Endocrine System

Introduction
Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands which are situated in
different parts of the body.
They are often ductless gland because their products are not excreted in ducts or canals,
but directly into the bloodstream.
Hormones are transported to the particular organ which is called the target organ.
There the hormone has its own effect on the activity of that particular organ, its growth,
nutrition and even behavior and character of that person.
The production and excretion of hormones are closely related with the autonomic nervous
system.
Hormones are often related to each other because the production of one hormone can be
stopped by the production of another.

Mechanisms of Hormone Action

The endocrine system acts by releasing hormones that in turn trigger actions in
specific target cells.
Receptor on target cell membranes binds only to one type of hormone. More than fifty
human hormones have been identified; all act by binding to receptor molecules.
The binding hormone changes the shape of the receptor causing the response to the
hormone.

Hormone Producing Glands

Pituitary gland (1)
Thyroid gland (1)
Parathyroid gland (2)
Adrenal gland (2)
Ovaries in female (2)
Testes in male (2)
The islet of langerhans
Pineal gland (1)
Thymus (1)

Pituitary Gland

Reddish grey in color and roughly oval in shape

Situated in the hypophyseal fossa of the sphenoid bone, at the base of the brain.
The size of the gland is 12*8mm and weight 500mg
It is also called the master of the endocrine gland because it produces a number of
hormones, which controls the secretions of many other endocrine glands of the body.
The gland is attached to the brain by a stalk which is continuous with the hypothalamus
above.
The stalk is composed of nerve fibers and blood
vessels
The nerves connect between the hypothalamus and
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and blood vessel
connect the hypothalamus and anterior lobe of the
pituitary gland.

Three distinct part of the pituitary gland are

Anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
Posterior lobe (neurohypophysis)
The intermediate lobe

A.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
i.
ii.

Anterior lobe
Largest part of the pituitary gland
This lobe has different kinds of cells like acidophils, basophils and chromophobic cells
Different kinds of cells produce different types of hormone.
The hormones secreted by anterior lobe of pituitary gland are
Growth hormone (GH) or somatotrophin
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Prolactin or lactogenic hormone
Gonadotrophin hormone
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)

a. Growth hormone (GH) somatotrophin

 Its release is stimulated by growth hormone releasing factor (GHRF) and inhibited by the
growth hormone release inhibiting factor (GHRIF), both are secreted by the
hypothalamus.
Function
Promotes growth of bone (before union of epiphyseal cartilage), muscles, cartilages,
organs and other tissues.
Effects on metabolism of fat (increases lipolysis so free acid level of plasma is increased)
carbohydrate (diminishes uptake of glucose in periphery increasing the blood sugar level
) and proteins (helps in proteins synthesis in liver and muscles)
b. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
This hormone stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones: thyroxine (T4)
and tri-oidothyronine (T3)
TSH is highest at about midnight and lowest at about evening.
The major regulator of the TSH is plasma level of thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
When the thyroid hormone concentration in plasma rises, TSH secretion falls and vice
versa.
c. Adenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Synthesized by the corticotrophs (basophil) cells of anterior lobe of pituitary gland.
This hormone stimulate the adrenal cortex to produce adrenal cortex hormone: esp.
cortisol and adrenal androgens
When the plasma cortisol level is high, ACTH secretion is inhibited and vice versa.
The highest value of plasma ACTH is found around early morning where as the lowest
value is observed in the late evening or early part of night.
d. Prolactin
It promotes the development of mammary tissue during pregnancy.
It causes initiation of milk formation and its maintenance in female breast.
Helps in expulsion of placenta
From hypothalamus, a substance called prolactin inhibitory factor is released and
discharged into the blood vessels which inhibits the secretion of the prolactin hormone.
Mechanical stimulation of the female nipple, notably sucking increase the prolactin
secretion.
Secretion is related to sleep i.e it is raised during any period of sleep, day and night.
Emotional stress reduces production
e. Gonadotrophic or gonad stimulating Hormone (GSH)

 After puberty two gonadotrophins (sex hormones) are secreted by the anterior pituitary in
response to luteinising hormone releasing hormone (LHRH), also known as
gonadotrophin releasing hormone (GnRH).
In both males and females they are: follicle stimulating hormone and luteinising hormone
In both sexes: FSH stimulates production of gametes i.e. sperms and ova i.e. in female
stimulates ripening of the primordial follicles in ovaries. The follicle produces its own
hormone-estrogen
FSH in males stimulates the seminiferous tubules in testes to make germ cell.
In female: LH and FSH are involved in secretion of the hormone estrogen and
progesterone during the menstrual cycle. When level of LH and FSH is high, the
secretion of LH and FSH is suppressed
In male: LH or interstitial cell stimulating hormone stimulates interstitial cells of the
testes to secrete the hormone testesterone.
B. The posterior pituitary (or neurohypophysis)
Comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system.
Despite its name, the posterior pituitary gland is not a gland; rather, it is largely a
collection of axonal projections from the hypothalamus that terminate behind the anterior
pituitary gland.
Hormones (oxytocin and antidiuretics hormones) are stored in and released from axon
endings in the posterior lobe of the pituitary.
a. Oxytocin
Oxytocin stimulates the uterine contractions of labor that are needed to move the child
out through the birth canal.
The hormone stimulates the contraction of myo-epithelial cells of the matured female
breast, so the release of milk from the mammary gland. After birth, stimulation of the
breast by the infant feeding stimulates the posterior pituitary to produce oxytocin.

b.

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Antidiuretic hormone increases the permeability of the distal convoluted tubule and
collecting duct of the kidney nephron resulting in less water in the urine. The urine
becomes more concentrated as water is conserved.
Within the kidney, fluid and dissolved substances are filtered from the blood and pass
through tubules where some of the water and dissolved substances are reabsorbed.
The remaining liquid and wastes form urine.

 The presence of too much blood in the circulatory system stimulates the heart to produce
a hormone called atrial natriuretic factor (ANF).
This hormone inhibits the release of ADH by the posterior pituitary causing the kidneys
to excrete excess water.
Alcohol inhibits the release of ADH, causing the kidneys to produce dilute urine.
When the concentration of the ADH is very high in blood, the ADH causes arteriolar
smooth muscle contraction tending to vasoconstriction and elevation of arterial blood
pressure. Therefore ADH is also called vasopressin.

C. The intermediate lobe

Prominent in the embryonic period of human life, but become vestigeal in the postnatal
life.
It secretes the melanocytes stimulating hormone (MSH) which helps in the growth and
development of the melanocytes which gives the skin its color.

Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ and is composed of two cone-like lobes or
wings connected via the isthmus
Lobes are roughly cone shaped
and are about 5cm long and 3cm
wide.
The organ is situated on the
anterior side of the neck, lying
against and around the larynx
and trachea reaching posteriorly
the oesophagus
and carotid
sheath.
Weighs about 25gm and is
surrounded by a fibrous capsule
Between the two layers of the
capsule and on the posterior side
of the lobes, there are on each side two parathyroid glands.
The gland is composed of cuboidal epithelium that forms spherical follicles (follicular
cells) which contain a structure less, thick, sticky, semi-fluid protein called colloid. These
cells secrete tri-idothyronin (T3) and the thyroxin (T4).

 Between the follicles there are other cells found singly or in small groups: parafollicular
cell also called C-cell which secrete calcitonin.
Secretion of T3 and T4 is influenced by TSH but the secretion of calcitonin is not
influenced by the pituitary gland.
Both T4 and T3 have similar effects on target cells. In most target tissues, T 4 is converted
to T3. They influence metabolic rate, growth, and development.
Thyroxin production is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism in which it inhibits
the hypothalamus from stimulating the thyroid.
Functions of the thyroid gland (T3 and T4)
Cause O2 consumption of almost all metabolically active tissues
Stimulate lipolysis (fat metabolism)
Stimulate protein breakdown in tissue
Stimulate absorption of glucose from intestine also blood glucose level increases.
Increase cardiac output by combination action of the thyroid and catecholamine on the
heart.
. Thyroid hormone is required for cerebral cortex and basal ganglia development.
Enhance normal growth by potentiating the GH secretion
T4 causes loss of calcium via urine.
Calcitonin reduces the reabsorption of calcium from the bones and inhibits the
reabsorption of calcium by the renal tubules.

Parathyroid gland
Four in number
These are small ad ovoid endocrine glands which usually lie on the posterior border of
the thyroid gland, within the thyroid capsule.
Two glands on each side of the thyroid gland
Each gland measures 6*4*2 mm and weighs about 5gm each.
The number varies between two to six.
The parathyroid gland produces a hormone called parathormone (PTH)

Functions of PTH
PTH causes rise of ionized fraction of serum calcium. This is done by
I.
Increasing rate of reabsorption of bone
II.
Reducing the renal clearance or excretion of calcium and

III.

Increasing the efficiency of calcium absorption from intestine by promoting the synthesis
of calcitriol.
PTH increases renal phosphate excretion so phosphate excretion so phosphate level in
blood decreases.
Arterial blood supply: branches from the internal thoracic and inferior thyroid arteries
Venous drainage: drain into the left brachio-ceohalic, internal thoracic and inferior
thyroid veins
Nerve supply: from sympathetic trunks.

Adrenal or suprarenal glands

Anatomically, the adrenal glands are located in the retroperitoneum superior to the
kidneys, bilaterally.
They are surrounded by an adipose capsule
and renal fascia.
are found at the level of the 12th thoracic
vertebra.
Each adrenal gland has two distinct structures,
the outer adrenal cortex and the inner medulla,
both of which produce hormones.
The
cortex
mainly
produces cortisol, aldosterone and androgens,

While the medulla chiefly produces epinephrine and norepinephrine.

The combined weight of the adrenal glands in an adult human ranges from 7 to 10 grams.[
Cortex
The adrenal cortex is devoted to the synthesis of corticosteroid and androgen hormones.
Specific cortical cells produce particular hormones including aldosterone, cortisol,
and androgens.
The adrenal cortex comprises three zones, or layers i.e.

Layers
Outer layer: Zona Glomerulosa: mineralocorticoids(e.g., aldosterone)
Middle cortical layer: zona fasciculata : glucocorticoids (e.g., cortisol)

 Deepest cortical layer: zona reticularis : weak androgens(e.g., dehydroepiandrosterone,

adrenosterone)
Glucocorticoids
The primary glucocorticoid released by the adrenal gland is cortisol and corticosterone.
Its secretion is regulated by the hormone ACTH from the anterior pituitary.
Level is highest between 4am to 8am and lowest between 12am to 3am.
E.g. of glucocorticoids: hydrocortisone (cortisol), cortisone, prednisolone, triamcinolone,
dexamethasone and betamethasone.
The secretion is also increased by surgery, anxiety, physical trauma and hemorrhage.
Upon binding to its target, cortisol enhances metabolism in several ways:
Effect on metabolism
It stimulates the release of amino acids from the body
It stimulates lipolysis, the breakdown of fat
It stimulates gluconeogenesis, the production of glucose from newly-released amino
acids and lipids
It increases blood glucose levels in response to stress, by inhibiting glucose uptake
into muscle and fat cells
Effect on CVS
It strengthens cardiac muscle contractions
Effect on inflammatory action and allergic action:
It has anti-inflammatory and anti-allergic effects.
Delays wound healing by inhibiting all the inflammatory response to tissue injury.
Also suppresses the manifestation of allergic from the tissues.
Effect on blood
Increases RBC, platelets and neutrophils but decrease lymphocyte, eosinophils and
basophils.
Effect on GI
Stimulates secretion of HCL so it leads to peptic ulcer.
Effect on ACTH secretion
Inhibits ACTH secretion

Mineral metabolism
Promotion of sodium and water reabsorption from the renal tubules but excretion of
potassium from the renal tubules.

 Calcium reabsorption from gut is also deficient so leads to osteoporosis.

Effect on CNS
Maintain normal behaviour

A. Mineralocorticoids
are produced in the zona glomerulosa.
The primary mineralocorticoid is aldosterone.
Its secretion is regulated by the oligopeptide angiotensin II (angiotensin II is regulated
by angiotensin I, which in turn is regulated by renin).
Aldosterone is secreted in response to high extracellular potassium levels, low
extracellular sodium levels, and low fluid levels and blood volume.
Aldosterone affects metabolism in different ways:
It increases urinary excretion of potassium ions
It increases interstitial levels of sodium ions
It increases water retention and blood volume
B.

Androgens
they are produced in the zona reticularis.
Secretion of the adrenal androgen is controlled by ACTH.
These hormones exert masculinizing effects and they promote protein anabolism and
growth.
The most important androgens include:
Testosterone: a hormone with a wide variety of effects, ranging from enhancing muscle
mass and stimulation of cell growth to the development of the secondary sex
characteristics.
This adrenal androgen causes some suppression of feminine characteristic in the female.
Adrenal medulla
is the core of the adrenal gland, and is surrounded by the adrenal cortex.
It consists of masses of cells separated by large sinuses of blood.
It secretes approximately 20% norepinephrine ( noradrenaline) and 80% epinephrine
(catecholamines adrenaline)

Function of adrenaline and noradrenaline

Increases HR and force of cardiac contraction

Constrict blood vessels of skin

Dilates blood vessels of muscles, brain and heart
Dilate bronchi (bronchodilator, not noradrenaline)
Pupil dilatation
Gut relaxation (slowing down the peristalsis in the GI tract)
Inhibits micturation by relaxing detrusor muscle and constricting the trigone of bladder.
Contraction of non pregnant uterus and relaxation of pregnant uterus (term only)
Increases metabolic state: hyperglycemia, hyperlactacidemia, calorigenesis and
hyperkalemia
Increases the activity of sweat gland and contraction of the skin muscles causing goose
flesh.
Reduction in secretion of saliva and other digestive juices.

Ovary and testes

Functions of testes
Spermatogenesis
LH inhibition
Development of epidydymis, vasa deferns and seminal vesicles
Skeletal muscle growth
Formation of scrotum, penis and male urethra
Male pubertal changes , sexual maturity, male behavior
Function of estrogen
Pubertal change, growth of uterus, fallopian tube and vagina
Proliferation of endometrium in the preovulatory phase
Induce watery secretion in the cervix which provides favorable condition for sperm
penetration.
Bring secondary sexual changes i.e breast change, appearance of axillary and pubic hair,
female body contours
Promote epiphyseal closure; maintain bony mass by retarding bone reabsorption.
Promote positive calcium balance by generating active form of Vit D3
Functions of progesterone
Secretary changes during menstruation
Decidual changes in endometrium during pregnancy
Decrease sensitivity of endometrium to oxytocin

 Converts the watery cervical secretion induced by estrogen to viscid, scanty and cellular
secretion which is hostile to sperm penetration.
Proliferation of acini in the mammary gland, it prepares breast for lactation
High circulating concentration of progesterone leads to sedative effects
Slight (0.50C) rise in the body temperature while the progesterone is at high level.
Prolonged use causes impairs glucose intolerance
Inhibit growth hormone secretion
Islets of Langerhans
irregularly shaped patches of endocrine tissue located within the pancreas
The normal human pancreas contains about 1,000,000 islets.
The islets consist of four distinct cell types, of which three (alpha, beta and delta cells)
produce important hormones; the fourth component (C cells) has no known function.
the alpha cell produces glucagon, beta cell produces insulin, the major hormone in the
regulation of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism
Insulin and glucagon influence the level of glucose in the blood, each balancing the effect
of the other.
Glucagons tend to rise the blood glucose level and insulin reduces it.
Function of insulin
Convert glucose to glycogen in the liver for storage
Increase glucose entry of cells
Increases fatty acid synthesis
Increase protein synthesis in ribosome and decrease protein catabolism
Decrease release of glucogenic amino acid
Decrease glucose output from the liver
Synthesis of DNA and RNA
Function of glucagon
Causes hyperglycemia

Pineal gland
Is a small gland situated under the
brain behind the third ventricle
It is approximately 10mm in length.
It is connected to the brain by a short
stalk.
There are nerve fibers in the stalk ,
but they apparently do not reach the
gland.
In young animal and infant, the pineal
gland is large.
The gland secretes the melatonin hormone.
This melatonin hormone inhibits the onset of puberty in human.
The gland tend to atrophy after puberty and become calcifies in later life.

Local hormone
It includes chemical which are secreted by the cells not in glands e.g. histamine, 5HT,
bradykinin, prostaglandin etc.
Histamine is an organic nitrogen compound involved in local immune responses as well
as regulating physiological function in the gut and acting as a neurotransmitter.
Histamine triggers the inflammatory response.
As part of an immune response to foreign pathogens, histamine is produced
by basophils and by mast cells found in nearby connective tissues.
It increases the permeability of the capillaries to white blood cells and some proteins, to
allow them to engage pathogens in the infected tissues.
Function of histamine
Causes relaxation of smooth muscles of blood vessels which leads to dilatation of
capillaries and increasing capillaries and increasing the capillary permeability
It causes contraction of bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle leading to bronchospasm
and diarrhea
Helps in the gastric acid secretion
Related to pain and itching sensation