1.

Introduction to X-Rays
This lab is an excellent introduction to the generation and detection of x-rays, x-ray safety,
and the absorption of x-rays by various materials.
2. Apparatus
The apparatus consists of three main parts:
1. X-Ray source
2. Sample region
3. Free-air ionization chamber for X-ray detection.
Acquaint yourself with x-ray concepts and equipment: tubes high-voltage supplies,
controls, component ratings, spectra, methods for measuring intensities, etc. Also, safety
measures to avoid damaging the equipment, electrical shock, and unsafe exposure dosages.
The Wiki entries on X-Rays and X-Ray tubes are a good place to start.
A checklist to remember the procedure for turning on and off the experiment is
available here. Please follow these instructions to make sure you don't damage the setup.
3. Schematic Diagrams
Trace the wires and identify all the component elements of the x-ray generator circuit you
will use. Draw its schematic diagram noting all the switches and adjustment controls,
component ratings, the upper limit on safe tube voltage, tube current, and anode power.
Look over two or three other x-ray set-ups in the laboratory and identify their visual
components.

4. Experiments
Saturation curve Measure the saturation curve for the free-air ionization chamber. Plot this
curve for a 60 kVp, 1.5 mA beam and decide with arguments, where on this curve you
should operate for reliable measurements of intensities. Is this chamber-voltage also a good
choice for a beam of a different voltage?
Absorption coefficient With a 60 kVp and then a 40 kVp beam, measure the effective linear
absorption coefficients for Aluminum, water, soft glass, and undeveloped x-ray film. In the
case of Al and the 60 kVp beam, use successively thicker absorbers and plot the effective
wavelength eff vs. thickness x and then extrapolate eff at x=0 and at \Delta x=\infty.
To be of practical use, any measurement for eff (in the determination of eff or otherwise)
must be taken with a very thin absorber if the beam is heterochromatic.
Dose Rate With a Victoreen dosimeter (cavity" type chamber) measure the rate of r/min
for each of the two beams in (2). (Exposure times will likely be short, less than one
minute.) Convert the two absolute intensity measurements of (3) to exposure dose rates in
r/min. (Note: these dosimeters are not terribly accurate.)
Pinhole Imaging of Anode Take two pinhole camera x-ray pictures of.the Mo-Cu anode
operating at 60 kVp and 1.5 mA. One picture should be taken with 2x magnification to
show the focal-spot details and the other with 1x magnification to show generally, the
central region of the tube {with the focal spot obviously over-exposed). Qualitatively
explain all the features of both pictures, including the type of x-ray and its origin. Make a
semi-quantitative measurement of the ratio of the intensities across the Mo-Cu interface,
and another of all the intensities from the focal spot to the rays from the remaining anode.
From these ratios, deduce {1) the ratio of the atomic number of the target button to that of

the anode stem and (2) the fraction of the cathode electrons that back-scatter from the target
button.
5. Further Analysis and Calculations
Absolute intensity Determine the beam intensity in ergs/cm2/s at the entrance aperture of
the ionization chamber for a 60kVp, 1.5 mA beam and then for a 30 kVp, 3 mA beam,
making appropriate corrections for absorption in the air.
Intensity ratio Icon to Ich Assuming the empirical relations Icon = ciV2 and Ich = ki(V
Vo)2 for Mo continuous and characteristic radiation respectively, compute the intensity
ratio (with all the respective wavelengths in each case lumped together) at 60 kVp and 30
kVp (normalized for the tube current i) at the chamber aperture. Cite and discuss references
that support or contest your values.
Efficiency of production Compute the production efficiency for x-rays at 60 kVp and then
30 kVp, referring your measured emission power to the surface of the target button inside
the tube for a solid angle 4, neglecting the x-ray absorption in the target itself. Compare
and discuss your values with those obtained with the 1.4 x 10 9ZV formula for
continuous radiation given in the reference reading.
6. Problem
With film of the same type as above calculate the time for a proper exposure (i.e. the proper
absorbed energy in the film) for a radiograph of your instructor's hand (2 cm thick) 40 cm
from the anode remembering that it took 10 seconds with the 60 kVp, 1.5 mA beam using a
1mrn Al filter. Calculate (i) the exposure dose in r units and (ii) the absorbed dose in rads if
the picture were taken. Compare this with the safe dose to the hand, determined by New
York State law, viz., 25 rems in 13 consecutive weeks. (Sensitivities of different biological
tissue vary greatly. The safe limit for whole body irradiation is 3 rems in 13 consecutive
weeks, 5 rems in 52 consecutive weeks.