Wire EDM
The four basic wire EDM subsystems include:

the DC power supply
the dielectric system
the wire feeding system
the work positioning system

or Wire EDM
Since the wire electrode is very thin, power used is limited and
removal rates are slow.
A two-axis wire EDM can only make cuts at right-angles to the work
table.
Independent four-axis machines can cut tapered angles and make
cuts that result in different top and bottom profiles. This capability
is needed in making extrusion dies and flow valves.

or Wire EDM
Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

Electron beam machining (EBM) is one of several industrial processes
that use electron beams.
Electron beam machining uses a high velocity stream of electrons
focused on the workpiece surface to remove material by melting and
vaporization.
An electron beam gun generates a continuous stream of electrons
that is accelerated to approximately 75% of the speed of light and
focused through an electromagnetic lens on the work surface.
The lens is capable of reducing the area of the beam to a diameter as
small as 0.025mm.
On impinging the surface, the kinetic energy of the electrons is
converted into thermal energy of extremely high density that melts
or vaporizes the material in a very localized area.
Electron Beam Machining
The EBM beam is operated in pulse mode.
Beam current is directly related to the number of electrons

emitted by the cathode.
Increasing the beam current or pulse duration directly

increases the energy per pulse.
High-energy pulses (in excess of 100 J/pulse) can machine

larger holes on thicker plates.
The energy density (J/mm3) and power density (W/mm3) is

governed by energy per pulse duration and spot size.

Electron beam machining is used for a variety of high precision
cutting applications on any known material.
EBM must be carried out in a vacuum chamber to eliminate

collision of electrons with gas molecules and to avoid oxidizing
of tungsten filament.

Advantages:
There is no mechanical contact between tool and work piece,

hence no tool wear.
Very small holes can be machined in every type of material
with high accuracy
Drilling of extremely small diameter holes down to 0.002 in.
Drilling holes with high depth/diameter ratios, greater than

100:1.

Disadvantages:
Cost of equipment is high.

Rate of material removal is low.
It can used for small cuts only.

Vacuum requirements limits the size of work piece.
The interaction of the electron beam with the work piece can produce hazardous
x-rays, and only highly trained personnel should use EBM equipment.

Applications:
Drilling of holes in pressure differential devices used in nuclear

reactors, air craft engine
Machining of wire drawing dies having small cross sectional
area.

Comparative advantages and disadvantages of the EBW and LBW processes
Laser Beam Machining (LBM)

Separate module
Chemical Machining
Chemical machining (CHM) is a nontraditional process in which
material removal occurs through contact with a strong
chemical etchant (acid).
The use of chemicals to remove unwanted material from a
workpart can be applied in several ways, and several different
terms have been developed to distinguish the applications.
Material is removed by microscopic electrochemical cell action,
as occurs in chemical dissolution of a metal.
This controlled chemical dissolution will simultaneously etch all
exposed surfaces even though the penetration rates of the
material removal may be only 0.00250.1 mm/min
Chemical Machining
The chemical machining process consists of several steps. Differences
in applications and the ways in which the steps are implemented
account for different forms of CHM.
The Steps are:

(1) Cleaning: The first step is a cleaning operation to ensure that
material will be removed uniformly from the surfaces to be etched
(engraved or cut).
(2) Masking: A protective coating called a maskant is applied to certain
portion of the part surface. This maskant is made of a material that is
chemically resistant to the etchant. It is therefore applied to those
portions of the work surface that are not to be etched.
Chemical Machining
(3) Etching: This is the material removal step. The part is immersed
in an etchant(chemical/acid) that attacks those portions of the part
surface that are not masked.
The usual method of attack is to convert the work material into a salt
that dissolves in the etchant and is thereby removed from the
surface.
When the desired amount of material has been removed, the part is
withdrawn from the etchant and washed to stop the process.
(4) Demasking: The maskant is removed from the part.
Chemical Machining
Maskant materials include neoprene, polyvinylchloride, polyethylene
and other chemicals.
Masking can be accomplished by different methods, two major

processes are:
(1) cut and peel

(2) photographic resist
Chemical Machining
Cut and peel method:
The cut and peel method involves application of the maskant over the
entire part by dipping, painting or spraying.
After the maskant has hardened, it is cut using a scribing knife and
peeled away in the areas of the work surface that are to be etched.
The maskant cutting operation is performed by hand, usually guiding
the knife with a template. The cut and peel method is generally used
for large workparts, low production quantities and where accuracy is
not a critical factor.
Chemical Machining
Photographic resist method (photoresist method):
It uses photographic techniques to perform the masking step.

The masking material contain photosensitive chemicals.
The mask (photoresist) is applied to the entire work surface and
exposed to light through a negative image of the desired areas to be
etched.
The mask removes from the areas where UV light is exposed.
The naked areas can then be removed using etchant spray.

This procedure leaves the desired surfaces of the part protected by
the maskant and the remaining areas unprotected, exposed to
chemical etching.
Chemical Machining
Selection of the etchant(chemical/acid) depends on work material
to be etched, desired depth, rate of material removal and surface
finish requirements.
The etchant must also be matched with the type of maskant that is
used to ensure that the maskant material is not chemically attacked
by the etchant.
Chemical Machining
Common work materials and etchants in CHM, with typical penetration
rates and etch factors.
Chemical Machining
Penetration rate:
Material removal rates in CHM are generally indicated as penetration
rates, mm/min (in/min), because rate of chemical attack of the work
material by the etchant is directed into the surface.
Under cut:
Along with the penetration into the work, etching also occurs sideways under the maskant, this
effect is referred to as the undercut. It must be accounted for in the design of the mask for the
resulting cut to have the specified dimensions.
The undercut is directly related to the depth of cut.
Chemical Machining
The constant of proportionality for the material is called the etch factor, defined
as
where Fe = etch factor; d = depth of cut(mm); and u = undercut(mm)

The etch factor can be used to determine the dimensions of the cutaway(inner) areas in
the maskant, so that the specified dimensions of the etched areas on the part can be
achieved.
Chemical Machining Processes

Principle chemical machining processes are;
(1) chemical milling

(2) chemical blanking
(3) chemical engraving
(4) photochemical machining

Chemical milling

Photochemical machining

Advantages:
1. No effect of workpiece materials properties such as hardness
2. Simultaneous material removal operation

3. No burr formation
4. No stress introduction to the workpiece
5. Low capital cost of equipment
6. Easy and quick design changes
7. Requirement of less skilled worker
8. Low tooling costs
9. Low scrap rates (3%).

Disadvantages:
1. Most of the chemicals such as cleaning solutions are very

hazardous liquids. Therefore handling and disposal of them is
costly.
2. Industries struggle to select more environmentally accepted

etchants for chemical machining process

Applications:
Missile skin-panel section contoured by chemical

milling to improve the stiffness- to- weight ratio of
the part (Kalpakjain & Schmid)

Applications:
Laser Cutting
There are six ways that a laser can be used to cut materials,
Vaporisation cutting
Fusion cutting (melt & blow)
Reactive fusion cutting (melt, burn & blow)
Scribing
Controlled fracture
91
Laser Cutting Methods

Vaporisation cutting:
In vaporization cutting the focused beam heats the surface of the

material to boiling point and generates a keyhole. The keyhole
leads to a sudden increase in absorptivity quickly deepening the
hole. As the hole deepens and the material boils, vapor generated
erodes the molten walls blowing ejecta out and further enlarging
the hole.
Non melting material such as wood, carbon and thermoset plastics
are usually cut by this method.
92

Fusion cutting:
Fusion or melt and blow cutting uses high pressure gas to blow
molten material from the cutting area, greatly decreasing the
power requirement. First the material is heated to melting point
then a gas jet blows the molten material out of the kerf avoiding
the need to raise the temperature of the material any further.
Materials cut with this process are usually metals.
93

Reactive fusion cutting:
Reactive Fusion or melt, burn and blow cutting uses O2 gas to blow
molten material from the cutting area as well as to interact with
molten material to give extra heat (more than doubled). The
suitable materials to cut are Fe and Ti and main disadvantage of
this process is high heat-affected zone (HAZ).
94

Scribing:
Laser scribing is a two stage process and is quite similar to

traditional mechanical scribe and break method. In the first stage,
partially penetrating holes, a groove or deep vents at depths of
one third to one half of the material thickness are produced using
a laser. In the second stage, breaking by applying a mechanical
force takes place.
95

Controlled fracture:
In this technique, thermal stresses are used to induce the crack

and the material is separated along the cutting path by extending
the crack. No melting is produced in this process and the suitable
materials to cut are glass, ceramics or semiconductors.
96
Key Factors in Laser Processing

of Materials
Laser power (W)
Cutting speed (mm/s)
Beam spot size (m)
Beam geometry
Gas type (Ar, He, CO2, N2) & its pressure (Pa)
Laser type (consider all parameters of laser beams)
Type of workpiece material and its optical properties
97
Key Responses for Quality

Assessment in Laser Cutting
Striations - number of parallel lines or scratches on the surface of a
material
Dross - The residue of resolidified melt on the lower edge of the
laser cut
Kerf - Width of cut opening
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) - Region of material where the
properties changes after the
processing
Surface Roughness - Measure of the texture of the surface.
It is quantified by the vertical deviations
of a real surface from its ideal form.
98
Striation Pattern
Typical striation patterns formed during the laser cutting of 1.25 mm mild steel using 300 W CW
laser using cutting speed of 1.8 m/min and oxygen pressure of 2.0 bar
99
Dross Illustration
100
Example: Kerf
Kerf width
101
Example: Heat Affected Zone

(HAZ)
102
Conventional vs.
Conventional cutting
Contact process
Not a clean process
Chipping on the cut
edges
Tool wear
Poor surface finish
Inexpensive
Laser cutting
Non-contact process
Clean process
Chip-free cut edges
No tool wear
High quality surface
finish
Relatively expensive
103
Example: Laser Cutting
Laser cut Blanks in Aluminum, Stainless Steel and Alloy Steel
104
Pulsed Laser
Mean power=peak power duty cycle
Duty cycle=pulse length / period
Wave definition for pulsed lasers
105
Laser Drilling
There are three modes/approaches of laser
drilling processes,
Single Pulse Drilling
Trepanning
Percussion Drilling
106
Laser Drilling
Single Pulse Drilling:
Single pulse drilling is used for drilling

narrow (less than 1 mm dia) holes
through thin (less than 1 mm thick)
plates. High pulse energies are supplied
in drilling with single pulse because the
irradiated energy levels must be
sufficient to vaporize the material in
single pulse.
107
Laser Drilling
Trepanning:
In trepanning, wider holes (less than

3 mm dia) in thicker plates (less than 10
mm thick) are produced by drilling a
series of overlapping holes around a
circumference of a circle so as to cut a
contour out of the plate. Trepanning
can be performed by translating either
the workpiece or the focusing optic.
108
Laser Drilling
Percussion Drilling:
In percussion drilling, a series of short

pulses (10-12 to 10-3 s) separated by
longer time periods
(10-2 s) are
directed on the same spot to form a
through hole. Percussion drilling is used
to produce narrow holes (less than 1.3
mm dia) through relatively thicker (up to
25 mm) metal plates. High speed of the
percussion drilling makes it the most
cost-effective method.
109
Physical Effects in Laser

Drilling
Schematic of the physical effects taking place during laser drilling

110
Geometrical Features of
Drilled Hole
Typical geometrical features of laser drilled hole

111

Assessment in Laser Drilling
Hole Size
Circularity & Taper
Heat Affected Zone
Spatter & Dross
Recast (Re-solidified) Layer
Micro-cracking
112
Example: Laser Drilling

Laser drilling of cooling holes in aerospace gas turbine parts such as turbine
blades, nozzle guide vanes, combustion chambers, and afterburners is an
established technology.
Aircraft engine turbine blade
113
Laser Welding
There are two modes/approaches of laser
welding processes,
Conduction Limited Welding
Deep Penetration (keyhole) Welding
Laser Welding
Conduction Limited Welding:
In this approach, the laser

processing conditions are such that
the surface of the weld pool remains
unbroken. In this approach the
energy transfer into the depth of the
material takes place by conduction.
Laser Welding
Deep Penetration (keyhole)
Welding:
In this approach, the keyhole is created in the

weld pool. Higher power density and
irradiation time compared to first approach
results in surface vaporisation at the molten
weld pool. Recoil Pressure of the vapour forms
the depression in the molten material which
subsequently develops into a keyhole. It acts as
a blackbody trapping the laser beam and
increases the absorption due to multiple
reflection.
Laser Welding

Assessment in Laser Welding
Porosity (It is measure of void/spaces in a material)
Cracking
Heat Affected Zone
Hardness (Resistance of a material to localized deformation)
Tensile strength of the Joint
Schematic of Porosity
Schematic showing the formation of large void due to incomplete filling of

keyhole during laser welding
Joint Configurations in
Laser Welding
Commonly used joint configurations in laser welding
Joining Efficiencies of
Different Welding Processes
Relative joining efficiencies of different welding processes
Comparison of Welding
Processes
Advances in Laser Welding

Significant progress has been made to improve the quality of the laser welds,
welding efficiency, and productivity. Some of the major areas are,
Arc-Augmented (Hybrid) Laser Welding
Multibeam/Dual-Beam Laser Welding
Laser Welding of Tailor-Welded Blanks
Arc-Augmented (Hybrid) Laser Welding:
This process involves setting of an electric arc into the keyhole or the laser
material interaction zone produced during laser welding. Arc augmentation
gives a welding speed which is almost four times the speed obtained with
laser welding alone. It was reported that maximum welding speed
increases with increasing arc current.
Schematic Illustration of ArcAugmented Laser Welding:
Configuration of laser beam and arc-welding electrode in

laser-arc hybrid welding
Multibeam/Dual-Beam Laser Welding:
The dual-beam laser welding offers flexible processing since the power and
other laser parameters can be independently altered in two laser beams.
One of the beams can be used for melting of the workpiece during
welding, while, the other beam can be used either for preheating of
workpiece ahead of welding beam or post-heating (heat treatment) of the
welds past the welding beam.
Schematic Illustration of Dual

Laser Beam
Configuration of dual laser beam
Laser Welding of Tailor-Welded Blanks (welded vehicle body

components):
Tailor Welded Blanks are made from individual steel sheets of

different thickness, strength and coating which are joined together
by laser welding. Laser welded automotive blank technology allows
for the placement of various steel grades and thicknesses within a
specific part, placing steels attributes where they are most needed
and removing weight that does not contribute to performance.
Significant reduction in the weight of the vehicle can be achieved
by welding the blanks (of various materials, thicknesses, properties,
surface treatments, etc.) into a single tailor-welded blank (TWB).
Example: Tailor welded Blanks
Examples of typical tailor welded blanks

Advantages of Laser welding of TWBs:
Cost benefits due to reduction in the number of dies,

minimization of scrap, reduction in the number of process
steps, etc.
TWB offers significant improvements in the dimensional
accuracy and properties of the formed components.
Laser welding of the TWBs is challenging due to differing
properties of the blanks. However, laser processing parameters
can be effectively optimized to achieve the desired results.
Example: Laser Welding
The photograph shows a car door panel being subjected to laser welding (right)
and laser hybrid welding (left) processes.
Video Clip: Laser Welding
Video Clip: Laser Cutting & Welding
References
Dahotre, N. B., and Harimkar, S. P. (2008) Laser
Fabrication and Machining of Materials, Springer
Science + Business Media, New York.
Ion, J. C. (2005) Laser Processing of Engineering
Materials, Elsevier, London
Steen, W. M. (2003) Laser Materials Processing,
Springer-Verlag, London.
Ready, J. F. (2001) LIA Handbook of Laser
Materials Processing, Laser Institute of America,
Magnolia Publishing, Inc.
Beesley, M. J. (1971) Lasers and Their
Applications, Taylor & Francis, London.
Additive Manufacturing
Top 10 Emerging Technologies of

2015
https://agenda.weforum.org/2015/03/top-10-emerging-technologies-of-2015-2/
The World Economic Forums Meta-Council on Emerging Technologies, a panel of 18 experts, draws
on the collective expertise of the Forums communities to identify the most important recent
technological trends.
1. Fuel cell vehicles
2. Next-generation robotics
3. Recyclable thermoset plastics
4. Precise genetic engineering techniques
5. Additive manufacturing
6. Emergent artificial intelligence
7. Distributed manufacturing
8. Sense and avoid drones
9. Neuromorphic technology
10. Digital genome
What is Additive Manufacturing?
Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to a process by which digital 3D design data is

used to build up a component in layers by depositing material. (from the
International Committee F42 for Additive Manufacturing Technologies, ASTM).
The term "3D printing" is increasingly used as a synonym for AM. However, the latter
is more accurate in that it describes a professional production technique which is
clearly distinguished from conventional methods of material removal.
Subtractive VS. Additive Manufacturing

Material subtraction (removal)
top-down
Material addition
bottom-up
Could this be machined?
Features that represent problems using CNC machining
An early adopter
Panasonic bread maker: heating element clip broke during move, model had been discontinued
Used sketchup (free CAD) to copy design, shapeways to print ($14)
Had to widen part to fit minimum shapeways size, and drill out the hole because glaze thickened the
wall.
What Industry Sees
GE Leap fuel nozzle

Assembly directly made by laser melting of CoCr powder (also used in
medical/dental parts).
Previously 20 parts, now 1 part; 20 injectors per engine.
Estimate 25% lighter and 5X more durable than current design; new engine with
expected 15% fuel savings.
Expected production volume ~10s of thousands per year
May eventually need more metal AM machines (SLM) than current annual
worldwide demand.
GE announced $50 million 3DP investment in Auburn, Alabama plant
(7/16/14).
GE Leap fuel nozzle
from GE press releases and various news sources.
How do you use the parts made on your AM

machines?
The first engineered AM parts ..
The cornerstones are >20 years old

so, why is AM the big thing now? (what has enabled all the interest and attention?)
Software (especially wide adoption of CAD/CAE)

Improved (and lower cost) electromechanical components; thus, improved machine
performance
Availability of printable materials
Intellectual property (including key expirations)
Proven results, momentum and customer/public mindest
Why AM for industry?
Rapid prototyping; short-run production.
Complex geometries, enabling new designs and improved

performance (e.g., weight, strength, heat etc.).
Part consolidation (reduction in number of parts, printing assemblies)
Reduced lead time and inventory.
Decentralized (or, more efficient centralized) manufacturing

supply chain efficiency.
Computational Steps in Rapid Prototyping
Figure A: The computational steps in producing a stereolithography file. (a) Three-dimensional description of each
part. (b) The part is divided into slices (only one in 10 is shown); STL convert. (c) Support material is planned. (d) A
set of tool directions is determined to manufacture each slice.
STL (file format)
STL is a file format native to the Stereolithography CAD software created by 3D

Systems. STL is also known as standard Tessellation Language.
This file format is supported by many other software packages; it is widely used
for rapid prototyping and computer-aided manufacturing.
STL files describe only the surface geometry of a three-dimensional object without any
representation of color, texture or other common CAD model attributes.
The common file format for geometry interchange, IGES, is not robust enough because
of tolerancing issues.
STL (file format)
Users almost never have to worry about the file because the programs they use to
create their geometry automatically generate STL files in the proper format.
If you do need to write your own routine to output an STL file, it is fairly simple.
The file can be a text file (ASCII) or a binary file.
Faceting
The program that creates the STL file goes through the topology(geometry) of the model
and meshes it:
1: First it puts points on all of the shared edges of all the surfaces
2: Then it creates triangles on each surface
Faceting
There are two things to note about faceting.
The first is that each corner(vertice) must be coincident with at
least one other corner. No corners can touch the edge of
another triangle.
The second is that a triangle is flat and your surface can be
curved. To make your curved surface look curved you need
enough triangles(refined meshing) to make it appear like a
continuous surface.
Problem - Leaked geometry
The 7 AM Technologies (ASTM)

1.
Vat photopolymerization or Stereolithography (SLA)
2.
Material jetting or Ballistic particle manufacturing
3.
Material extrusion or Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
4.
Binder jetting or Three-dimensional printing
5.
Powder bed fusion or selective laser sintering/melting (SLS/SLM)
6.
Directed energy deposition
7.
Sheet lamination or Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)
1. Stereolithography (SLA)
Stereolithography is an additive manufacturing process which employs a
vat of liquid curable photopolymer "resin" and an ultraviolet laser to build
parts' layers one at a time.
For each layer, the laser beam traces a cross-section of the part pattern on
the surface of the liquid resin. Exposure to the ultraviolet laser light cures
and solidifies the pattern traced on the resin and joins it to the layer
below.
After the pattern has been traced, the SLA's elevator platform descends
by a distance equal to the thickness of a single layer, typically 0.05 mm to
0.15 mm. Then, a resin-filled blade sweeps across the cross section of the
part, re-coating it with fresh material. On this new liquid surface, the
subsequent layer pattern is traced, joining the previous layer. A
complete 3-D part is formed by this process.
After being built, parts are immersed in a chemical bath in order to be
cleaned of excess resin and are subsequently cured in an ultraviolet oven.
Stereolithography requires the use of supporting structures which serve

to attach the part to the elevator platform, prevent deflection due to
gravity and hold the cross sections in place so that they resist lateral
pressure from the re-coater blade. Supports must be removed from the
finished product manually.
Schematic layout of a Stereolithography process
Schematic layout of a Stereolithography machine
Advantages:
High level of accuracy and good finish
Relatively quick process
Max model weight: 200-400 kg
Disadvantages:
Relatively expensive
Lengthy post processing time and removal from resin
Limited photopolymers (resins) available
Often requires support structures and post curing for parts to be strong
enough for structural use
2. Ballistic Particle Injection

Material jetting is similar to inkjet document printing, but instead of
jetting drops of ink onto paper, PolyJet 3D printers jet drops of liquid
photopolymer onto the build tray.
Multiple print heads jet material simultaneously to create each layer,
and UV light is then used to cure the layers. These layers build up one at a
time in an additive process to create a 3D model.
Fully cured models can be handled and used immediately without
additional post-curing.
Along with the selected model materials, a gel-like support material

facilitates successful printing of complicated geometries. Support material
can be removed by hand or by a high-powered water jet station.

Material jetting is the only additive manufacturing technology that can
combine different print materials within the same 3D printed model in the
same print job.
Additionally, the multi-material printing process is capable of constructing
functional assemblies, which reduces the need for multiple builds.
Schematic layout of a ballistic particle injection machine
Schematic layout of a ballistic particle injection machine

Advantages:
The process benefits from a high accuracy of deposition of droplets and
therefore low waste
The process allows for multiple material parts and colours under one
process
Material can be changed during the build stage
Disadvantages:
Support material is often required
A high accuracy can be achieved but materials are limited and only
polymers and waxes can be used
High level of droplet control and positioning
Accuracy in detail features lags compared to stereolithography
3. Fuse Deposition Modelling

In fuse deposition modelling (FDM), material is drawn through a nozzle,
where it is heated (keeping the temperature just above the its melting
point) so that it flows easily through the nozzle and is then deposited
layer by layer. The plastic hardens immediately after flowing from the
nozzle and bonds to the layer below.
The nozzle can move horizontally and a platform moves up and down
vertically after each new layer is deposited.
FDM is similar to all other 3D printing processes, as it builds layer by layer,
it varies in the fact that material is added through a nozzle under constant
pressure and in a continuous stream. This pressure must be kept steady
and at a constant speed to enable accurate results.

A range of materials are available including ABS, polyamide,
polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, and investment casting wax.
Material layers can be bonded by temperature control or through the use
of chemical agents. Material is often added to the machine in spool form
as shown in the diagram.
Schematic layout of a fuse deposition modelling machine
Schematic layout of a fuse deposition modelling machine

Advantages:
Widespread and inexpensive process
ABS plastic can be used, which has good structural properties and is easily
accessible
Disadvantages:
Accuracy and speed are low when compared to other processes
Accuracy of the final model is limited to material nozzle thickness/radius
Constant pressure of material is required in order to increase quality of finish
4. Three-Dimensional Printing
Three Dimensional Printing (3DP) technology was developed at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The process is similar to the Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) process, but
instead of using a laser to sinter the material, an ink-jet printing head
deposits a liquid adhesive that binds the material.
3D Printing offers the advantage of fast build speeds, typically 2-4 layers
per minute. However, the accuracy, surface finish, and part strength are
not quite as good as some other additive processes.
3D Printing is typically used for the rapid prototyping of conceptual
models (limited functional testing is possible).
The 3D printing process begins with the powder supply being raised by a
piston and a leveling roller distributing a thin layer of powder to the top of
the build chamber.
A multi-channel ink-jet print head then deposits a liquid adhesive to
targeted regions of the powder bed. These regions of powder are bonded
together by the adhesive and form one layer of the part.
The remaining free standing powder supports the part during the build.
After a layer is built, the build platform is lowered and a new layer of
powder added, leveled, and the printing repeated.
After the part is completed, the loose supporting powder can be brushed
away and the part removed. 3D printed parts are typically infiltrated with
a sealant to improve strength and surface finish.
Schematic layout of a three-dimensional printing machine
Schematic layout of a three-dimensional printing machine
Advantages:
Parts can be made with a range of different colours
Uses a range of materials: metal, polymers and ceramics
The process is generally faster than others
It allows for a large number of different binder-powder combinations
Disadvantages:
Not always suitable for structural parts, due to the use of binder material
Additional post processing can add significant time to the overall process
5. Powder Bed Fusion

Powder bed fusion includes following commonly used printing
techniques: Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), Electron beam melting
(EBM), Selective heat sintering (SHS), Selective laser melting (SLM) and
Selective laser sintering (SLS).
Powder bed fusion (PBF) methods use either a laser or electron beam to
melt/sinter and fuse material powder together. Electron beam melting
(EBM), methods require a vacuum but can be used with metals and alloys
in the creation of functional parts.
All PBF processes involve the spreading of the powder material over
previous layers. There are different mechanisms to enable this, including a
roller or a blade.

A hopper or a reservoir below the fusion bed (platform) provides fresh
material supply.
Direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) is the same as SLS, but with the use of
metals and not plastics.
Selective Heat Sintering differs from SLS by using a heated thermal print
head to fuse powder material together.
Sintering is the process of compacting and forming a solid mass of material by heat and/or
pressure without melting it to the point of liquefaction
Schematic layout of a powder bed fusion machine

Advantages:
Relatively inexpensive
Suitable for visual models and prototypes
(SHS) Ability to integrate technology into small scale, office sized machine
Powder acts as an integrated support structure
Large range of material options
Disadvantages:
Relatively slow speed (SHS)
Lack of structural properties in materials
Size limitations
High power usage
Finishing is dependent on powder grain size
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) was developed at the University of Texas in Austin,
by Carl Deckard and colleagues. The technology was patented in 1989 and was
originally sold by DTM Corporation. The basic concept of SLS is similar to that of
SLA.
It uses a moving laser beam to trace and selectively sinter powdered polymer
and/or metal composite materials into successive cross-sections of a threedimensional part.
As in all rapid prototyping processes, the parts are built upon a platform that
adjusts in height equal to the thickness of the layer being built. Additional
powder is deposited on top of each solidified layer and sintered. This powder is
rolled onto the platform from a bin before building the layer.
The powder is maintained at an elevated temperature so that it fuses easily upon
exposure to the laser. Unlike SLA, special support structures are not required
because the excess powder in each layer acts as a support to the part being built.

With the metal composite material, the SLS process solidifies a polymer binder
material around steel powder (100 micron diameter) one slice at a time, forming
the part.
The part is then placed in a furnace, at temperatures in excess of 900 C, where
the polymer binder is burned off and the part is infiltrated with bronze to
improve its density.
The burn-off and infiltration procedures typically take about one day, after which
secondary machining and finishing is performed.
Recent improvements in accuracy and resolution, and reduction in stair-stepping,
have minimized the need for secondary machining and finishing.
SLS allows for a wide range of materials, including nylon, glass-filled nylon,
SOMOS (rubber-like), Truform (investment casting), and the previously discussed
metal composite.
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)

Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS) was developed in 1994 jointly by Rapid
Product Innovations (RPI) and EOS GmbH to produce metal.
With DMLS, metal powder (20 micron diameter), free of binder or fluxing agent,
is completely melted by the scanning of a high power laser beam to build the
part with properties of the original material.
Eliminating the polymer binder avoids the burn-off and infiltration steps, and
produces a 95% dense steel part compared to roughly 70% density with Selective
Laser Sintering (SLS).
An additional benefit of the DMLS process compared to SLS is higher detail
resolution due to the use of thinner layers, enabled by a smaller powder
diameter. This capability allows for more intricate part shapes.

Material options that are currently offered include alloy steel, stainless steel, tool
steel, aluminum, bronze, cobalt-chrome, and titanium.
DMLS is often used to produce rapid tooling, medical implants, and aerospace
parts for high heat applications.
The DMLS process can be performed by two different methods, powder
deposition and powder bed, which differ in the way each layer of powder is
applied. In the powder deposition method, the metal powder is contained in a
hopper that melts the powder and deposits a thin layer onto the build platform.
In the powder bed method, the powder dispenser piston raises the powder
supply and then a recoater arm distributes a layer of powder onto the powder
bed. A laser then sinters the layer of powder metal.
The powder deposition method offers the advantage of using more than one
material, each in its own hopper. The powder bed method is limited to only one
material but offers faster build speeds.
6. Directed Energy Deposition

Directed Energy Deposition (DED) covers range of technologies: Laser engineered
net shaping (LENS), directed light fabrication (DLF), direct metal deposition
(DMD), laser cladding, laser free-form fabrication (LFF) and many more.
Although the general approach is same, difference between these technologies
commonly includes laser power, spot size, laser type, powder delivery method,
inert gas delivery method, feedback and motion control etc.
As all of the above mentioned technologies/processes involves deposition,
melting and solidification of powder material using a traveling melt pool, the
resulting part attains high density during the build process.
A typical DED machine consists of a nozzle mounted either fixed or on a multi axis
arm to deposit the material from any angle using to 4 and 5 axis machines.

DED processes are NOT used to melt a material that is pre-laid in a powder bed
but are used to melt materials as they are being deposited.
The process can be used with polymers, ceramics but is typically used with
metals, in the form of either powder or wire.
DED processes uses focused heat source (typically a laser or electron beam) to
melt the feedstock material and build up three dimensional objects in a manner
similar to the extrusion based processes.
Schematic layout of a directed energy deposition machine
Schematic layout of a directed energy deposition machine

Advantages:
Ability to control the grain structure to a high degree, which lends the process to
repair work of high quality, functional parts
A balance is needed between surface quality and speed, although with repair
applications, speed can often be sacrificed for a high accuracy and a predetermined microstructure
Disadvantages:
Finishes can vary depending on paper or plastic material but may require post
processing to achieve desired effect
Limited material use
Fusion processes require more research to further advance the process into a
more mainstream positioning
7. Sheet Lamination
Sheet lamination processes include ultrasonic additive manufacturing
(UAM) and laminated object manufacturing (LOM).
The Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing (UAM) process uses sheets or
ribbons of metal, which are bound together using ultrasonic welding. The
process does require additional cnc machining and removal of the
unbound metal, during the welding process.
UAM uses metals and includes aluminium, copper, stainless steel and
titanium (Ultrasonic Additive Manufacturing Overview, 2014).
The process is low temperature and allows for internal geometries to be
created. The process can bond different materials and requires relatively
little energy, as the metal is not melted.
7. Sheet Lamination
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM) uses a similar layer by layer
approach but uses paper as material and adhesive instead of welding.
A laser or any mechanical device is designed to cut to a depth of one
layer thickness; cuts the cross-sectional outline.
The unused material is left in place for support and diced using crosshatch pattern into small rectangular cubes.
During post-processing the cross-hatched pieces of excess material are
separated from the part using typical wood carving tools (called
decubing).
Laminated objects are often used for aesthetic and visual models and are
not suitable for structural use.
7. Sheet Lamination
Schematic layout of a laminated object manufacturing machine
7. Sheet Lamination
(a) Schematic illustration of the laminated-object-manufacturing process. (b) Crankshaft-part made by

LOM
7. Sheet Lamination
Advantages:
Benefits include speed, low cost, ease of material handling, but the
strength and integrity of models is reliant on the adhesive used
Cutting can be very fast due to the cutting route of the shape outline but
not the entire cross sectional area
Simple and inexpensive setup
Disadvantages:
Finishes can vary depending on paper or plastic material but may require
post processing to achieve desired effect
Structural quality of parts is limited
Characteristics of AM Rapid Prototyping

Technologies
Powder Metallurgy
Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy (PM) is a process for
fabricating metal parts from finely compacted
metal powders.
Advantages of Powder Metallurgy

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
PM parts can be mass produced to net shape or near net shape,

eliminating or reducing the need for subsequent processing.
The PM process itself involves very little waste of material; about 97%
of the starting powders are converted to product.
Owing to the nature of the starting material in PM, parts having a
specified level of porosity can be made. This feature lends itself to the
production of porous metal parts such as filters and oil-impregnated
bearings and gears.
Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods can be
shaped by powder metallurgy.
PM compares favorably with most casting processes in terms of
dimensional control of the product.
PM production methods can be automated for economical production.
Disadvantages of Powder Metallurgy

These include the following:
1. Tooling and equipment costs are high.
2. Metallic powders are expensive.
3. Difficulties with storing and handling metal powders (such
as degradation of the metal over time, and fire hazards
with particular metals).
4. Metal powders do not readily flow laterally in the die
during pressing, and allowances must be provided for
ejection of the part from the die after pressing.
5. Maintaining uniform material density throughout the part
is difficult, especially for complex part geometries.
Characterization of Engineering
Powders
A powder can be defined as a finely divided particulate solid.
The geometry of the individual powders can be defined by the
following attributes: (1) particle size (2) particle shape and
internal structure, and (3) surface area.
Screen Mesh for sorting particle size
Several of the possible (ideal) particle

shapes in powder metallurgy
Basic Steps in Powder Metallurgy

Powder Production
Blending and Mixing
Powder Compaction
Sintering
Sizing
Impregnation & Infiltration
Finishing etc.
Primary operations
Secondary operations
FLOW CHART
Outline of processes and operations involved in making powder-metallurgy parts.
Powder Production
Almost any metal can be made into powder form.
There are three principal methods by which metallic powders

are commercially produced.
The methods are:
(1) Atomization (Gas, water, centrifugal)
(2) Chemical
(3) Electrolytic
Atomization
Atomization involves the conversion of molten metal
into a spray of droplets that solidify into powders.
It is the most versatile and popular method for
producing metal powders today.
There are multiple ways of creating the molten metal
spray, several of which are illustrated in Figure 1 (next
slide).
Figure 1: Atomization
Methods (a) & (b) gas
atomization (c) water
atomization (d)
centrifugal atomization
Gas Atomization
Two of the methods shown in Figure 1(a) and 1(b) are based on
gas atomization, in which a high velocity gas stream (air or
inert gas) is utilized to atomize the liquid metal.
In Figure 1(a), the gas flows through an expansion nozzle,
siphoning molten metal from the melt below and spraying it
into a container. The droplets solidify into powder form.
In a closely related method shown in Figure 1(b), molten metal

flows by gravity through a nozzle and is immediately atomized
by air jets. The resulting metal powders are collected in a
chamber below.
*
Siphon: a tube/pipe that uses atmospheric pressure to draw liquid from one container,
place, or level to another.
Water Atomization
The approach shown in Figure 1(c) is similar to 1(b), except that
a high-velocity water stream is used instead of air. This is
known as water atomization.
This method is particularly suited to metals that melt below
1600C (2900F).
The disadvantage of using water is oxidation on the particle

surface. A recent innovation involves the use of synthetic oil
rather than water to reduce oxidation.
In both air and water atomization processes, particle size is
controlled largely by the velocity of the fluid stream; particle
size is inversely related to velocity.
Centrifugal Atomization
Several methods are based on centrifugal atomization.
In one approach, the rotating disk method shown in Figure 1d,

the liquid metal stream pours onto a rapidly rotating disk that
sprays the metal in all directions to produce powders.
Blending and Mixing

Blending: when powders of the same chemical
composition but possibly different particle sizes are
intermingled. Different particle sizes are often blended
to reduce porosity.
Mixing: when powders of different chemistry being

combined.
Blending and Mixing

Blending and mixing are accomplished by mechanical means.
Four alternatives are illustrated in Figure (a) rotation in a drum
(b) rotation in a double-cone container (c) agitation in a screw
mixer and (d) stirring in a blade mixer.
Blending and Mixing

Other ingredients are usually added to the metallic powders
during the blending and/or mixing step.
These additives include:
(1) Lubricants: to reduce friction between particles and at the
die wall during compaction
(2) Binders: to achieve adequate strength in the pressed but
unsintered parts
(3) Deflocculants: an agent for thinning suspensions or slurries.
It is used to reduce viscosity and improve flow characteristics
during subsequent processing
Compaction
In compaction, high pressure is
applied to the powders to form them
into the required shape.
The conventional compaction method

is pressing, in which opposing
punches squeeze the powders
contained in a die. The steps in the
pressing cycle are shown in Figure A.
(1) is the filling the die cavity with
powder, done by automatic feed in
production, (2) initial position, (3)
final positions of upper and lower
punches during compaction, and (4)
ejection of part.
Compaction
The applied pressure in compaction results initially in
repacking of the powders into a more efficient arrangement,
eliminating bridges formed during filling, reducing pore
space within the particle, and increasing the number of
contacting points between particles.
As pressure increases, the particles are plastically deformed,

causing interparticle contact area to increase and additional
particles to make contact. This is accompanied by a further
reduction in pore volume.
Isostatic Pressing
Isostatic pressing is a powder processing process.
There are 2 types of isostatic pressing processes.
Cold isostatic pressing (CIP), where powder is sealed in a
flexible mould and is then subjected to a uniform hydrostatic
pressure without heating.
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP), where components are loaded
into a furnace and then placed in a pressure vessel so that
heat and pressure can be applied simultaneously.
Isostatic pressure is a pressure that is applied from all directions
simultaneously.
Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP)

Cold isostatic pressing (CIP) involves compaction
performed at room temperature.
The mold, made of rubber or other elastomer
material, is oversized to compensate for shrinkage.
Water or oil is used to provide the hydrostatic
pressure against the mold inside the chamber.

Figure B illustrates the processing sequence in cold isostatic
pressing.
Cold isostatic pressing: (1) powders are placed in the flexible mold; (2) hydrostatic
pressure is applied against the mold to compact the powders; and (3) pressure is
reduced and the part is removed

Advantages of CIP:
more uniform density,
less expensive tooling,
greater applicability to shorter production runs
Limitations of CIP:
Good dimensional accuracy is difficult to achieve in isostatic
pressing because of the flexible mold.
Subsequent finish shaping operations are often required to
obtain the required dimensions, either before or after
sintering.
Hot Isostatic Pressing (HIP)

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) is used, as indicated, to
press and sinter simultaneously in an inert
atmosphere (usually using Argon gas).
The powder in the hot isostatic pressing process has
to be protected from the atmosphere so that oxide
films can be avoided.
Hot pressing needs the powder to be heated,
pressurised and cooled in the protective
atmosphere.

The mold in which the powders are contained is
made of sheet metal to withstand the high
temperatures.
It is a relatively expensive process and its
applications seem to be concentrated in the
aerospace industry.
PM parts made by HIP are characterized by high
density (porosity near zero).
Sintering
After pressing, the green compact formed after CIP lacks
strength and hardness and can easily crumbled under low
stresses.
Sintering is a heat treatment operation performed on the
compact to bond its metallic particles, thereby increasing
strength and hardness.
Most metals are sintered at 70% to 80% of the melting
temperature.
Shrinkage occurs during sintering as a result of pore size
reduction
Sintering
The heat treatment consists of three steps, accomplished in
three chambers in these continuous furnaces: (1) preheat, in
which lubricants and binders are burned off; (2) sinter; and (3)
cool down. The treatment is illustrated in Figure C
Spark Sintering
An alternative approach that combines pressing and sintering but
overcomes some of the problems in hot pressing is spark
sintering.
The process consists of two basic steps (1) powder or a green
compacted preform is placed in a die and (2) upper and lower
punches, which also serve as electrodes, compress the part and
simultaneously apply a high-energy electrical current that burns
off surface contaminants and sinters the powders, forming a
dense, solid part in about 15 seconds. The process has been
applied to a variety of metals.
Secondary Operations of PM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Impregnation
Sizing
Coining
Infiltration
Plating / Coating
Secondary Operations
Impregnation(soaking)
Utilizes inherent porosity of PM components by
impregnating them with a fluid (oil) to reduce it
degradation properties and improve machinability.
Sizing
Sizing is the pressing of a sintered part to improve
dimensional accuracy.
Coining
Coining is a press working operation on a sintered part
to press details into its surface
Secondary Operations
Infiltration
An operation in which the pores of the PM part are filled
with a molten metal. The melting point of the filler
metal must be below that of the PM part. The process
involves heating the filler metal in contact with the
sintered component so that capillary action draws the
filler into the pores.
Plating / Coating
Plating and coating operations are applied to sintered
parts to improve appearance and corrosion resistance.
METAL POWDER PRODUCTS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
METALLIC FILTERS
CEMENTED CARBIDES
GEARS & PUMP ROTORS
MOTOR BUSHES
POROUS BEARINGS
MAGNETS
CONTACT PARTS
AUTOMOTIVE COMPONENTS
APPLICATIONS
ADVANTAGES
ELIMINATION OF
MACHINING
HIGH PROD RATES
COMPLEX SHAPES CAN
BE PRODUCED
WIDE VARIATIONS IN
COMPOSITIONS
SCRAP IS ELIMINATED
LIMITATIONS
INTERIOR STRENGTH
PROPERTIES
RELATIVELY HIGH DIE
COST
HIGH MATERIAL COST
DESIGN LIMITATIONS

Modern Manufacturing Techniques NUST

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Modern Manufacturing Techniques NUST

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Non Traditional Machining (NTM)

Comparison of Conventional and

Generally macroscopic chip formation by

chips are of generally microscopic size

There may be a physical tool present

There may not be a physical tool present

Energy domain can be classified as

Mostly NTM processes do not necessarily

Conventional machining involves the

Non-conventional machining does not

Comparison of Conventional and

Lower accuracy and surface finish

Higher accuracy and surface finish

Suitable for every type of material

Not Suitable for every type of material

Higher waste of material due to high

Lower waste of material due to low or no

Noisy operation mostly cause sound

Quieter operation mostly no

Lower capital cost

Higher capital cost

Skilled or un-skilled operator may

Skilled operator required

Non Traditional Machining (NTM)

Non Traditional Machining (NTM) Processes

These requirements include:

The need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies the

Types of NTM Processes

1. Mechanical Erosion of the work material by a high velocity

2. Electrical These non traditional processes

Types of NTM Processes

4. Chemical Most materials (metals) are susceptible to

Mechanical Energy Processes

(1) Ultrasonic Processes

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic machining can be used to

Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Ultrasonic machining centers can

Ultrasonic machining of a carbide die for

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

Ultrasonic Welding (USW)

An ultrasonic welder compressing onto the contact.

The materials in the upper portion of

Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

nozzle opening diameter

cutting feed rate

The standoff distance is the separation between the nozzle

Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

Water Jet Cutting (WJC)

The WaterJet Orifice (Jewel Orifice)

The waterjet orifice is the single

Waterjet orifice design utilizes

Orifice Failure Modes

Metal or plastic particles from High Pressure tubing and filters.

Other line born contaminants.