Chp.

2 Biochemistry
Properties water:
1. High Cp - marine stable
2. High Hvp - sweat cools
3. Universal solvent
4. Cohesion tension - transpirational-pull, capillary action,
surface tension
5. Ice less dense water - spring overturn
Carbohydrates:
CnH2O1
Monosaccharides - C6H12O6, glucose, galactose,
fructose
Disaccharides - C12H22O11, dehydration
synthesis/condensation + H2O vs. hydrolysis;
maltose-glucose, lactose-galactose, sucrose-fructose
Polysaccharides - cellulose, starch, chitin, glycogen
Lipids:
1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids (hydrocarbon chain + carboxyl)
Saturated - all H, unsaturated - double bond, liquid
Steroids - cholesterol, estrogen
Phosphorus - 1 glycerol+phosphate + 2 fatty acids

Proteins:
1) carboxyl, 2) amine, 3) variable; dipeptide
Structure:
a. Primary - linear sequence amino acid
b. Secondary - H-bond; fibrous protein - alpha
helix, beta pleated sheet
c. Tertiary - specificity
d. Quaternary - >1 polypeptide chain
Chaperone - help fold other proteins; denaturation
Nucleic Acids:
1) phosphate, 2) 5-C sugar, 3) N base
Enzymes:
= globular protein; tertiary
Induced fit model -> enzyme substrate complex
Cofactors/coenzymes; temp and pH
Competitive inhibition - compete active site enzyme;
overcome by incr conc substrate vs competitive
inhibitor
Noncompetitive
Allosteric regulators bind alternate site &
changes shape inactive/active
Feedback inhibition - end product pathway
inhibits early enzyme pathway
Cooperativity - allosteric, amp response
enzyme

Chp. 3 The Cell

Same Characteristics:
1. Plasma membrane
2. Cytosol
3. Ribosomes
4. DNA
Eukaryotic Organelles
Passive Transport
1. simple - doesnt involve protein channels; high conc ->
low conc
countercurrent exchange - opp direction
2. facilitated - involves hydrophilic protein channels;
transport single ions
aquaporin - water channel proteins; massive
amt water
Hypertonic - having greater conc solute; plasmolysis
Hypotonic - having lesser conc solute; turgid/burst; ex:
hypotonic solution, water flow into cell
Active Transport
1. Pump/carrier - Na/K; electron transport chain proton
pump
2. Contractile vacuole
3. Exocytosis - vesicle
4. Pinocytosis - cell drinking - large dissolved particles
into vesicle
5. Phagocytosis - large particles into vacuole

Cell signaling
1. Reception
receptors contact extracellular environ &
cytoplasm
hydrophilic signaling molec cant diffuse; 1)
ligand bind receptor cell surface, 2) change
shape cytoplasmic side receptor (allosteric), 3)
signal transmitted from outside
cell->cytoplasm, 4) signal carried 2nd
messenger - cAMP
a. Ion channel receptor - gate that allow influx
ions ex: acetylcholine
b. G-protein coupled receptors - entire cell
membrane; ligand binds extracellular ->
conformational change cytoplasmic receptor
-> G-protein + adenylyl cyclase -> activate
mobile G protein + GTP -> ATP convert to
cAMP
c. Receptor Tyrosine Kinases - enzymatic
activity; tyrosine kinase = enzyme catalyze
transfer phosphate groups from ATP to amino
acid tyrosine; ligand bind -> receptors
aggregate -> enzyme + ATP -> relay proteins
-> response
d. Cytoplasmic receptors - nonpolar ligands
diffuse thru plasma membrane -> bind

6.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis - specific substances;

ligand bind receptors -> endocytosis -> receptors
cluster along membrane -> coated vesicle - cholesterol
from blood
Bulk flow - source -> sink
Gap junctions - animals; plasmodesmata - plant; connect
cytoplasms

2.

3.

intracellular receptor; ex: steroids, thyroid

hormones, NO
Transduction - molec signal -> cell response
signal transduction pathway - common
ancestor; cascade rxn
Response

Chp. 4 Cell Respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 36-38 ATP --- oxidative bc losing H
1. Glycolysis - cytoplasm; anaerobic
a. 1 glucose + 2 ATP -> 2 pyruvates + 4 ATP
b. substrate level phosphorylation - transport P to ADP
c. PFK allosteric inhibition bc enough ATP, inhibit PFK enzyme by change conformation
2. Preparatory Rxn - matrix
a. 2 pyruvate + 2 CoA + 2 NAD+ -> 2 acetyl-CoA + 2 CO2 + 2 NADH
3. Citric Acid Cycle/Krebs - matrix; aerobic
a. 2 acetyl-CoA + 6 NAD+ + 2 FAD + 2ADP +2P -> 4 CO2 + 6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 ATP
b. turns 2x per glucose; substrate-level phosphorylation
c. NAD & FAD required to accept p+/e- or else no cell respiration; coenzymes
4. Electron Transport Chain - cristae; aerobic
a. pass e- thru carriers cytochrome
b. NADH -> NAD+ + 3 ATP & FADH2 -> FAD + 2 ATP
c. oxidative phosphorylation
i.
protons pumped from matrix -> outer compartment
ii.
protons flow thru ATP synthase channels into matrix
iii.
ADP + P -> ATP
d. O2 final acceptor -> water --- waste product
5. Fermentation - anaerobic
a. need to regenerate NAD+
1. Alcohol Fermentation - yeast
i.
2 pyruvate + 2 NADH -> 2 ethyl alcohol + 2 CO2 + 2 NAD+
2. Lactic Acid Fermentation
i.
2 pyruvate + 2 NADH -> 2 lactate
Chp. 5 Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 12H20 -> C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
1. Light-Dependent - thylakoid membranes
a. Noncyclic Photophosphorylation
1. P680 e- from chlorophyll a energized -> primary e- acceptor
2. photolysis --- H20 -> 2H+ + 2e- + O2
3. e- transport chain - chemiosmosis; cytochromes; e- to P700
4. chemiosmosis - H+ from water pumped into thylakoid space; H+ diffuse from thylakoid space to stroma
thru ATP synthase channels
5. NADP + 2H+ -> NADPH --- from water; goes to Calvin cycle
6. e- replaced in P700
b. Cyclic Photophosphorylation - to produce ATP no NADPH or O2
1. P700 e- excited to primary acceptor -> travel down e- trans chain of P700 & chemiosmosis -> returns to
P700
2. Light-Independent/Calvin - stroma; C fixed; occurs only in light
a. CO2 + 5-C RuBP -> 6-C -> 2 3-C PGAL --- enzyme rubisco; ATP -> ADP, NADPH -> NADP+
b. 6 turns -> 1 glucose
3. Photorespiration
a. when rubisco + O2 instead CO2 -> 1) no ATP, 2) no glucose made, 3) peroxisomes break down products
b. C-4 adaptation: 4-C release CO2 to Calvin, stomata closed so rubisco not exposed O2; CAM: fix 4-C into CO2 at night

Chp. 6 Cell Division

Factors limit cell size & promote cell division
1. ratio V:SA
2. capacity nucleus control cell
Phases:
Interphase
G1: growth, biochem activity
S: replication DNA; centrosome w/ 2 centrioles
replicate
G2: grow
G2-M: centrosomes separate, MTOC
Mitosis
1. Prophase - nuclear membrane disintegrate,
chromosomes condense, nucleolus disappears, mitotic
spindle begin form
2. Metaphase - chromosomes line up, centrosomes opp
poles, spindle fibers connect kinetochores
3. Anaphase - centromeres of chrom separate, sister
chromosomes part
4. Telophase - nuclear mem forms, chromatic, nucleoli
form
Cytokinesis
animal - cleavage furrow - anaphase - actin/myosin
microfilaments pinch
plant - cell plate - telophase - vesicles from Golgi gather
middle, cells dont separate, new cell wall & middle
lamella
Cancer
1. Contact inhibition
2. Density-dependent inhibition
3. Anchorage dependence

Meiosis - make diversity for natural selection & evolution

Meiosis I - homologous chrom separate
1. Prophase I - synapsis - pairing homologues;
crossing-over btwn nonsister chromatids; chiasma
2. Metaphase I - tetrads line up; spindle fibers attach to
centromeres
3. Anaphase I - homologous chrom pulled apart
4. Telophase I - haploid # chrom at ea. pol; cytokinesis
Meiosis II - mitosis but not really; to separate the chromosomes
into chromatids
Genetic Variation
1. Independent Assortment - random lining; 2^23
2. Cross-over - recombination
3. Random fertilization
Regulation Cell Cycle
1. G1 - restriction point; go ahead vs. exit cycle & G0
nondividing cell
2. Growth factors - cyclins & protein kinases
a. cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) = protein
kinases catalyze phosphorylation proteins tht
reg cell cycle
b. growth factor -> cyclin synthesis -> CDKs +
protein cyclin -> activated by exposing active
site CDK -> cyclin broken down by protease --allosteric reg
Apoptosis - 1) DNA, organelles, cytoplasmic stuff chopped up, 2)
pts packed in vesicles, 3) engulfed by scavenger cells
1. embryonic development
2. too much genetic damage
3. defense against infection
4. caspases - enzymes that trigger apoptosis bc too
damaged
similar prokaryotes, evolution

Chp. 7 Heredity
Probability
a. Multiply - 2 independent events ex: chance 2 boys =
x=
b. Add - >1 arrangement events make specified outcome
ex: chance 1 girl & 1 boy = ( x ) + ( x ) =
Mendel - particulate inheritance; single gene, 2 alleles
a. Law of Dominance
b. Law of Segregation - during meiosis, 2 traits separate;
best shown by monohybrid cross
c. Testcross - ? dominant x homo recessive
d. Law of Independent Assortment - not on same
chromosome/dihybrid cross; = alleles will segregate
independently; opp of linked genes
e. Dihybrid cross - 9:3:3:1
Not Mendelian
Incomplete dominance = blending; pink flower from
red & white flowers

Environment
multifactorial basis - genetic disease w/ environ
component ex: cancer
penetrance = proportion individuals w/ given genotype
that actually show expected phenotype; ex: breast
cancer, some dont get
Linked genes
= genes same chromosome
farther apart 2 genes on chrom, more likely separated
bc cross-over
Recombination = (# recombinants)/(total # offspring)
Barr body - every somatic cell; genetic mosaic; calico cats
Mutations
1. Deletion
2. Inversion - reverse
3. Translocation - nonhomologous chrom
4. Polyploidy - extra set chrom - nondisjunction
Exceptions Mendelian inheritance

Codominance = both traits show; single gene locus & 2

allelic variants
Multiple alleles = >2 allelic forms of a gene; ex: blood
types
Polygenic Inheritance - blending several separate genes
ex: skin color
Gene Interactions
Pleiotropy = 1 single gene affects organisms many ways;
ex: cystic fibrosis
Epistasis = 2 separate genes control gene, 1 gene masks
expression other gene; gene that masks is epistatic to
gene it masks

1.

2.

genomic imprinting = variation phenotype depending

trait inherited from mom/dad; silencing allele by
methylation DNA; zygote expresses 1 allele imprinted
gene
extranuclear genes - mitochondrial DNA

Chp. 8 Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Proof DNA:
Griffith: 2 strains bacteria - virulent & harmful; => bacterial transformation to virulent when genetic factor transferred
Avery, MacLeod, McCarty: => empirical evidence that DNA is transforming factor
Hershey & Chase: P & S radioactive; P (DNA) infected bacteria => DNA from viral nucleus in reproduction
Franklin: => helix structure
Watson & Crick: => double helix; allow understand replication
Meselson & Stahl: 15N & 14N; replicate, medium density => semiconservative
Structure:
antiparallel, 1) 5-C sugar 2) phosphate 3) N base
purine: A & G, pyrimidine: C & T; A=T, C---G
nucleosome: DNA around histones
DNA Replication:
1. replication bubble @ origin; rep both directions; rep fork
2. helicase
unwinds 2 strands;
single-stranded binding proteins
hold 2 strands apart;
topoisomerases
lessen tension
3. RNA primase
adds nucleotides to make
RNA primer
4. Leading:
DNA polymerase
makes new strand 5 -> 3
toward
rep fork
Lagging:
DNA polymerase
adds 5 -> 3
away
rep fork to make Okazakis
5. DNA polymerase
replaces primers;
DNA ligase
connects Okazakis & 2 strands
6. DNA polymerase
mismatch repair - proofreading;
DNA nuclease
excise bad pts
Protein Synthesis:
A. Transcription - nucleus
a. Initiation
1.
Transcription factors (proteins) recognize TATA box (key area w/in promoter)
2.
TATA box allows RNA polymerase + promoter @ DNA; promoter tells RNA polymerase where begin &
which strand
transcription factors + RNA polymerase ---------- transcription initiation complex
+ promoter
b. Elongation
1. RNA polymerase unzips DNA & attaches RNA nucleotides to 3 end
2. Transcription unit - pt DNA transcribed into mRNA; codons code specific amino acids
3. RNA polymerase proofreads
c. Termination
1. RNA polymerase transcribes termination sequence
2. mRNA cut free from DNA
B. RNA Processing
1. 5 cap - G; help RNA bind to ribosome
2. poly-A tail; 3 end; protect RNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes; help mRNA -> cytoplasm
3. splicesomes + snRNPs remove introns
alternative RNA splicing - regulatory proteins det. which pt. intron/exon
C. Translation - amino acid + tRNA + anticodon + codon (mRNA)
a. Initiation

1. mRNA + subunit ribosome

Elongation
1. tRNA uses GTP to amino acids -> ribosome;
aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase
joins amino acid -> tRNA
2. anticodons recognize multiple codons so 3rd base of codon weak = wobble
3. many mRNA translated by ribosomes at one in cluster - polyribosome
c. Termination
1. release factor
breaks bond btwn tRNA & last amino acid
2. mRNA broken down
mutation that results stop codon =
missense mutations
b.

Viruses:
= parasite that makes host cell transcribe & translate the proteins needed to make more virus
structure: 1) capside - protein coat, 2) DNA/RNA, 3) envelope of host
bind to specific receptors so infect 1 cell type; host range
1. Bacteriophages/Phages
a. Lytic - virulent; enter, control cell machinery, replicate itself, cell burst, release more
b. Lysogenic - incorporation into host DNA, dormant in genome = prophage, divides w/ host, trigger to lytic
temperate virus - both modes
2. Retrovirus = have RNA instead DNA
infects, RNA serves as template to make cDNA w/
reverse transcriptase
, insert itself into genome = prophage ex: HIV
3. Transduction = genetic recombination
a. generalized - move random pieces bac DNA as phage lyses & infects;
lytic
b. restricted/specialized - transfer of specific DNA;
lysogenic
, when rupture, carries DNA
Bacteria:
structure: 1) nucleoid - circular DNA, no nuclear membrane; replicate both directions w/ single pt of origin
reproduction
1. binary fission - asexual; variation thru mutations
2. conjugation - pilo connect cells/cytoplasmic bridges to transport DNA
transformation = extracellular DNA taken up by living bacteria -> stable genetic change & recombination
plasmid = self-replicating foreign DNA inside bacteria, bacteria expresses DNA; conjugation; F=fertility & R=resistant
antibiotics
Operon: = gene regulation; bacteria
1. TRP -
repressible
a. RNA polymerase + promoter => mRNA
b. TRP (corepressor) actives repressor -> repressor + operator -> RNA polymerase promoter => no mRNA
2. Lac -
inducible
a. allolactase (inducer) + active repressor -> inactivate repressor so operator -> RNA polymerase + promoter =>
transcription
Positive gene regulation - turning on gene by repressor-co complex binding promoter --- CAP + promoter -> gene expression
Prions = misfolded infectious proteins
scrapie, mad cow disease, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
Human gene
tandem repeats - repetitive sequences; Huntingtons;
make up telomeres
polymorphic regions = noncoding regions DNA
Human Regulation:
a. Regulation at Chromatin level
histones - bound tightly, DNA less accessible
for transcription; bound loosely, DNA more
accessible; reversible
acetylation - adding acetyl loosens chromatin
-> transcription; removing -> no transcription
b. Regulation by Methylation
adding methyl to DNA -> silence DNA
Barr bodies

Recombinant DNA
occurs in nature
1. viral transduction
2. bacterial transformation
3. conjugation
4. transposons
uses gene cloning
1. make protein product ex: insulin
2. replace nonfunctioning gene by gene therapy;
vector
3. multiple copies gene analysis
4. engineer bacteria clean up environ
cloning gene
1. isolate gene; insert gene into plasmid
2. insert plasmid into vector; bacteria; competent
3. clone gene; harvest

c.

d.
e.
f.
g.
h.

Epigenetic inheritance = alteration do not directly

involve nucleotides
environmental, identical twins diff
Regulation at Transcription level
transcription factors presence
Regulation at Post-Transcriptional level
alternative RNA splicing - intron/exon splicing
Degradation mRNA
Proteins modified post-translational level
when to fold and activated
Noncoding RNA - regulate DNA
1. miRNA - form complex w/ proteins; target
specific mRNA molec - degrade/block
translation
2. siRNA - block gene expression by
RNAi(nterference)
3. piRNA - guide proteins to cRNA; protect germ
line cells from transposons

Tools
a.

b.

c.

d.

e.
f.

restriction enzymes - extracted from bacteria - used to

protect from invading phages; recognition sequences;
sticky ends; restriction fragments
gel electrophoresis - smaller molec, fast it runs;
restriction enzymes; DNA probe = ID location specific
sequence w/in DNA
DNA probe = radioactively labeled single strand nucleic
acid molec to tag specific sequence DNA; bond
complementary sequence; detect genetic defect
polymerase chain rxn - 1) put in tube, 2) supply
nucleotides & primers --- to amp lots
limitations
1.
some info abt nucleotide sequence
DNA must be known to make primers
2.
size DNA short
3.
contamination
restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs)
DNA fingerprint
cDNA - clone human gene into bacteria; need rid of
introns; reverse transcriptase to make DNA

Chp. 9 Biological Diversity

kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
Domains:
1. Bacteria
a. prokaryotes, no internal membrane;
decomposers; pathogens; no introns; viruses;
peptidoglycan cell wall
2. Archaea
a. unicellular; prokaryotic; extremophiles - 1)
methanogens, 2) halophiles, 3) thermophiles;
no peptidoglycan
3. Eukarya
a. nucleus, internal organelles, no peptidoglycan
b. Kingdoms
i.
Protista - seaweeds, slime molds,
amoeba, paramecium
ii.
Fungi - heterotrophs, extracellular
digestion, decomposers, chitin,
mushrooms

iii.
iv.

Plants - autotrophic, vascular tissue

Animals - heterotrophic,
multicellular, reproduce sexually, 1
common ancestor
Primitive Characteristics vs. Complex
1. no/radial symmetry vs. bilateral symmetry
2. no cephalization vs cephalization
3. 2 cell layers vs 3
4. no true tissues vs. tissues, organs, organ systems
5. life in water vs. land
6. sessile vs. motile
7. few organs vs. organ systems
Germ Layers
1. ectoderm - skin, nervous system
2. endoderm - guts, digestive system
3. mesoderm - blood & bonds
a. mesoglea for diploblastic organisms

Chp. 10 Evolution
Evidence
1. Fossil Record
2. Comparative Anatomy - homologous, analogous,
vestigial
Comparative Biochemistry
4. Comparative Embryology
5. Molecular Biology - cytochrome c
6. Biogeography - Pangaea
Darwins Natural Selection
1. Populations overpopulate

Causes Evolution in Population - change allelic frequency

1. Genetic Drift -
decr diversity
1) bottleneck = natural
disasters kill large portion unselectively, 2) founder =
small population breaks away from large one
2. Gene Flow -
incr diversity
movement alleles into/out
population
3. Mutations -
incr diversity
cumulative effect
4. Nonrandom Mating -
decr diversity
eliminates less-fit
individuals

2.
3.

Overpopulation -> competition & struggle

Populations have variation & unequal ability
individuals
4. Best-fit survive and pass traits offspring
5. Evolution when advantageous traits accumulate in
population
Selection
1. Direction
2. Diversifying - balanced polymorphism
3. Direction - antibiotics, peppered moths
4. Sexual
5. Artificial
Preserve Variation
1. Balanced Polymorphism - different colors of shells =
morph
2. Geographic Variation - rabbits in Arctic and here =
cline
3. Sexual Reproduction - independent assortment,
crossing-over, random fertilization
4. Outbreeding
5. Diploidy
6. Heterozygote Advantage - sickle cell anemia
7. Frequency-Dependent Selection/Minority advantage predators search image & prey most common type
8. Evolutionary Neutral Traits - traits no selective
advantage, blood types

Natural Selection -
decr diversity
better fit &
reproductive success
Hardy-Weinberg Equil
1. Pop large
2. Pop isolated from other pops - no gene flow
3. No mutations
4. Random mating
5. No natural selection
Speciation
a. Allopatric - geographic isolation
b. Sympatric
1. polyploidy - nondisjunction meiosis; plants
cant breed 4n & 2n
2. habitat isolation - aquatic vs. terrestrial
3. behavior isolation - fail mate dance
4. temporal isolation - time; seasons
5. reproductive isolation - prezygotic/postzygotic
Patterns Evolution
1. divergent - one species isolated & new selective
pressures ; allopatric/sympatric speciation
2. convergent - unrelated species similar selective
pressures & similar adaptations; whale and fish
3. parallel - related species diverged then converge bc
similar environ; wolf in Aussie & Am
4. coevolution - adaptation 2 interacting species;
predator-prey & monarch butterfly & milkweed plant
5. adaptive radiation - many species from common
ancestor; Darwins finches
Gradualism vs. Punctuated Equilibrium - allopatric
1st anaerobic heterotrophic prokaryotes, then endosymbiosis
5.

Chp. 11 Plants
Guard cells
have chloroplasts that control opening stomata
guard cell absorb water by osmosis -> turgid -> stomata
open; lose water -> flaccid -> stomata closes; stomatal
crypts
Transport
a. Short-distance - osmosis; water potential; aquaporins rapid osmosis; rate not direcion
i. water potential = solute/osmotic + pressure
ii. normal = 0; high solute<0; high to low water
potential
b. Long-distance - bulk flow = pressure gradient high to
low pressure
i. phloem - transport sugar from leaves
ii. xylem - transport water & minerals from soil

root pressure - high mineral conc in roots so

water osmosis; pushes xylem sap upward lil;
guttation
transpirational pull-cohesion tension theory evap of water from leaves, tension in xylem
tissue, cohesion water so water pulled up
Affects transpiration rate
a. high humidity -> slow
b. wind -> low humidity -> fast
c. incr light intensity -> photosynthesis ->
transpiration-> fast
d. close stomata -> stop
Hormones amp bc signal transduction pathway
Tropism - thigmo, geo, gravi, photo
Photoperiodism - circadian, short-day/day-neutral/long-day;
phytochrome photoreceptor

Chp. 12 Human Physiology

Gas Exchange - passive diffusion; surfaces thin, moist, large SA
sponges & hydra - enter surface
earthworms & flatworms - external respiratory surface
grasshopper, arthropods, crustaceans - internal respiratory surface
aquatic - countercurrent exchange
humans - internal respiratory surface

Hemoglobin - more affinity O2, need less O2 in body so dont drop it off; graph to right, less affinity; lower pH, more
CO2 bc H2CO3

Circulation
humans closed circulatory system
Endocrine System
Characteristics
hormones made in ductless glands & move thru blood to target cell
Hypothalamus - bridge btwn endocrine & nervous
stimulate ant pit/post pit release hormones
thermostat/regulate hunger & thirst
receive info from nerves -> response by releasing hormones
Posterior Pituitary
hormones made in hypothal reach post pit by hypothal axons
oxytocin & ADH - blood osmolarity
Anterior Pituitary
hormones controlled by releasing/inhibiting hormone in hypothal
ex: prolactin-releasing hormone by hypothal -> prolactin ant pit released
Feedback mechanisms
1. Positive feedback - enhances already existing response - ex: baby head on uterus
2. Negative feedback - maintain homeostasis
glucose high -> pancreas makes insulin -> liver stores glucose -> stimulus makes insulin inhibited ->
pancreas stops
blood level thyroxin high -> ant pit stops
3. Antagonistic hormone - opp hormone
insulin vs. glucagon
thyroxin vs. parathormone
Classes hormones
1. steroid - cross cell membrane; 1) steroid crosses membrane, 2) hormone + receptor protein & travel to nucleus, 3)
hormone-receptor complex + DNA -> activate genes bc steroid is transcription factor -> production enzyme, protein
synthesis
testosterone
2. peptide - cant cross; 1) hormone + membrane receptor, 2) relay system ATP -> cAMP, 3) enzyme cascade
epinephrine
Temperature Regulation
temp on land fluctuates
1. Ectotherm = body heat from environ - cold-blooded
low metabolic rate; amt heat generated too small; behavior means
2. Endotherm = use metabolic processes to produce body heat - warm-blooded
body temp constant, need lots of calories; smaller mammal, faster metabolism
advantage bc diff niche
a. poikilotherm - body temp varies w/ environ; homeotherm - constant body temp; source of heat !
1) torpor, 2) estivation, 3) hibernation - mammals decr metabolic rate & body temp
b. adaptations to living on land
north-south cline; countercurrent heat exchange ex: polar bear blood
Osmoregulation = reg bodys water & solute conc
a. marine vertebrates - hypertonic environ -> little urine & drink lots seawater; salt transported out gills
b. freshwater organisms - hypotonic environ -> lots dilute urine
c. terrestrial - rid metabolic waste & retain water
Excretion = removal metabolic wastes
CO2 & H2O - cell respiration
N waste - protein metabolism - depends which environ
1. ammonia - very soluble & toxic; aquatic - fish
2. urea - not as toxic; earthworms & humans; formed in liver
3. uric acid - not soluble in water, not very toxic; insects, reptiles, birds - min water loss
organs: 1) skin, 2) lungs, 3) kidney
Kidney - hormones that control it when bp low

1.

aldosterone
a. released by adrenal glands - response to decr blood P/V
b. -> reabsorb Na+ & water -> incr blood V/P
2. ADH/vasopressin
a. made by hypothalamus; released by posterior pituitary - response dehydration/blood too conc
b. -> incr permeability kidneys by opening renal aquaporins -> more water reabsorbed -> urine V reduced
3. renin
a. released by kidneys
b. -> convert inactive protein into active angiotensin -> stimulate adr cortex release aldosterone
opp medicine incr bp - 1) diuretic, 2) angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor - prevent form angiotensin
Nervous System
1. Central (CNS) - brain, spinal cord
2. Peripheral (PNS) - all nerves
a. Sensory
b. Motor
i.
Somatic - voluntary
ii.
Autonomic - involuntary; 1) sympathetic - fight/flight; liver glycogen to glucose; adrenaline; bronchi; 2)
parasympathetic - calm, digestion
a. Neuron
a. Structure
1. cell body - nucleus & organelles
2. dendrites - sensory; receive incoming messages to cell body
3. axons - transmit impulses from cell body to another cell
myelin sheath - Schwann cells; nodes of Ranvier; faster impulse slatatory fashion
b. Types
1. sensory - receive stimulus
2. motor - stimulate effectors
3. interneuron
b. Reflex Arc
inborn, automatic, protective
knee-jerk reflex - only involved sensory & motor neurons; tap knee -> impulse to motor neuron -> contract
more complex: sensory neuron transmit impulse to interneuron in spinal cord -> 1 impulse to brain processing & 1
impulse to motor neuron to effect change immediately
c. Resting Potential
inside negative relative outside; inside more positive than outside; Na+ outside, K+ inside; active pump
resting potential = -70 mV
stimulus must strong enough to overcome resting threshold - larger membrane potential, stronger stimulus must be
d. Gated-ion Channels
only 1 kind ion at a time
depolarized - -60mV; Na+ into cytoplasm; more positive; easier nerve to fire
hyperpolarized - -75mV; K+ out of cytoplasm; harder neuron fire
e. Action Potential
generated in axon; reversal polarization when Na+ flow in & K+ flow out -> wave of depolarization
refractory period - axon repolarized when normal again; neuron cant respond another stimulus
strong stimulus vs weak --- frequency of action potential; strong, more action potentials
f. Synapse
depolarization -> Ca2+ thru Ca-gated channels -> vesicles fused w/ presynaptic membrane -> release
neurotransmitter by exocytosis into synaptic cleft -> neurotransmitter bonds w/ postsynaptic receptors -> response inhibited (hyperpolarization)/excited -> neurotransmitter destroyed by esterase & recycled by presynaptic neuron
neurotransmitters - 1) acetylcholine, 2) seratonin, 3) epinephrine, 4) norepinephrine, 5) dopamine
g. 1) stimulus -> sensory receptors make nerve impulses that travel in sensory axons to spinal cord, 2) interneurons integrate
data & send info to motor neurons, 3) motor axons cause skeletal muscles/organ respond
h. Neuromuscular Junction
axon motor neuron synapses at neuromuscular junction -> acetylcholine released by vesicles + receptors on muscle
fiber -> depolarized muscle cell membrane -> action potential -> impulse moves & released Ca2+ -> muscle contracts

Human Brain
1. Cerebrum - learning, emotion, memory, perception; right & left hemispheres; opp control
2. Cerebellum - movement balance; motor skills; sensory info joints & muscles; monitors motor commands from cerebrum &
integrate info
3. Brainstem/medulla oblongata - automatic homeostatic func; integrate sensory info & send forebrain; transfer info btwn PNS &
other pts brain
Chp. 13 Human Immune System
Nonspecific Defense
1. 1st Line - barriers
skin, mucous membrane - lysozyme, cilia respiratory system, stomach acid
2. 2nd line - microbes in body
a. inflammation
histamine -> vasodilation -> incr blood supply to area -> more phagocytes secreted by basophils & mast
cells; symptoms common cold
prostaglandins -> more blood flow
chemokines -> attract phagocytes
pyrogens -> incr body temp
b. phagocytes - ingest; migrate to infected site in response local chemical attractants = chemotaxis
1. neutrophil - engulf microbes then die
2. macrophage - 1st monocytes then macro, extend pseudopods, eat a lot, digest w/ lysozyme
b. complement - group proteins -> lysis invading cells
c. interferons - blood cell-to-cell viral infections
d. natural killer (NK) - destroy virus-infected body cells; attach cell membrane then cell lyse
Adaptive
3. 3rd line - B & T cells
T cells - form in bone marrow, mature thymus; cell-mediated immune response
B cells - mature in bone marrow; has specific antigen receptors
Antibodies
a. Y shaped molec, 4 polypeptide chains - 2 heavy & 2 light, constant & variable regions
b. tips Y are binding sites for diff antigens
c. antibodies made early in life prior to exposure antigens
d. antibodies chosen by clonal selection; limitless variety
1. Antigen-Presenting Cells present antigens
1. APC - macrophage, dendritic cell, B cell - 1) infected w/, 2) eats antigen
2. enzymes break antigen into fragments & attach fragments to MHC molec (I/II) in cytoplasm
3. MHC molec + antigen -> surface cell & display
MHC = collection cell surface markers that ID self
1. Class I - surface every cell
2. Class II - specialized cells; macrophages, B cells, dendritic, activated T cells
2. helper-T cells announce
clonal selection - lymphocyte matched specific antigen/epitope = antigenic determinant
1. antigen presented to stream of lymphocytes in lymph nodes by APC until match
2. lymphocyte divides by mitosis -> clones
3. clones develop into either
1. effector cells - short lived; neutralized/destroy all antigens & pathogen
2. memory cells - remain in body for entire life; respond future exposure same antigen ->
immunological memory
1. T-h activated by interaction w/ APC - MHC II
2. T-h trigger humoral & cell-mediated responses -> release cytokines - interleukin-1 & interleukin-2 ->
activate other T-h cells, T-c, & B cells
3. Response
a. Cell-mediated
1. activated T-c proliferates & differentiates into effector/memory cell
2. T-c kill body cells infected w/ pathogens & cancer cells by: 1) release perforin - pore in membrane,
2) granzymes - break down proteins - MHC I
3. infecting microbes released into blood & disposed by antibodies

b.

Humoral
1. activated B cell mitosis into effector (plasma) cells that secrete antibodies OR memory cells

Self-Tolerance
immune system has self-tolerance - doesnt attack own body cels
sometimes lymphocytes have antigen receptors specific own body cells - autoimmune disease
avoid - lymphocytes tests for self-reactivity in bone marrow -> apoptosis; T-reg inhibit activation immune system response to
self-antigens
Types Immunity
1. Passive - transferred to individual from someone else
maternal - placenta, breast milk
injection IgG
2. Active - makes own antibodies
vaccine; makes own
Blood types - O universal donor - no antigens; AB universal recipient - no antibodies
AIDS - HIV; retrovirus - reverse transcribes, integrate cDNA into host cell genome, in nucleus as prophage, direct production new
viruses
Positive Feedback - enhances process until endpoint
T-h cell activated by MHC class-II, release cytokines -> cytokines enhance activity activated T-h cells, stim more
Allergies - histamines; anaphylactic shock
Monoclonal antibodies - single B cell; research
Chp. 14 Animal Reproduction & Development
Embryonic Development
typical animal eggs no yolk - sea urchin; more yolk - frog -> cleavage unequal, little cell division yolk; lots yolk - bird ->
cleavage limited small disc top egg
1. Cleavage = rapid mitosis zygote immediately after fertilization
1. produce
blastula
= fluid-filled ball of cells -
blastocyst
= embryo
2. blastocoel cavity
-
inner cell mass
-> embryo; cells
pluripotent
= source embryonic stem cell lines;
trophoblast
= cells
surround inner cell mass - secrete fluid, create
blastocoel
3. cells differentiate -
blastomere
= individual cells of blastocyst
2. Gastrulation - rearrangement blastula
1. blastopore forms = opening into blastula
2. cells move to archenteron = primitive gut -> embryonic germ layers
i.
ectoderm - skin, nervous system
ii.
endoderm - viscera
iii.
mesoderm - muscle, blood, bones, mesoglea
3. Organogenesis - organ building; cells differentiate
Chp. 15 Ecology
population = group individuals of species
community = all organisms in 1 area
ecosystem = all organisms & abiotic factor
abiotic factors = nonliving; temp, water, etc.
biosphere = global ecosystem
Properties of Populations
1. size
2. density
sampling technique - mark & recapture
N = (# marked in 1st catch * total # 2nd catch) / (# recaptures in 2nd catch)
3. dispersion = pattern of spacing individuals w/ area
1. clumped - safety in #
2. uniform
3. random
4. survivorship curves = size & composition population
1. Type 1 - low death young, high death old; parenting ex: humans
2. Type 2 - constant death rate ex: reptiles, rodents, hydra

3. Type 3 - high death young, death declines ex: fish, invertebrate lots eggs; no parenting; external fertilization
5. age structure diagrams = relative # individuals at each age
Biotic potential = max rate pop can increase under ideal conditions
factors
1. age reproduction begins
2. life span organisms can reproduce
3. # reproductive periods in lifetime
4. # offspring organism can reproduce
Exponential growth
unrestrained; no predation, parasitism, competition, immigration, emigration, unlimited resources
population recently introduced to area
Carrying capacity - pop oscillation; changes as environ conditions change
Limiting factors = factors limit pop growth
1. density-dependent factors - as pop density incr; competition food, waste, predation, disease
2. density-independent factors - unrelated pop density; earthquake, storm, fires, floods
Growth patterns
1. r-strategists
a. reproduce rapidly environ uncrowded & resources vast
b. many young, little parenting, rapid maturation, small young, reproduce once
c. ex: insects
2. K-strategists
a. live near density to carrying capacity
b. few young, intensive parenting, slow maturation, large young, reproduce many times
c. ex: bears, mammals
Community Ecology
Interactions:
1. Competition
competitive exclusion principle = 2 species cant coexist in community if share niche = share same resources
a. -> resource partition = 1 species evolve thru natural selection exploit diff resources
b. -> character displacement = evolve thru natural selection & divergence body structure & avoid
competition; ex: Darwins finches
2. Predation
animals evolved active defenses - hiding, fleeing, defending
passive defenses
a. cryptic coloration/camouflage
b. aposematic coloration = bright coloring for poisonous animals
c. Batesian mimicry = copycat; harmless copy poisonous ex: viceroy butterfly & monarch butterfly
d. Mullerian mimicry = poisonous species resemble & advantage in #s; predators learn quickly
3. Herbivory = organisms eats pt plant
defenses - spines, thorns, poisons - strychnine, mescaline, morphine, nicotine
4. Symbiosis
1. mutualism ++; ex: bacteria in human intestines make vitamins
2. commensalism +o; ex: barnacles on whale
3. parasitism +-; ex: tapeworms in human intestines
5. Facilitation = organisms positive effects on other species w/out direct contact ex: black rush makes soil good by
preventing soil buildup
Energy flow
1. gross primary productivity (GPP) = amt light E converted to chemical E by photosynthesis per unit time; total photosynthesis
E
2. net primary productivity (NPP) = GPP - E used by producers for own cellular respiration; leftover for heterotrophs
tropical rain forests high NPP; open oceans low NPP but high global NPP
Food Chain
10% rule; never more than 4/5 levels
tertiary consumers least biomass
Diversity
species diversity

1. species richness = # diff species

2. relative abundance = proportion of diff species
more diverse communities -> more productive bc survive longer time & withstand change & invasive species
dominant species = most abundant; highest biomass; control over abundance & distribution other species
keystone species = not most abundant; major control over other species
Structure Communities
1. bottom-up = lower -> higher trophic levels; change predators doesnt affect bottom levels ex: minerals -> plants ->
2. top-down model/trophic cascade model ex: kill wolves -> trees sad bc overgrazing
Biological Magnification = higher trophic level, greater conc toxins ex: DDT in bald eagle
Decomposers - bacteria, fungi = recycle nutrients back to soil to nourish plants
Ecological Succession
1. primary ecological succession - soil building
a. pioneer organisms - lichen (algae + fungi) & mosses - intro as spores in wind
b. climax community - final stable
c. blowout - new disaster
2. secondary succession - soil intact but community cleared
Biomes - depend amt 1) precipitation, 2) temperature; characterized by 1) dominant vegetation, 2) animal life; change in altitude
tantamount to change in latitude
1. Tropical Rain Forest
location: equator; climate: lots rainfall, stable temp, high humidity
lots Earth net carbon fixation (photosynthesis)
most diversity plants/animals species; biodiversity hotspot
dominant trees tall/canopy; epiphytes = photosynthetic plants that grow on other trees, not parasitic
2. Desert
most extreme temperatures; little/no rainfall
cacti - leaves = spines; animals active night/early morning when cool
3. Temperate Grasslands
huge areas; low rainfall/uneven
bison, wildebeest, gazelle
4. Temperate Deciduous Forest
location: NE North Am, S of taiga
deciduous trees; vertical stratification - species all levels; rich soil from decomposition
squirrels, deer, foxes, bears
5. Taiga - Conifer Forest
location: north
conifer/evergreen forests; lakes, ponds, bogs; very cold winters & heavy snowfall
largest terrestrial biome
moose, black bear, lynx, elk
6. Tundra
location: very north
permafrost = permanently frozen subsoil; frozen desert - little rainfall; many lakes, ponds, bogs
# species small; reindeer, caribou, Arctic wolves
high Arctic tundra - strong C sink
7. Aquatic
largest biome; most stable; most earths food & oxygen
characterized by salinity ~ 3%
i.
freshwater
ii.
estuaries = saltwater & freshwater mix - mouth rivers
Chemical Cycles
1. Water Cycle
evaporation by transpiration -> condensation clouds -> precipitation -> rain percolates soil -> back to seas
2. Carbon Cycle
cell respiration & bacterial decomposers & burning fossil fuels uses O2 & releases CO2 -> plants use CO2 & release O2
biomass reservoir C
3. Nitrogen Cycle
N-fixing bacteria - nodules legumes - convert free N -> NH4+

 nitrifying bacteria - convert NH4+ -> NO2- -> NO3 denitrifying bacteria - convert NO3 -> N2 (free atmospheric)
bacteria decompose organic matter -> NH3
main reservoir N in atmosphere
Human Impact
a. Eutrophication Lakes - runoff fertilizers -> algae grows -> lakes choked -> algae dies -> organic material bottom lake, reduce
depth -> detritivores use O2 to decompose -> fish die lack O2 -> decomposers more
b. Acid Rain - combustion fossil fuels -> nitric, nitrous, sulfurous, sulfuric acids -> pH 5.6 -> kill lake organisms & damage
architecture
c. Toxins - cattle/chicken eat antibiotics/hormones -> humans et carcinogens/teratogens (bio magnification)
d. Global Warming - greenhouse effect; increase CO2 emissions from fossil fuels/deforestation; global warming
e. Acidification Oceans - CO2 + H20 -> H2CO3; more CO2, so more acidic oceans; decr conc CO3(2-) so animals cant build
shells/coral reefs
f. Depleting Ozone Layer - chlorofluorocarbons; UV; skin cancer
g. Introducing New Species
killer honeybee
zebra mussel
h. Pesticides vs. Biological Control
pesticides -> resistant bugs & cancer
crop rotation, natural enemies, natural plant toxins, insect birth control
Chp. 16 Animal Behavior
proximate causes = immediate, genetic, physiological,
neurological developmental mechanisms det. how animal
behaves
ultimate causes = result evolutionary pressures
ethology
von Frisch - communication honeybees; waggle dance
Tinbergen - fixed action pattern
Lorenz - imprinting
fixed action pattern
innate, stereotypic behavior; continued to completion
initiated by sign stimuli (external stimuli)
sign stimuli btwn members same species = releasers
ex: stickleback; red belly of intruder - releaser
migration
response to environmental stimuli
circadian clock; piloting = orienting by landmarks
(whales)
animal communication
a. pheromones = chemical alarm signals; ex: fright
response fish
b. visual signals = open places in daylight; ex: waggle
dance food source

learning = responses organisms modified as result experience;

long lifespan & complex brain; or else rely FAPs
1. habituation = simplest form learning; ignore persistent
stimulus; ex: tapping fishtank
2. associative learning = 1 stimulus linked to another thru
experience
a. classical conditioning - ex: Pavlovs dogs
b. operant conditioning/trial & error - associate
behavior w/ reward/punishment - Skinner
3. imprinting = learning during sensitive/critical period in
early life; irreversible - ex: Lorenz ducklings box
social behavior = interaction among 2/more individuals
1. cooperation - group; ex: hunting as group
2. agonistic behavior - aggressive behav that prevents
serious harm; ex: dog baring teeth
3. dominance hierarchies - alpha
4. territoriality - area organism defends thru agonistic
behav
5. altruism - reduced individuals reproductive fitness but
incr fitness colony/family; kin selection, inclusive
fitness
foraging behavior
benefits = fitness enhancement
natural selection favor behavior min costs foraging &
max benefits
mating behavior
polygynous species = multiple females
sexual dimorphism = male/female look diff
polyandrous = multiple males