EXPERIMENT 1

Compounding of elastomer using two roll mill.

INGRIDIENTS
Natural Rubber NR
Carbon Black
Silica
Sulfur
Dibenzthiazyal-disulfide MBTS
Tetramethylthiurum-disulfide TMTD
Anti-degradent
ZnO
Steric acid
Processing oil

FORMULATION
100 phr
60 phr
50 phr
1.5phr
2 phr
1 phr
1 phr
2 phr
1 phr
10 phr

Procedure

Weigh all the ingredients which are required for the making of a sheet of compound (i.e. natural
rubber).
Convert the all formulations from Parts per Hundred PHR into grams, multiplied by with factor 5
for easy balance.
Take the weighted elastomer i.e. Natural rubber bring it to the two roll mil and wrap it on the roll
until its viscosity reduced slightly due the shearing action between the two rolls.
Incorporate the fillers (carbon black and silica) and mix them.
Add processing oil in this mixture to make the mixing process easier.
Mix all rest of the ingredients and it into the elastomer which is banded onto the roll and mix it
for 2-3 minutes.
Homogenize it and sheeting out the compound.

Theory
Natural Rubber
Rubber is an example of an elastomer type polymer, where the polymer has the ability to return to its
original shape after being stretched or deformed. The rubber polymer is coiled when in the resting state.
The elastic properties arise from the its ability to stretch the chains apart, but when the tension is released
the chains snap back to the original position.
Natural rubber is a type of polymer that is obtained as a milky white fluid known as latex from a tropical
rubber tree. Natural rubber is from the monomer isoprene (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene). [1]

Carbon Black
Carbon black [C.A.S. NO. 1333-86-4] is virtually pure elemental carbon in the form of colloidal
particles that are produced by incomplete combustion or thermal decomposition of gaseous or liquid
hydrocarbons under controlled conditions. Its physical appearance is that of a black, finely divided pellet
or powder. Its use in tires, rubber and plastic products, printing inks and coatings is related to properties
of specific surface area, particle size and structure, conductivity and color
Traditionally, carbon black has been used as a reinforcing agent in tires. Today, because of its unique
properties, the uses of carbon black have expanded to include pigmentation, ultraviolet (UV) stabilization
and conductive agents in a variety of everyday and specialty high performance products. [2]

Silica
Amorphous precipitated silica, defined by a specific CAS number, is used in many applications in addition
to its use in the rubber and tire industry, including cosmetics, paper and many other applications related
to nutrition and health.[3]
Silica have been used as the main reinforcing fillers that increase the usefulness of rubbers. As a
reinforcing agent, anti-aging agent, silica can be used in rubber products to increase strength, toughness,
anti-aging, anti-friction of rubber products and prolong life and other functions.[4]

Sulfur
Sulfur is one of the principal rubber vulcanizing agents. It is a critical additive. When chemically combined
with rubber, sulfur develops basic performance properties in the vulcanized compound such as: tensile
strength, elongation, modulus, and hardness.
The most stable molecular form of sulfur at ambient conditions is a ring structure containing eight sulfur
atoms. Depending on conditions these molecules orient into one of two crystalline structures. At room
temperature the crystals are rhombic and above 95C they rearrange to monoclinic. Less than 1.5 % of
either crystalline structure of sulfur is soluble in any rubber at room temperature.
The second common molecular form of sulfur is polymeric sulfur, made up of unbranched chains of sulfur
atoms. It is commonly referred to in the rubber industry as insoluble sulfur. When this material is created
by rapid heating to above 160C and quenching to room temperature, the sulfur is amorphous. If formed
under other conditions, the polymer chains may develop regions of pseudo crystallinity.
Insoluble sulfur is an important form of sulfur used only in the rubber industry. It is not soluble in any type
of rubber hydrocarbon. When it is mixed in rubber, it disperses but remains undissolved in the rubber.
The use of insoluble sulfur prevents the development of a supersaturated solution of sulfur in rubber that
occurs when rhombic sulfur is used. No sulfur bloom will develop on the surface of uncured rubber pieces
when the rubber cools after mixing or processing; therefore, building tack is preserved. At curing
temperatures, insoluble sulfur rapidly transforms to a soluble species, dissolves in the rubber, and enters
into the vulcanization process.[5]

Dibenzthiazyl- Disulfide (MBTS)

It is a Delayed-action semi-ultra accelerator. MBTS are used for rubber and latex vulcanization
acceleration. The amount of MBT in MBTS may be of importance in predicting performance in rubber
compounds and for raw material purchase and control.ASTM D4818-89)

Tetramethyl Thiuram Disulfide (TMT, TMTD)

TMTD can be used as a single accelerator, as a secondary accelerator or as a sulfur donor in most sulfurcured elastomers, heat aging and compression set resistance. Good color retention is obtained in nonblack vulcanizes. It is a Ultra-accelerator and vulcanizing agent

Zinc oxide-ZnO
Zinc oxide (ZnO) - is the most known vulcanizing activator and it can be used along with the majority of
known accelerators. Thus, vulcanization in the presence of ZnO leads to a decrease of the sulfidic
crosslinks, while the formation of C-C bonds is favored. This is accompanied by an increase of the thermal
stability of vulcanizates. During the vulcanization in the presence of ZnO, sulfur is partially converted to
zinc sulfide.

Antidegradents
Antidegradant describe materials used in rubber to protect against the effects of oxygen and ozone.
Materials that fall in this general category include both antioxidants and antiozonant. [6]

Steric acid
Stearic acid is important in the rubber vulcanization process. It is believed that the stearic acid reacts with
zinc-oxide or other metallic oxides, during vulcanization, to form a rubber soluble salt or soap that reacts
with the accelerator enabling it to exert its full effect. Because of the Dual nature of Hydrophobic and
hydrophilic nature of the Stearic Acid, it becomes more rubber soluble and this property will be very
helpful in the Activator system of the rubber compounding
Stearic acid of commerce is generally a mixture of palmitic, stearic, and oleic acids usually derived from
tallow base stock but can be derived from other fats and oils of animal or vegetable origins.[7]

Processing oils
Various oils are used to help incorporate all the dry ingredients used in the rubber compounding. They
also help to reduce the viscosity of the overall compound to help with molding. Adding more oil can also
lower the hardness of the rubber. Thus, lower Shore A compounds will typically have more oil in the
formulation.

Two roll mill

Two roll mill consists of two horizontal, parallel heavy metal rolls which can he jacketed with steam and
water to control the temperature. These rolls are connected to the motor through gears to adjust the
speed. Rolls turn towards each other with a preset adjustable gap or nip o allow the rubber to pass through
to achieve high shear mixing. Mill mixing is the oldest method of rubber mixing, dating back to the very

beginning of the rubber industry. However, it is a relatively slow method and its batch size is limited.
Internal mixers overcome these problems.[8]

Figure: Two roll rubber mixing mill

Friction ratio
The speed of the two rolls is often different. The back roll usually turns at a faster speed than the front
roll, this difference increases the shear force. The difference in roll speeds is called friction ratio, which is
dependent upon the mill s use. For natural rubber mixing a ratio of 1: 1 .25 for the front to back roll is
common. [8]

Cooling
Cooling is employed either through cored rolls or through peripherally drilled rolls. The principal one
employs cored rolls i.e. water is sprayed onto the outside of an axially drilled central core. [8]

Other attachments
Mills are fitted with a metal tray under the rolls to collect droppings from the mill. Guides are plates which
are fitted to the ends of the rolls to prevent the rubber from contamination with grease etc. Safety
measures arc also attached to the mill for protecting the operator as well as the mill. [8]

Observations
Mixing process
There are five stages in the mixing process. These are:

Banding/wrapping the rubber on the first roll

Viscosity reduction by mastication
Incorporation of ingredients
Distribution
Dispersion

When a highly elastic rubber of high molecular weight is fed into the mixer, it must be converted to a state
in which it will accept particulate additives. This stage is called viscosity reduction. It is achieved either by
a physical mechanism called mastication or by chemical means called peptisation. Now the rubber is ready
to flow around the additives, incorporating and enclosing them in a matrix of rubber. Incorporated
additives are then available for distribution. For better incorporation and distribution, with the help of a
cutting knife give suitable cuts from either sides of the front roll.
During distributive mixing the rubber flows around the filler particle agglomerates and penetrate the
interstices between particles in the agglomerate and the rubber mix becomes less compressible and its
density increases. The rubber which has penetrated the interstices becomes immobilized and is no longer
available for flow. This immobilization reduces the effective rubber content of the mixture. The
incompressibility of the mixture allows high forces to be applied to the particle agglomerates, causing
them to fracture. This action is called dispersive mixing, which serves the purpose of separating the
fragments of agglomerates once they have been fractured. The addition of plasticizers facilitates easy
incorporation of the fillers. Curatives are added at the end of the mixing cycle. After thorough
incorporation of all the ingredients the mix is homogenized and the batch is then sheeted out. For best
mixing procedure the temperature is kept at 75-80 C by careful adjustment of flow of cooling water
through the rolls.

Comparison before and after NR

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Before making NR
compound
Surface is not smooth
On touching it gives black color
Flexible
Dull black color
Less elastic
No additive

After making NR compound

Surface become smooth
It does not give color
Hard and rigid
Shiny black color
Comparatively less plastic and
high elastic
No agglomeration of additive
Good distribution and dispersion
No blooming due to sulfur
No bubbles on the surface due
to air entrap

EXPERIMENT 2
Fabrication of extruded profile by extruder.

Extruders
Extruders for processing elastomers normally provide most of the energy for heating the material by
energy transfer through the screw from the drive unit. Thus, such extruders operate nearly adiabatic.
These extruders are also usually equipped with external thermal control, which because of the relatively
low operating temperatures (130 C max), is often carried out with pressurized water. This arrangement
allows the extruder to be preheated to the required temperature before start-up. In elastomer processing
one makes a basic distinction between hot- and cold-feeding.

Figure: Extruders for Elastomers

Hot Feeding
In hot-feeding, the rubber compound slaps which have been stored, are reheated to 60 to 100 C and
plasticized on one or more roll mills: this transforms the rubber mix into a fully flow able state by heat
transfer, or input of mechanical energy. The extruder is continuously fed with strips, or discontinuously
with pigs of this plasticized mix. The extruder still has to move the material against the resistance of the
forming die, during which process further plasticization can occur. As a consequence of the relatively
modest demands made on the extruder, hot-feed machines have a small L/D (screw length to diameter)
ratio, usually between four and six. Because of its short length the hot-feed extruder is relatively sensitive
to changes in the feed, which translate immediately into variations in the geometry of the extruded
profile. For producing blanks, discontinuous ram extruders are used, as well as hot-feed screw extruders.

Cold Feeding
In cold-feeding, the extruder is fed at room temperature with a plasticized compound. The feed material
may be strips or granules. Since with cold-free extrusion both heating and plasticization functions must
be carried out by the extruder, the length of the screw is greater than with hot-feed extruders. The L/D
ratio varies with screw diameter, and lies between 18 and 22. For special tasks extruders with even greater
L/D ratios have been produced. In recent years cold-feed extruders have been adopted in almost all areas
of rubber extrusion, since, by comparison with hot-feed operations, processing is significantly more
economic as preheating roll mills are not required.
The functions a cold-feed extruder has to perform may be summarized as follows:

Feeding. conveying, and compacting,

Heating and plasticization,
Mixing and homogenization,
Pressure build-up for extrusion.

Observations
We are using cold feeding for natural rubber compound these compounds are cut into strips and is fed
into the extruder. This extruder is a single zone conveying extruder, no external heating is required
material gets heated due to viscous heat dissipation owing to its viscoelastic nature, die is slightly heated
for shaping the material. When the desired shape of the material is obtained then the profile is heated in
the oven at 140oC for curing for about 40 minutes.
Comparison before and after curing

Sr.
1
2
3
4
5
6

Before Curing
Slightly rough surface
Bubble on the surface of strips
Less hard
Flexible
Dull black color
No crosslinked network

After Curing
Smooth surface
No bubbling over the surface
More hard and rigid
Tough
Shiny black color
Crosslinked network formed

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Ophardt, C.E., Rubber Polymers, in VirtualChem Book2003.

Robertson, J.a.K.I. Carbon Black. 2004.
Kraus, G., Reinforcement of Elastomers by Particulate Fillers, in Science and Technology of Rubber,
B.E.a.F.R.E. James E. Mark, Editor 1978: new york
N. Rattanasom, T.S.a.C.D., Reinforcement of natural rubber with silica/carbon black hybrid filler.
2007. 26(3).
D4528, A., Standard Classification for Rubber Compounding MaterialsSulfur, in Significance and
Use2012.
D4676-94, A., Standard Classification for Rubber Compounding MaterialsAntidegradents, in
American society for testing and materials(ASTM)1994.
88, A.D.-. Standard Classification for Rubber Compounding MaterialsStearic Acid, in Significance
and Use2012.
P. M. Visakh, S.T., Arup K. Chandra, Aji. P. Mathew, Advances in Elastomers I: Blends and
Interpenetrating Networks, in Two roll mill, Springer.

EXPERIMENT 3
Curing of the Elastomer by hot press and giving it the desire shape.

Procedure
The procedure of curing the rubber compound is given below:

First of all for giving a shape to the rubber compound select the type of the Mold.
Switch on the Hot Press machine and the set the temperature of the machine at about 140oC.
Then set the temperature of upper controller up to 290oF and lower controller to 190oC and
preheat the mold for 1 hour.
Cut the rubber compound into small strips.
Rubber strips are introduced into the mold in a partially cured condition. Gradually increase the
pressure of the hot press from 0 to 200 Bars.
Remove the mold from the machine after 50 minutes and open the mold and take the sheet of
rubber from the mold. Cool it and observe the properties of cured product.

Observations
We are curing natural rubber compound, rubber is cut into strips and is fed into the pre-heated mold for
giving it the shape of sheet. Leave it for 1 hour to attain a constant temperature of 140 oC. The desired
shape and curing is not achieved because temperature is not sufficient for the given time so when we
removed our material from the mold it was sticky and tacky and it also gave color. Very few changes were
observed. The material which was placed in the corners of the mold attained the shape of ring, and the
material which was placed in the center didnt attain the shape of the ring.
Comparison before and after curing of the rubber compound

Sr.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Before Curing
Slightly rough surface
Bubbles on the surface of strips
Less hard
Flexible
Dull black color
Uncured
Stretched

After Curing
Smooth surface
No bubbling over the surface
More hard and rigid
Tough
Shiny black color
Cured
No stretch-ability

EXPERIMENT 4
Blending of Polychloroprene and Styrene Butadiene Rubber in internal batch mixer.
INGRIDIENTS
PolyChloroprene
Styrene Butadiene Rubber
Silica
Sulfur
Dibenzthiazyal-disulfide MBTS
Tetramethylthiurum-disulfide TMTD
Anti-degradent
ZnO
Steric acid
Processing oil

FORMULATION
30 PHR
70 PHR
30 PHR
1.5 PHR
2 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
2 PHR
1 PHR
5 PHR

Procedure

First of all to convert the formulation from Parts per Hundred PHR to grams multiply with the
factor 0.19 for easy calculations.
Weigh all the ingredients which are required for the blending of PolyChloroprene and Polystyrene
Butadiene Rubber.
Switch on the Internal Mixer and set its temperature to 50oC and 45 RPM
Take the weighted Elastomer i.e. Styrene Butadiene Rubber in internal batch mixer
Add processing oil to make the blending process easy, and allowed to process for almost 2 minutes
into the internal mixer
Add Polychloroprene and blend them for 2 minutes
Incorporate silica and mix it for 2-3 minutes and give extra time almost 7 minutes for the blending
in chamber.
Mix all rest of the ingredients and add it into the blend in the chamber of internal mixer and mix
it for 2 minutes.
Homogenize it and remove the blend from the Chamber.

Observations and Theory

Polychloroprene
Among the specialty elastomers polychloroprene [poly(2-chloro-1,3-butadiene)] is one of the most
important with an annual consumption of nearly 300,000 tons worldwide. CR is not characterized by one
outstanding property, but its balance of properties is unique among the synthetic elastomers. It has:

Good mechanical strength

High ozone and weather resistance
Good aging resistance

10

Low flammability
Good resistance toward chemicals
Moderate oil and fuel resistance
Adhesion to many substrates

Styrene-Butadiene Rubber
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR), a general-purpose synthetic rubber, produced from a copolymer of
styrene and butadiene. Exceeding all other synthetic rubbers in consumption, SBR is used in great quantity
in automobile and truck tires, generally as an abrasion-resistant replacement for natural rubber (produced
from polyisoprene).

Blending process
There are five stages in the blending process. They are:

Enter the Elastomers into the mixer chamber in which materials are to be mixed
Mixing is achieved by deforming the heat softened batch of feed by rotating blades
Incorporation of ingredients
Distribution
Dispersion

Observations

Greyish color
Soft when it is removed from the mixer but gets harder on cooling
It does not give color upon touching its surface
Hard and rigid
Less stretch-ability
No agglomeration of additive
Good distribution and dispersion
No blooming due to sulfur
No bubbles on the surface due to air snare

11

EXPERIMENT 5
To find the bound rubber content of cure rubber compounds.

Procedure
The procedure for determining the bound rubber content and crosslink density of a cure rubber
compound is given below:

First of all take round sample of cure rubber and weigh the sample.
Place the round rubber sample in a glassware with toluene approximately 30 ml, and make sure
that the rubber sample is completely covered then close the jar tightly.
Leave the jar for 3 hours as it is, then take the rubber sample out from the toluene jar.
Wipe toluene from the rubber, blot dry and weigh it.
Place the rubber sample in jar for 24 hours and after 24 hours remove the rubber sample, dry it
and weigh it again.
Put the rubber sample again into the jar for 24 hours and weigh it after wiping the toluene from
rubber, mass will increase with time and after certain period of time it will be constant and then
the mass doesnt increase further.
Repeat the process and weigh it until mass became constant.
Take the sample and place it in the fume hood for 1 day at atmospheric pressure.
Put the sample in oven for 1 day at 85oC.
Place the sample for drying at atmospheric pressure for 1 day.
Weigh the dried sample again and we will get a particular weight and this would be known as Gel.
Use Flory Rehners equation to determine the bound rubber contents.

Theory
We can also determine crosslinking density, volume fraction and swell ratio from this experiment.
An extension to FH is well known as a method of estimating crosslink density through swelling
measurements, using the FloryRehner equation.[1]

Where,
= volume fraction of the polymer in the swollen system,
Volume swelling ratio, S=1/
m= crosslink density (mole/volume)

12

V= molar volume of the solvent,

= FloryHuggins parameter representing the solventpolymer interaction energy.
Typical use of this equation is to measure the crosslink density by measuring the swelling induced by a
solvent of known . More detailed calculations of swelling in cross-linked polymers have been developed,
but the FloryRehner equation is simple one.
If necessary, a FH parameter can be calculated from the more widely known solubility parameters, i,
for the solute and solvent.[1]

FH interaction parameter
d Solubility parameter dispersion
p Polar
h Hydrogen bonding components

Volume fraction
The volume fraction of rubber in the swollen network is determined by using: [2]

Vr the volume fraction of rubber in the swollen network

a1 the weights of the swollen specimen
a2 the specimen after drying at room temperature
r density of rubber
s density of solvent

13

Bound Rubber Content

Bound rubber is the rubber portion that can no longer be separated from the filler when a rubber batch
is extracted in a good solvent over a specific period of time, usually at room temperature. It is a measure
of the interaction between the polymer and the filler. During the milling process, polymer chain molecules
become attached to reinforcing fillers. Therefore they are no longer soluble in usual solvents. This process
is the basis for the formation of bound rubber. It continues after mixing and eventually a system of
interconnecting chains and particles results, which appears as an insoluble fragile gel containing filler and
part of the bound rubber. [3]
Equation that is used to calculate the bound rubber content is: [4]

Rb, bound rubber content

Wfg, weight of filler and gel
Wt, weight of the sample
mf, fraction of the filler in the compound
mr, fraction of the rubber in the compound

Sample
NBR round shape piece is taken as sample to determine its crosslink density, swell ratio and bound
rubber contents.
Nitrile rubber
Nitrile rubber is the generic name given to emulsion polymerized copolymers of acrylonitrile and
butadiene. Its single most important property is exceptional resistance to attack by most oils and solvents.
It also offers better gas impermeability, abrasion resistance, and thermal stability than the general
purpose elastomers like natural rubber and SBR. These attributes arise from the highly polar character of
acrylonitrite, the content of which determines the polymers particular balance of properties. NBR needed
is generally based on oil resistance vs. low temperature performance. Nitrile rubber is used primarily in
soling, plus hoses, tubing, linings, and seals used for the conveyance or retention of oils and solvents.[5]

14

Observations

After placing NBR round sample in toluene NBR swollen, hence mass increased.
Colorless toluene changed into blackish wine color.
After drying weight of NBR sample decreased from the original value.

Calculations
NBR is taken as sample, original weight = 1.26g

No.

Time (hr)

Weight(g)

No.

Time(hr)

Weight(g)

1.74

24

2.083

24

2.259

24

2.131

24

2.261

24

2.105

24

2.105

10

24

2.117

24

2.206

11

24

2.111

24

2.136

12

24

2.110

Weight of NBR sample after drying in oven for 24 hr = 1.091g

Weight of NBR sample after atmosphere drying for 24 hr = 1.088g

Graph between swollen sample weight and time

2.5

Weight (g)

1.5

0.5

0
0

24

48

72

96

120

144

168

192

216

240

264

288

Time (hr)

15

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Crol, S.G., Application of the FloryRehner equation and the Griffith fracture criterion to paint
stripping. 2009.
RANI JOSEPH, K.E.G., D. JOSEPH FRANCIS and K. T. THOMAS, Polymer-Solvent Interaction
Parameter for NR/SBR and NR/BR Blends. 1986.
Choi, S.-S., Difference in bound rubber formation of silica and carbon black with styrene
butadiene rubber. 2002: p. 466474.
Choi, S.-S., Effect of Bound Rubber on Characteristics of Highly Filled StyreneButadiene Rubber
Compounds with Different Types of Carbon Black. 2004: p. 6.
Ciullo, P.A.H., N., The Rubber Formulary2008: Elsevier Science.

16

EXPERIMENT 6
Blending of Polypropylene and Ethylene propylene diene monomer in an internal batch mixer.
INGRIDIENTS
EPDM
PP
Silica
Sulfur
Dibenzthiazyal-disulfide MBTS
Tetramethylthiurum-disulfide TMTD
Anti-degradent
ZnO
Steric acid

FORMULATION
60 PHR
40 PHR
35 PHR
2 PHR
2 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
1.5 PHR
1 PHR

Procedure

First of all to convert the formulation from Parts per Hundred PHR to grams multiply with the
factor 0.19 for easy calculations.
Weigh all the ingredients which are required for the blending of PolyPropylene and Ethylene
Propylene Diene Monomer Rubber.
Switch on the Internal Mixer and set its temperature up to 175oC and 50 RPM.
Take the weighted thermoplastic i.e. Polypropylene in internal batch mixer and mix it for almost
2 minutes.
Add Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer Rubber and blend them for 2 minutes.
Incorporate silica and mix it for 2-3 minutes and give extra 5 minutes for the blending in chamber.
Mix all rest of the ingredients and add them into the blend, in the chamber of internal mixer and
mix the blend for 2 minutes.
After all this add sulfur and mix it for 1-2 minutes.
Homogenize it and take out the blend from the Chamber.

Observations and Theory

Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer

An extensive range of EPDM polymers are produced by varying the molecular weight, molecular weight
distribution, ethylene/propylene ratio and level and type of diene termonomer. Elastomers are available
containing from 50% to more than 75% ethylene by weight. Polymers with lower ethylene content are
amorphous and easy to process. Higher ethylene content gives crystalline polymers with better physical
properties, but more difficulty in processing. The amount of terpolymer is typically 1.5 to 4%, but can be
as high as 11% in ultra-fast curing grades. Most EPDMs are incompatible with diene rubbers (eg. natural,
SBR, NBR) because of their relatively slow cure rate. The ultra-fast cure EPDMs overcome this.[1]

17

In general, the ethylene propylene rubbers are compounded to provide good low-temperature flexibility,
high tensile strength, high tear and abrasion resistance, excellent weatherability (ozone, water, and
oxidation resistance), good electrical properties, high compression set resistance, and high heat
resistance. The high molecular weight crystalline EPDMs can incorporate high levels of fillers. EPMs and
EPDMs have low resistance to hydrocarbon oils and their lack of building tack must be compensated for
by the use of resin.[1]

Polypropylene
Polypropylene is a semi-crystalline polymer known for its low density, and its somewhat higher stiffness
and strength than PE-HD. However, PP has a lower toughness than PE-HD. Polypropylene homopolymer
has a glass transition temperature -10oC, below this temperature it becomes brittle. However, when
copolymerized with ethylene it becomes tough. Because of its flexibility and the large range of properties,
including the ability to reinforce it with glass fiber, polypropylene is often used as a substitute for an
engineering thermoplastic. When injection molding the PP, the melt temperature should be between 250
to 270oC, and the mold temperature 40-100oC. Typical applications for injection molded polypropylene
parts are housings for domestic appliances, kitchen utensils, storage boxes with integrated hinges (living
hinges), toys, disposable syringes, food containers, etc

Blending process
There are five stages in the blending process. They are:

Put the Elastomers into the mixer chamber in which materials are to be mixed
Mixing is achieved by deforming the heat softened batch of feed by rotating blades
Incorporation of ingredients
Distribution
Dispersion

Observations

Blackish brown color

Soft when blend is removed from the mixer but gets very harder after few minutes
It does not give color upon touching its surface
Hard and rigid
No agglomeration of additive
Good distribution and dispersion
No blooming due to sulfur
No bubbles on the surface due to air snare
Degrade due to high temperature of internal batch mixer

References
1.

Ciullo, P.A., Rubber Formulary1999.

18

EXPERIMENT 7
Test the mechanical properties of the given compounded polymer or elastomer by using Universal
testing machine UTM.

Procedure
The procedure for determining the mechanical properties is given below:

Take the specimen and measure the width and thickness of the specimen with the help of gauge
meter.
Switch on the Universal testing machine UTM and computer system attached with it.
Set the parameters of UTM i.e. thickness, width, speed, shear rate, crosshead position,
elongation, stress, maximum duration of the test and force etc.
Place the specimen in the grips of the testing machine, taking care to align the long axis of the
specimen.
Tighten the grips evenly and firmly to the degree necessary to prevent slippage of the specimen
during the test, but not to the point where the specimen would be crushed.
Start the machine and Record the load-extension curve of the specimen.
Plot the graph and determine the properties of specimen.

Experimental conditions
The conditions were used for the experiment are listed below:

Temperature: 23OC
Speed of testing: 50(2) 10 %mm/min
Strain rate at start of test: 1.5 mm/mm min

Sample
Type IV (semi rigid) polypropylene random copolymer is used as sample for testing mechanical properties.
Random copolymer polypropylene
Polypropylene random copolymers are a type of polypropylene in which the basic structure of the polymer
chain has been modified by the incorporation of a different monomer molecule. Ethylene is the most
common comonomer used. This causes changes to the physical properties of the PP. In comparison with
PP homopolymers, random copolymers exhibit improved optical properties (increased clarity and
decreased haze), improved impact resistance, increased flexibility, and a decreased melting point, which
also results in a lower heat-sealing temperature. At the same time they exhibit essentially the same
chemical resistance, water vapor barrier properties, and organoleptic properties (low taste and odor
contribution) as PP homopolymer. Random copolymer PPs were developed to combine improved clarity

19

and impact strength, and are used in blow molding, injection molding, and film and sheet extrusion
applications. They are used in food packaging, medical packaging, and consumer products. Random
copolymer PP is mainly used in film, blow molding, and injection molding applications where high clarity
is a requirement.

Specimen Dimensions
The conditions were used for the experiment are listed below:

Thickness(a): 3.19mm
Width(b): 6mm
Overall length:110mm
Gauge length: 30mm
Clamping length: 70mm

Universal Testing Machine

It is used to find the mechanical properties of the polymers. For example it finds tensile strength, stress
strain curve, yield point, and modulus etc.

Figure: Universal Testing Machine

The main parts of the machine are:

Load frame
Load cell
Cross head
Extensometers

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Output device
Test fixtures: specimen holding jaws

Calculations

Stress-strain curve
18
16
14

Stress N/mm2

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Strain

Observations

Break from starting point

Break rapidly

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EXPERIMENT 8
Design the formulation of following products on theoretical basis to get the desire properties

Rubber Hoses for hot water

Polyurethane shoe soles
Outer body of refrigerator
Utensils of Melamine

Procedure

First of all enlist the desire properties of the product.

Select the ingredients according to the properties.
Design the formulation to best properties with optimized cost.

Formulations
1. Rubber Hoses for hot water
INGRIDIENTS
EPDM
Carbon black
Sulfur
Dibenzthiazyal-disulfide MBTS
Tetramethylthiurum-disulfide TMTD
Anti-degradent
ZnO
Steric acid

FORMULATION
100 PHR
25 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
0.5 PHR

2. Polyurethane shoe soles

INGRIDIENTS
PU
Silica
ZnO
Sulfur
Organo tin compound
Stearic acid
Antidegradent
Processing oil

FORMULATION
100 PHR
30 PHR
2 PHR
1.5 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
1 PHR
5 PHR

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3. Outer body of refrigerator

40 parts by weight of an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene graft copolymer resin (g-ABS)

30% by weight of a monomer mixture comprising a cyanide vinyl compound
Aromatic vinyl compound to about 70% by weight of a rubber polymer
UV stablizer (bruggalin) 10 weight %

4. Utensils of Melamine
INGRIDIENTS
Melamine formaldehyde resin
Alpha cellulose or pulp fiber
Benzoic acid or phthalic anhydride
Zinc sterate
Colorants

FORMULATION
68-75 PHR
25-20 PHR
0.2-2 PHR
1-3 PHR
1-3 PHR

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