Political Campaigns 215

1 Athens, with stones. The tribunes decided that the aedile had been rightfully refused admittance to a place
~s around which it was unseemly for him to enter with a garland on his head.s+ And so the tribunes forbade=
's been a the aedile to bring this accusation before the "people."
Vestius.

~chieved
befits a
POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS
-oj if you
During the republican period, the most important activity in life for the small group of
: Pvthias families who constituted the senatorial class was the pursuit of political power-for
"-:,dhow one's self, one's family, and one's friends. A man of senatorial rank would spend his
whole adult life planning, scheming, manipulating, negotiating, creating a public
. I said.
image, ingratiating himself, attracting supporters, dispensing favors. A boy's rhetori-
"From
cal education and a young man's activities in the law courts were preparations for a
,::ion as
political career. Friendships and marriages were often a matter of political conve-
~.': even nience.v= and more than one divorce was prompted by a desire to form new political
.rbitant alliances.P? The percentage of the population that was so deeply involved in politics
::'ng to was small-in the republican period there were only about 300 Senate members-
:'u get but the stakes were high: control over Rome, Italy, and a far-flung empire. And it is
,~~ile." the men of the senatorial class-men like Suila, Caesar, Cato, and Cicero-and their
.v.n on activities that are for us the best-known elements of Roman history.
~ .riend Since each senatorial family felt that its members and friends had a god-given
:-:arsh
right to rule Rome, rivalry was intense and political campaigns were bitter. And
:-~ths,
because elections were held every year,88 the process of campaigning was virtually
~::ick-
unending.t'? Campaigns were not only bitter, but also expensive since candidates, as
a matter of course, spent huge sums of money "buying" votes; bribery was more
common that it is even today.P?

.; 14
84 Partygoers frequently wore garlands. The garland on Mancinus's head proved that his visit was not official and
that he had no right to demand entry.
.: ::.::on
-. ..er 85forbade: exercised their power of veto; see note 42 of this chapter.
- - ..:.=-_~s 86For example, Julius Caesar married off his daughter, Julia, to his sometime political ally, Pompey, a man older
. ·.C·35 than himself. The marriage, which took place in 59 B.C., was intended to strengthen the ties between the two
.- :':'1' men. Julia died in childbirth in 54 B.C., and soon afterward the uneasy political alliance between the two men was
violently ruptured; see note 811 of Chapter V.
87Julia was Pompey's fourth wife (he married a fifth wife after her death). He had divorced his first wife to marry
Aemilia, the stepdaughter of Sulla, presumably because he wanted to strengthen his ties to Sulla (see note 114 of
Chapter Vll). At the time that Pompey and Sulla arranged this marriage, Aemilia was pregnant and living with
her husband. She was forced to divorce him and marry Pompey. She died in childbirth soon afterward. The
younger Cato (great-grandson of the elder Cato; see selection 134) had actually divorced his own wife, Marcia,
and married her off to Hortensius to strengthen their friendship. When Hortensius died, he remarried Marcia.
88The term of office for quaestor, aedile, tribune, praetor, and consul was only one year.
89Even if you were not yourself running for office, you were expected to campaign for family members and
family friends; see note 17 of Chapter III. You were also expected to lobby for the legislation of your political
allies and against that of your opponents, and to maintain a high profile by speaking out in the courts, Senate, and
assemblies.
90See note 59 of Chapter XII.
216 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

Planning a Campaign 262

The following passages are selections from a letter of advice on running for public
office. Many scholars believe that the letter was written by Quintus Tullius Cicero to
his more famous brother, Marcus Tullius Cicero in 64 B.C., when Marcus was running Although '. : - '-.,
experience ~ ~ i
for the consulship of 63 B.C. Other scholars argue that the letter was written at least
the sogges: ~.'
100 years later, as a literary exercise. If, however, it is a literary exercise rather than a
the consc.s. __~ :
genuine letter, it is very cleverly composed, because the author has described so well strategies .
the political realities of the final years of the republican period. (One would not unifying ::~ .,;
expect a writer of the imperial period, when the emperor controlled all public offices only a k.'· --:--:..
and when popular elections had been suspended, to be so well informed about is, what ~c:'.:,
republ ican pol itics.) you must :0:::_- :
Whoever the author may be, his letter provides very valuable information about You ""_.:C:
running for office in the late republican period. The advice-make connections, as a spe~:;,,: -'
establish a broad base of support, keep a high profile, and promise everyone ranks are ~'~.'': ~
publicans. '--.::.
everything-was applicable to all political aspirants (and still is), but was particularly
many mer; :: ':
appropriate for a novus homo. A "new man" was someone whose family had never
young IT:~:.::
before had a consul in its rank. Cicero was a "new man." He was born in Arpinum, a
attendance .: ..
town southeast of Rome, in 106 B.C.; his family was wealthy ("new men" were never your carr.:::':':;-
poor) and equestrian; he received an excellent rhetorical education. Cicero was who 0\\'" '. - ,
apparently driven by his ambition to achieve political success in Rome and, while favor. ar.; '.:-.:..'
::.
still a young man, acquired a reputation as a brilliant lawyer and public speaker.v' tunity fo!' :~.:- :
His political career followed a "normal" course; that is, he was elected quaestor, the Th.s :..:':
lowest rung of the political ladder, in 76 B.C., when he was thirty years old, and especia..: :': ~-
served as quaestor in 75 B.C., at age thirty-one, the youngest age by law at which he men mtc '.'.:.: c': :
could hold the quaestorship. He was elected aedile in 70 B.C. (served in 69) and entreat ::-.0::. ~ :
have no: '-'-:-':- .-
praetor in 67 B.C. (served in 66), also atthe youngest ages allowed by law. Thus, by 64
i-fi,.:;" : -~: :
B.C., when he ran for the consulship, Cicero had already served in the Senate for
friendsnir s ::
twelve yearsv- and held three magistracies. One might well think that he had proved
himself a capable and conscientious politician. He had certainly tried very hard to
become part of the establishment. But the old senatorial families, however bitter the 94 Cicero .:-.<., .;
rivalries among themselves, would always jealously close ranks against a "new Forum. H:>,:'
man," an upstart, as they thought, invading the political arena, their arena. Cicero the Latin .:~_.
wealthy R~::.~-
was forced to work very diligently to acquire a solid and broad base of support. No
95 Selectic..s ~ -
doubt he used the tactics described in this letter; in 63 B.C. he became the first "new
man" in over thirty years to hold the consulship.v' 96 The Lat.r. '.'.. - :
alliance. F,:: =.«:
97Cicero's :':_
91 Another native of Arpinum and another' 'new man" who became consul was Gaius Marius, who was elected

consul in 107 B.C. (see the introduction to Chapter XI). Both Marius and Cicero were individuals of exceptional 98Legal se r.: :
talent, Marius in military matters and Cicero in oratory. The latter used public speaking to gain the reputation important '.:: ~..: ::
necessary to political success in Rome; the former gained fame as a military man. Neither "new man" would successful :~'.~-. ':'
have achieved the rank of consul had each not been an individual of exceptional talent. "New men" had to work 99In ancien: ?C. : - :
much harder for each political success than the sons of old, established senatorial families who could count on had helped :".':::
family support. Do not, however, think that "new men" were poor or politically naive. Cicero and Marius both favor of ass:,:::, :.
came from wealthy families, prominent in their hometowns. They simply did not have the network of support favor) and c\::.·=
available to families long active in Roman politics.
100 populare: .. :: :
92 He was admitted to the Senate upon being elected quaestor; see the introduction to selection 264. selection 265. ..
93Even after holding the consulship Cicero still met with hostility, petty jealousy, and suspicion from some resort to "F'c:- ...:
senatorial families who continued to view him as a "new man." before mnni::; ~

IOlcell!((l'!f.' .:,;,; -
 Political Campaigns 217

262 Quintus Tullius Cicero, Some Thoughts about Political Campaigns

19 for public 1.1-5; 8.29-31, 33; 9.34-38; 11.41-45; 12.48; 13.53; 14.54, 55
'us Cicero to
was running Although you are well equipped with every advantage which men can acquire through intelligence,
itten at least experience, and hard work, yet I don't think it is inappropriate for me, who loves you, to write to you
-ather than a the suggestions which have come into my mind whenever I have thought about your campaign for
-ibed so well the consulship. I don't think that you will learn anything new from these, but at least the various
strategies which now seem random and unconnected will be set into one framework and will have a
:: would not
unifying plan and arrangement. Although natural ability is a strong advantage, yet in a campaign of
'Jblic offices
only a few months, duplicity can defeat natural ability. Therefore, consider carefully what city this
):med about is, what office you are running for and who you are. Every day, as you walk down to the Forum.P"
you must remind yourself: I am a "new man," I am running for consul, and this is Rome.
'~ation about You will be able to compensate for the" newness" of your name to a large extent by your fame
.onnections. as a speaker. 95 . . . Then make sure that both the large number of your friends and also their high
se everyone ranks are quite apparent. For you have friendships'" which few "new men" have had: with all the
, particularly publicans, almost all the equestrian order.?? many municipalities with special attachments to you,
lv had never many men of every class who have been defended by YOU,98 some private clubs, a large number of
~Arpinum, a young men devoted to you because of their enthusiasm for eloquence, and the daily assistance and
were never attendance of your personal friends. Take care that you retain these supporters by reminding them of
your campaign, by asking for their votes, and by using every method to make sure that the people
Cicero was
who owe you favors understand that there will never be another opportunity for them to return the
e and, while
favor, and that the people who desire your help understand that there will never be another oppor-
.c speaker. 91
tunity for them to put you under obligation to them.??
cuaestor, the This also, it seems to me, can assist greatly a "new man": the good will of men of noble, and
.ars old, and especially of consular rank. It is advantageous to be thought worthy of a particular rank by those very
at which he men into whose ranks you wish to enter. All these men must be diligently courted by you; you must
:i in 69) and entreat them and persuade them that we have always supported the optimates in affairs of state, and
. Thus, by 64 have not been populares.tv" ...
·.e Senate for Make sure that you have firm support in all the centuries 101 by means of your many and varied
~ had proved friendships. First of all, win over to your side the Roman senators and equestrians and the active and
very hard to
ver bitter the
94Cicero owned a home on the Palatine, one of Rome's Seven Hills. He would thus walk down the hill to the
.inst a "new Forum. Houses on the Palatine were among the most expensive in Rome; the English word palace is derived from
.rena. Cicero the Latin palatium (Palatine). In the imperial period, the emperors' residence was on the Palatine. Like other
: support. No wealthy Romans, Cicero had several country homes as well as his city home; see selections 18 and 109.
~e first "new 95Selections 8,76, 184,229,265, and 321 are taken from Cicero's speeches.
96The Latin word amicitia (English "amicable," French "ami") means both personal friendship and political
alliance. For many people in the upper class, no distinction was made between personal and political friendships.
who was elected 97Cicero's family was equestrian.
,,:, of exceptional
98Legal services were paid for not with money but with political help (see selections 7, 8 and 9). It was therefore
i.n the reputation
important for aspiring politicians to provide legal assistance to as many people as possible. Cicero was a very
:ow man" would successful lawyer.
:en" had to work
.2 could count on
99In ancient Rome, favors were always reciprocaL People who had in the past received favors from Cicero (he
had helped them with a lawsuit, loaned them money, written a letter of recommendation, etc.) now owed him the
and Marius both
favor of assisting in his campaign. People who wanted his help in the future promised him their votes now (i.e., a
rwork of support
favor) and expected him to return the favor later.
.00 populares: see note 73 of this chapter. The optimates were the larger and conservative part of the Senate; see
'n 264.
selection 265. It was important that Cicero convince these men that, although he was a "new man," he would not
.icion from some
resort to "popular" tactics to win support. (Since Cicero had already been a Senate member for twelve years
before running for consul, the optimates should have known well his political inclinations.)
10. centuries: see notes 9 and 10 of this chapter.
218 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

influential men of all the other social classes. There are many hard-working men in the city and many group c: ~~o-~
influential and active freedmen in the Forum. Both in person and through mutual friends exert every men whcr.; 7 ='
possible effort to make them your supporters: pursue them, entreat them, show them that they are them tj-.~: ::.7
bestowing upon you the very greatest favor. Then develop a plan for the whole city, for all private themse.ve- ""
clubs, for the country districts and the neighboring regions. 102 If you can win over to your side the and neve ; ~~c.-
leading men in these groups, you will with their help easily gain the votes of the other members of E:.:~::
.. ,-:.
the groups. Next, make sure that you have in your mind and memory a plan of all ofItaly divided and polit.c z, : '---:-.:...
arranged by tribes-?" so that you do not allow to go unnoticed any municipality, colony, or prefec- atteri.ir r. .. --::
ture, indeed any place at all in Italy in which you do not have sufficient support. Search for and track name. I:. '~:.
down men from every region. Become acquainted with them, entreat them, encourage them. See to you t e; :=-=--:- -;.:-
it that they campaign for you in their own neighborhoods and that they are candidates, so to speak, :\I1Q ::-.:':. -.

for your cause. . . . appe::.:-.:....--~ :-

I think that the centuries of equestrians 104 can very easily be kept on your side with a little hard \\";'-:-':::-. :-.:=-- _.
work. First, become acquainted with the equestrians (there are not many of them in the top centu- \\·i·.:~:t': ::.:--.::
ries); then, court them (for youth 105 is much more easily attracted to friendship). In the end, you will ..;..:~-~~. '

have on your side all the finest young men and those most devoted to honorable behavior. . . . And l. :".. __. _~. -- -

the eagerness of these young men in voting for you, in working for you, in giving you publicity, and ;,..-..::. ~;-..;:~---
in attending upon you is both wonderfully important and wonderfully respectable.
And, since I have brought up the topic of attendants, make sure that you are attended every day ;.:; ~ - -: .:.-=.:.--.-

by men from each class, order, and age group .... Your attendants can also be divided into three - --- -- -

groups: (1) those who corne to your horne for the morning salutation, (2) those who escort you from
your home,l06 and (3) those who follow you through the city'?" The morning greeters are more
..: ~
common than the other two groups and more numerous, because this is now the fashion. You must
be sure to make the slightest little service they do seem especially gratifying to you. Indicate to those ------- .-
..

who come to your house that you are aware of their attention. Make it known to their friends (who
will, of course, report your words to them). And teJl them often, in person. When several candidates
are campaigning and men see that there is one who really appreciates the services of his attendants,
they frequently desert the other candidates and pledge themselves to him .... As for the group
who escort you from your home, whose service is greater than that of the morning greeters, clearly . -: ~'7

--1
indicate to them that it is also more gratifying to you. Corne down to the Forum at the same time
every day; for a large crowd of escorts every day brings you great renown and great respect. Now the
third group in this classification are those who attend you assiduously. Some do so voluntarily; make
~-
.:.

sure that they know that you will be under obligation to them for this enormous favor. Some,
however, owe you this service; simply demand that they repay you; those whose age and occupation
will allow it should attend you constantly, but those who cannot personally attend you should assign
their relatives to this duty. 108 I strongly urge, and I think it important, that you always appear with a
-: :-:-1

102By64 B.C., when Cicero was running for consul, all citizens of Italy were Roman citizens, and the men of
Italy were therefore eligible to vote in elections for Roman magistrates.
1030'ibes: see notes 12 and 13 of this chapter.
!04centuries of equestrians: in Cicero's time, there were 373 centuries. Of these, only eighteen centuries were
equestrian. The equestrian centuries were composed of men under forty-seven years of age iiuniores: see note 10
of this chapter) with the highest property qualification in the state. Not everyone in the equestrian order was
placed in an equestrian century; assignment to a century was the job of the censors; see selection 255.
105 youth: because men in the equestrian centuries were under forty-seven.
106Thatis, down the Palatine to the Forum.
!07These men stay with Cicero all day long. The men who attend upon Cicero are his clients; compare his
comments about the obligations of clients in selection 8. Note that Cicero is here advised to show gratitude to his
clients. In the imperial period, when popular elections had been abolished and when former slaves became
freedmen-clients, the relationship between patrons and clients changed; see selection 9-14 and 241 to 246.
108Thefavor must be repaid.
 Political Campaigns 219
in the city and many group of attendants, And you will particularly gain great respect and renown if your attendants are
,; friends exert every men who have been defeated by you in court and who have been acquitted, Simply demand from
" them that they are them that they repay you with this service since they, through your efforts and at no cost to
: city, for all private themselves.I''? won a court case, or preserved their reputations, or kept their lives and their property,
.ver to your side the and never again in the future will there be a time when they can show their gratitude to you, 110 , , ,
:e other members of Enough has been said about establishing friendships, We must now discuss the other aspect of a
of Italy divided and political campaign: what is done to win over the common people, Here you need flattery, constant
, colony, or prefec- attention, courtesy, good reputation, prominence in public life, and the knowledge of each man's
Search for and track name, In fact, make it very clear that you do know men's names, and add to the list so that every day
.nirage them, See to you become even better at this, 111 Nothing, as far as I am concerned, is so popular or so pleasing,
idates, so to speak, And then, although you are not by nature a flatterer, persuade yourself that you must give the
appearance of complimenting people in a very natural fashion. Certainly you possess that affability
.ie with a little hard which befits a good and pleasant man, but you really need the gift of flattery which, although it is
:n in the top centu- wicked and reprehensible in all other aspects of life, yet is essential in a political campaign.
m the end, you will Actually, when flattery makes a man worse it is bad, but when it makes him more supportive of you
caviar. . . , And it shouldn't be censured, It is certainly essential for a candidate, whose expression and appearance
you publicity, and and speech must be changed and adapted to the opinions and wishes of everyone he meets.
-le.
Constant attention implies . . . that you campaign continually, that you appeal to the same
artended every day people again and again, , , , Courtesy belongs in the services which you should offer to the
~divided into three common people. Take care that they have easy access to you day and night, not only through the
:0 escort you from
doors of your horne!'? but even through your open and sincere appearance, which is the door to your
greeters are more mind.. . Men want to hear promises when they make requests of a candidate, and they want to
cashion. You must hear lavish and creditable promises, And so make it clear that you will do whatever you do with
, Indicate to those enthusiasm and generosity, It is rather difficult, and more appropriate to the demands of your
:heir friends (who campaign than to your own nature, to promise what you cannot accomplish, . . , But it is the
severa] candidates strategy of a good campaigner. ' . . If you make a promise, its fulfillment is never a definite
of his attendants, matter; it is a question of the right opportunity, and it concerns only a few people. If, however, you
.-\5 for the group refuse to make a promise, you alienate definitely and immediately many people. In any case, far
: greeters, clearly more people ask for the promise of a favor than ever demand its fulfillment. . , .
at the same time In this campaign you must especially see to it that the public thinks that you are honest and trusts
respecr. Now the that you will serve well in office. Politics is not simply a matter of success in the campaign, or in the
,oluntarily; make Senate, or in the popular assembly, but rather these things must be kept in mind: the Senate should
.is favor. Some,
think that you will be a defender of its authority from the fact that you have in the past been its
e and occupation defender; the Roman equestrians and other honorable and wealthy men113 should think from your
:JU should assign
past life that you will be eager for peace and tranquility; 114 and the masses should think, from the fact
,:'5 appear with a that in your speeches in the assemblies and in court you supported the rights of the people, that you
will not be opposed t9 its interests. ' . ,
Rome is a city-state formed by the coming together of many nations; in Rome you must endure
.s. and the men of
much treachery, deceit, vices of every kind, arrogance of many men, scorn, malevolence, pride,

.en centuries were 109Lawyers did not receive fees; see note 98 of this chapter.
:'ores: see note 10 lI°gratitude: from the Latin gratia = "favor"; compare ingratiating,
estrian order was
III A politician was (and still is) expected to greet everyone warmly and by name, Ancient politicians were
.rion 255.
assisted by a slave called a nomenclator whose duty it was to memorize names and identify people (Latin nomen
= "name," clamo = "call out"; compare English nomenclature),
112A man with political aspirations needed a large reception area in his home; see selection 79,
:JtS; compare his 113Notice the differentiation in rank, Members of the equestrian order needed a property qualification of 400,000
'," gratitude to his sesterces. Other businessmen, well-off but with less than 400,000 sesterces, would share the same interests as the
.r slaves became equestrian order.
j 241 to 246.
114Businessmen were interested in peace and tranquility because the volume of trade increased when conditions
were stable; see the introduction to selection 171.
220 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

hatred, and harassment. I see that anyone who lives in the midst of so many vices of every sort and of
such scale and of so many men must have great prudence and skill to avoid giving offense, to avoid
gossip and treachery. Only one man can adapt to such a variety of characters and forms of
expression-you! Therefore, continue always to maintain the course which you set for yourself:
excel in public speaking! By this are men in Rome controlled, and attracted, and discouraged from
hindering or harming you. lIS

Campaign Literature
Political messages were painted on the walls of buildings in Pompeii (and presumably
of cities like Rome as well). We have already read some of these messagest tv: here
are some others. .

Intnf-"=.~
263 cu. 4.7463,579,275,6628,7213,635,787,7866,7221, the 2:'5,,-- ~ -.
3409,6625,920,3775,429, 1147,235,581,576,575,2887 pos;~;:' .: '''-
office . ':
Elect Pansa aedile. He deserves the position.
senato.s ~.: "
Magonius supports Cuspius Pansa for aedile.
for furr e --:~
Saturninus and his pupils urge you to elect Gaius Cuspius Pansa aedile. He is a worthy senato., -:'-:-
candidate for our government. trates C ':"'-;0-,,:
Make Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus and Marcus Samellius Modestus aediles; they are worthy candi- sirnilar : : ~. : ;.-;0
dates for our government. them. 1-::::
Amandio and his friends urge you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus aedile. He is a worthy chiefe\f=_= ?
candidate for our government. chosen::. '.'" .
Proculus, make Sabinus aedile and he will make you aedile. rernainec :: _ ..
All the worshippers of Isis117 urge you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus aedile. tives, ~:..-= ~.' : :
Maria"!" urges you to elect Gnaeus Helvius Sabinus aedile. consulsr :c-: -
prop0525 = - :
Ismurna urges you to elect Lucius Popidius aedile.
one of ~--;o t: ;
Rufinus, support Popidius Secundus for aedile, and he will do the same for you.
dernocrec
His neighbors urge you to elect Marcus Lucretius Fronto aedile. Senate ha; ~ ~- =
Proculus, give up your office to Franta. Senate COL. ::: • :
His neighbors urge you to elect Lucius Statius Receptus duovir with judicial power. 119 He tum,125 ca.--,,::
deserves the position. Aemilius Celer, his neighbor, wrote his.P? If you spitefullv deface this foreign ana "
sign, may you become very ill.
Elect Gaius Julius Polybius aedile. He supplies good bread. 121It is not c:~;: z: :;::
or associations ',". :.:
Ballplayers, I urge you, make Aulus Vettius Firmus aedile: he is a worthy candidate for our
political endorser ::.'-
government. drink late into :::: - ~
122The Latin "',:::
Cicero won fame as a public speaker in the law courts, the assemblies, and the Senate, His skill as a speaker
I IS
were sometime; :~.. ~
made him a man to be admired, but also to be feared, He had demolished more than one political opponent with
123Tiberius Grz ; :: ..
his brilliant oratory, Consider his attacks on Clodia in selection 76 and on Verres in selection 321.
of the Senate. t,,:" -.-:
116See selection 165, the Senate had ~:' :,~
II 7 Isis: an Egyptian goddess; see selections 439 and 440. 1241aws: that is, .c: .
lIS Maria, Ismurna: barmaids, 125senatus COIlS:,> .• "
119duovir: see note 65 of Chapter II. examples, see se.e :;.:
120Aemilius Celer: for more on this sign painter, see selections 131 and 392. 126See selection:"
 The Senate 221

Faventinus and his friends urge you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia aedile.
All the late drinkers'>' urge you to elect Marcus Cerrinius Vatia aedile. Florus and Fructus
wrote this.
The petty thieves urge you to elect Vatia aedile.
All the late sleepers urge you to elect Vatia aedile.
Let anyone who opposes the election of Quintius go sit by an ass!

THE SENATE
-l-

The Senate in the Republican Period

r-~- In the republican period, the Senate was composed of men who had been elected by
the assemblies to one of the magistracies. A man did not, therefore, "run" for the
position of senator, but once elected quaestor, for example, for a one-year term of
office, he was admitted into the Senate for life. All the magistrates were thus also
senators, and all senators were men who had once been magistrates and who hoped
for further magistracies for themselves or their family members. All magistrates and
."',.,.-
senators, moreover, were wealthy. Therefore, although the functions of the magis-
trates differed from those of the senators, every magistrate would have interests
r;.:::r:~-
similar to those of his fellow senators, and he would work in close consultation with
them. Indeed, historically the function of the Senate was to provide advice to the
•. =:
chief executives of Rome. In the monarchy, senators were the elders of the state,l22
chosen by the king to be his advisors. After the expulsion of the monarchy, the Senate
remained during the republican period as an advisory body for the new chief execu-
tives, the two consuls elected each year (who were, of course, also senators). The
consuls introduced to the Senate proposals for legislation. The senators discussed the
proposals and, if they approved them, advised the consuls to present the legislation to
one of the popular assemblies for a vote. Thus, although Rome was in name a
democracy since the "people" elected magistrates and voted on legislation, the
Senate had tight control over what legislation actually reached the assembl ies.123The
Senate could not technically pass laws,124 but its "advice," called a senatus consul-
tum,125 came to have the force of a law.126 The Senate controlled both domestic and
foreign affairs. It decided how much money to collect in taxes, tributes, public rents,

121ft is not clear whether the "late drinkers," the "petty thieves," and the "late sleepers" were respectable clubs
or associations which had given themselves humorous names (compare the Oddfellows); in this case, their
political endorsements were probably useful. Or "late drinkers" may, in fact, mean exactly that: people who
drink late into the night. In this case, the "endorsements" may have been written by Vatia's political enemies.
122The Latin word senator is related to the words senex ("old man") and senere ("to be old"). The senators
..-'.:.
were sometimes called patres, "fathers."
123Tiberius Gracchus, when tribune, had angered his fellow-senators, and was assassinated by certain elements
of the Senate, because he took his agrarian law proposal directly to the Concilium Plebis for a vote even though
the Senate had advised against it; see selection 187.
1241aws: that is, leges; see note 24 of this chapter.
125senatus consultum (often written as one word: senatusconsultumi: "advice tconsultumi of the Senate." For
examples, see selections 87 and 436.
126See selection 278.
AS THE ROMANS DID
A Sourcebook in Roman Social History
Second Edition

Jo-Ann Shelton

New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1998