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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport

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Perception of Physical Activity Participation of Chinese

Female Graduate Students: A Case Study
a

Zi Yan & Bradley J. Cardinal

a

Merrimack College

Oregon State University

Published online: 22 Aug 2013.

To cite this article: Zi Yan & Bradley J. Cardinal (2013) Perception of Physical Activity Participation of Chinese
Female Graduate Students: A Case Study, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84:3, 384-396, DOI:
10.1080/02701367.2013.813895
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Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 84, 384396, 2013

Copyright q AAHPERD
ISSN 0270-1367 print/ISSN 2168-3824 online
DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2013.813895

Perception of Physical Activity Participation of

Chinese Female Graduate Students: A Case Study
Zi Yan
Merrimack College

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Bradley J. Cardinal
Oregon State University

Purpose: Chinese female international students (CFIS) have been identified as one of the least
physically active groups in the United States. In an effort to better understand this situation,
this studys purpose was to examine CFIS in American higher education in terms of the
meaning they assigned to physical activity and facilitators and barriers they experienced with
regard to physical activity participation. Method: Twenty CFIS from a university in the
Northwest region of the United States were recruited and interviewed. All of the interviews
were conducted in Mandarin Chinese and translated and transcribed into English. The 1-on-1
semistructured interviews lasted between 45 min and 60 min each. Data were analyzed by
NVivo8. Results: In terms of meaning, physical activity provided the participants with a
break from their academic work, allowed them some alone time, and taught them a process for
accomplishing other things in their lives. Major facilitators included social influences, ample
available resources, their changing perceptions of femininity, and the need to improve or
maintain health. Barriers included a lack of time, low self-efficacy, limited social support,
cultural barriers, and a lack of how-to information. Conclusions: Understanding the
physical activity experiences of CFIS is an important step in the process of promoting their
long-term health and well-being. It may behoove universities with growing Chinese
international student populations to add more cross-cultural content into their curriculums and
fitness programs, increase awareness of cultural differences on campus, and increase
accessibility to information in an effort to remove physical activity participation barriers
experienced by CFIS.
Keywords: exercise, health promotion, students, university

Chinese international college students are those who were

born and grew up in China and who came to the United States
for higher education traveling on an F1 student visa.
Currently, there are about 157,000 Chinese students studying
in the United States, which represents more than 21% of the
total international student population in America (Institute of
International Education [IIE], 2011). Among students from
different nationalities studying in American colleges and
universities, Asian female students are the least physically
Submitted April 22, 2012; accepted December 17, 2012.
Correspondence should be addressed to Zi Yan, Department of Health
Sciences, Merrimack College, 320 Mendel Hall-N8, North Andover, MA
01845. E-mail: yanz@merrimack.edu

active (Yoh, Yang, & Gordon, 2008). For example, female

college students from North America, Europe, South
America, and Africa were found to average more than 2 hr
per week of physical activity, whereas those from Asia
averaged only 1.3 hr per week (Yoh et al., 2008). The most
recent physical activity guidelines suggest that at least 2.5 hr
of moderate-intensity physical activity per week is necessary
to obtain substantial health benefits (Haskell et al., 2007).
Clearly there is much room for improvement, and exploring
the physical activity attitudes, knowledge, and behavior of
this group represents an area in urgent need of attention.
At present, little is known about the determinants of
physical activity participation among Chinese female

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PA OF CHINESE FEMALE GRAD STUDENTS

international students (CFIS) in the United States in

particular. It is also unclear how their Chinese cultural
background and recent exposure to American culture as
college and university students influences their physical
activity participation. With the long-term goal of designing
programs to facilitate their physical activity participation,
we first needed to understand the meaning of physical
activity and exercise to CFIS, as physical activity may have
different meanings to people from different cultures (e.g.,
exercise, health, movement, or recreation; Pearce, 2009).
For example, Chinese women aged 50 to 70 years old in a
Canadian study did not differentiate between physical
activity and exercise, and many women in the study felt that
they were one in the same (Fancott, 2001).
In addition, we need to understand how Chinese and
American cultures influence individuals physical activity
behavior. Women from different cultures may perceive
physical activity in very different ways. For example, in a
focus-group study, African American women identified
exercise as part of the Caucasian womens culture, but not
as part of their own culture (Wilbur et al., 2009). In another
focus-group study conducted with Asian women, the
women perceived themselves as being physically active
enough through their daily tasks, such as housework and
walking for transportation (Johnson, Corrigan, Dubbert, &
Gramling, 1990). They also felt that if they did exercise, it
had to be purposefulthat is, a more utilitarian view
rather than just following an exercise video or riding a
stationary bicycle.
Traditional Chinese health beliefs are vastly different
from the Western biomedical model of health. Chinese
health beliefs stem from Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian
philosophies, which may influence their valuing or
devaluing of physical activity. For example, Taoism values
harmony with nature and dictates that individuals should
take what naturally exists and avoid unnatural actions
(Fang, 1981). This value may diminish ones desire to take
personal action, such as non-natural forms of physical
activity, to change their health status. Traditional Chinese
culture may also discourage women from physical activity
participation. Influenced by Confucius ideology, the
majority of Asians believe that sport and physical activity
participation are predominantly masculine in nature,
resulting in Asian women exhibiting low levels of physical
activity during childhood and adolescence (Suminski,
Petosa, Utter, & Zhang, 2002).1
The acculturation process may be another factor
influencing their physical activity participation. Accultura1
Chinese female athletes have made tremendous advancements in
international sport competitions (e.g., Olympic Games). Yet these
successes are largely due to the national sport system or Whole
Nation system in China (Si, Duan, Li, & Jiang, 2011). Under this system,
only a small portion of girls and women are selected to receive professional
and highly focused training in a sport or a sporting event, whereas the
majority of Chinese girls and women remain physically inactive.

385

tion is defined as the differences and changes in values and

behaviors that individuals make as they gradually adopt the
cultural values of the dominant society (Graves, 1967). For
CFIS, being exposed to American culture may reshape or
challenge their physical activity experiences and views. For
example, because American college students are more
physically active than college students from China,
exposure to the American campus culture may serve as a
positive facilitator of their physical activity behavior.
Additionally, because the majority of colleges and
universities in China lack comprehensive physical education classes and equipment (Liang, Housner, Walls, &
Yan, 2012), the diverse physical activity classes and
facilities available on American college and university
campuses may serve to facilitate their physical activity
participation.
Chinese womens cultural background and their
acculturation process in the United States may also
influence their physical activity participation. For instance,
they may be unfamiliar with Western policies and
approaches to physical activity program delivery. Therefore, and similar to other new immigrants, they may
encounter significant obstacles to their physical activity
participation based on their gender, ethnicity, social class, or
a number of other factors (Frisby, 2011). In an effort to
better understand this situation, this studys purpose was to
examine CFIS in the American higher education system in
terms of the meaning they assign to physical activity and
what facilitators and barriers they experience with regard to
their physical activity participation.

METHOD
Approach
We employed an open-ended, qualitative approach in an
attempt to gain an in-depth understanding of not only the
facilitators and barriers that were being experienced by the
participants, but also in an attempt to elucidate potential
similarities and differences between the U.S. and Chinese
cultures in terms of physical activity participation. Readers
are reminded, however, that U.S. and Chinese cultures
are quite diverse and are composed of various subcultures
and individual differences. In recognition of this, we
followed the constructivist paradigm, which maintains that
individuals and groups generate meaning (Creswell, 1998).
The use of this approach was predicated on our a-priori
contention that Chinese participants physical activity
behaviors would be especially complicated, having been
influenced by their past experiences, current environmental
exposure, and other life-course dynamics (Li, Cardinal, &
Settersten, 2009). For the real phenomena to be observed,
then, it had to be drawn out from members of the native
community and in the most natural setting possible.

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386

Z. YAN AND B. J. CARDINAL

It is also important to reveal that the authors are fully

aware of their own positionality in the study. The primary
author, who was responsible for conducting the interviews,
was a CFIS herself who had been studying in the United
States for more than 5 years. Her cultural identity is
Chinese, but she had come to understand Western culture in
terms of physical activity behavior because it is her
academic area of scholarly inquiry and because of her own
personal experiences as a physically active person. Her
positionality has been greatly affected by her ethnicity
(Chinese), gender (female), language (Mandarin Chinese
and English), education (sport and exercise psychology,
public health, kinesiology, and psychology), and institutional affiliations and accomplishments (i.e., she has been
a graduate student at two different American universities
with an accumulated total of three graduate degrees from
those two institutions). The first authors ethnic background,
language, and gender being the same as the participants
helped establish her credibility, rapport, and trust among the
study participants. However, her positionality is also
colored by her positive attitudes toward physical activity
given her field of study and area of expertise. The second
author, who is a non-Chinese man and an experienced
researcher in the psychological, sociological, and cultural
aspects of physical activity, carefully reviewed the
interview guide, independently reviewed the transcripts
and subsequent coding, and discussed emerging questions
and issues with the primary author. Both authors were
mindful of their unique and complementary attributes and
skills in the execution of this study. Our approach was to
work cooperatively, though we were fully aware of the
potentiality of a real or perceived hierarchical power
relationship emerging. Therefore, an independent and
experienced qualitative researcher was retained a priori as
a potential mediator should any such issues emerge. This
person was included on the studys original institutional
review board (IRB) submission and subsequent reports to
the IRB. By the conclusion of the study, neither author had
approached the mediator with a complaint or concern.
Setting
We were also aware that the geographic location of the
university where the study participants were living and
interviewed may have influenced the research results. All of
the study participants were from a major research university
with an enrollment of about 24,000, located in a small city
(i.e., population of about 53,000) in the Northwest region of
the United States. There are around 1,200 Chinese
international students enrolled in the university, and around
half of them are women. The university provides general
fitness, exercise, and recreational facilities, as well as
physical activity courses to students. In addition, the
community where the university is located would be
considered an active community environment, with ample

physical activity resources available in town (e.g., bicycle

lanes on the roadways; sidewalks; open, safe, and equipped
city parks; community pool) or close by (e.g., both the
Coastal and Pacific Mountain Ranges are nearby, as are
pedestrian hiking trails, mountain biking paths, rivers, lakes,
and the Pacific Ocean).
Participants
Twenty graduate-level CFIS were recruited and interviewed
for this study, with all volunteers completing the study.
Following the 15th interview or so, most of the same ideas
were being repeatedly expressed. Therefore, the researchers
felt that theoretical saturation was accomplished by the time
the 20th interview was completed. Eligibility criteria for
study participation included: (a) Chinese international
graduate students from mainland China who were studying
at the university where the study took place; (b) women who
had resided in the United States for more than 1 year but less
than 5 years; and (c) people with no physical functional
limitations related to their potential physical activity
participation.
Participant Recruitment
Participants were recruited online through the Chinese
Scholar and Students Association at the university. Upon
meeting participation screening criteria and providing
assent, an appointment was made if the participant qualified
and agreed to participate.
Interview
After determining that each participant fulfilled the
requirements for being in the study and having them agree
to participate in the interview, an interview appointment
was made. A reminder was delivered 2 days prior to each
participants scheduled interview. Interviews were conducted one-on-one using a semistructured format, and an
interview guide was followed. All interview questions were
designed to address the studys purpose. That is, what does
physical activity mean to CFIS? How does being in
American culture influence their attitudes and participation
in physical activity compared with when they were residing
in China in terms of facilitators and barriers? And how can
the university and community help them become more
physically active?
Procedure
Before each interview, the primary author, who is trained in
interview techniques, explained to the participants that the
information gathered would be used for research purposes
and that the discussion would be audio-recorded. Participants were assured that their names would not be associated

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PA OF CHINESE FEMALE GRAD STUDENTS

with the recording. Written consent was obtained from each

participant prior to her interview. The IRB at the
investigators university approved the study. Participants
chose to be interviewed in either Mandarin Chinese or
English. All interviews lasted between 45 min and 60 min.
Before the interview, the participants were asked to
complete a questionnaire regarding their demographic
information (i.e., age, years in the United States, height,
weight).
Member checking and peer review were used to ensure
the credibility of the research. After the interview was
transcribed and translated into English by the first author, all
of the translations were sent to each interviewee to check
and edit for any inappropriate expressions. To increase data
dependability, both researchers independently reviewed the
data, compared results, and discussed disagreements to
resolve differences.
Analysis
All interviews were digitally recorded and transcribed
verbatim. All text was imported into NVivo8 (QSR
International, Cambridge, MA) and coded based on major
and minor themes. Once the primary coder finished the initial
coding, a second coder independently reviewed all of the
transcripts and coding for accuracy. Indicative of the strength
of the emergent themes observed in the data, as well as the
content validity of the coding scheme, the two independent
coders had remarkably consistent results. Postcoding discussions only served to further verify the similarity of their
findings. Pseudonyms were used in the results to provide
anonymity to the participants.

RESULTS
The participants ranged in age from 24 to 31 years old
(Mage 27.5 years, SD 2.1), and their average length of
time in the United States was 36.5 months (SD 17.1).
Their home places in China were a mix of urban and rural
areas; however, they all received bachelors degrees from
universities located in cities in China. Their body mass
index (BMI) was derived from self-reported height and
weight, with the average BMI being 20.2 (SD 2.7). Three
(15%) of the 20 participants were married, whereas the rest
were single. Eleven (55%) of the 20 participants reported
engaging in at least 150 min of physical activity per week.
More than half of the participants (i.e., 12 out of 20) thought
they had become more physically active after coming to the
United States. The overall influence of American culture on
physical activity seemed to positively influence (i.e.,
increase) their physical activity levels.
The main codes were found to be descriptive of the
meanings associated with physical activity and the most
common facilitators and barriers to engaging in physical

387

activity. The general meanings of physical activity included

a break from work, a feeling of accomplishment, and a time
to be alone. The general facilitators included social
influence, physical resources, changing perceptions of
femininity, heath improvement, and leisure and social
opportunities. The general barriers included a lack of time,
a lack of self-efficacy, a lack of social support, feelings
of embarrassment, cultural barriers, and a lack of
information.
Meanings of Physical Activity
A Break From Work
Eighteen out of 20 participants mentioned that physical
activity was a break from daily work. Being graduate
students, they were very busy with their academic study
during the day. Their minds were consistently on
schoolwork, and many of them experienced fatigue and
a lack of energy as a result. They perceived the need for a
diversion from schoolwork, and physical activity appeared
to be a primary strategy for accomplishing this. They
commented that they enjoyed having a break from
schoolwork and that they liked the feeling of being
refreshed both during and after participating in physical
activity, which helped them to be more energetic when
doing other work.
A Time to Be Alone
Seven out of 20 participants described physical activity,
especially individual physical activities such as jogging and
swimming, as a time for themselves (i.e., a form of selfpampering and self-renewal). During these activities, they
were able to clear their minds, talk to themselves, think
things through, or just enjoy taking time to think about
nothing specific at all.
A Feeling of Accomplishment
Six of 20 participants described a feeling of accomplishment
through physical activity participation. For them, physical
activity was a process whereby they established a goal,
worked toward the goal, accomplished the goal, and
eventually created new goals. This allowed them to build
greater self-confidence, and it also taught them a
transferable process that could be applied to other
dimensions of their life. For example, Tina described her
physical activity experience as the following:
The feeling of finishing the goal, setting a new goal, and
finishing the new goal challenged me. I like it. Before, I did
not challenge myself because I was afraid. But exercise
taught me to challenge myself and to try my best to achieve
the goal. It gives me the confidence I need in my life. And I
use this confidence in other parts of my life and my work.

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Z. YAN AND B. J. CARDINAL

Facilitators

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Social Influences
The single largest category of facilitators for engaging in
physical activity was social influences (e.g., influences from
American friends, students on campus, and the media), with
observing others being physically active as the most frequently
mentioned facilitator. All participants described that they
would often see people jogging or running on the street or
exercising in the gym, from which they perceived a very active
environment around them. This was reinforced through other
sources, including knowing other physically active people (e.
g., officemate, advisor, roommate), observing celebrities
being physically active in the media, observing other students
dressing athletically, and observing ample sports equipment in
stores (i.e., a form of environmental reinforcement).
This affected the participants physical activity participation in several ways. First, the physically active
individuals served as role models for the study participants.
By observing others being physically active, they
vicariously developed expectations regarding the benefits
of physical activity participation, such as looking fit and
energetic. Second, it gave them social pressure to be
consistent with others in terms of physical activity
participation, with some of the participants mentioning,
When in America, do as Americans do. Third, it gave
them greater confidence to perform certain types of physical
activities that they used to be unconfident about. For
example, several participants mentioned they were
surprised that so many people, especially women and
young people, were enthusiastic about doing high-demanding physical activities, such as running a marathon.
Seeing this increased their confidence about their own
physical abilities, including a willingness to try activities
that they would never have considered before (e.g., rock
climbing).
Social influences also seemed to change the participants
attitudes toward exercise. For example, most of the
participants indicated that they did not value exercise much
before coming to the United States. They recalled that when
they lived in China, most people there did not exercise. In
other words, exercise was not a part of the social norm and
only those who were retired or who suffered from health
problems might be seen exercising regularly. Through their
exposure to the physically active social environment in the
United States, their attitudes toward exercise were positively
influenced. For example, Jean commented:
Not just the youth like to exercise, but kids, the elders, even
women who are pregnant exercise too. Also, it is not just in
the gym, but everywhere. You see people jogging on the
street and playing in the playground. So overall you feel that
most people are doing exercise, and they like exercise. This
makes me want to join in with them. I mean, it looks like
they are having a great lifestyle, and why not give it a try?

Ample Resources
All of the participants complimented the high quality and
ample availability of resources provided by the university
and throughout the community. Some also mentioned that
the student recreation center on campus was free to students
(it is actually covered by student fees), and it was perceived
to be of very high quality. In addition, the diverse
undergraduate elective physical activity courses offered by
the university afforded them the freedom to choose physical
activities they wanted to learn and practice. Most expressed
that they did not have such easy access to similar highquality physical activity resources when they were in China.
The good accessibility was a major facilitator for them to
participate in more physical activities. The comments of
Lynn and Rena supported this belief very well. Respectively, they said:
I increased a lot of physical activities because of [name of
student recreation center]! It is such a convenience for me to
do exercise, compared to the conditions I had in China. Plus,
you can choose different PAC (physical activity classes)
classes you are interested in. You know, in China, you need
to find a gym, buy a membership, and commute. It was just
hard and not convenient compared to here.
In addition, the resources, equipment, and classes are very
good here making it so convenient for me to exercise. When
I was in Beijing, I didnt have too many chances to pick the
classes I like. Or it was hard to find professional instructors.
However, here there are so many different classes and the
instructors are very professional. Its so easy for me to take
class now.

This was reinforced and supported by the communitys

infrastructure, which they perceived to be physical activityfriendly (e.g., parks and jogging and hiking trails in close
proximity to campus).
Changing Perceptions of Femininity
Changing perceptions of femininity was another facilitator to
their physical activity participation. Being exposed to
American culture, these Chinese women were influenced by
the American women around them. As pointed out by some of
the participants, the definition of femininity in terms of
appearance and appropriate feminine behavior in American
culture is very different from that of Chinese culture. First, 18
out 20 participants mentioned that in China, a feminine
woman should not obtain any significant muscle mass and
should keep a relatively low body weight. A feminine woman
should also dress gracefully, instead of athletically. They
described that because most of the women in China worried
about gaining muscle from physical activities, they tried to
avoid physical activities such as weight lifting, jogging, or
even swimming. Wendy and Jill, respectively, expressed:

PA OF CHINESE FEMALE GRAD STUDENTS

Probably Chinese women are different . . . I feel in general,

when women have time, they would like to go shopping,
dressed up like a graceful lady, instead of going to exercise.
They enjoy their appearance more than they enjoy
exercising. I am probably very different from other
Chinese women.

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In China, we favor the paper girl in terms of body weight.

You know, the thinner, the better. But here it is different.
People like the female body with a little muscle and tone. In
China, women worried that if they exercised they would gain
muscle. Here people are the opposite. They like muscles.

Interestingly, most of the women did not experience any

perceived muscle gains from the exercises that they did.
Instead, their worries came from conversations with other
Chinese peers.
Also, before coming to the United States, they believed
that white skin was the key indicator of femininity. Most of
the women mentioned that they tried not to expose
themselves to sunlight in order to avoid getting tanned skin
when they were in China. As a result, they minimized outdoor
physical activities, especially in the summer. However, after
they came to the United States, they experienced a culture
shock in terms of the definition of femininity. Most of the
participants mentioned that American culture favored
women who looked fit and had obtained some muscular
curvature. They also observed that American women seemed
to favor tanned skin tones, thinking that it represented a
healthy and active lifestyle. As Quin expressed:
You know, [in China] people think I am fine in terms of body
weight because I am very skinny and weak. According to
the Chinese standard, I am probably pretty good in terms of
body shape. But here, in the U.S., I do not think I look good.
Here people value a fit body, not a weak body like mine. So I
am not happy about my body, and I want to be more like
Americans. You know, I know I can never be as good as
American women, but just a little bit more fit, more muscle,
and less fat. I would be happy about myself.

The second conflict regarding femininity between the

United States and China centered on attempting to decipher
and navigate different perceptions of appropriate feminine
behavior. Many of the participants mentioned that when
they were in China, they did not participate in physical
activities because exercise, especially intense exercise or
exercises involving body contact, were not considered
appropriate for women. Rather, the expectation for women
in China was to be graceful and domestic, and to
practice such things as learning to play an instrument,
chess, calligraphy, or painting. Vivian and Tiffany,
respectively, expressed:
Women are supposed to be weak, and be protected by
others. You know, instrument, chess, calligraphy, and

389

drawing are the traditional requirements for women. This

does not include any physical activity or sport skill. Strong
women are not welcome.
I think Chinese men like the women that are quiet, not
active, and absolutely with no muscles. Now, I think this
kind of women will not be popular in the U.S., but they are
popular in China. That is also a reason why Chinese women
do not want to be physically active.

In term of perceptions of femininity, participants clearly felt

that traditional Chinese culture was a barrier to their physical
activity participation. However, the participants noticed that
compared with women in China, women in the United States
were encouraged to be physically active. They also felt that it
was acceptable for women to do different physical activities in
America compared with in China, including activities they
originally identified as being nonfeminine, such as basketball
and weightlifting. Tinas comment expressed this well:
I often saw posters showing American women playing
sports, and they capture their muscle tone. Before, if I saw
that in China, I would think they must be athletes, but here,
you do not need to be athletes to be fit. A lot of women just
like exercise. They have a very special disposition, which
they gained from exercise. I like it a lot. Even people here
who are very skinny, are very fit, and they are really
different from what I thought before. Before, I thought only
the model beauty, the super skinny, is beautiful. In China,
we think the skinnier the better, paper thin is the best.
Now I like how American women value beauty, the beauty
from exercise. I think they are more beautiful than the
models. I really have changed. I am more open to do
different physical activities now and worry-free.

Through their exposure to American culture, most of the

participants changed their perceptions of femininity, which
indirectly seemed to alter their attitudes toward physical
activity as well as their behavior. All 20 women commented
that they now considered a fit body with a little muscle and
tanned skin to be feminine and beautiful. Seventeen out of 20
reported changing physical activity patterns according to their
new perceptions of femininity. For example, some were no
longer resistant to gaining some muscle tone from weightlifting, nor were they worried about having tanned skin anymore,
which freed them to participate in outdoor activities. Comments
from Tina and Quin, respectively, were representative of this:
I exercise more and I wish I could become like that (the fit
body)! Last summer, I went back to China, and I showed my
muscle to my friends. They were so surprised, they said,
you are a girl, you do not need muscle . . . at that moment,
I really felt we were different.
And I also think I am influenced by American culture. When
I look at American women, some of them look really pretty

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Z. YAN AND B. J. CARDINAL

and fit. They are beautiful, and I can tell that their fit and
tight body figure comes from exercise. You know, I think
most of the Chinese women work on their body tone by diet.
But here people are more likely to use exercise to improve
their body shape.

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Some dressed more athletically because they identified

this as part of American culture and they felt this made
physical activity participation easier to incorporate into their
everyday life. Vivian expressed:
People here used to comment on my dressing, such as you
are totally dressed up! I felt so weird because I did not think
that I was dressed up. Then later I found out the dressing
style here is so different from China. People, especially
students on campus, dress casual and sporty. You know, if I
wear a skirt, I would not want to walk or jog around. But if I
dress like them, in jeans and sneakers, I would like to do
more walking or go to do some workout anytime. Their
athletic dressing styles make it more convenient to do
physical activity or exercise. Also, I think people here value
the healthy and fit body. Not like China, where people value
very skinny female body. Here, people value the body with
muscle, or bodies that are fit and toned.

It is worth noting that there were also discrepancies in the

perceptions of the ideal female body among the participants.
Most participants believed that as they started to exercise
like the American women, they would obtain a similar body
shape as the American women, whereas some participants
believed the ideal body shapes the American women had
were more genetically derived rather than being related to
their behavior. That is, they believed that no matter how
hard they exercised, they could never achieve an ideal body
shape, which, no doubt, hindered some of their motivation
to exercise in order to achieve their perceived ideal body
shape. There was also some misunderstanding among the
participants as to whether or not they could obtain the body
shape of an American woman, no matter what physical
activities they did. Some also questioned whether it was
desirable to even try. The following comments by Ann,
Lynn, Betty, and Anna, respectively, captured the
participants conflicting views on this issue:
I think there are genetic differences between American and
Chinese women (laughs). I guess they were born into that
body shape, for example, their long and toned legs. These
things we can never get no matter how hard we exercise.
There are genetic differences between Westerners and
Easterners. However, there are some things you can get
from exercise, for example, their fit legs and their toned
body. I know it must come from exercise. Personally, I like
the fit body a lot. I do not like the lean body shape at all. I
also want to be fit and healthy like them, you know, to wear
shorts in the winter.

I think we [Chinese] are different from Americans. They

[American] were born with that kind of nice body shape. I
can never look like that. Even if exercise helps, they have to
probably exercise for a long time. For me, that is not
realistic. So for me, I really do not have a big motivation to
exercise to get into better shape.
I am jealous that they have a good body shape. But I think it
is because of their genes. For us Asians, it is impossible to
look like that, especially their long legs. So I still think my
body shape should look Asian. My ideal body weight is still
100 lb [equals about 45.4 kg]. I am not comparing myself to
Americans, even if I think they look great with that kind of
body shape.

Overall, changing perceptions of femininity not only

promoted their physical activity participation, but it also
increased their overall self-esteem by learning to accept
who they are. As Vivian expressed:
I am more confident about my body and myself now. I
accept who I am, and at the same time, I want to join in with
other people here, to do more physical activity . . . . Now, I
do not worry about getting tanned anymore. So I enjoy my
walking, hiking, and other outdoor activities much more.
Now, life is much easier, because I do not care that much
anymore.

Health Maintenance/Improvement
Motivation to improve or maintain physical and mental
health was also identified as a major facilitator. In terms
of physical health, the participants mentioned that exercise
could help them eliminate toxins from their bodies,
which is a belief related to traditional Chinese medicine.
They also mentioned that as they were getting older,
they felt that their body metabolism was slowing
down. Thus, they wanted to exercise more to keep their
metabolism up.
Maintaining or improving mental health was another
facilitator to physical activity participation. Sixteen out of
20 participants expressed their recognition of how physical
activity brought them feelings of enjoyment and a more
positive overall mood state, with physical activity helping to
mitigate the stress associated with their schoolwork. Being
graduate students and studying in a second language, most
reported experiencing higher levels of academic stress
compared with when they were in China. Therefore, for
many of the participants, physical activity was a useful
stress management strategy. Jean and Jill, respectively,
expressed:
I exercise for health purpose[s]. This is more important for
me. I was a medicine major, so I know how important health
is. Health should be the priority for everyone. So I try my
best to improve my health, including using exercise to
improve my health.

PA OF CHINESE FEMALE GRAD STUDENTS

If I keep exercising, I am less likely to feel tired, and I will

have more energy. Especially during work time, exercise
makes me feel more efficient, and less likely to be
distracted.

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Leisure/Social Opportunities
Several participants mentioned that the different leisure
opportunities between China and the United States made
them become more physically active. When they socialized
with their friends in China, there were many leisure
activities to choose from, such as shopping, karaoke, or
Chinese mahjong. Physical activity would not be their top
choice. Here in the United States, they did not have as many
available leisure options, especially in a relatively small
college town. As a result, going to the gym to do some
physical activity with friends, such as swimming or
badminton, became their major leisure activity. Lynn and
Lily, respectively, stated:
I think in America there are not as many other recreational
activities, other than physical activities, compared to China.
You know, in China, we have our food culture and people
get together to have a meal very often. It is our social time.
Also, karaoke is a very popular recreational activity. There
are a lot of things that people can choose to do in their spare
time. So people in universities and colleges were less likely
to choose physical activity as their recreational opportunity.
But here there are not many recreational activities you can
choose to do. So doing physical activity becomes a major
recreational activity.
Another reason is that we have so many other recreational
activities that people are interested in doing, activities other
than exercise, for example, karaoke, mahjong, and massage.
You know, you have so many choices, and they are more fun
than exercise in peoples minds, so exercise is not their
choice. For Americans, I feel the lifestyle is slower
compared to China, there are not many things you really can
do, especially in a small town like [name of town].

With regard to social opportunities, more than one third

of the participants stated that through physical activity, they
had made more friends. It was also an opportunity for them
to socialize with their old friends by doing physical
activities together. In addition, learning different physical
activities provided them more opportunities to know
American culture and make more American friends. For
example, Feng stated how doing physical activity helped her
communicate better with her American friends:
When I hike with my friends, it is also a social time for me to
hang out with my American friends. In addition, I think in
America, people talk about sports and physical activity a lot.
If I dont participate in those activities, I do not have many
topics to talk about with my American friends. I would look
like an idiot while others are talking about sports- and

391

physical activity-related stuff. For example, if I had not

taken golf class, I would not have known about golf at all
and would have nothing to talk about when others are
talking about this.

For the three married participants, exercise was an

opportunity for them to improve their relationships with
their husbands. However, marriage was not consistently a
facilitator to physical activity participation. Rather, for the
two participants who were married to Americans who were
physically active men, this seemed to be the case.
Specifically, these two women reported becoming more
physically active through the influence of their husbands.
The third woman, who was married to a not-so-active man,
became less physically active because she committed more
of her spare time to her husbandtime she used to spend on
physical activity. Candy and Vivian, respectively,
expressed:
Its because my husband likes exercise, and he told me if
one person has a spouse who is also physically active, they
can support each other and be each others workout partner.
I think part of the reason I work out is because my husband
wants us to support each other. If your spouse is lazy, the
other person may not want to exercise either. So this is
another reason I exercise more now.
Climbing with my husband improves our relationship. He
works at school, and I am a graduate student. Both of us
have very busy schedules, so we do not have much time
together. But he goes to the gym every day for 2 hr. So I feel
if I go with him, I can use that time to interact with him,
communicate with him. From this perspective, exercising
with my husband improves our relationship.

Barriers
Lack of Time
Seventeen of the participants identified a lack of time as a
barrier to physical activity participation. Being graduate
students, the priority was academic work related to
their degree programs, so they spent most of their time on
this (e.g., taking classes, studying, reading, doing
research). With limited spare time, they preferred to rest
instead of participate in physical activity. In addition, they
felt that their schedules were not very flexible. For
example, some of the participants mentioned that they had
to be in the office or lab the full day, which limited their
opportunities to take elective undergraduate physical
activity courses.
Lack of Self-Efficacy
More than half of the participants reported that they lacked
confidence to perform certain types of physical activities.
They attributed their limited skills to the low quality of

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Z. YAN AND B. J. CARDINAL

physical education they received in China. They indicated

that because the educational system in China focuses
primarily on academic success, physical ability was not
emphasized enough. They described physical education in
China as being focused on structured exercises of fairly high
intensity with an emphasis on fitness testing versus skill
development across a range of lifetime health-related
physical activities. Jean summed this up by saying:

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In our educational system, we always and only emphasize

academic success and intellectual learning, not physical
practice/achievement at all. Not to mention that we did not
have good resources or good quality physical education
classes.

As a result, these women not only lacked knowledge,

skills, or enjoyable experiences about physical activity, but
they also lacked confidence in their ability to participate in
physical activities after coming to the United States. For
example, some did not want to take physical activity
courses, join sports clubs, or exercise with their American
friends because they felt the skill gap was too large. Even
among those who did try, some expressed feeling
embarrassed when they found themselves incapable of
performing certain skills during physical activity courses.
Vivians comment was representative of this situation:
I feel that the big skill/fitness level difference between me and
Americans makes me less likely to work out or do physical
activities with them. For example, when my former roommate
asked me to jog with her, I worried that I could not keep up and
that I would slow her down. So I turned her down.

Feelings of embarrassment also came from their limited

knowledge using fitness equipment. Several participants
mentioned that oftentimes, even when they wanted to try
some new physical activities, they did not know how to start
or how to use the equipment. As a result, they either would
withdraw from the class or become less likely to participate
in physical activity. Wendy summed up this problem:
I do not know how to use all of the fitness equipment, such
as the equipment in the weightlifting room in [name of
recreational center]. I feel so embarrassed if I walk in and do
not know how to use that equipment. Also, there is a
machine on the second floor that I want to try, but I am
worried I do not know how to use it. I hate feeling
embarrassed. You know, sometimes, I saw nobody around,
so I went to touch the equipment, tried pushing different
buttons. Then later I figured it out. If someone was around, I
would not have done so.

A lack of self-efficacy also inhibited their ability to learn

new physical activities, especially outdoor activities. More
than half of the participants expressed an interest in outdoor

activities such as rock climbing, snow skiing, or diving

because they did not have opportunities to experience
similar activities when they were in China. However, at the
same time, they were worried about getting injured doing
such novel activities due to their limited physical skills and
relatively low levels of fitness. Fen stated her concern:
And I also am concerned about safety. I didnt have much
outdoor experience before. I lack the skills to manage
outdoor activities. I do not want to get injured during
practice.

Lack of Social Support

Almost half of the participants mentioned that they lacked a
workout partner to help motivate them to exercise. They felt
that if one or more of their friends would be willing to do
physical activities with them, then they would be more
active. Most of them were looking for Chinese rather than
American exercise partners. This may because of the
previously identified skill gap between themselves and the
Americans, with a preference for finding someone at a
similar skill level. In addition, American students were
perceived to like different types of physical activities, which
was another barrier to doing physical activity together.
Given their full schedules and competing priorities, even for
those who found a physical activity partner, making time for
physical activity was challenging.
A few participants also worried that their advisor would
not support them taking elective undergraduate physical
activity courses. Although they never directly received such
objections from their advisors, they perceived that an
expression of interest in doing so would be viewed as an
expression of disinterest in their academic and/or lab work.
Such perceived concerns prevented them from taking
physical activity courses. As Snow said:
Also, I am worried that my advisor would be unhappy if I
tried to take physical activity classes. He knows what classes
I need to take, and although I never have asked him, I do
worry that he would be unhappy about it. He may think that I
am not focusing on my academic work.

Cultural Barriers
Only one participant identified language as a barrier to
physical activity participation. Yet, most preferred to do
physical activities with individuals with whom they shared
similar sociocultural backgrounds. Although not specified as
a language issue per se, they did think that it was easier for
them to communicate with other Chinese students rather than
American students during physical activities. Also, they
perceived more common interest in the types of physical
activity that they could do together. Quin summed this up:
If I had more American friends, I would be more influenced
by them, and they would help me to be more physically

PA OF CHINESE FEMALE GRAD STUDENTS

active. I am also worried about whether I can really make

friends with Americans. I am not sure if they can understand
me well, or if I can do everything appropriate in their
culture. So, I am very hesitant to approach the Americans.

Regarding different types of physical activity, Lily

expressed:
I want to play volleyball, but the other students in our
department do not like volleyball at all. They always play
football or baseball, which I know nothing about. How I
wish they would play with me!

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Lack of Information
When we asked the participants about their suggestions to
the university and community in terms of physically activity
promotion, most expected the university and community to
have a better way to deliver physical activity-related
information to them, which we identified as another barrier
to their physical activity participation. In fact, most
expressed frustration that they did not have enough
information about how to take advantage of the physical
activity opportunities that were available on campus. They
knew that different opportunities were there; they just did
not know how to fully take part in them.

DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to explore CFISs
experiences with physical activity in terms of meanings,
facilitators, and barriers during their transition to
American higher education. In general, the study revealed
that physical activity afforded the participants with a break
from academic work, allowed them some alone time, gave
them feelings of accomplishment, and taught them a
process for accomplishing other things in their lives. They
identified the social influences in the United States, the
availability of ample resources, their changing perceptions
of femininity, the need to improve or maintain their health,
and engaging in leisure and social opportunities as
facilitators of their involvement. The most frequent
barriers were a lack of time, low self-efficacy, low social
support, lack of how-to information, and cultural
barriers.
Chinese women were the focus of this study because they
have previously been identified as an especially inactive
subpopulation, yet we know very little about their views of
physical activity or exercise (Yan, Berger, Tobar, &
Cardinal, in press). What we do know is that Chinese
students usually experience high pressure to be successful
academically. As a result, their physical development was
not emphasized by either their parents or the school system
in China (P. Y. Cheung & Chow, 2010). In addition,

393

compared with men, women in China have not been

socialized to be physically active. Moreover, when exposed
to new cultures, men more easily become acculturated than
do women because women experience more pressure to
maintain their traditional behaviors (Lopez-Gonzalez,
Aravena, & Hummer, 2005).
In American culture, the concepts of body and mind are
dualistic and distinguishable, whereas Chinese culture
views body and mind as integrated (F. M. Chueng, 1995).
This may explain why physical activities emphasizing body
and mind integration, such as Tai Chi, have been very
popular in China and other Asian countries. In addition,
Chinese students have been found to exercise more for
social purposes compared with American students, which
may relate to Buddhist principles focused on the
interconnections among people (Yang, 1995). Being
exposed to a very different physical activity culture and
environment in the United States, the CFIS that we studied
had begun to redefine the meaning of and reevaluate their
experiences with physical activity.
Clearly, the social influences of American society had a
profound impact on the participants in terms of their
attitudes toward and participation in physical activity.
Apparent to them was the social norm in America to pursue
a physically active lifestyle. This motivated the Chinese
women to not only value physical activity more, but to also
seek out opportunities to build more physical activity into
their lives.
Although not all Americans are physically active, those
who were served as influential role models for the study
participants. In addition, other social influences included
images and personalities in the media, athletic-type attire
being acceptable in a variety of settings and circumstances,
and a perceived ubiquitous supply of fitness, recreation, and
sports-related facilities, infrastructure, and merchandise on
campus and in the surrounding community. Importantly,
though, the participants did not blindly praise the totality of
American society as being physically active. Rather,
comments about negative health behaviors by some
Americans, such as a perceived overdependence on cars,
overconsumption of high fat and sugary foods, and having
sedentary American friends were also made. However, the
overall positive social marketing of physical activity
observed in American society coupled with observing
people being active in a variety of contexts seemed to result
in these Chinese women developing an overall positive
perception of physical activity in American culture.
American culture also modified many of the participants
perceptions of femininity. Traditional views in China value
paper thin, white-skinned, quiet, and inactive women.
Among American women, they noticed a healthy, fit,
and active image that was more accepting of shapely
muscles and tanned skin tones. Many, but not all, of the
participants viewed this as positive. Within Asian culture,
light skin and smooth muscles are signs of femininity,

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Z. YAN AND B. J. CARDINAL

purity, and upper social-class status; therefore, they

continue to be deeply cherished by some (Kawamura,
2002). For most of the women who became physically
active or adopted a more positive attitude toward physical
activity, their altered view of femininity was a key
facilitator. Likewise, for those who did not become more
physically active or alter their views about physical activity
as much, they seemed to maintain their original Asian
perceptions of femininity, which was a barrier to physical
activity participation. This is consistent with the findings of
Kawamura (2002), who reported a negative influence of
American culture on Asian women in terms of their ideal
body size and facial features.
Although the pursuit of super skinniness may exist
among American women (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006),
there is also evidence that college women in the United
States may also be unsure of their own muscularity and/or
perceived lack thereof (Readdy, Watkins, & Cardinal,
2011). The emphasis of government agencies and
professional societies on healthy, active living rather than
specific body shapes and sizes per se is certainly positive
and should be emphasized among CFIS (Haskell et al.,
2007). Moreover, moderate forms of physical activity may
be more culturally acceptable among the CFIS, better
understood by family and friends in China, and viewed as
more natural in terms of harmonious and balanced human
development in general (Berryman, 2012).
Losing or maintaining body weight was not seen as a
major motivational factor for doing physical activity among
study participants. This result may represent a shift in
motivation after coming to the United States, as others have
found that losing or maintaining body weight is a strong
motivational factor for exercise participation among female
college students in China (Yan et al., in press). In support of
this, Zhang, Chen, and Pan (2009) found that Chinese male
college students had higher fitness, competence, and social
motivations to participate in physical activity compared
with Chinese female college students, but the Chinese
female college students had higher weight/appearancerelated motivation. As their definition of femininity appears
to have changed to encompass physical activity and health
after coming to the United States, CFIS may focus more on
health outcomes rather than body weight from physical
activity.
On the basis of the current study, the change of attitude
toward physical activity and body weight as a result of
physical activity participation may be due to several
reasons. First, the social influence of American culture may
have changed the participants body ideals from a view of
the thinner the better to an appreciation of a more fit,
toned, and healthy body. By American standards, most
of the participants appeared to be maintaining a healthy or
perhaps even low body weight; therefore, their motivation
to lose weight by exercising may not have been viewed as
necessary. Second, the academic pressure they were

experiencing may have resulted in them paying more

attention to using exercise to improve their mental health,
such as reducing their stress level or bringing them feelings
of enjoyment. Third, several of the participants indicated
that they experienced difficulties maintaining or losing
weight through exercise alone. They expressed that the
American diet was very rich compared with the Chinese
diet, which made it hard to lose weight without controlling
their diet too. Frustrated by this, their motivation to maintain
or lose weight by exercise may have decreased.
The environmental resources available to the participants
were also an important facilitator of their physical activity
behavior. For most of the participants, the resources were of
higher quality and were more accessible compared with
what they had available to them in China. Taking
advantage of these resources was important to them.
Others have also reported that accessibility to equipment
and facilities is an important facilitator of physical activity
participation among college students (Sallis, Johnson,
Calfas, Caparosa, & Nichols, 1997).
However, having ample resources alone was not enough to
promote physical activity among our study participants. In
fact, it was somewhat overwhelming for them because they
lacked the knowledge and skills necessary to use all of the
available resources. This was a major barrier to their
participation because they were not fully prepared to capitalize
on all of the fitness, exercise, and recreational resources
provided to them by the university or in and throughout the
surrounding community. Their lack of skill and knowledge
also triggered feelings of embarrassment, especially when
they were participating together with Americans or when they
perceived a skill gap between themselves and their American
peers. This is consistent with previous research (Ransdell,
Detling, Hildebrand, & Lau, 2004).
Compared with American college women, our participants showed some similar barriers such as lack of time and
lack of social support (Keating, Guan, Pinero, & Bridges,
2005), as well as some unique barriers such as cultural
barriers, feelings of embarrassment, and lack of information, which create new challenges for colleges and
universities to address. For example, when university or
health promotion professionals provide physical activity
courses or implement physical activity promotion programs
for international students, they should consider strategies to
protect their emotional responses, decrease their negative
feelings, and increase their self-esteem. Universities should
also seek out avenues to reach out to international students
and deliver information to them using innovative
approaches (cf. Yan & Cardinal, 2013).
According to Landrine and Klonoff (2004), as immigrants acculturate, health behaviors from their culture of
origin that are not reinforced by the dominant culture will
wane, whereas those that are reinforced will increase.
Throughout this study, we observed that physical activity
provided new opportunities for CFIS to assimilate into

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PA OF CHINESE FEMALE GRAD STUDENTS

American culture, and vice versa, assimilation to American

culture also has promoted physical activity among CFIS.
Yet, the success and failure of the acculturation of the
international students ultimately depends on their relationship with the institution, community, and larger American
society. In addition, as more and more international students
come to the United States to receive higher education, our
college and university campuses will become more
culturally diverse. As American culture integrates other
cultures, it will be interesting and important to examine how
such integration influences the physical activity experiences
of the American students.
There are several limitations to this study, with the first
being generalizability. This may be especially true for
international students who are located in different geographic regions. For example, for the women who grew up in
a rural area of China, the quality of their physical education
experience and their accessibility to fitness resources were
lower compared with those who grew up in urban areas in
China. This likely influenced their leisure-time physical
activity experiences in unique ways. Nevertheless, when
they all went to universities in China, the regional differences
in terms of physical activity may have diminished, as most
colleges and universities are located in urban areas and cities
in China. Because this was a voluntary study, selection bias is
a second limitation. Those who participated may have more
interest in physical activity compared with those who did not
choose to participate. Third, within the Chinese language, the
term physical activity was often mixed up with the term
exercise and sport, which created some confusion
among the participants. However, being exposed to
American culture actually helped the participants begin to
differentiate among these terms. For example, some
participants explained that exercise should be more intensive
and with a clear goal compared with daily physical activity
that might be more utilitarian, pleasurable, or leisurely.
Nevertheless, how the meanings of these terms influence
individuals perception, attitude, and behavior of physical
activity requires further research.
The present study is unique in regards to its inclusion of
CFIS during their transition period to the United States. By
exploring meanings, facilitators, and barriers of physical
activity, the current study adds to our understanding of
physical activity behavior among this understudied,
inactive, and growing group of people. In addition, this
study sheds light on how the sociocultural environment in
the United States may reshape individuals attitudes and
behaviors in terms of physical activity. It also provides
direction for colleges and universities in the United States to
facilitate physical activity participation among international
students. University curricula and fitness training programs
should include cross-cultural course content to increase
awareness of international students unique needs, as well as
to help them remove barriers to their physical activity
participation. One example is the 6-week peer-based

395

program, proposed by Yan & Cardinal (2013), aimed at

promoting physical activity among international students by
matching them with American students.
Finally, this study lays the groundwork necessary for
further research on the acculturation process of physical
activity participation among individuals during their
transition period to another culture. Identifying key
facilitators and barriers is a necessary step toward promoting
an active lifestyle among all people. Yet, much remains to be
learned. For example, what happens to the women upon their
return to China? Are they able to freely espouse the values
and benefits of physical activity that they have learned? Can
they find acceptable participation venues? These and other
related questions await further investigation.

WHAT DOES THIS ARTICLE ADD?

International students have become an important and
growing subgroup population within the American higher
education system, yet we know very little about them or
their physical activity experiences. Colleges and universities have a responsibility to prepare their students for not
only academic success, but also life success, including
optimizing their own personal health and well-being. As
physical activity has numerous physical, social, and
emotional benefits, promoting physical activity among the
least physically active student groups will help all people
achieve their full human potential. This study identifies the
meaning, facilitators, and barriers to physical activity
participation among CFIS, which should provide direction
to those interested in providing inclusive physical activity
interventions and programs on college and university
campuses. By identifying important social and contextual
factors, it also addresses an area that has been neglected by
researchers in the field (Gill, 2009), as well as the dearth of
research directed toward fostering international understanding within the discipline of kinesiology (Zeigler, 2000)
and the social and behavioral sciences subdisciplinary area
in particular (Ram, Starek, & Johnson, 2004). Viewing
physical activity through the lens of our study participants,
we also get a very different picture of physical activity in
America. Notwithstanding evidence demonstrating a
generally inactive nation (Metzger et al., 2008), our study
participants described a campus, community, and society
that deeply values and supports healthy, active living, which
might be attributed to their recent transitional experience.
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