Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
VECTOR
A
OF
THE
LECTURES
GIBBS,
WILLARD
PHYSICS
AND
UPON
Professorof Mathematical
STUDENTS
OF
USE
MATHEMATICS
FOUNDED
J.
THE
FOR
TEXT-BOOK
OF
PH.D.,
Physics in
LL.D.
Yale
University
WILSON,
PH.D.
BY
EDWIN
BIDWELL
in Mathematics
Instructor
NEW
YORK
LONDON:
CHARLES
in
Yale
University
SCRIBNER'S
EDWARD
1901
ARNOLD
SONS
Copyright,
BY
YALE
UNIVERSITY.
Published,
December,
UNIVERSITY
AND
PRESS
SON
1901,
"
CAMBRIDGE,
"
1901.
JOHN
WILSON
U.S.A.
PKEFACE
SINCE
Vector
the
be
to
glad
very
text-book
I
have
the
meet
the
years
this
want,
have
to
in the
Analysis
use
who
were
desire
has
been
the
be
but
known
made
to
expressed
of
substance
form, should
fuller
however,
leisure
at
the
"
quarter, that
in
those
among
of
published,
never
"
Elements
the
on
that
tise,
trea-
accessible
to
public.
As,
1881"84,
years
GIBBS
pamphlet
subject,
one
perhaps
short
circulated
in the
than
more
the
in the
widely
interested
in
of
printing
Analysis
somewhat
PROFESSOR
BY
on
not
the
own
text-book
adequate
of
the
seemed
hearers
of
real
undertake
the
on
Wilson
should
was
Vector
preparationof
that
of
judgment
in which
the
of
geometry
my
Dr.
lectures, but
in all
and
UNIVERSITY,
aim
that
he
simply
should
subject should
examples
rather
as
to
be
meet
illustrated
so
the
wants
by
of
September,
1901.
G47442
BHGINKEKING
LIBRARY
a
an
dents
stu-
physics.
J. WILLARD
YALE
one,
course
my
the
finding
my
subject.
desired
number
which
1899-1900
year
reproduction
his
of
one
without
passed
GIBBS.
GENERAL
I undertook
WHEN
engaged
material
Statistical
in
assistance
from
expected
free
entirely
the
topics
It
has
been
in
text-book
Vector
has
Foppl's
Some
could
the
of
feel
to
me
in
selection
treatment.
thus
granted
method
his
presenting
been
of
in
Those
Arts,
but
first
MaxwelVsche
My
made
been
of
Heaviside's
of
study
on
University
and
by
the
Elec~
Professor
in
Electricitdt
der
Theorie
previous
and
obtained
best
suited
which
it
for
Quaternions
set
apart
with
have
been
Indeed,
be
well
has
drawn
from
These
way
subject.
in
the
omitted
at
asterisk
an
large part
method.
the
incorporate
to
may
marked
examples
physics.
best
reasons
been
applications
been
seemed
of
mastery
easy
the
in
arranged
been
has
to
various
have
illustrative
not
Die
on
thus
reading
with
has
lectures
great assistance.
which
mechanics,
the
at
ing
follow-
the
of
Oliver
Mr.
in
in
course
however,
use,
used
material
seems
the
annually
Analysis
1894).
which
have
be
freedom
material
from
delivered
lectures
(Teubner,
do
for
book
mode
the
the
use
no
wished
alike
in
the
taken
Vector
on
tromagnetic
to
to
necessary
been
Gibbs.
chapters
the
was
and
greater part of
the
Professor
text
as
Analysis
The
treated
this
he
reason
fully
so
understood
was
of
discretion
own
endeavor
my
pages
also
be
this
nial
Bicenten-
form.
far
By
my
it
composition
For
use
to
far
so
the
in
Gibbs
series, Elementary
same
that
Yale
already
was
in the
appear
the
in
himself
Mechanics,
him.
to
of
only
to
of Professor
lectures
publication
Gibbs
his work
upon
Principles
for
Professor
Series,
the
adapt
to
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
on
PREFACE
(*).
merous
Nu-
geometry,
of the
of
the
in
chapters by themselves,
text
has
applications
but
have
PREFACE
GENERAL
been
essential
points in the
fullyworked
out, in the
The
details.
text
summary
have
hope
may
been
indicated
be found
rather
will
than
supply the
useful in reviews
and
for reference.
The
subjectof
Vector
Analysisnaturallydivides
First,that which
itself into
addition
concerns
and
concerns
to
the
scalar and
functions.
vector
theory of
the
linear vector
The
contains
first part is
introduction
to both other parts. The
second
necessary
and third are
mutually independent. Either may be taken
up
first. For
second
But
must
practicalpurposes
in mathematical
physicsthe
be
student
regardedas more
elementarythan the
not
primarilyinterested in physicswould
third.
urally
nat-
he would
pass from the first part to the third, which
attractive and easy than the second.
probablyfind more
Following this division of the subject,the main body of
the book
is divided
into six
chaptersof
which
two
deal with
The
products of vectors.
exposition
has been made
stood
quite elementary. It can readilybe undersuited for such readers as have a
by and is especially
knowledge of only the elements of Trigonometry and Anavector
GENERAL
PREFACE
xi
and
to the student
of pure
will probablybe the most
mathematics
this part of
of all,owing
interesting
to the fact that it leads to Multiple Algebra or the Theory
of Matrices.
A concludingchapter,
VII., which contains the
development of certain higher parts of the theory,a number
of applications,
and a short sketch of imaginary or complex
the book
the
added.
of
treatment
occasion
who
Analysis,
postpone
until
that
no
to
difficulty
new
first learn
must
than
physicsthe
On
half
fact remains
there
Analysis.
to
no
The
before
system of
may
Vector
completenesshas
in hopes
"I am
be
been
that
consideration
Vector
and
are
of the
may
restrictions
to
have
introduce
been
made
during
Quaternions
into
Vector
of
student
the facts
what
efforts which
century
the
those facts.
put upon
are
the
Notwithstanding
more
the
cited in evidence.
Analysis
which
published.
the
In
As
yet however
makes
any claim to
fact Heaviside
says :
chapter which
now
finish may
PREFACE
GENERAL
xii
as
serve
to
come
be
ment
based upon the vectorial treatphysicists,
of vectors
(ElectromagneticTheory, Vol. I.,p. 305).
in the same
Elsewhere
chapter Heaviside has set forth the
claims of vector analysisas againstQuaternions, and others
have expressedsimilar views.
The
keynote,then, to any system of vector analysismust
be its practical
utility.This, I feel confident,was Professor
He uses
it
Gibbs's point of view in buildingup his system.
and Magnetism and on
in his courses
on
Electricity
entirely
ElectromagneticTheory of Light. In writing this book I
point,
standhave tried to present the subjectfrom this practical
the quesand keep clearlybefore the reader's mind
tions:
written
suitable for
"
combinations
What
physicsand geometry ?
in the way
symbolically
The
?
on
physicshas
subtraction
been
the
vector
which
of
aim
treatment
been
too
vectors.
here
to
functions
or
And
how
may
these
to
facile
best suited
of these
much
give
in
be
modern
books
the addition
scarcelyenough.
is
also
to
occur
represented
ulation
analyticmanip-
questionsin
confined
This
of vectors
and
It has
an
Treatise
on
and
Electricity
Magnetism,
that
may still maintain
physics what invariants are to
not,
one
As
be thoroughly conversant
every geometer must
with the ideas of invariants,so every student of physics
should be able to think in terms
And
of vectors.
there is
geometry.
no
way
in which
studies, can
entific
at the beginning of his scihe, especially
come
to
so
true
an
appreciationof
the
GENERAL
the
themselves.
vectors
of
success
(four
Mechanik
by
of
means
Vorlesungen
analysis,
vector
of
theory
the
these
views
uber
Technische
1897-1900,
Teubner,
which
in
hold
that
those
Fb'ppl's
volumes,
edition),
second
To
Professor
xiii
PREFACE
already
mechanics
be
can
the
in
oped
devel-
is
but
an
aging
encour-
sign.
I
take
Prof.
and
H.
A.
The
work.
H.
the
suggesting
also
am
for
Wilson,
proof,
me,
has
he
and
it
to
is
be
been
he
has
who
through
ready
furnished
the
UNIVERSITY,
October,
the
their
in
present
used
with
deep
although
he
has
to
either
talk
me
1901.
BIDWELL
and
edness
indebtbeen
so
manuscript
matters
with
Edwin
proofs
the
the
in
Mr.
my
read
script.
manu-
particularly
father,
my
Porter
over
inspiration
work.
EDWIN
YALE
IV.
B.
express
to
to
been
illustrations
to
M.
with
have
both
wish
Dr.
me
and
the
For
unable
always
cany
of
Gibbs.
to
III.
connection
Finally,
as
latter
obligations
in
help
Professor
preoccupied
the
many
under
manuscript.
to
of
assisting
Chapters
arranging
in
and
form
for
services
colleagues,
my
Bumstead,
good
in
valuable
thanking
in
pleasure
WILSON.
or
with
ficient
suf-
TABLE
CONTENTS
OF
PAGE
PREFACE
vii
GIBBS
PROFESSOR
BY
ix
PREFACE
GENERAL
CHAPTER
ADDITION
SCALAR
AND
MULTIPLICATION
ARTS.
SCALARS
1-3
4
EQUAL
THE
6-7
8-10
VECTORS
AND
AND
SCALAR
OF
SUBTRACTION
12
LAWS
THE
APPLICATIONS
VECTOR
23-24
CENTERS
25
OF
THREE
20-22
THE
UNIT
VECTOR
1,j,
GRAVITY.
OF
VECTORS
OF
CHAPTER
ON
27-28
THE
29-30
THE
31-33
THE
34-35
THE
DISTRIBUTIVE
THE
TRIPLE
DIRECT,
OF
AND
THE
ORIGIN
27
39
.
51
52
LAW
DOT
PRODUCT
AND
A*
OF
TWO
VECTORS
APPLICATIONS
55
58
APPLICATIONS
CROSS
LAW
VECTORS
OF
PRODUCT
AND
OR
VECTOR,
II
PRODUCTS
OR
46
AREAS
SKEW
...
SCALAR,
PRODUCT
21
GEOMETRY.
COORDINATES
DENOTE
CHAPTER
DISTRIBUTIVE
SKEW,
18
IN
CHAPTER
DIRECT
14
....
BARYCENTRIC
TO
....
EQUATIONS
PROBLEMS
SUNDRY
12
OPERATIONS
INDEPENDENT
OF
EXERCISES
FOREGOING
VECTORS
TO
SUMMARY
36
LAW
VECTORS.
RELATIONS
USE
7
....
11
COMPONENTS
17
SIGN
NEGATIVE
PARALLELOGRAM
GOVERNING
18-19
CHAPTER
THIS
THE
THE
ADDITION.
THE
OF
VIEW
MULTIPLICATION.
11
13-16
VECTORS
NULL
POINT
OF
TWO
VECTORS
60
63
67
CONTENTS
XVI
ARTS.
37-38
THE
SCALAR
39-40
THE
VECTOR
41-42
PRODUCTS
46-47
SOLUTION
SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS
48-50
52
CONDITIONS
53
RELATIONS_JBETWEEN
RIGID
OF
58-59
KINEMATICS
60
THE
61
INTEGRATION
62
SCALAR
63-67
THE
THE
69
VECTOR
OF
OF
SCALAR
THE
OF
OF
THE
DIVERGENCE
OF
THE
CURL
73
LAWS
78
GEOMETRIC
TO
SUMMARY
EXERCISES
V"
V
OF
THE
OF
ON
"
"
"
V-
"
138
152
155
157'
EXPANSION
TAYLOR'S
OF
TOR
VEC-
THEOREM.
159
OF
OF
THE
LAPLACE'S
SECOND
ORDER
166
OPERATOR
170
DISPERSION
CHAPTER
133
150
OPERATORS
CHAPTER
149
SPACE
S7
TO
INTERPRETATION
As
"
HYDROMECHANICS
DIFFERENTIATING
V*
136
CURL
ANALOGOUS
APPLICATION
THE
THE
APPLICATION
FUNCTION
KINEMATICS
IN
INTERPRETATION
OF
125
147
POSITION
AND
131
'v7
72
OPERATION
SPACE
IN
THE
77
HODOGRAPH
TO
INTERPRETATION
V"
120
....
OPERATOR
FUNCTIONS
115
ROTATION
OF
POSITION
OPERATOR
FUNCTIONS
CURVES
APPLICATIONS
OF
VECTORS
VECTOR
GAUCHE
OF
AXIS
WITH
PARTIAL
106
VARIABLE
71
THE
HI
70
74-76
113
PARTICLE.
FUNCTIONS
OF
OF
109
TORSION
DIVERGENCE
101
104
CALCULUS
INSTANTANEOUS
SCALAR
SYSTEMS
COORDINATES
YECTORJDIFFEUENTIATING
68
VKCTOKS
N IT
DIFFERENTIALS
OF
BODY
TO
AND
92
....
AND
CURVATURE
RIGID
PLANAR
DIFFERENTIAL
RESPECT
BODY
RIGHT-HANDED
CHAPTER
DERIVATIVES
RIGID
OF
CHAPTER
57
IN
97
TWO
CHAPTER
ON
WITH
LINEAR
BODY
GEOMETRY.
IN
ON
EQUILIBRIUM
FOR
EXERCISES
55-56
CATIONS
APPLI-
81
EQUATIONS
VECTOR
I'KKI'I.M"I"TLAU
THE
WITH
VECTORS
ACTING
A
OF
SUMMARY
71
87
FORCES
KINEMATICS
PROBLEMS
C)
VECTORS
THREE
AND
51
54
VECTOR
OF
TIIKKK
(B
68
"
75
OF
SCALAR
OF
UNKNOWN
AN
[ABC]
TRIGONOMETRY
TO
RECIPROCAL
THREE
THAN
MORE
COR
A* B
PRODUCT
TRIPLE
OF
43-45
PRODUCT
TRIPLE
in
in
172
177
CONTENTS
xvii
CHAPTER
INTEGRAL
THE
IV
CALCULUS
VECTORS
OF
PAGE
ARTS.
LINE
79-80
WITH
FUNCTIONS
VECTOR
OF
INTEGRALS
TIONS
APPLICA-
179
81
GAUSS'S
82
STOKKS'S
THEOREM
184
THEOREM
83
CONVERSE
84
TRANSFORMATIONS
187
STOKES'S
OF
THEOREM
OF
LINE,
REMARKS
POTENTIAL.
86-87
THE
88
COMMUTATIVE
89
REMARKS
90
THE
91
RELATIONS
TEGRALS.
IN-
200
FUNCTIONS
INTEGRATING
"
OPERATOR
POT
OF
PROPERTY
UPON
VOLUME
197
MULTIPLE-VALUED
ON
AND
SURFACE,
POT
"
.
^7
AND
215
"NEW,"
OPERATORS
INTEGRATING
"LAP,"
INTEGRATING
THE
BETWEEN
MAX
"
AND
"
THE
228
"
POT
"
POTENTIAL
is
POISSON'S
OF
SOLUTION
EQUATION
230
SOLENOIDAL
93-94
MUTUAL
96
CERTAIN
PARTS
IRROTATIONAL
AND
CERTAIN
FUNCTION.
95
AND
OPERATORS
NEWTONIANS,
POTENTIALS,
OF
VECTOR
INVERSE
THEIR
LAPLACIANS,
240
BOUNDARY
SUMMARY
OF
EXERCISES
iv
CHAPTER
99
DYADICS
CHAPTER
VECTOR
FUNCTIONS
ANY
101
THE
NONION
102
THE
DYAD
LINEAR
A
THE
103-104
PRODUCTS
105-107
DEGREES
108
THE
260
DEFINED
264
VECTOR
IDEMF
FUNCTION
PROPERTIES
DYADIC.
IS
OF
FUNCTIONS
FORM
OR
MOST
SCALAR
OF
OF
OF
OF
BE
REPRESENTED
DYADICS
266
....
269
PRODUCT
FUNCTIONAL
GENERAL.
AND
MAY
DYADIC
INDETERMINATE
THE
249
255
DEFINED
100
BY
iv
LINEAR
VECTOR
243
THEOREMS
VALUE
CHAPTER
ON
LINEAR
234
AND
MAXWELLIANS
97-98
222
ENTIATING
DIFFER-
OPERATORS
92
205
211
FOREGOING
THE
193
THEOREM
GREEN'S
85
APPLICATIONS
WITH
VECTOR
OF
TWO
TORS
VEC-
PROPERTY
271
PRODUCTS
276
DYADICS
NULLITY
ACTOR
OF
282
DYADICS
...
...
288
CONTENTS
XV111
PAGE
ARTS.
109-110
111
RECIPROCAL
POWERS
DYADICS.
CONJUGATE
PARTS
OF
ANTI-SELF-CONJUGATE
117
118-119
REDUCTION
DOUBLE
TO
SECOND
120
CONDITIONS
121
NONION
122
INVARIANTS
AND
OF
THIRD
FOR
294
THE
VECTOR
UCT.
PROD-
297
NORMAL
FORM
306
310
DYADIC
DEGREES
DIFFERENT
302
....
DYADICS
OF
MULTIPLICATION
THE
ANTI-
AND
VERSORS
DYADICS
OF
290
DYADICS
OF
DYADIC
DYADICS.
QUADRANTAL
115-116
ROOTS
SELF-CONJUGATE
DYADICS.
SELF-CONJUGATE
112-114
AND
OF
313
NULLITY
DETERMINANTS
FORM.
OF
315
THE
DYADIC.
HAMILTON-CAYLEY
EQUATION
SUMMARY
319
OF
EXERCISES
CHAPTER
ON
321
CHAPTER
329
CHAPTER
VI
ROTATIONS
123-124
125-126
HOMOGENEOUS
ABOUT
127
THE
128
BlQUADRANTAL
VECTOR
CYCLIC
130
RIGHT
131
TONICS
132
REDUCTION
STRAINS
REPRESENTED
STRAIN
ROTATIONS
129
AND
BY
332
DYADIC
.
VERSORS
POINT.
FIXED
SEMI-TANGENT
OF
VERSORS
VERSION
AND
THEIR
PRODUCTS
334
343
347
DYADICS
351
TENSORS
AND
353
CYCLOTONICS
OF
CYCLOTONICS,
SUMMARY
DYADICS
SIMPLE
OF
TO
CANONICAL
AND
COMPLEX
CHAPTER
143-146
THE
147-148
VARIABLE
149-157
CURVATURE
158-162
HARMONIC
356
.
368
APPLICATIONS
372
SURFACES
PROPAGATION
OF
LIGHT
IN
CRYSTALS
....
392
403
DYADICS
OF
VII
MISCELLANEOUS
QUADRIC
TONICS,
FORMS,
SHEARERS
vi
CHAPTER
136-142
339
411
SURFACES
VIBRATIONS
AND
BIVECTORS
426
ANALYSIS
YECTOft
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
negativenumbers
positiveand
The
this
For
typicalscalar s.
algebrawhen
scalar
Consider
first
straight line
This
it is the
translation
equal
the
to
and
the
point Q
the
; the
points
in the
in
ment
displace-
direction
from
equivalent
distance
called
to
for the
as
without
translation.
When
all the
shiftingspace
to
through the
magnitude.
Let
space.
of
of one,
direction and
same
the
It
undergoes
space
magnitude
displacement PP'
in
of
displacementnot
displacement is
T, each
in
is
direction
direction
possesses
a
This
D.
Such
rotation.
of all the
in that
rigidbody
consider
straightlines
in
distance
same
but
PP'
position P'.
direction
Next
displacedin
new
magnitude
length of
P'.
in space.
positionis representedby
The
is the
be
take
and
of
change
line PP.
pointsmove
translation
Let
(Fig.1).
the vector
this book.
displacementof
point
subjectof
is the
is the
typicalvector
ordinaryalgebrais called
distinguishit from
to
necessary
algebraor analysiswhich
The
the
reason
the
of ordinary algebraare
and
which
translation
is also known
direction; and
is
known,
for Q
particularpoint P
one
any
Q'
conversely if
then
that
be
must
of any
equal and
fers
sufother
parallel
toPP'.
The
by
are
an
translation T is representedgeometrically
or
equal
of this
arrow
and
arrow
(Fig.1)
to those
arrow
its head
or
is
final
Its tail or
point,its
0
and
quantity,a stroke, is
are
used
justas
as
the
The
the
initial
terminus.
the terminus
used
as
direction
and
magnitude
absolute
entirelyimmaterial.
stroke.
originis designated by
for all vectors,
the
of the translation.
in space
is called
of which
graphically
position
Technicallythe
point
In
by
is its
the
T.
the mathematical
origin;
figure the
This
metric
geo-
symbol
bers
ordinarypositiveand negativenumsymbols for all scalars.
As
3.]
volume,
however, is by
magnitude.
characteristics,as
distinguishing
own
different.
The
all
to them
As
It is the
examples
and
simple.
two
alone
,to a
rigidbody
consideration
And
force.
than
in the
the
case
that
alone.
analogy
vector
careful
he
which
and
Hence
it acts
do not
some
obtain
the
point
the
is present
vector,
consideration
in
quantitiestheir magnitude
abstracts
it ; and
or
quantitiesother
mathematical
these
on
magnitude
dimensions
just as
the
his
propertiesto
erroneous
into
non-rigidbody
all directed
belong to
taken
fice.
suf-
primary object of
be
applied
not
for vector
but
the
do
question of
must
one
be
and
of
it is
alone
important as
nothing
pure
ideas
direction
must
has
vector
When
direction
as
number,
attribute
lest he
and
of these
two
and
quantities. The
from
scalar, pure
involves
vector
applied to
is the
direction
consequently
Each
complicated.
the
Moreover
impliesnothingbut
belong to
vector
frequentlytrue
of scalar
quanti-
which
the
the force is
stroke, which
and
of
more
it is
is
common
all scalar
given.
line in which
case
Such
direction.
been
those
magnitude
in
is
the
of
application
as
than
force
But
vector.
very-
city,
quantitiesforce,displacement,velo-
magnitude
"
physicists
may
excellence and
symbol
concept of
The
its
of which
property
It
has
3, etc., are
Of
one.
simplest.
have
acceleration
characteristics
other
only
scalar par
of vector
work
Each
to
is,however,
the mathematical
as
and
is the
number
3,
quantities.
example
an
known
time
the
perhaps
magnitude.
it is used
3, a
magnitude
"
tities pure
well
sense
distance
cited.
be
the
in
its dimensions
of
besides
implies something
tance,
dis-
are
Magnitude,
etc.
means
no
Others
mentioned.
inertia, work,
of
moment
sity,
time, den-
quantities mass,
been
temperature have
and
Each
of scalar
examples
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
magnitude and
guard lest from
the
he must
results
the mathematical
mathematical
be
even
more
by consideringthe
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
vector
than
do
never
consider
to
itself.
is but
singleconcept, it
between
scalars
carefullythe
and
one
from
if
scalar;
be
but
scalars ;
When,
vectors.
with
symbols
as
from
for
This
permits the
settingup
C be
the
to
mass,
Clarendons
directed
in
the appearance
This
vectors
magnitude
and
convention, however,
instances it would
chieflyvaluable
prove
in the
just
as
is
by
of that
be
the scalar
may
no
moving
possible to
pass
magnitudes by
any
equal when
of
use
from
mere
confusing
they have
direction.
same
undesirable
of
application
; if g be
velocity. The
said to be
if
current
letter without
Thus
direction,C may
velocityof
it
scalar
are
the
be the
makes
of
change
if
their
in
same
for scalars.
differently
printed
and
gravity,g
to
vectors
quantitiesto
Definition: Two
are
type is
Clarendon
magnitude.1
magnitude
due
change
the
letter
its scalar
magnitude
to denote
also
are
distinguish
to
ordinary type
same
and
acceleration
be the
may
time,
it
regarded merely
are
of that
value
physical
refraction
relied upon
and
of the
use
acceleration
vector
letters
the
acceleration,
in this book
vectors
be used
the
in mathematical
as
of
", the
a,
be
must
to
the
Hence
scalars.
used
and
mass,
distinguish
by
index
the
difference
particularphysical significancesome
no
typographicaldifference
vectors
stroke
or
to
is furnished
be
however,
be
vector
Sometimes,
force, and
/, the
not
may
the fundamental
other.
the
m,
by
confusion.
some
it is necessary
distinction
interpretation.Thus
unaltered
warning
a
entirety,
to
the
as
it would
be designatedby
appropriately
may
vectors,
physics,the
must
in its
however
Owing
letter.
one
as, taken
Inasmuch
4.]
This
possiblysave
it may
yet
necessary,
example
its effects
and
force
shiftingit parallelto
For
vector.
propertiesother
invariablyfollowed.
means
as
vectors
it is convenient
to
physics.
In
in others.
some
It is
AND
ADDITION
The
usual
equality of
sign
Evidently
about
vector
from
may
the
A
In this way
all vectors
be
will
space
at the
are
the
in space
may
Thus
These
its
the
yf,z' of
be Cartesian
its terminus
and
Q~Q',
#, y,
y'
x,
may
be
the
drawn
represented
terminus
of
in space
of its
vector
be
may
x\
origin.
z).
"
coincide
vector
will
of the coordinates
y,z'
"
the
vector
vector
ways.
/,,
particularthe origin of
three coordinates
varietyof
any
the differences
determine
(r, $, V)
those
(x1
in
space
coordinates
given by
If in
vectors
three scalars
vector
coordinates
as
directed
their termini
PP't and
of
in
"",9 which
r
be considered
pointT.
Equal
placed with
chosen
originof
the vector.
itself until
replaced by
(Fig.1) A
be
may
with
if z, y,
origin;
as
some
point 0.
determination
$, 0 be polar coordinates
Or
be
coincide,when
If r,
by
P' upon
PP'
~OT.
originat
the
T.
fixed
one
vector
any
parallelto
and
OT=
course
numerical
necessary.
moved
point 0.
same
of
by
by shiftingit
assignedpoint 0
point 0
Hence
any
PP
altered
is not
itself in space.
be drawn
may
is denoted
stroke
or
segment PP'
for the
the
and
vectors
Thus
=.
parallelto
(Fig. 1)
two
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
with
representedby
the
the
of its terminus
r~(x', y',z').
When
two
them
one
vector
vectors
must
be
are
equal
the
three
scalars
each
equal respectively
equalityimpliesthree
scalar
to
which
each.
equalities.
sent
repreHence
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
:
Definition
is
magnitude A
Such
is called
vector
be
by
null
or
its
is written
Thus
0 if A
and
vector
zero
manner.
from
vector
0.
each
to
other
without
linear
It
point.
geometrical standpointwould
that is to
segment of length zero
a
"
consequently would
have
to the
amounts
terminate
inde-
wholly
thing,none
same
at
all.
vector
of finite
direction
which
length, it might
is the limit
length
limit.
decreases
that
of the
the direction
and
indefinitely
all null
(Art.8)
vectors
to other
proaches
ap-
equal
as
vectors
when
have
to
for disregarding
justification
The
added
considered
be
approached by
looking upon
they are
and
occurs
and
this direction
that when
the
as
zero
the
when
zero
of direction.
representedby a
say,
equal to
regardedas equal
are
considerations
a
null
the usual
A
In fact
be
zero.
equal to naught in
any
is said to
vector
is
change
no
other
vectors
product is zero.
operations
5.] In extending to vectors the fundamental
of algebraand arithmetic, namely, addition, subtraction,and
care
multiplication,
must
be exercised
not
only to
but
lay
down
contradictorydefinitions
Both
these
ends
may
be
also
accomplished
what
that
science
what
force, or velocity,
is two,
three,
What,
is the
sum
equivalentof
to these
the
of A
negative of
and
and B taken
B ?
vectors
by observing
If then
A?
useful
A?
That
together?
be
selfones.
naturally and
most
there.
treated
quantitiesare
times
to
avoid
how
tinually
con-
such
ment,
given displaceor
in
general
And
if B be another,
is to
say, what
The
obvious
is the
answers
AND
ADDITION
SCALAR
Scalar
6.] Definition:A
positivescalar
if v be
Thus
is
its
weight, 1000
usual
as
before
the
in
direction
still
the
upon
force
scale-
exerted
by
ward.
verticallydown-
is
cases
product
of
and
A is
This
obvious
when
place the
it follows
(x y) A
arithmetic.
multiplier
scalar
the associative
law
(x A)
This
multiplicationdoes
scalar
multiplicationby
and
multiplication,
(y A)
x.
to
customary
ordinary algebraand
that scalar
the
f is the
or
multiplicand A.
as
2 J times
by
more
is called scalar
that scalar
by North,
force exerted
It is,however,
East
with
both
in
and
If A be the vector
denoted
multiplied by
multipliedby
knots
times
direction
The
kilogram.
be
to
nine knots
if f be the
Or
gram
is
magnitude
velocityof
North.
by
by
pan
is said
vector
velocity of twenty-one
East
Multiplication
is left unaltered.
its direction
and
when
MULTIPLICATION
is immediatel
statement
into
consideration
not
alter direction
one
whose
but
merely
multipliesthe length.
Definition: A
unit
vector
Any
may
be looked
vector
vector
a
in its direction
by
A
The
A
unit
by \/A
vector
or
as
the
may
is
the
quotient of
the
product
positivescalar A,
=
similarlybe
as
upon
magnitude
is
of
its
unity.
a
unit
tude.
magni-
A.
written
and
A.
as
the
product of
VECTOR
The
7.] Definition:
For
is
example
stroke
from
of
"
B, will be
to
its
negative sign
direction
If A
denote
reaction."
The
positivesign,+
call
in connection
reversed.
The
with
multiplicationof
of
laws
same
be
scalar
in
operationas
signs +
denote
the
and
use
third law
prefixedto
that
of
of the
will
"
may
two
instead
to A
Newton's
to the fact
particularattention
been
has not
from
"action,"
an
if the
length
same
illustration
taken
be
may
from
right,
Again
is of the
Another
A.
"
vector
feet to the
two
A, which
magnitude unchanged.
two
motion.
to
displacementfor
is in the
but which
of the
if A be
be A, the stroke
prefixedto
"
displacementfor
as
negativesign,
but leaves
its direction
reverses
ANALYSIS
the
direction
when
"
vectors
ordinary algebra.
tor
vec-
used
follow
the
These
are
symbolically
+
+ ;
is
interpretation
The
addition
Subtraction
and
of two
vectors
most
space
(Art.2).
Let
S be
be
is
direction.
carry
P'
If
into
Q' such
now
into
equal
to
is to
into P"
that
QQ1
The
such
in
Let
that
magnitude
the
and
T will then
it in
being
magnitude.
result of S followed
point P
in
T will
space,
then
into the
S
lation
trans-
line P'P"
equal to
carry the
and
in
the
"
T and
P'
transformation
Consequentlythe
2.
T the other.
(Fig.2).
space
The
to
parallel
P".
and
carries P
line PP'
be treated
may
defining translations
as
point of
strokes
or
vector
one
FIG.
+ ;
--
(" A).
ra
-;
obvious.
Addition
8.]
(ra A)
"
The
-;
will
carry
by
point
carry
10
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Hence
parallelogram.
pin pn
allel
an(j
equai
js
PP'.
to
by
whereas
P'".
the
case
This
same.
ries
car-
followed
P"
into
by
through
final result is in
The
designatedsymbolically
be
may
lowed
T fol-
through P',
P"
carries P
therefore
into
par_
Hence
either
of
and
by writing
It is to be noticed
that S
origin;
common
statingthe
If two
and
This
P.
through
definition
vectors
diagonal which
the
and
passes
in
lengths of
the
togetherthe
on
common
very
of
vectors.
sides,their
their
drawn
way
originand
same
as
gram
parallelo-
will be that
sum
origin.
common
"
parallelogramlaw
accordingto
ity,
force,acceleration, velocquantities
It is
compounded.
lie
along the
to be added
are
subtracted
but
In either
case
the
addition.
The
if the vectors
they
has the
sum
line vector
same
added
if
important to
same
have
site
oppo-
direction
greater vector.
the
laid down,
so
as
"
vectors
direction
same
After
10.]
and
them
diagonal
equivalentto algebraicscalar
the two
that of the
been
the
the vectors
case
directions.
as
from
point P
the
is the
sides
the two
are
have
of two
sum
angular velocityare
that
P P'"
PP"
through
physicalvector
addition becomes
have
upon
another
of the
is the well-known
This
note
to
be drawn
and
that
leads
be constructed
which
PP'
parallelogramPP'
of the
definition
the
sum
of
of the
several
sum
sum
may
of two
be
found
has
vectors
by adding
been
combined
into
sin-
AND
ADDITION
The
gle one.
originof
the
preceding
their
that if
and
the
is
sum
the
once
of the
form
vectors
In
closed
from
vector
of the last.
terminus
the
the terminus
upon
at
by placing
displacementsR, S, T
closed
that the
in
nil.
R, S, T
"
point of
Each
"
"
the sides of
such
are
"
states
polygon taken
strokes
form
"
"
case
polygon
Interpretedgeometricallythis
zero.
of
that obtained
as
same
drawing
the first to
number
then
11
MULTIPLICATION
succeeding vector
points coincide
these two
and
each
one
originof
the
SCALAR
is
space
brought
in mechanics
at
act
point and
taken
order
number
the sides of
This
may
of the vectors
may
be
be shown
of forces
closed
terprete
In-
and
polygon
the
point
of the forces.
the action
of sequence
vectors
To
starting
point.
that if any
they form
equilibriumunder
The
to its
in
is in
back
it states
if
in
by provingthat
interchangedwithout
is of
sum
no
cent
adja-
two
any
the
affecting
sequence.
con-
result.
show
A+B+C+D+E=A+B+D+C+R
Let
~0~A,B
Then
Let
Ofi
B
now
C'
may
proves
be
by
order in which
this
C +
C' B
C D
is
C +
B +
Since
WE.
E.
parallelogramand
E,
two
any
since the
sum
may
adjacentvectors
be
arranged in
successive
the vectors
in the
occur
is said
vector
means
E
(TlT,
B +
the statement.
By
A
11.] Definition:
is added
~BC,D
Hence
C.
and
interchanged,
any order
Then
0~E
which
D.
consequently C'
Zi?,C
the
is immaterial.
sum
to be
subtracted
when
it
Symbolically,
(- B).
subtraction is reduced
to
addition
and
needs
12
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
and
There is however
an
interesting
specialconsideration.
importantway of representingthe difference of two vectors
OB
OA, B
(Fig.4). Complete
geometrically. Let A
no
the
parallelogramof
which
are
the
Then
the
0 C
is the
two
sides.
Next
vectors.
parallelogramof
OB'
"
and
Hence
A
vectors
to
which
vectors
drawn
as
terminus
Thus
the two
of A and
B.
the
same
of the vector
from
vector
the
which
sum
of
But
the
equal
The
ence
differ-
originis
tracted
to be subit is subtracted.
which
parallelogram,
sides,give the
as
be the
paralleland
from
diagonalsof
and
upon
of the
"
agonal
the di-
Then
followingrule
drawn
are
the
the terminus
from
the
is constructed
be taken
may
and B.
of two
the vector
BA
is
OD
and
negative of
the
segment
to EA.
D will
of the
which
diagonal
complete
the sides.
are
OD
A
sum
and
sum
and
ference
dif-
B.
of
multiplication
To
make
same
formal
from
development
defined
of vector
systematicit would
laws
the
in
as
standpointof
the
of
interpretation
laws
been
I6
(n A)
(A
II
III,
B)
the
(m
-I-B
IIIa
III6
(m, + n) A
physicaland
geometrical
superfluous. These
seem
(A
(A
+
+
B)
B)
A)
B +
m
m
(m ri)A,
(B-f C),
A+
necessary
operationsfollow
are
preted.
inter-
though
ordinary scalar algebra,al-
this may
vectors
and
matically
algebramathe-
become
now
to demonstrate
the
the
and
exact
have
vectors
A,
A,
B.
B,
and
adding
in
that
at
result.
of vector
law
II is the commutative
It
be inserted
parenthesesmay
vectors
addition.
in vector
vectors
alteringthe
points without
any
of
commutation
multiplication.
states
13
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
addition.
law
for scalars
in
scalar
cation.
multipli-
law
for vectors
in scalar
cation.
multipli-
proofs of
The
these
of
laws
which
propertiesof
will
They
work
reader
be
not
them
out
mind.
clearlyin
The
in the statement
laws
which
vectors
of the
of arithmetic
which
with
need
quantity.
other
For
zero.
the
of the
algebra
be summed
may
up
same
the usual
Scalars and
this
laws
and
these
vectors
from
dealingwith
vectors
which
no
much
caution
be
never
case
the vectors
this
only
they were
enter
equated
where
to be added
if
"
by operating
need
difficulty
as
and
+,
entirelydifferent
are
they can
not
justifies
it is also
One
manner.
reason
in mind
equationsin
which
signs =,
vectors
they are
reason
scalar
governing
of results obtained
correctness
For
formal
familiar
of
this is borne
from
fundamental
more
multiplication
"
the
algebra.
as
long
Thus
scalar
signs in
be mentioned.
to each
scalar
are
use
the
the
those
sorts of
So
to
ensures
fixingthe
govern
preciselythis identityof
extension
triangles.
suggested that
in ordinary
operations
the
similar
of
multiplication
It is
it is
of
addition,subtraction, and
ideas of
The
but
given here;
to deal with
have
parallelogramand
the
those
each is
together.
be
pated
anticiscalars.
with
linearly
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
14
coefficients unknown
scalar
found
by
in
as
in the
solution
all
at
not
same
with
the
and
eliminations
the
variables
the
or
tions
limita-
same
on
eliminated
be
may
and
way
ordinary algebra;for
depend solelyon
and
vectors
tions
solu-
equations
If
represent.
for
instance
aA
then
A, B, C,
or
"B
cC
dD
0,
expressedin
be
may
of the
terms
other
three
D
as
(a A
b B +
C).
(M
And
two
equationssuch
vector
as
3 A+4B=E
2 A
and
yieldby
the usual
3 B
the solutions
processes
A=3E-4F
and
3 F
2 E.
Components of
13.] Definition:
they
to
are
the
parallelto
the
plane.
Two
same
be drawn
can
said
to
or
to
be
which
said
are
be
to
collinear
line; coplanar,when
same
parallelare
vectors
more
Vectors
Vectors
vectors
more
said to be non-collinear.
plane
no
be
can
non-coplanar. Obviously
drawn
two
any
parallel
which
to
when
line
no
Three
or
parallelare
vectors
are
coplanar.
Any
vector
product of
ratio of the
when
have
b and
collinear
and
positiveor
magnitude
a
have
with
oppositedirections.
same
OA
The
a.
direction
If then
expressed
negative scalar
of b to that of
the
be
may
;
=
which
as
the
is the
sign is positive
negative,when
a, the vector
they
drawn
from
the
either
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
origin 0
direction
to
point of
any
be
the
regarded as
Let
line OA.
0 B
in
this
equation
any
point not
line
produced
all
may
fore
there-
pointsin
the
(Fig.5).
The
b.
be
that
in either direction
Let
produced
(1)
(vector)equation of
now
upon
line OA
a.
be
the
is
r
If
15
MULTIPLICATION
is
vector
surely
o
of the
not
line
form
The
it.
upon
through B
and
OA
parallelto
point
Draw
a.
from
0~R=
or
equation
pointsin
is
point.
14.] Any
and
and
b
b
be
may
all the
one
the
vector
be
may
is
a
the
proper
of
the
is
two
into two
Of
other, y b.
scalar
sign)of
and
b.
the
these components
the
and
one
are
lengthsof
non-collinear
vectors
parallelto
allelogram
parare
agonal
diis
tively
respec-
(taken with
ratios
of which
may
the sides
of which
b and
and
components
resolution
of which
(vector)equation of
parallelto
coplanarwith
these
the
components
to the
lengths
Hence
r
is
(2)
regarded as
resolved
and
r.
the
is
drawn
vector
"a.
line which
(Fig.6)
b +
respectively.This
parallelto
and
B~R
accomplished by constructingthe
be
the
Hence
a.
CTB
with
is
0 to E
This
is collinear
BE
consequently expressibleas
be any
let E
vector
FlG
typicalform
several vectors
for any
rv r2, r3
"
vector
"
"
may
(2)'
y b
coplanarwith
be
expressed in
and
b.
this form
If
as
16
rx
their
This
is the
of
vectors.
be
yl b,
r2
z2
2/2 b,
r3
^3
2/3k
(2/i+
the
are
If the vector
Consequently
the
equivalent to
of
sums
is
the
the
the
components
of
components
of
equation
those
of its components
vector
one
scalar
two
that
each
zero
---) b-
2/3 +
y2 +
theorem
well-known
vectors
zero.
xl
is then
sum
sum
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
must
is
equations
(3)
2/i+
15.] Any
vector
parallelto
components
2/3 +
2/2 +
"
"
"
in space
any
three
may
be
resolved
three
into
given non-coplanarvectors.
Let
the vectors
and
c.
The
then
may
be a, b,
resolution
be
plished
accom-
by constructing
the
7)
parallelepiped
(Fig.
of which
are
c
the
parallelto
and
of which
is
r.
allelopiped
pIG
drawn
and
of the vector
r ;
terminus
These
R.
and
b, b and
a
c, c
and
six
planes will
then
b, and
agonal
di-
the
This
par-
may
be
spectively
planes parallelre-
through
a,
easilyby passing
three
to
edges
the
origin0
planes through
be
its
parallelin pairs
18
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Let
r' =
x'
x',
Then
For
Hence
x'
"
=rca
r'
r
x'
r'
"
r-i
I 1
and
o
JH
two
if a, b, and
be
0.
coplanar.In
expressedin
z' c
(x' +
z')a
[(x +
(#' +
2')]a,
"
[(y+ nz)-(y'
L\
T^
_.
vfl
//t
v
*"
^^
y' +
similar
infer
theorem
may
a?, y,
to be
if
manner
that
their
and
stated
This
coplanar.
(Arts. 18
et
explained.
col-
were
vanish
follows
vector,
be collinear ;
be
as
tively
respec-
used
cessarily
ne-
or
in
this is not
the
applications
seq.).
In the
vectors
vectors
principlewill
The
17.]
two
of one
terms
are
equal. But
correspondingscalar coefficients
if the
equal
coefficients
perhaps be
three
vectors, or
directions
z'.
expressedin
are
z')b,
0.
r' in the
"
/"ri *y'
//(" "
J^
/y*
tX/
necessitates
a
(y' +
zero.
~"
7i2)b,
b
nz')']
components of
equal vectors
non-collinear
true
terms
b.
impossibleto
two
could
z')c.
c were
yr b
individually. The
case
z' =
"
#',y',z'. In
it is
(ic+ m2)a+(2/
means
no
0,
(z
O"
by
y'} b
2c
"*/
to
or
are
(supposed different)
this
In
y'
z9.
linear
(y
^ +
But
2/b
y',
individual
the
z' c,
as
Hence
"
be true
not
Then
x')a
0,
y' b
one
case
(x
this would
But
that
r' =
r',
Unit
Vectors i,j,k.
foregoingparagraphs the
in terms
The
Three
of three
simplestset
method
of
given non-coplanarones
of three such
vectors
ing
expresshas been
is the rect-
in
angularsystem familiar
rectangular
system may
types. In
that
one
or
Y-
side of the X
plane on
to the
axis
will
^-axis
axis
to
"-axis
lies upon
through
F-axis
appears
counterclockwise
adopted
the
the
toward
and
observer
the
distinct
very
rotation
right and
the
be .directed
point toward
two
be stated in another
relation may
directed
be
the
This
Geometry.
which
the convention
accordingto
positive
This
be either of
however
X-axis
the
angle from
Cartesian
Solid
case
19
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
Or
F-axis
if the Xthe
to
right,
of state-
method
Still another
pointupward.
If the X-
the
vertically,
observer.
the
try.
Trigonome-
in
form.
F-axis
right
Left-handed
Right-handed
FIG. 8.
is
ment
a
in mathematical
common
be
right-handed screw
axis
it will advance
of
axes
It is easy to
the
JT-planeon
turned
from
the
X-axis
Z-axis.
along the (positive)
is called
or
right-handed,positive,
see
which
axis is counterclockwise
rotation
;
and
If
physicsand engineering.
the
from
lies upon
the
to
Such
F-
tem
sys-
wise.2
counterclockthat side of
.Z-axis to
X-axis, upon
the
that
the Xside of
20
VECTOR
the
YZ-plaue
which
on
the three
Thus
is turned
screw
YZX
from
In the other
(Fig. 8, second
which
and
the
the
Z-
relation
the
as
the
right-handed
it advances
next
similar
between
relation
cyclicorder
same
oppositeof
is turned
three
axes
YZX
Hence
is
made
In
long
so
it is
just
left-handedscrew
it advances
next
ative.
neg-
concerning
symmetrical
If
the
or
appears
preserved but
is
case.
toward
axis
one
be
right
^"J^-plane
JT-axis
F^-plane.
from
the third.
the
may
clockwise,
side of the
that
statement
the
through
appears
^"-axis to
the X-axis
along
this
clockwise.1
or
The
two
systems
One
is
Thus
image
the
superimposed, the
the direction
that if two
of
of the
axes
will
Which
of the two
as
in
slightly
all which
the
shall be
counterclockwise
1
A
was
left-handed
formed
by
of
so
opposite
directions.
by reversing
thought
reversed
and
advisable
the
will show
system will
it will be.
matters
In this book
in
systems be
the other
geometry
metric.
sym-
seen
as
in direction the
sign,it is
adopted.
in
are
different
little
systems be used,
of
other
from
be reversed
formulae
the matter
point
axes.
not
the
be obtained
of the
one
of
of the two
F-axes
^"-axes
system may
one
superposable. They
not
are
If the X- and
mirror.
one
If
rotation
F-axis
lies upon
from
rotation
clockwise
the
that
the
to
which
F-plane on
F-axis then
The
the
toward
axis
angle from
as
it appears
is observed.
one
case
the
F-axis
third.
along the
on
the
perfectlysymmetrical so long
is
axes
cyclicorder
same
from
rotation
axis is counterclockwise.
between
ANALYSIS
little.
But
mechanics
to settle
asmuch
in-
differ
once
for
or
right-handed
right.
be formed
by
justas
right-handed
ADDITION
SCALAR
AND
The
:
Definition
of
three vectors
unit
Z-
will be
drawn
length
directions
21
MULTIPLICATION
of
axes
reserved
note
to dethe
respectivelyin
rectangular
right-handed
system.
of these vectors, any
In terms
coefficients x, y,
The
of the
of
terminus
The
coordinates.
.Z-axes
x'\ +
if its
k from
i to
established
i,
between
either
the
methods
to
analysisto
origin of
and
intrinsic meaning
the
on
of the
to
i, and
correspondenceis
the
analysisin
is
will
at
pass
tesian
Car-
tory
nothing contradic-
formulae
coordinates
to
pass
of the
account
obtained
for
the
known
already
convenient
the
j from
possibleto
There
results
both
because
k.
k, about
translate
with
vectors
i, j, k such
Cartesian
into
them
j,
other.
to
frequently
more
obtained
coordinates
at the
parallelto
analysisand
On
them.
comparing
still
situated
it becomes
that
necessary
vector
(6)
positive.
vector
to
one
between
even
all
are
coordinates
or
of
of these vectors
means
from
ak.
originbe
i from
about
rotations
By
expressed as
respectively
are
about
be
may
ordinaryCartesian
components
The
y\
the
are
vector
it
of
is
Cartesian
brevity thereby
expressionsshow
vector
sake
and
from
by
forth the
formulae.
Applications
*18.] Problems
easilyby
the
plane may
which
may
vector
in
planegeometry
methods.
be taken
as
Any
selected
the
two
be
frequently
non-collinear
fundamental
plane may
at
may
be
pleasure.
ones
expressed.
Often
it is
solved
vectors
in terms
The
in
of
origin
possible to
22
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
make
such
choice
advantageous
an
that
vectors
the
analytic
work
the
simplified.
The
adaptability of
the
that
of
same
as
scales
the
two
middle
which
materially
method
vector
coordinates
point of
joins one
is about
with
of
vertex
side
opposite
an
-t
ent
differ-
gram
parallelo-
trisects the
diagO
ii
(Fig. 9).
onal
Let
the
be
BCD
the
to
the
BE
parallelogram,
vertex
middle
'
AC.
Choose
origin,A
as
fundamental
two
is the
of
sum
and
where
A~R
is the
AE
And
where
y is the
scalar
(S
EB
to
ratio
of A
is
and
and
R.
To
(S
unknown
an
"
(S
line
or
Hence,
\T
(S
third
T.
as
of
the
Then
show
| T),
scalar.
to
be
shown
(S
T)
"Sl
equating corresponding
the
T),
jl(to
i T)
side
cuts
one
toj.
Hence
the
the
T).
=|
ER
A~R
Let
of ER
ratio
vectors
T.
joining
of
this
"
line
point
is
mental
funda-
axes.
line
origin and
of solution
Cartesian
oblique
The
(Example?^}
to
the
upon
the
of
equal
From
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
which
Inasmuch
well
as
as
is also
gthe diagonal
A C.
23
MULTIPLICATION
-.
the line EB
must
be trisected
as
lines
triangle
be drawn
and T.
Let
2TB
to
parallel
A C.
The
wT.
mS+
(a)
is cut off
remainder
by the
of A B must
line through
be the fraction
the ratio of
Consequentlyby similar triangles
the line parallel
to A G to the line A C itself is (1
m).
the ratio of the line parallel
to A B to the line A B
Similarly
S the
itselfis (1
n ). Next
express R in terms of S and T
third side of the triangle.Evidently
from (a)
"
S.
"
"
"
Hence
line
(m
(m
n)
S +
n) S is the fraction of
to
throughR parallel
B C.
(T
A B
S).
which
angles
Consequentlyby similar triC itselfis (m -f n). Adding
(1
"
w)
(1
"
TO)+ (m
n)
2,
is proved.
lines
Example 3 : If from any pointwithin a parallelogram
of the parallelobe drawn parallel
to the sides,the diagonals
grams
thus formed intersect upon the diagonal
of the given
parallelogram.
Let A B CD be a parallelogram,
R a pointwithin it,KM
and Z^Vtwo
lines throughR parallel
and
to AB
respectively
?
N
24
of
KN=KR
Zlf
(1
RN
"
and
mS
and
meet
the two
mental
funda-
?i
[m
S +
(1
LM.
n) T,
n) T],
[(l-m)S
with
T,
S +
(1
S +
m)
T +
Hence
LBMR
as
of KN
intersection
DA,AB,
diagonals KN
and
and
sides
Let
T.
point of
let P be the
Then
the
that
origin,A
as
S and
vectors
and
show
parallelogramsKEND
two
\Choose
C.
on
the
the
lying upon
respectively.To
C, CD
LM
points K, Z, M"
the
AD,
B
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
wT],
Equating coefficients,
*"
By solution,
"
either
Substituting
7i
"
of these solutions
1
in the
expressionfor P,
the result is
which
*
shows
19.]
solved
in
Problems
in
the
essentially
of which
solution
is
"
In this
terms
case
three
same
there
all others
analogous
to
can
G.
dimensional
manner
are
as
three
be
that
geometry
those
fundamental
expressed.
in
in
the
The
simpler
two
may
be
sions.
dimen-
vectors
in
method
of
case.
Two
26
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
In like
~AB'
and
Hence
B'
manner
#2 C +
";2C + y2D
and
"2(/B
1 -f
yz D
mC
kz (I
kz (P
B).
wD-
1),
xz=Jczm,
"2 n.
7/2 =
1
Hence
""
l-l
PB'
""-:
and
"2
In the
same
be shown
it may
way
that
,PZ"'
PC'
Adding
the four
1
2
Example
point and
the
Let
and
it
as
(l +
"
To
find
two
two
lines be
on
originand
let
l +
m+n
line which
given
cuts
B, 0 and D
n)
passes
through a given
lines in space.
fixed
each.
l.
by
respectively
Let
0 be the
two
points A
given point.
Choose
V=OD.
Any point P
P
Any point Q
If the
of A B
may
be
OP=
OA
of CD
may
likewise be written
points P
are.collinear.
and
That
expressedas
x
TB
Q lie in the
is
same
line
(B
A).
through 0, P
and
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
Before
it is
possibleto equate
vectors
must
be
expressedin
Let
J)
Then
P
=
[C +
Hence
four
A)
nC
B +
ra
the
nC.
(B
"
of
one
m'B
(IA.+
coefficients
terms
lA. +
27
MULTIPLICATION
"
0)].
I,
zym,
[1 +
(n
1)J.
Hence
I+
I +
P and
in
Substituting
Q
I A+
I +
and
be taken
of these may
Either
cuttingA
Let
OA
To
the
terminus
ratio
P=
and
=~OP
divides
from
OP=
as
A^*^^
"/
'".
in the
A B
Px^^Jv^
f^^^
of which
Oil
-^"
+
~AB
"+
"
FlQ
"^"
m
n
n
is,
given ratio
10
: n.
That
OB
in
line AB
arbitrarypoint
any
origin.
line drawn
To
1:
20.] Example
: n
(Fig.10).
Choose
defininga
as
and
Vector Relations
(B-A).
B
/7,
(")
28
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
The
components
the
to
segments
divided
and
in
the
and
hold
be taken
Example
of
signs
would
formula
To
and
into
PB
If it should
of
without
into
so
change
the
happen
/
would
in inverse
are
which
ratio AP
and
m,
be
line A B
is
that P divided
would
PB
ratio
be
tive,
nega-
opposite, but
if this difference
of
the
sign
account.
find the
point of
intersection
of the medians
triangle.
Choose
the
triangle. Let
be
and
A P
externally,the
line AB
the
parallelto
point P.
the
by
of P
origin 0
OA
random.
at
'= B, and
A, OB
middle
respectivelythe
points
vertices
A, B, G.
Let
medians
and
OM
the vector
Let
be
the
~OC
of
the
point of
drawn
BC
C.
sides
be
Let
the
A\ B\ 0'
opposite the
intersection
to it.
given
of the
Then
and
Assuming
triangleso
may
chosen
outside
equated.
Hence
plane of
the
cients
non-coplanar,correspondingcoeffi-
are
Hence
of the
AND
ADDITION
The
to
drawn
vector
In
the
the
to the
of the
third
one
SCALAR
of which
problems
origin could
median
be
the
chosen
become
termini
A,B,C,
Thus
etc.
M=\(A
is typicalof
methods.
of
parts of
such
cases,
be
origin may
of the
other
the
specializedand
renders
the
for
in
those
to
as
points themselves
read
B+C).
soluble
problems
regard
facilitate the
just
as
by
vector
between
the
independent
demonstration.
In
positionof
crucial
some
computation
generalityobtained
results
A, B, C, etc.,
vectors
the
analytic
but
the
point
in many
leads
undetermined
gard
disre-
possible to
even
necessarilybe
the
dependen
is in-
figure must
specializedwith
figureso
cases
as
result
purely geometricrelation
origin assumed
the
some
fact any
In
the
given
class of
whole
just been
the formulae
and
to trie vertices.
has
replace the
different
it is
subjectsof analysisand
the
This
drawn
solution
Hence
their
by
triangleis equal
and
arbitrarily
of that choice.
the
of
point
of the vectors
sum
29
MULTIPLICATION
to
easy
to
and
sufficient
which
symmetry
and
compute
more
easy
to remember.
Theorem
necessary
equation represent
vector
is that
the
sum
of
side
one
The
the
of
the
zero
be
of
on
vector
the
relation
scalar
independent
coefficients
of
upon
the other
to
sum
of the
scalar
the
one
the
equation written
be
on
of the
sum
Or
origin
vectors
if all the
side
leaving
coefficients
zero.
Let
of the
the
side.
equation be transposed to
other, the
that
condition
must
30
Change
E
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
then
(B
5B
cC
E)
aA
by adding
A, B, C, D
constant
The
----
vector
equation
becomes
(A
'
0 to 0
of the vectors
to each
00'
origin from
the
If this is to be
(C
dD
E)
+B
...
independent of
the
(a
(D
j, +
originthe
R)
-f
d +
"
"
...).
coefficient of E
this condition
That
Hence
vanish.
must
B)
cited
examples
is obvious.
M=|(A
If
_1
3
21.]
The
coefficients is zero,
and
C),
,1
7" *."
sufficient
which
equation, in
satisfyan
vectors
and
necessary
"
"_*_.+
condition
the
be
sum
that
of the
two
scalar
equal in magnitude
in direction.
First let
and
It is of
course
vanish.
If
the value
of
the
a
I B
0.
assumed
they did
the
equation would
obtained
from
the first.
B.
coefficients
mean
the second
and
nothing.
stitute
Sub-
equation into
ADDITION
Secondly if
the
SCALAR
AND
and
magnitude
in
equal
are
31
MULTIPLICATION
and
direction
equation
A-B
The
"A
would
be
Substitute
coefficients
the
of
value
0.
be
the
or
equations
non-vanishingcoefficient.
obtained
b, c, vanish
a,
Let
meaningless.
cC
b +
the
"B
and
all
vectors
nate
originthey termi-
common
three
line.1
straight
same
First let
Not
that
zero.
sum
from
drawn
is that when
in the
the
which
equation,in
satisfyan
of the coefficients is
sum
sufficient condition
and
necessary
is zero,
The
them.
subsists between
from
the
second
equation
-("
or
(C-A)
Hence
the vector
collinear
Hence
those
which
three
OA, B
terminate
0,
extremities
lie
on
of
line.
straightline.
A is
and
B.
Secondly
drawn
00
OB,C=
in
of C and
extremities
joins the
cC
"(A-B).
points A, B,
origin0
same
joins the
which
that
three vectors
suppose
the
with
c)A+"B
from
Then
the
vectors
A~B
collinear.
are
Hence
the
(B
subsists.
the
and
r= C
AC
equation
A)
(C
A)
of the coefficients
sum
on
the
sides
two
is
same.
The
necessary
in which
1
The
the
Vectors
Hamilton
"
which
and
of the
sum
hare
sufficient condition
common
termino-collinear."
scalar
originand
that
an
equation,
coefficients is zero,
terminate
in
one
line
are
subsist
called
by
32
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
in
they terminate
aA
of
6B
and
from
the last
d(D-A)
or
line A D
The
is
A, B, (7,D
suppose
that
A~D
the
D
other
where
This
(B
A)
Z,TO, and
in this
Between
Let
Q.
(A-B)
may
leads
the
to
(C
A)
Hence
all four
plane. Secondly
one
do
A, and
C).
C.
lie in
lie in
AB
"
plane.
one
expressed in
be
value
the first.
(A
of A, B, C, D
=
the
Substitute
and
A B
of them
are
planar
co-
terms
of
equation
certain scalars.
are
(D
A)
The
0,
of the coefficients
sum
equation is zero.
five vectors
any
of whose
A, B, C, D
One
two.
of
A, ~AC
origin
common
equation into
termini
vectors.
the
coplanarwith
termini
Then
dD
cC
non-vanishing coefficient.
obtained
b +
d be
plane.1
one
First let
Let
from
between
coefficients is
equationthe
one
sum
zero.
be
A, B, C,D, E
there exists
the
five
given
Form
the
other
three
vectors.
differences
E-A,
One
of these
or
"
what
be
may
amounts
equation between
k
The
(E
sum
Vectors
by Hamilton
A)
expressed in
to
the
"
have
of the
terms
thing there
same
exist
must
an
them.
I
(E
B)
(E
E-D.
E-C,
E-B,
originand
termino-complanar.1'
a
common
C)
(E
equation is
terminate
in
D)
==
0.
zero.
one
plane are
called
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
34
and
determines
This
Hence
(B
multipleof
and
Hence
(B
n)
w)
(1
It
AG.
A.
G.
n)
A.
therefore
must
multiplethat
w)
the second
equations which
shall be
zero.
reasoning
(1
wC=
and
such
F and
the
of
(1
(1
similar
BO
cuts
vector
C)
of its coefficients is
n~B
Subtract
This
wB=D
E, C,
vectors
n.
"
nC
"
straight
same
the
connects
sum
rearrangement and
another
By
as
the
that
such
be
must
the
lie upon
which
equation
the
Hence
line.
and
points E, C,
the
However
the
cients
of the coeffi-
sum
B, C, and
connect
be
G, A,
or
zero.
C)
(1
n)
(1
2 nJf.
B +
F
Hence
")
"
SB
the
and
has
theorem
considerable
space
been
In
given.
of
been
proved.
each
because
The
detail of the
the actual
however,
reality,
justfour equationsobtained
Example
To
the
determine
has
proof
covered
reasoning has
analysishas
simply from
equationsof
sisted
con-
the first.
the
line and
plane.
Let
be
any
The
vectors
point
of
A, B, and
by
the
P
two
pointsA
line.
Choose
terminate
and
Therefore
an
in the
0.
b +
aA
6B
and
upon
it.
Let
arbitraryorigin.
same
line.
Hence
AND
ADDITION
They
values.
the
points P
different
For
be
may
scalars
and
replacedby
xA.
yE
I have
and
more
35
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
different
y, which
are
used
Then
Let
plane
point of
Let P be any
The
determined
be
the
A, B, C, and
vectors
and
P terminate
c+p
aA.
Therefore
a,
to write
customary
points of
the
y +
line which
quadrilateralto
divides
Hence
in their stead x, y,
The
plane.
one
cC
b +
Example
arbitrary
origin.
an
Q.
JB
for different
Z",c, vary
C.
As
in
and
points A,B,
cC
+
b +
three
Choose
plane.
SB
aA+
by
the
the
is
more
z.
joins one
of
vertex
of
intersection
opposite sides
plane, it
plete
com-
diagonals
two
monically
har-
(Fig. 12).
A, B, C, D be four vertices
Let
of
Let
quadrilateral.
in
CD
in the
BC
meet
Let
the
intersect
that
FG
and
by
E.
in
G.
A B
intersects
that
E'
sixth
That
and
To
in the
same
point E'
and
CD
ratio
is to show
(A
show
in
the lines AB
E"
F.
vertex
diagonals AC
two
BD
such
meet
E, and A D
fifth vertex
A B
EE')
that
=
as
the
are
and
in
CD
divided
cross
(CD -EE")
ratios
=
point E1'
internallyat
divided
they are
1.
externally
36
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
Choose
the
it to
from
drawn
random.
origin at
four
The
points A, B, C\
terminate
in
one
Hence
plane.
aA
"B
and
a-f-" +
cC
dD
0.
cC
+
+
"A
Divide
A, B, C, D
vectors
manner
(a
c)0
b +
d"D
6B
cC
+
b +
(a + d)?
"
c)
Form:
(a
5B
cC
In like
(b + d).
"
(Z"B
"
terms
(a
"
cG
(a
d)
"
c)
(a + d)
"
cC-dJ"
or
JB
cC
"
divide
dD
Hence
c
."
"2.
ratio
divides
c :
Hence
d.
in
externally
internal and
of
and
the
which
If
d.
of
ratio.
external
they have
'"
To
in
certain
in the
divides
CD
internallyand
the
is E".
A B
in the
divisions
the relative
upon
sign
same
CD
ratio
In
internal
a
is
signs
point
similar way
harmonically.
geometric nets.
a
lines
pointsand straight
a
CD
of the two
Which
to divide
(")
b and
J""
depends
the
discuss
divide
oppositesigns,it
geometric net
Start with
that
E"
and
be shown
may
Example 4
By
shows
same
of division is E; if
E' and
in the ratio
equation (a)
But
"
E.
"
number
plane is
meant
obtained
in the
followingmanner.
of
pointsall
figurecomposed
of which
lie in
one
These
all the
Draw
plane.
This
second
construction
the
number
Joining
points
which
there
these
From
To
these
the
and
subsist
b +
between
cC
four
"A
E
intersect
in
so
three
lines may
new
six
and
down
dD
with.
commence
out
points.
new
on.
the
equations
is
(c)
drawn
given points.
from
From
an
termined
unde-
these
it is
b"B
cC
dD
b +
+_c_
"
"B
+
a
b +
the equationsinto
by splitting
four vectors
This
step
obtain
possibleto
the
to
cut
the
origin to
each
figureincreases.
Three
be obtained
6B
on.
so
four.
write
analytically
aA
which
given
lines may
more
given
are
figure. These
the
in
be drawn
now
the
are
from
points different
At
indefinitely.
of
points.
stillgreater number
in
pairs.
pointsin pairs.
up
lines
four points
of
interestingcase
most
number
be
kept
and
in
points
these
connect
turn
be
may
of
Probably the
in
may
The
in
in
points which
that
other
each
draw
37
MULTIPLICATION
joining these
lines
Next
of
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
sum
such
as
two
A, D, E, F may
of whose
cG
c
coefficients is
zero
and
chosen
the equation
be determined.
may
be
would
"
aA.
d'D
(a
b)'E+ (a + c)F
treated
new
0.
pointsmay
38
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
(a
d D
6)E
(a
c)!
2a
"
d D
(a + ") E
b +
The
fuller
in Hamilton's
said.
Five
obtained
by findingthe
of the
of three
remaining pairs.
with
the
from
Between
of whose
of
intersections
construction
in
before
as
lines
I.
be
may
be
be carried
There
nets.
originto
there
exists
This
the
ward
for-
analytictreatment
plane
zero.
and
be
may
connecting the
then
The
vectors
coefficients is
separatedinto parts
nets
pointsmay
new
undetermined
these
forward
planespassed through
may
of
case
an
points
more
word
just a
these
that
points.
sum
From
to
drawn
geometric
The
these
points goes
space
pointsthus obtained.
five vectors
the
in
from
selected
of Quaternions,"Book
the
is similar
five
given.
pointsare
of
account
Elements
"
from
findingmore
As
sets
of
process
indefinitely.A
and
found;
be
four vectors
of
sets
b +
other
A, B,C, D, E, F, G may
found
c) F
(a + 6)E
between
dD
obtained.
(a
Equations
an
the
given
equation
equation
be
may
points may
new
are
thus
be obtained.
aA
b"B
cG
dD
"E
then
are
way.
two
of the
Nets
d +
b +
d +
may
be
points and
in space
are
others
also discussed
found
in the
by Hamilton,
same
loc. cit.
AND
ADDITION
Centers
*
be
The
23.]
found
easilyby
very
physics which
1".
The
situated
at
and
In
it into
the
in
situated
the
at
Given
two
center
where
the
This
follows
of
center
mass
of
a
a
and
b situated
is
-f b situated
at
three
Then
"B
1 and
the
a, o,
b +
"B
of law
equivalentto
b +
cC
situated
as
means
formula
by
(a + 6)
a
and
pointsA
B.
origin whatsoever.
any
masses
Hence
system and
system.
point
a
equal
(7)
ratio.
given
considered
the
in the
at two
law
be found
be
b may
systems of
two
single mass
the
to
from
C may
masses
given by
referred
gravity of
pointsA, B,
masses
and
are
two
inverselyproportional
are
masses
gravity of
line in
replaced by
of
immediately
of
connecting the
of the
gravity G
vectors
for division
three
be
sum
(considered as
masses
gravity of
of
center
center
masses
Their
The
the
to
of
laws
the extremities.
at
masses
two
following:
segments which
two
system may
magnitude
two
the line
on
The
the
are
gravity of
finding the
each
masses
of
system of particlesmay
methods.
vector
assumed
points) lies
to
2".
be
will
center
divides
of Gravity
of gravity of
center
39
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
2.
a
at the
The
single
40
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
Evidently
6,
a,
c,
situated
d,
be found
of
center
in
the
at
similar
gravity of
of
manner.
aA
number
any
"B
cC
l +
result
^D
masses
may
...
is
"""
Theorem
the
triangleto
lines which
The
with
masses
the
areas
hi
of
the
Join
lines
last
from
compounding
Let
be the
until
the
and
first three.
intersect
they
ABC
ter
cen-
A, B, C to G and
proportion between
A,B,C
triangleweighted
GBC:GCA:GAB:ABC=a,:l:c:a
The
at the opposite
masses
Let
Z",c.
a,
gravity.
produce
oppositesides
the
gravityof
triangleswhich
(Fig.13).
vertices
of
the
three
it into
vertices
the
of
center
proportionalto
are
be
...
jointhe
divide
vertices
d+
l +
I +
show
that
c.
comes
in
the demonstration.
ABC
A'
AG
GA'
_b
=
G B C
~~
G A'
ABC
Hence
GBC
BCA
In
similar
manner
GCA
Hence
I +
GAB=
the
Theorem
a
CAB
and
J 4-
~c
'
proportion is proved.
2
tetrahedron
The
to the
lines which
vertices
join the
divide
center
of
the tetrahedron
gravityof
into four
42
therefore
5, c may
a,
of
inside
points P
do
and
point P,
each
each
to
of sets
of
the
set
there
there
point
which
quantities,
another
except for
plane ABC
which
one
of
factor
proportionality.
of
triangleABC
of the
negative weights
masses
2 and
would
be
ratio 1
2.
That
suitable
of
set
idea of
The
if the
as
Calcul"
The
in
in 1826.
GAB
to
point
areas
and
by
P
be
the
only
him
in
This
may
which
they
would
the sides of
areas
avoided
of
areas
then
of the three
of these
respectively
the
one
ratios of
the
the
be
will differ in
of the
Z",and
a,
sign
are
portant
im-
positive.
at the vertices
due
Mobius
to
entitled
triangle
taken
situated
gravityis
his book
be
represented by
always be
masses
of
sign. Similarly
and
Barycentrische
"
the
regarded as
fairly
starting
analyticgeometry.
may
vertices
the
representedby
lies outside
nature
be
may
may
point P
of the center
point of modern
gravity of
externallyin
differ in
ABO
quantitiesmay
published by
was
conception of
and
line A B
Z",c of which
a,
employing
coordinates
of
produced
plane
masses
of the
two
as
the
Inasmuch
ABC.
center
pointsA
a, b which
masses
of
the
lie outside
is
from
at the
of the line A B
point
The
masses.
or
to
resort
may
suitable set of
any
one
1 situated
"
Any point
of the
pointsP
the
obtain
To
To
triangleABC.
the
differ from
not
coordinates
as
upon
infinite number
corresponds an
however
looked
be
definite
corresponds a
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
are
be
the
proportional. The
three numbers
which
by
no
the
existence
at
masses
triangles GBC,
given triangleABC,
is determined
have
by replacingthe
trianglesof
a
which
GCA,
the
and
coordinates
of
proportionalto
the
is the
common
the bases.
vertex
The
followingdefinition.
sign
Definition: The
positiveor
The
through them.
pointsfollow
the
in the
Cyclic permutation
the
sign
of the
BCA
the
hold.
The
The
may
The
be
areas
these
four
quantitiesor
be
outside
employed.
be
the
masses
are
proportionalto
may
takes
the
Or
it here
may
Definition:
to
be
not
be
The
positivewhen
Gr is
point
sideration.
con-
the
light of
the
Then
that of
P.
mass
the
represented by
theorem
idea
them.
tetrahedra
of
To
masses
2, page
40,
which
umes
negative vol-
negativeweights.
importance later,a
at
", c, d
a,
negative
four
to
situated
proportionalto
in
the
into
"
tetrahedron
volume
of the
larycentric coordinates
the
of
taken
of the
of
out
be outside
be
areas
gravity
replaced by
idea is of considerable
if P
weightedwith
others
place of
of
pointsA, B, C,
are
of
them.
reversal
quantitiesproportionalto
"
four
tetrahedron
to
coordinates
The
center
may
the
of the idea of
points
PGA
three
or
respectively. The
obtain
alter
not
trianglethe equation
signs of
the
is immediate.
the vertices of
amounts
regarded as
extension
space
does
sign.
C +
PB
same
triangleprovided
them
the
point within
PA
must
direction.
CAB.
letters which
two
cyclicorder changes
If P be any
clockwise
area.
of
Interchange
negative when
letters therefore
of the
in the
circle described
the
upon
be
to
other
each
is said to be
area
negative or
ABG
the
direction
counterclockwise
said
triangle is
A, B, C follow
the vertices
positivewhen
of
ABC
area
43
MULTIPLICATION
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
As
brief treatment
this
of
place.
A B CD
of
triangleABC
tetrahedron
appears
is said
positiveto
44
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
situated
eye
if the
solid model.
difficult to
which
from
see
if
hold
model
it which
The
negative.
be
of
signs
negative
the
various
have
to
necessary
scarcelysufficient.
It is
positiveand
trianglesappear
following relations
will
be
to
seen
examined.
interchangeof
The
the
is
plane drawing
is
negative.
it is almost
perfectlyclear
tetrahedra
of
discussion
the
make
To
volume
The
D.
point
triangleappear
of the
area
the
at
letters in the
two
tetrahedron
A B CD
The
of
If the
number
number
of
that of AB
as
CD
CADB
If P
is any
if
the
even
be obtained
B
of
interchanges
inside
point
order
sible
pos-
two
by
letters.
sign is the
same
-CABD
the
interchangesis
;
of the
one
to
of successive
given
any
of
CBD
the
-ABCD.
tetrahedron
the
ABCD
equation
ABCP-BCDP+
holds
good.
provided
and
to
one
ABCD
The
if the
It still is true
the
The
CDAP-DABP=ABCD
signs
of the
if P
volumes
easilyremembered
number.
+
form
into consideration.
more
cal
symmetri-
all
by transposing
the terms
Then
BCDP
CDPA
proportion in theorem
signs of
the tetrahedron
be taken
be put into
equation may
more
be without
the tetrahedra
DPAB+PABC=Q.
2, page
be
40, does
regarded.
It should
BCDG:CDGA:DOAB:GABC:ABCD
=
: c
: a
-f b +
not
d.
hold
read
true
If the
ADDITION
AND
SCALAR
point
G- lies inside
the
tetrahedron
the
quantitiesproportionalto
located
at the vertices
of
center
still be
gravity.If
masses
positionof
the
centric
"
The
coordinates
four numbers
point of
the
from
B G is
plane A
be
must
G is to be the
they may
negative
are
whose
In this
is established
drawn
vector
of which
point G-.
the
which
masses
of the tetrahedron
some
5, c, d represent
a,
if
respectively
A,B,C,D
G lies outside
regardedas
45
MULTIPLICATION
"
or
ratios determine
set of
manner
"Jary-
for space.
indeterminate
an
originto
any
(page 35)
a?A
yB
aC
y +
Comparing
this with
the
"
expression
"A
6B
cC
that the
it will be
seen
more
nor
less than
with
respect
the
the
to
b +
quantities05, yt z
in
are
coordinates
barycentric
reality
nothing
triangleABO.
of the
like
In
pointP
from
manner
equation
_xA.
y'B
which
expresses
origin in
the
any
it may
origin,
same
be
the
four
the tetrahedron
the
w'D
from
indeterminate
an
A, B, C, D
drawn
from
by comparison with
c
C +
b +
y, z,
of P, the
B CD.
l'B +
quantities#,
coordinates
vectors
seen
zG
drawn
given
aA.
that
y +
vector
of four
terms
terminus
Thus
d"D
preciselythe barycentric
are
of P, with
the vector
respect to
methods
of
in which
the
"
centric
Bary-
"
It
was
mentioned
before and
it may
be well to
repeat here
46
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
that
the
the vectors
wholly
of consideration
out
The
their termini.
replacedby
become
then
left
be
origin may
vector
xA
and
y B
+
+
zC
y +
C +
y +
yB
wD
w.
and
the
"
Use
:
25.] Definition
by
An
in
the
letters
nowhere
point
cuts
0 when
the
follow
PQR
each
At
and
M N
plane
which
positivefrom
to appear
"
Areas
one
PQR
curve
objectsof
of Grassmann.
denote
to
lying
area
continuous
itself is said
Vectors
of
the
as
BarycentrischeCalcul
"
Ausdehnungslehre
"
The
bounded
to the
analysisand
of Mb'bius
equations
point equations
xA
This
and
positiveorder;
or
when
follow
they
negative
negative,
clockwise
or
the
in
order
(Fig.14).
It
Cf
of its
same
0.
the
area
from
circle
and
from
some
in
lies,but
that
side of the
in which
point
negativerelative
upon
the
negative
from
plane on
all
sign
reference
JTF-plane and
which
points on
the
the
its
side
0 out-
to
to the
plane
described
point on
area
determined
only
to
an
Q is negative relative
0 is
point 0'
lying in
that
that direction
traced
viewed
area
viewed
area
oppositeto
in the
an
to be
For
plane.
and
PQR;
supposed
is
no
se^ but
per
14.
to
boundary
have
can
FIG.
is evident
every
positiveZ-axis
side upon
which
ADDITION
the
negative^-axis
and
the direction
walking
upon
statingthe
is said
walking
the
To
other.
be
kept
it will
one
positiveis
which
it appears
force
out
of
of
togetherthe
the
of
through
of
the
plane
and
one
the
the
plane
positive side
closed
the
the
plane.
enclosed
left hand
of the
positive;
to
which
the
the
from
upon
idea
If
the
the
the
area
side
This
plane curve
by
curve
magnetism.
circuit pass
positiveside
the
If
his left-
area
upon
and
electricity
the
curve,
same
positiveside
placed upon
closed
consequently appear
called
follows
as
flow around
electric current
out
right.
side of the
students
to
definition is
his
righthand
seems
magnetic
boundary must
it lies upon
to trace
familiar
the
point of view
positiveif
oppositesides
upon
the
be
to
be considered
persons
the
reason
plane traces
hand
this
For
descriptionof
of
enclosed
area
of
method
Another
person
lies.
47
MULTIPLICATION
mind.
clearlyin
SCALAR
AND
is
an
lines of
negative to
positivemagnetic pole
of the
plane will
be
repelledby
the circuit.
A
plane
area
positive or
of the
is a vector
when
magnitude
the
upon
It
is the
the
in which
The
be
may
considered
numerical
normal
denoted
value
of
the
upon
normal
area
to
A
orthogonally
upon
the
the
lie in the
the
of
N'.
the
plane
concerning
vector
and
area
area
whose
of the
a
upon
whose
of that vector
plane,
plane
in
the
projection(Fig. 15).
plane MN.
plane M'
that
that
component
plane
by
positiveside
orthogonalprojectionof
to
important.
be
area
to
Hence
followingtheorems
are
than
possessingmore
it lies.
vectors
as
plane
representedby
direction
Let
If
is the
direction
will be
plane
quantity.
looked
Theorem
then
as
upon
negativemagnitude.
positiveside
areas
looked
possess
area
be
may
Let
Let MN
it be
and
projected
M' N'
inter-
48
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
in the
sect
planes be
two
x.
Consider
rectangle P'Q'R'S'
M'N'.
will be
equal
to
PQ
and
RS;
will be
equal
to
QR
and
SP
the
angle between
the
This
sides
the
PQRS
rectangles,of
sides
the
which
sides
cosine
of
From
area
the
is
equal to
angle between
up into
the
that
the
of #,
the
respectively
are
sides
I and
of the
likewise
are
whose
area
any
is
the
planes.
A
area
given area
planes.
largenumber
series of lines in M N
S'P'
originalrectanglesmultipliedby
angle between
this it follows
which
of the
the
cosine
line of intersection
respectively
paralleland perpendicularto
of
15.
planes,projectinto rectangleswhose
to the area
R' S'
Q' and
the
coax.
equal
in M N
project into
P'
multiplied by
FIG.
two
will
The
but
these
P'Q'R'S'
Hence
between
respectivelyparallel
are
line I.
in
angle
rectangle PQRS
QR, SP
the
perpendicularto
diedral
first
and
sides,PQ, RS
whose
and
let the
I and
line
projectedinto
multipliedby
For
of small
is
any
area
an
the cosine
may
vided
be di-
rectanglesby drawing
paralleland perpendicularto
the line /.
50
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Theorem
surface
is
This
The
be
proved by
to be
fluid assumed
surface
moves
neither
of
surface
The
proof
Consider
the
the
from
part nearest
the
projectsinto
covered
twice, once
each
closed surface
upon
But
plane
that
is
the vector
equal
which
along the
line
however,
was
Upon
The
each face
proportional
of all
resultant
equilibrium. Hence
surface
double
is
zero.
upon
part of the
The
area.
and
the
total
with
of the
component
with
once
the
is
negative.
projectionof
area
an
that
upon
representing
vector
perpendicularto
plane
the
regard to sign)is
projectionof
perpendicularto
Hence
the
Thus
negative area.
plane.
any
closed
the
to
the
other.
a
internal
positivearea
theorem
by
certain
in the direction
area
in
plane, into
with
cancel
zero.
given
of
body
own
by
in the closed
areas
the
surface
These
to it.
the fluid is in
consists of
farthest
its
definite force
orthogonalprojectionof
This
plane.
surface
be
may
normal
as
sum
any
be zero,
of
cluded.1
forces,gravityin-
the other.
nor
way
in
fluid bounded
the
fluid exerts
the
one
area
all external
equilibrium under
portion of
The
pressures.
considerations
polyhedron drawn
free from
fluid is in
The
of certain
means
the
hydrostatics.Suppose
to the
zero.
may
the
which
vector
no
Hence
component
plane of projection.This,
whatsoever.
Hence
the
vector
is
zero.
The
theorem
closed
surface
Such
state
has
consists
in the
of
proved
The
in the
all
atmosphere
and
suspendingstring.
gravityacts
In
case
case
in
that
which
surface
the
be
of a
practical
purposes in the case
to
pheric
atmosconsequentlysubjected
but is counterbalanced
by the tension
to
force of
for the
planes.
of affairs is realized
polyhedron suspended
pressure.
been
ADDITION
curved
it may
whose
number
vector
which
curved
is
be
may
That
AND
be
SCALAR
of
faces increases
closed
If the surface
be not
representedby
is the
limit
limit.
surface
closed
approached by
limit
is the
the
number
of faces
Hence
the
polyhedralor
but be curved
if it
justas
vector
polyhedralsurface
without
represents any
zero.
vector
the limit of
regardedas
51
MULTIPLICATION
it
polyhedral.
were
the
which
vector
the curved
becomes
surface
indefinitely
great.
SUMMARY
A
is
vector
direction.
and
the
itself.
parallelto
multiply
its
vector
laws
as
To
add
any
three
components
of
non-coplanarvectors,
are
vectors
the
This
equal
i,j,k form
limit
exists and
polyhedralsurface
leave
xa,
the
the
same
into
three
components
This
resolution
way.
y'b +
equal, and
vectors
To subtract
tion,
Addition, subtrac-
(4)
zc.
to
equal vectors, parallel
are
direction.
scalar follow
tiply
mul-
in ordinarymultiplication
resolved
its direction
its
reverse
add.
by
nitude
mag-
positivescalar
non-coplanar vectors.
The
and
whose
one
parallelogramlaw.
vectors
be
may
it
by shifting
negativescalar
and
scalar
its direction
vector
and
by
vector
addition,subtraction,and
parallelto
be
scalar
the
is
by
vector
magnitude
same
altered
vector
zero
that
accordingto
the
is not
multiply a
that
possessingmagnitude
as
vector
multiply a
possess
or
of
multiplication
algebra. A
can
length by
reverse
and
vectors
null
length by
Vectors
a
A
To
zero.
unchanged.
its
Equal
direction.
same
is
quantity considered
and
CHAPTER
OF
are
three
converselyif
equal.
The
given
the
ponents
com-
three
right-handedrectangularsystem.
is
unique.
approachesthe
surface.
unit
In
in which
52
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
of them
terms
vector
any
coordinates
Cartesian
x, y,
ratio
the
(6)
y\ + zk.
divides
line in
given
the formula
given by
is
: n
of
means
z.
xi
expressed by
point which
The
Applications.
be
may
(7)
+
The
sufficient condition
and
necessary
that
equation
vector
there
four vectors
If the
exists
of the
sum
termino-coplanar. If
coefficients
is
termino-collinear.
masses
a,
A, B, C
"
given by
"
"
Z",
c
"
"
"
situated
supposed
the
between
to be
drawn
b +
with
of
sum
whose
of
number
the
are
scalar
they
vectors
termini
from
cients.
coeffi-
scalar
the vectors
gravity of
the
at
Between
zero.
zero
three
of
center
be
equation
an
equation
an
The
equation
coefficients is
exists
zero
the
sum
are
of
vectors
origin is
common
the formula
.-
vector
used
be
may
and
positiveside
EXEECISES
ON
2.
the laws
trianglemay
----
an
is
If the
area.
equal to
of the
the
area
magnitude
is the direction
plane.
is
The
of
vector
zero.
CHAPTER
be constructed
the medians
-\
of the vector
is
Demonstrate
equal to
of the vector
closed surface
1.
and
the
to denote
the direction
upon
representinga
of any
whose
sides
given triangle.
are
parallel
The
3.
three
If two
4.
four
upon
pointsof
three
diagonalsof
plete
com-
lie three
straightlines.
trianglesare
of
intersection
so
situated
in space
correspondingsides
that the
lie
the lines
on
three
line,then
through a
pass
common
Given
5.
Find
in
quadrilateral
joins the
line which
of the
middle
the
point
of
the
two
oppositesides.
the
and
coincide
same
joiningthe
of these
two
the
the vertices.
where
7.
the
are
gravityof
bisectors
not
joins the
gravityof
be
system
quadrilateral.
be
space
formed
the centers
line with
four
middle
points are
be
quadrilaterals
on
point
diagonals.
quadrilateralin
this theorem
Can
masses
The
of
originalquadrilateral.By
of
the
the center
is meant
of
lie
quadrilaterals
two
gravityof
Show
if two
and
proportionally
divided
line which
opposite sides
If two
6.
the middle
points of
the center
with
placed at
equal masses
Find
space.
middle
points of
of
the
pairs of oppositesides
the
meet
53
MULTIPLICATION
which
points in
six
quadrangle 1
by
SCALAR
AND
ADDITION
of
the
by
gravity
of
center
the center
of
equal masses
gravity
placed at
the
generalizedto
case
equal?
of the
angles
of
in
trianglemeet
point.
8.
If the
edges of a hexahedron
four diagonals
of the
points,the
In the
the three
9.
pointsare
Prove
pointsof
to the
at
an
the
hexahedron
the hexahedron
by
four in three
in
meet
is
point.
parallelepiped
infinite distance.
straightlines through
face of
line connecting a
straight
point of
1
in which
specialcase
four
meet
oppositeedge
the
middle
fixed
of the
point P
with
the
tetrahedron,meet
be
dle
midin
passed
the lines
54
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
point
and
is
and
bisected
11.
five
A,
the
that
with
equation
this
by
Show
10.
vectors
that
B,
such
that
gravity
coefficients
of
through
passes
the
there
exception
without
PE
tetrahedron.
exists
between
any
one
four
vector
given
C, L.
the
if
in
of
center
scalar
Discuss
vectors
is
point
each
they
of
conditions,
satisfy
which
imposed
two
is
zero.
equations
upon
the
three,
sum
four,
of
the
or
efficients
co-
CHAPTER
AND
DIRECT
SKEW
PEODUCTS
Products
THE
27.]
have
It
applications.
because
of B
sum
and
and
into
Definition
that
states
equal
is
law
the
to
be
of
the
called
of
product
few
two
products
products
of the
sum
in
way
introduce
to
will
scalar
the
employed
necessary
These
in
vectors
been
fundamental
the
and
subtraction,
for
have
vectors.
which
law
distributive
of
they obey
defined
becomes
VECTORS
Vectors
addition,
and
now
combinations
new
of
been
physics
by
suggested
OF
of Two
operations
multiplication
II
; i. e.,
into
of A
products
the
the
into
C.
The
the
scalar
the
magnitudes
direct
obtained
quantity
of
the
of
product
two
vectors
the
by multiplying
the
by
vectors
cosine
of
and
is
of
product
the
angle
tween
be-
them.
The
with
direct
a
between
dot
denoted
is
product
them
the
by writing
two
vectors
as
A-B.
This
is read
dot
product
the
scalar
If A
dot
instead
of
product
be
the
and
therefore
the
direct
owing
product.
the
to
of
magnitude
often
may
fact
and
that
It
its
that
be
called
is
also
value
of
the
called
is
lar.
sca-
B, then
definition
A-B
Obviously
the
direct
^"cos
product
A
"
(A,B).
follows
"
the
A.
commutative
(1)
law
(2)
by
56
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
If either
be
vector
multipliedby
multipliedby
(x A)
In
the two
case
"
vectors
becomes
them
That
scalar.
that
zero
and
or
one
and
Hence
negative sign.
is
vectors
The
vectors
the
are
product of
of its
the
the
hundred
scalar
and
the
of
positiveor
two
parallel
their
lengths.
the directions
they are
itself is therefore
by
tween
angle be-
eightydegrees
product of
negativewhen
same,
B).
"
product
the
to
of the
opposite.
equal
length
Consequentlyif
In
and
is
the
product of
the
two
between
the
vectors
them
either
which
vectors
or
for
the
The
i,j,k
more
plus
or
scalar
are
the
"
(A, B)
cos
or
"
by
itself vanish
the
one
perpendicular the
are
minus
ninety degrees
product A
B vanishes.
"
vanishes, then
0.
(A, B) is
cos
zero,
of them
two
and
is null.
either
the
Thus
the
of
vectors, neither
0.
products of
the
three
fundamental
unit
evidently
i.i
If
of
perpendicularity
vanishes,is A
28.]
and
product A
perpendicularor
are
condition
vector
Hence
scalar
A
vectors
becomes
vanishes.
cosine
Converselyif the
Hence
(3)
null vector.
case
angle
The
to the square
A-A=^2.
vector
is
product
collinear the
are
product is positivewhen
vector
(A
numericallyequal
sign of
the
is
(x B)
"
scalar
generally a
j.j
and
are
k-k
any
l,
two
product
a
"
cos
(a,b).
(4)
unit
vectors
the
58
direct
or
(A
be
This may
to its
proved by
B)
(A
or
(A
B)
A
sum
(G c)
"
B)
of A
c, that
"
is
the relation
(A
"
equal
If two
It has
vectors
of
sum
equal
its direction.
in
and
A.B^^i
of
A.P
particularA
the
A.a+...
B.P
B.Q
the
...
product
^j
Bl j
"
"
i +
Al "2
i +
Al Bl
and
are
JS^Szt""
are
and
lines A
B referred to
^gk) .(^1
reduces
=
in
expressed
are
#2 j + Bz k,
A1^AZ^A8
and
generalization
i +
^3"1k.j
upon
projectionof
justas
of B
projections. Hence
Bl
"
the
Az j + As k,
the
i +
(4) this
c, that
A1
Al B^
2
"
nary
in ordi-
of
terms
the
as
means
i, j, k
=
; B
peculiardifficulties.
and
c.
"
immediate
an
be used
no
But
c.
upon
ft+---)
product may
If in
C be
(Co)
B.
(tfc) +
"
"
(6) is proved. By
algebra.
By
(6)
C.
unit vector
upon
the
to
B+...)-(P
scalar
then
"
Let
projections.
The
C +
"
of
means
projectionof
is the
"
show
(A
is
multipliedby
magnitude
To
"
B)
the distributive
follows
product
multiplication.That
of
law
scalar
The
29.]
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
"2j
"3k)
j + Al Bz i k
.
"2 j j
"
,43"2k.j
#, j
^3"8k.k.
to
+
4, "2
A8 JSS.
(7)
X, Y, Z.
direction
cosines
of the
AND
DIRECT
SKEW
cos
(A, JT), Az
cos
(A, F),
AB
cos
(A, ""),
cos
cos
(B, F),
^3
cos
(B""")"
"
is the cosine
the
equation becomes
cos
(A,B)
known
(A, Z)
cos
and
case
the
line A
and
the
of
(A, F)
cos
(A,")
"
(B, F)
cos
(B,^).
cos
reduces
the well-
to
A)
of
of the squares
their
product
projectionof
If A
D
and
=
C.C
D"D
B
"
(A
B^
cos
the
"
B +
side of
one
cosine
other
"
as
are
are
the
two
the
B).(A
2 A
"
sides diminished
of the
diminished
bj
them.
of
twice
the
parallelogram,C
diagonals. Then
B)=A.A
(A-B).(A-B)=A.A-2A-B
the
sum
the
triangleis equal to
of
twice
by
angle between
Pythagorean
generalized
sides
(A, B)
cos
triangleis equal to
sides
two
(AB).
"*-2A"cos
side of
one
known
sometimes
A,"
(B, F)
cos
the third
the
of the
squares
cos
times
of
A)
A*
is,the square
sum
(A, F)
(Fig.17).
(B
"
C*
or
That
cos
sides 0 A
two
are
B-A
(B
of
cosines
triangleOAB,
side ^"isC
or
cos
Hence
line B.
and
If A
OB
(B,Z)
cos
direction
and
30.]
and
angle.
perpendicularthis
are
(A,Z)
cos
between
the
(B, Z)
cos
included
of the
relation
0
59
VECTORS
A1
Moreover
In
OF
PRODUCTS
2A.B
B"B,
B.B,
60
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
is,the
That
is
equal
like
In
the
twice
to
of the
sum
of the
difference
If A
is any
then
if A be
vectors
a,
i -f
A2
expressedin
b, c
A2
"
the
of i,j,k
terms
ft2+
a? +
gives
oblique
as
A2 j + AB k,
A?
A*
A*.
of any three
terms
c2 +
cos
is
analogous
to the
the
distance
between
If the
axes.
(8)
non-coplanarunit
a,
b) + 2
pointsbe
c a
cos
(b,c)
cos
(c,a)
in Cartesian
one
x^
points
two
yv
zv and
geometry
referred
to
yz, zz the
xv
squared is
distance
D2
(a,
zj)2+ (y,
O2
("a
(2/2 2/i)
02 -zj
the vector
upon
yi)"+ (*,
xj (2/2 yj)
31.] Definition:
normal
of the
as
formula
which
one
it.
This
diagonalsof
product of
Al
of the
squares
expressed in
vector
But
sides.
(A, B).
cos
four times
projectionof
the
by
"AB
parallelogramis equal to
sides
of two
squares
4 A-B
C*-D*
or
is,the
gram
parallelo-
also
manner
C-C-D.D
That
diagonalsof
of the
of the squares
sum
The
is the
vector
that
side of
skew
ajj)cos
(^,X).
product of the
quantity C
the
(JT,F)
(^ ^)
*i) cos
(xz
cos
Zi)2
plane
whose
of A
vector
direction
and
on
into
is the
which
AND
DIRECT
rotation
from
hundred
and
from
angle
which
cross
as
direct
the
with
direct
the
and
where
is
unit
this
vector
the
product whose
one
hundred
vanishes
and
vector.
And
(A,B)
A and
direction
skew
product
or
consequentlythe
converselyif A
B
in
trast
con-
(zB)
sin
vector
X
and
respectively
(9)
c,
In
case
reduces
angle from
and
to the
A
to
B.
scalar
that scalar.
eighty degrees.
uct,
prod-
is scalar.
multipliedby
B is
value
of C.
product is multipliedby
are
sin
in the
if either vector
(xA)
quantity and
vector
cross
definition
multipliedby
reason
magnitudesof
the
vectors
Obviously also
or
18.
AxB
scalar
or
are
unit
unit vector
If A and
B*
FIG.
product is by
vector
their
in
AXB
however,
frequently,
that
as
was
owing
are
denned
by
product
For
B.
cross
product. More
by
It is written
read A
when
and
as
so
denoted
product is
dot.
The
clockwise
counter-
by multiplying
(Fig.18).
and
one
obtained
also be
may
it turns
as
toward
skew
less than
ordinary right-handed
The
by
of
positive or
appears
magnitude is
magnitudes of A
of A
advances
carry
angle
an
61
VECTORS
to B.
an
screw
OF
whose
direction
The
to
eighty degrees
of the
product
the
through
to
and
PRODUCTS
SKEW
them
In either
product A
B is zero
(A,B)
xC.
0.
is either
case
X
the
B is
zero
sine
null
^62
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Hence
or
parallelismof
As
0.
corollarythe
Thus
zero.
the condition
of which
neither
vectors
two
is
(A, B)
sin
or
product
vector
vanishes
of any
is A
for
B
into
vector
itselfvanishes.
The
32.]
the
are
denoted
and
the
at the
seen
product
in
by
the
did in the
certain
analysisthey
They
two
ucts
prod-
have
been
dot
place held
the
occupy
of scalar
analysis. They
algebraictreatment,
to
present a few
At
later.
The
the
signs of multiplication,
amenable
time
same
ever
wher-
appear
importance, just as
of the cosine.
case
common
In vector
cross.
is of
complementary.
sense
two
will
vectors
angle
functions
trigonometric
the
by
of two
of the included
sine
the scalar
product
vector
of the
uses
are
will be
as
product may
vector
be cited.
If A
and
the vector
direction
common
in mechanics
are
couple is
any
forces
two
point of
appearance
given
the
B
point of
"
in
vector
body
from
will
is
and
magnitude
drawn
product A
which
any
that
The
with
is
The
A.
vector
couples.
couple, the
a
product
rotatingwith
direction
point of
vector
product
If A
and
of the
makes
from
its
ual
velocities of the individ-
by
locity
angular ve-
an
A.
If B, be
R.
the
to the radius
might
drawn
vector
and
it the
moment
the
extremity of
of rotation and
it
From
product.
once.
again in consideringthe
particlesof
radius
at
connection
forming
to any
importance
and
follows
in
(A,B)
parallelogram in magnitude
definition of the
trigonometricdefinition
"
ogram
parallel-
geometric representationof
This
the
as
B sin
occurrence
well be taken
appears
of that
area
(Art.25).
is of such
of
product
C
represents the
adjacentsides
the two
(Fig.18) are
to the axis
DIRECT
AND
The
33.]
of A
and
other.
Hence
from
normal.
to the
upon
B and
other.
For
which
of A
the
are
and
is the
if
plane
positiveon
plane
the
not
are
side of the
one
one
each
normal
magnitudes of
The
will appear
the
opposite to
63
VECTORS
to A
is the
and
positiveon
appear
B, rotation
that side
upon
to B
OF
negatives of
in fact the
are
from
rotation
products
vector
They
same.
PRODUCTS
SKEW
the
same.
Hence
AxB
The
factors
in
product
vector
if and only
interchanged
be
can
reversed.
(10)
-BxA.
in which
the laws
from
analysisdiffer essentially
vector
It may
accompany
give rise
this are,
to
be
first this
at
of
sign which
change
factors in
some
and
difficulty
confusion.
order
No
of
and
in the
(y
x)
"
cos
if the
x)
"
cos
Changes
similar to
think
the result.
"
the
x
will
be
-A
CB.
area
must
product will
vector
of interchanging
"
y)
"
Thus
y),
case
of the cosine,
y~).
cyclicorder
sis.
analy-
expression sin (x
sin (x
"
would
one
prefixingthe negativesign to
sin
Again
of scalar
interchangeof
operation in
those
the
the
without
that
of
changed
in
area
of
sign (Art.
25).
A
In
when
will
the
appear
34.]
and
little
convenient
of vector
of the factors in
after
The
this reversal
manner
the order
natural
case
same
as
distributive
of
vector
practiceand
sign, which
occurs
product is reversed,
acquaintance just as
it is necessary.
law
of
products just as
multiplicationholds
in
ordinary algebra
"
in the
except
64
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
of
order
the
that
factors
carefully maintained
be
must
expanding.
when
A very
be
simpleproof may
given by making
developed
coplanar with
and
be
sides of
two
Then
third
(Fig.19).
side
The
19.
in order.
this
of
areas
(A
"
Suppose
that C
and
Let
B.
B) will be the
Form
slant
the
prism
base
the
height
and
edge.
or
lateral faces
the
triangletaken
triangleis
C is the
of which
FIG.
26.
is not
of which
A
Art.
in
of the ideas
use
of this
prism are
A
The
of the bases
areas
the
prism
A
is
C +
x~C
(A
AxC
with
any
that
Since
A
the
(A
faces
"
of the
prism
B)
\ (A
C +
(A
"
B)
B)
in
B.
Should
coplanarwith
out
of that
(C
D)
productsmay
be
for the
C be
plane.
B)
C +
D)
(A
B)
0,
(11)
C.
0,
is
case
Then
\(A
B, choose
D,
of
and
non-coplanar
by (11)
+
three vectors
B, C, D will be
is zero;
proved
Hence
B).
Hence
BxC
C +
C.
is therefore
plane.
A
4-
and
vector
"
(A
relation
A
or
The
B)
"
closed surface.
(A
B) and
of all the
sum
C,
are
(A
s
ii
But
C,
(C
in
each
set
non-coplanar if
expanded.
B)
(C
A, C, D, and
D
is
D).
B, C, D, and
properlychosen, the
66
This
may
of two
angles
Let
products.
cross
j-plane. If
angleb
the
be
makes
(y
If
(y
cos
Hence
sin
Hence
If Z,m,
unit vectors
cos
(a,b)
cos
cos
y +
x)
cos
cos
b'
cos
y i
cos
(a, b')
cos
k sin
x)
the
dot
and
lyingin
with
i, and
the
y the
""
cos
sin
sin y
b'
(y
x)
sin ^
l\im\n1
(sin y
cos
cos
the
are
a' referred
to
sin
"
sin
"
cos
#
(y
k sin
(a, b')
x.
x).
sin y sin
"
(a,b)
sin y.
j,
cos
x),
"
sin y sin
cos
k sin
(y
cos
sin y
b'
j,"
sin y j,
"
(sin y
and
sin
i +
makes
y i +
"
that
from
ference
dif-
or
sum
unit vectors
two
cos
and
angle
(y
sin
b be
x)
immediately
a-b'
Hence
of the
cosine
cos
"
"
follow
and
a-b
cos
as
i,then
with
Hence
sine
and
determinant
Ac
for the
formulas
The
of
in the form
be written
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
sin
#),
"
y).
cos
a; cos
sin
{y
y.
k sin
x.
(y
cos
cos
direction
#)
?/).
y.
cosines
of
two
JL, F, Z, then
w'k,
a
as
has
"
a'
alreadybeen
cos
(a, a')
shown
in Art. 29.
angle
m'
The
familiar
between
and
formula
a' may
DIRECT
a'
AND
sin
SKEW
(a, ar) e
is
(7m'
(a
a') (a
leads to
sin2
(a, a')
way
of
Products
of
More
(nl'
n'
"
I) j
"
n'
af.
and
sin2
(a,a').
Z)2+(lm'
the
establishing
I' w)2.
useful
identity
(7
36.] Up
products
to
in
this
is called
and
A"B
All
which
the
scalar
the
be
vectors
two
realitydoes
in
The
(Art.6).
be
the scalar
inasmuch
as
not
product of
two
are
reduced
simplest tripleproduct
product of
to
tripleproducts
and
differ
the two
cannot
be
interpretedin
of the vector
i
Later
by
(Chap. V.)
will be defined.
But
consequentlyno
any
"
the
most
important.
third C
as
and
side
either
to
Moreover
B.
side
by
dot
is
plication
scalar multi-
merely happens
case
stand
without
expression
simple products
by multiplying the
vectors
cannot
B C
the
from
essentially
unite
as
result
C.
of
product
greater than
product the
B into
form
concerning
to them.
scalar in this
vectors
said
is
is formed
(A-B)
This
into
AxB
been
vectors
combined
are
Vectors
has
of
number
The
Two
than
point nothing
If three vectors
two.
and
(nl'-
easy
an
m' n) i +
"
67
VECTORS
I'm) k,
"
(mn'-m'n)z+
sin2(a,a')
This
a')
"
OF
perpendicularto
unit vector
(run'
-f
where
PRODUCTS
or
in
the
cross
to
superfluous.
The
"
other
way
than
as
the
product
the
it will be
seen
ambiguity can
there
that
arise from
no
sign either
(A.B)
the
C and
omission
dot
or
A"(BC)
of the
cross
are
occurs,
identical
parenthesis.
68
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
37.]
vectors, of which
two
is itself a vector
one
product has
of
sort
product,as
and
scalar value
often
the
called
consequentlyis
scalar
are
properties
Its
easilydeduced
from
tripleproduct.
perhaps most
its commonest
Let
interpretation.
geometrical
and
of which
scalar
side
volume
and
is
of the B
sides.
Then
BxC
is
In
other
if
but
of three
they
allelogra
par-
adjacent sides.
The
(14)
of
parallelepiped
the
left-handed
lie
the
same
opposite
on
right-handedor
scalar
which
lie upon
BxC
B, C form
vectors
form
of the
area
negative if they
if A,
words
the
height or edge.
and
drawn
vectors
"
of the
positiveif
but
A, B,
two
are
the slant
C-plane;
positivesystem
is
same
be the volume
is the base
This
the
three
any
from
A-(BxC)
will therefore
BxC
be
and
of
product
(AxB"C.
A"(BxC)or
This
scalar
is the
tripleproduct
second
The
is
A"(BxC)
tive;
posi-
negative system, it
or
negative.
In
A, B, and
case
neither
is
lie in
must
condition
which
zero
the
three
is
A"(BxC)
of three
collinear must
vanish
same
are
cases.
A, B, C.
of the
The
0.
for any
As
two
and
of the
of the
vectors
two
are
(AxB)"C
are
and
cient
suffi-
A, B, C
are
none
scalar
equal
or
coplanar.
equal
to
same
the
edges
concurrent
is the
be
piped
parallele-
corollarythe
vectors
volume
will
converselyif
the necessary
whose
parallelepiped
sign
of which
vectors
productsA"(BxC)
volume
Hence
volume
And
zero.
vanishes
two
this
edges A, B,
plane.
one
tripleproduct
The
coplanar
are
negative but
positivenor
the volume
of
in
both
Hence
(AxB)-C
A.(BxC)
v.
(14)'
AND
DIRECT
This
be stated
equalitymay
the
and
in
cross
without
scalar
alteringthe
It may
also be
of the
will be
therefore
may
have
the
be
A, B, C may
C.(AxB).
the
muted
per-
the
of the A
cyclic order
of the
of
each
The
the
case
of the
B C-
A-plane and
tripleproduct
i-(AxB)
(BxC).A
in
same
equivalentforms
B-(CxA)
of the
positiveside
B-plane.
of six
one
(15)
volume
have
will
positiveside
(AxB"C
If however
volume
any
A-(BxC)
dot
~be interchanged
may
vectors
B.(CxA)
the
positiveside
the
upon
The
operation.
product.
if A is upon
on
of
alteringthe product.
that
sign,because
plane,B
the
of
expressionsgives
and
parallelepiped
same
rule
that the
seen
A-(BxC)
each
as
69
VECTORS
Of
tripleproduct
value
cycliclywithout
For
PRODUCTS
SKEW
(15)'
(CxA)-B.
the
letters
is
changed
the
be
may
from
seen
the
BxC
Hence
the dot
the
or
cross
or
CxB.
"
product is
triple
scalar
from
figureor
=
(16)
A"CxB).
altered
not
by interchanging
the
by permuting cyclicly
of the
order
order be changed.
vectors,but it is reversed in sign if the cyclic
A
38.]
in
this
word
is necessary
tripleproduct.
?
They
can.
The
the
upon
Can
they
be
subjectof parentheses
omitted
without
biguity
am-
expression
A-BxC
can
have
only the
one
interpretation
A"BxC).
For
the
expression (A"B)xC
to form
the
skew
is
product
meaningless. It
of
scalar
A-B
and
is
a
sible
imposvector
70
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Hence
C.
owing
to
tripleproducts of A, B,
and
parentheses. Furthermore
six scalar
and
value
the
may
omitting
there
fact that
C which
another, it is often
from
one
the
consequently generallynot
are
A"BxC
from
arise
can
which
in
way
one
confusion
no
interpreted,
be
only
is
there
as
have
worth
the
the
are
same
ing
distinguish-
convenient
to
use
the
symbol
[ABC]
to denote
[A
C]
A-BxC
AxB.C
[A
then
scalar
The
C]
tripleproducts
except the
all vanish
equal products.
of the six
one
any
B-CxA
(16)'
B].
of the
which
two
=' CxA-B
BxC-A
[A
C-AxB
three
unit vectors
the
contain
three
i,j, k
different
vectors.
[ijk]=-[ikj]
if three vectors
Hence
(17)
l.
A, B, C be expressed in terms
of i,j, k
as
Al
i +
Az j + A3 k,
Bl
i +
"2 j + #, k,
C=Cli+
then
[A B C]
Al "z C3
be obtained
may
which
may
are
be written
A, Bz "72
This
"72j+ C3k,
Bl C2 A3
S1 C3 A2
+
-
C, At Bz
0, As Br
indicated
in the
in the form
of
tripleproduct.
C]
result
determinant.1
-"-\ -^2
[A
The
"*
(18)'
C1
1
This
tetrahedron
see
is the
one
exercises.
formula
of
whose
given in
vertices
solid
is at the
DIRECT
If
SKEW
AND
A,
generally
more
B, C
non-coplanar vectors
expressedin
are
b,
a,
OF
PRODUCTS
which
terms
of any three
necessarilyunit
not
are
71
VECTORS
vectors,
=
"J
"2 b + "3
"2 b
cx
c2 b +
where
av
bv 62,J3;
"2, "3;
"3 c
and
c3
certain
are
cx, e?2,c3
stants,
con-
then
[ABC]-
(a1 "2 c3
ft,c2
"3 +
a2
Co
Ci
of two
third
The
39.]
(19)'
d.
of which
vectors
62) [a b c].
[ABC]-
or
Cj a3
"
J3
Cl "2
is itself
one
product
vector
Such
product.
vector
are
and
Ax(BxC)
The
perpendicular to
Ax(BxC)
vector
But
is
Ax
plane
of B
and
and
thus
take
the
form
B +
y C,
In
like
Ax(BxC)
where
in the
and
plane of
and
and
and
must
manner
Hence
B.
(AxB)xC
where
scalars.
two
are
(AxB)xC,
vector
in
(AxB)xC.
are
two
scalars.
(BxC).
Hence
C.
lie in
the
also
the
lie
must
to
From
wB
this it is evident
that
general
(AxB)xC
The
parentheses
It
is not
therefore
is essential
to
equal to
Ax
cannot
be
know
(BxC).
which
removed
cross
or
changed.
inter-
product
is
72
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
formed
second.
tripleproduct in
vector
The
This
This
vector
which
is
be used
the
upon
AXB
given
for
the
propertiesof
Let
and
(Fig.21) be
it sheds
product.
another
given
to
pendicular to
(AXB)
X
p
perpendicular to
Ax
(AxB)
lies in the
perpendicular to
of
examination
is
(AxB)
is
plane
the
B"
re-
from
product
It is furthermore
that
of B".
The
B.
B.
show
=~AZB
Ax(AxB)
if b" be
per-
with
the
B".
An
direction
of
Hence
scalar constant.
some
but
and
it is collinear
that
B'and
be
and
and
figurewill
opposite to
Now
of A
Hence
A.
of A
plane
the
the
common
is
Let
paralleland
spectively. Draw
21
ponents
com-
perpendicular
found.
of U
components
A
be
to
are
vector
whose
vector
paralleland
where
the
vector
only in
not
light
ponent
com-
AXB
Ax
that
to express
product is valuable
itself but
the
tripleproduct.
perpendicularto
of the
geometric use
is termed
product
to the scalar
contrast
tripleproduct may
vector
of
A.
which
first and
B"
unit vector
sin
sin
(A,B) b"
(A,B) b",
in the direction
Hence
Hence
B"
Az
Ax
=
of B".
A"A.
(AxB)
(20)
7-7"
AfA
The
component
in terms
component
of B
of the vector
B'
perpendicularto
tripleproduct
parallelto
was
found
has
been
of A, A, and
in Art.
expressed
B.
28 to be
The
74
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Substitutingthese
(II)",
in
values
Ax(BxC)
relation is therefore
The
method
Another
It
that
shown
was
of
A-C
for any
proved
vector
Ax
(BxC)
(24)
C.
A, B, C.
three vectors
demonstration
giving the
the
A.B
is
tripleproduct
follows.
as
(BxC)
Ax
was
of the form
Since
it
by
is
Ax(AxC)
is
Hence
Ax
is
scalar
zA-B
A"C
A-B.
"
A"B
"
It remains
C),
.'"
to
show
1.
"
B.
=
(A-C
B-B
allows
an
tripleproduct
Ax(BxC"B
if the order
A"BxC)xB
of the factors
A-B
C-B).
interchange of
dot
and
From
four
tne
allied
1 and
Ax(BxC),
A-C
by
of which
be formed.
parenthesesmay
each
These
Ax(CxB),
vector
product changes
factors
is
B-B-BC]
A,B
letters A, B, C
products in
B be inverted.
and
-B.C
Ax(BxC)
three
A-[Bx(BxC)],
=-A.[B-C
=
Hence
(BxC)
-A.[Bx(BxC)]
two
Hence
cross.
As
product of
direct
2/A-C
(A-C
."
constant.
Ax(BxC"B
The
(BxC).
scalar
Multiplyby
the
Hence
zero.
and
2/C.
perpendicularto A,
A.[Ax(BxC)]
where
#B
B.B
+
B
A^B C.
different
B and
interchanged,the
(24)
arrangements,
are
included
(BxC)xA.
sign whenever
above
the
order
(BxC) =-Ax(CxB)
(CxB)xA
of
products evidently
satisfythe equations
Ax
in
are
(CxB)xA,
its
A.C.
-(BxC)xA.
AND
DIRECT
The
for
expansion
that
alreadyfound
(AxB)xC
The
formulae
therefore
when
the
Cx(AxB)
and
(BxC)
(AxB)xC
formulae
reduction
content
A.C
A-C
of such
are
nearer
in the
the
41.]
hand
But
other
(BxC)
it is
the
directly
last
C"A
B.
use
A.B
(24)
C-B
A.
(24)'
constant
to
exterior
the
that
formulae
of the
for
nearer
the
first.
without
the
the
analysis
vector
vector
all may
expansion for
the
for
coefficient
convenient
of which
expand
for
coefficient
To
factor into
scalar
from
memory.
scalar
and
occurrence
followingrule.
frequentlymore
reduction
and
obtained
of
practicalapplications
complicated
simply by making
Ax
exterior
this result
can
one
more
product.
the
as
concerned,
formulae
multiply the
subtract
far
As
which
be committed
parenthesisto form
one, and
remoter
are
parenthesisto form
then
one,
in
term
be stated in the
may
term
remoter
the
C.B
tripleproduct firstmultiplythe
vector
in
parenthesiscomes
be
75
VECTORS
become
then
Ax
These
OF
tripleproduct
vector
first may
parenthesiscomes
from
PRODUCTS
SKEW
any
triple
to
have
be
derived
at
tripleproduct
of the
rules of
operation with
the
scalar
product
of
each
tripleproduct
A"BxC.
To
reduce
is itself a vector
of two
product
two
vectors
vectors,
of which
as
(AxB).(CxD).
Let
vectors
this be
regarded as
A, B, and
CxD
"
scalar
tripleproduct
thus
AxB.(CxD).
Interchangethe
dot and
the
cross.
of the three
76
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
AxB.(CxD)=A-Bx(CxD)
Bx(CxD)
(AxB).(CxD)
Hence
This
(AxB)-(CxD)
If A
and
the
antecedents;
expansion
of two
may
be
antecedents
times
stated
diminished
by
the
(scalar)product
reduce
the
A-D
B-C
B-D
is itself a vector
means
The
scalar
this
product
product of
(scalar)
to the
then
proportions,
in
in words.
in
consequents
usage
of
the
of the
(scalar)product
the
consequents
times
means
the
extremes.
of two
product
vector
the
C the
and
; B
(scalar) product
of the
(25)
B.C.
(25)'
products is equal
vector
To
A-C
familiar
the
A-D
and
D.
form.
and
product according to
the
B-D
A-C
B-C
in determinantal
be written
may
B-D
product
of two
each
vectors
vectors,
of which
as
(AxB)x(CxD).
Let
CxD
The
E.
product becomes
(AxB)xE
value
the
Substituting
(AxB)x(CxD)
Let
The
AxB.
of E back
[B
This
D]
is
vectors
an
to
-
these two
one
[C
F"D
B +
A.
equation:
(B-CxD)
C-F.C
(AxB"C)
equivalent results
[D
D.
and
There
(26)'
transposing
equation,
A
B]
[A
C]
A, B, C, D.
(26)
A.
becomes
(AxB"D)C
side of the
A]
B.E
into the
product then
(AxB)x(CxD)
(A.CxD)B
Fx(CxD)
By equating
A.E
is in
0.
(27)
the
four
such
equa-
AND
DIRECT
tion,because
one
of the
terms
other
be
to
nothing
taken
those vectors
be
in
written
[A
More
of
combination
any
legitimateway
of terms
sum
The
crosses
are
of
tripleproducts
The
also
equation may
of which
[A
B +
it becomes
dots and
of
the
or
be
in
any
such
time
to
at most.
cross
analyzingthe
that
showing
in
that
product of
only one
and
at
two
of the
ultimatelyreduced
contains
formulae
end
are
connected
vectors
crosses
can
some
the
at
(27)'
C.
fairlyobvious
of
vectors
removed
D]
depends solelyupon
reduction
be
may
scalar coefficients
four vectors
exercises
number
this theorem
the
the
formulae, of which
the
any
possiblecombinations
fall under
scalar
[C A D]
among
by
each
proof of
combinations
of such
thus
time.
of these
view
the
number
D]
given
In
chapter.
four
of reduction
examples
important, are
expressed in only
exists between
three at
[B
three
the
but
be
can
77
VECTORS
form
the
D]
B C
OF
of the vectors
one
any
in
way
PRODUCTS
SKEW
that
way
until not
they
all
the
than
more
remains.
one
*
of
means
These
Their
place is
deducing
do not
taken
which
by
(AxB)x(CxD)
are
now
unit
Let
A, B, C, D be
centre
sphere
of the
at
the
to be
formulae
the
SphericalTrigonometry.
analysisproper.
two
quadruple products,
A.C
B-D
B.C
[ACD]
[ABD]
(25)
A.D
[BCD]
[ABC] D,
(26)
interpreted.
of
in the vector
occur
(AxB).(CxD)
and
the
vectors
sphere,and
be
drawn
given.
from
terminating in
points A, B, C,
D.
The
Let
common
the
the
vectors
origin,the
surface
of the
great circular
arcs
78
and
the
AB,
A
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
The
C, etc.
and
other.
(AxB).(CxD)
AxB
and
the
by
the
between
angle
A.C
and
; A
between
one
C, the
A.D
B.C
sin(C, D).
and
the
to
the
is
is the
CxD
normals
planes themselves.
B,
diagonals.
B.D
This
CD-planes.
are
and
the
AxB
the
BD
(A,B), CxD
and
quadrilateral
are
between
angle
angle
22.
sin
The
FIG.
vectors
AB-
same
as
it be denoted
Let
Then
x.
(AxB). (CxD)
The
sin
circular
AB,
arcs
CD
A.C
B.D
"
A.D
B"C
sin CD
AC
cos
them.
a;.
replaced by
measure
sin A
"
be
may
which
(AxB).(CxD)
cosBD
great
Then
cos
x,
AD
cos
"
the
BC.
cos
Hence
sin A
sin CD
In words
of
the
cos
The
cos
product
of the cosines
less
sphericalquadrilateral
other
two
oppositesides
sines
of
the
the
theorem
"
of two
angle
to
Furthermore
the
center
let p^
of the
pb, pc
the cosines
of
product
of which
them.
are
angle,
sphericaltri-
of
arcs
by
be the unit
great
a,
", c
vectors
points A, B, C.
great circular arcs dropped
sphere to
be the
This
Gauss.
23.
from
opposite sides
between
Let A, B, C
respectively.
drawn
C.
the
A, B, C (Fig.23) be
Let
cos
diagonals multiplied by
to
the
the
is credited
circles.
cos
product of
equal
the sides
FIG.
of
is
of the
cosine
Let
cos
the
AND
DIRECT
(AxB).(CxA)
sin
Then
the
is
angle is equal
plane of C,
is
(A, B)
sin c,
It
A.
of the
one
180"
angle
is,however,
of the
A,
as
(C,A)
cos
the interior
not
but
triangle:
B and
the
which
angle A
it is the
of the
This
CxA.
plane of A,
the
sin b.
x,
and
AxB
examination
an
sin
sin b
angle between
angles
"
sin
"
A- A.
B-C
(Cx A)
between
angle
to the
B-A
A-C
(AxB). (CxA)
where
79
VECTORS
formula
Interpretthe
B, C
the vertices A,
perpendicularlyfrom
(AxB)
OF
PRODUCTS
SKEW
exterior
show.
figurewill
Hence
(AxB)x(CxA)
B"A
A"C
The
Next
cases
"
sin
A" A
results and
b
cos
b ='
cos
cos
cos
cos
cos
cos
"
"
"
obtained
be
may
cos
cos
"
sin b sin
cos
sin
cos
sin
sin
sin b
cos
(BxC)x(AxB)
B.A
C.B
(CxA)x(BxC)
C-B
A.C
which
CxA,
of the
one
[A
a,
is
vectors
[A
respectively.Then
AxB
C]
C.
of the
B.C.
"
sin
[ABC]
AxC
c,
sin
cxb
(AxB).C
C]
sin b
c.C sin
sin
"
in the
special
repeated.
b, c be unit vectors
AxB
(AxB)x(AxC)
1.
C.A,
interpretthe identity(AxB)x(CxD)
in
identities
the
BxC,
cos
by cyclicpermutation
(AxB)x(AxC)
Let
A)
"
transposing,
cos
(180"
cos
sin b
cos
from
or
sin b
cos
last two
letters
sin
B"C
"
By equating the
in the direction
b sin b
"
sin
sin b sin A
(90""pe)
cos
sin pe
A.
"
sin
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
80
cancellingthe
results and
By equatingthe
sin pe
sin b sin A
sin
last two
letters.
sin B
sin C.
by cyclicpermutation of
the
of
the
Again
sides.
angle and
terms
altitudes
give
formulae
The
in
triangle
obtained
be
may
sin
The
factor,
common
write
(AxB)x(AxC)
(BxC)x(BxA)
[BCA]B
(CxA)x(CxB)
[C AB]
Hence
sin
sin
the results in
C]
sin
sin B
[B C A]
sin b sin
sin 0
[C A B].
pairsand
obtained.
sin
sin
These
sin
sin B
"*=
sin
obtain.
If A
vectors
From
this
is
C be
B
zero
"
is to
sin A
in
sin
the
triangle,
for
singleline.
sin C
Trigonometry
the
are
even
of the
sum
triangleis
easy
more
sides
closed
to
taken
polygon.
equation
a
almost
sin B
sin b
of Plane
sin B
_
formulae
be written
sin A
The
equal. Equate
sin b sin C
sin C
may
sin
are
the formulae
sin b sin A
as
[A
C.
The
are
[ABC]A
all the
be hoticed
b +
elementaryformulae
that the
anglesfrom
follow
a
immediately.
to b, from
It
b to c, from
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
82
where
6,
a,
Multiply by
"
to
constants
scalar
three
are
determined.
be
c.
//"
r-bxc
cc-bxc
[rbc]=a[abo].
or
like
In
.
a"bxc
" b-bxc
manner
[rc a]
[r a b]
Hence
"-"4.
[abe]
denominators
The
[c a b]
,[r a b]
^-"\
b +
[be aj
and
-^"r^
[c b J
(28)
c.
this
Hence
equal.
all
are
[b c a]
[r c a]
c]
"
be found.
may
gives
the
equation
[ab c]r
which
[cr a] b
r"b
"
three vectors
"
"
again
over
this
reason
b and
in
c,
a,
and
of
distinctive
multipliedby
namely
[ab c]
b.
They
important
name
and
r",
perpendicularrespectivelyto
are
large number
they merit
: The
Definition
and
c.
[a b c]
"
"
important. They
planesof
"
axb
cxa
"
[abe]
the
[abc]
here
appear
bxc
very
b +
"
[abc]
which
are
axb
cxa,
a
--
[abc]
The
[a be]
[abc]
bxc
r
b, c.
r"axb
r"cxa
[abc]
r
r, a,
also be written
equationmay
or
[ra b] c
exist between
must
The
[b c r]a
cxa
axb
[abc]'
[abc]'[abc]
over
and
relations.
For
occur
notation.
DIRECT
which
c
AND
found
are
a,
by dividingthe
b of three
product [ a
The
word
planar
the
PRODUCTS
SKEW
three
non-coplanar vectors
is called the
reciprocal
system
all become
understood
This
the term
that
denoted
the
three
"
r.a'a
be
then
note
be
a,
the
are
and
expressed
to
in
coefficients #, y,
b,
a,
normals
terms
of them
(29)
simple form
r.c'c.
(30)
of the
terms
of a, b, c.
c
the
to
are
In the
Hence
of proper
means
first
non-coplanar,
planes of
non-coplanar.
by
reciprocal
and
r
[abc]r
zbxc
[a b c] r"a
[a be]
r"b
[a b c] r"c
r
a' +
"
r"aa'
scalar
c'
zaxb.
2/cxa
"b, "c.
^a,
=
7/b' +
This
gives
[b c a],
[cab],
r"b
[a b c],
r"c
r"bb'
r"c
"
c'.
c,
may
z.
=
that if a, b,
also be
Multiplysuccessively
by
Hence
coplanar.
not
are
to the very
terms
b must
r
or
used, it will be
[a b c]
expressed in
place it
and
r.b'b +
of in
is necessary
is
axb
'
"
"
reduces
have
a',b', c'.
as
[ab c]
may
b,
a,
cxa
'
"
vector
and
carefullyremembered.
reciprocalto system
vectors
by primes
expressionfor
Tl^e
co-
coplanarvectors
be
vectors
[abe]
The
Three
must
bxc
a"
were
vanish
would
reciprocal
system
system of three
will be
c.
[a b c]
[a b c]
meaningless.
reciprocalsystem.
The
If a, b,
b,
"
[abe]
when
the scalar
by
to a,
c,
axb
cxa
"
Hereafter
fractions
bxc
no
products b
b,
a,
tripleproduct [a b c]
scalar
83
VECTORS
vector
non-coplanaris important.
consequentlythe
would
OF
r"a
(31)
84
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
product of
scalar
of the
vector
any
a'.b
be
a'.c
This
may
terms
of themselves
is
be
a' +
r"b b' +
+
a'""cc'
b'
b'.aa' +
b'-bb'
b'-cc'
o'
c'"aa' +
c'-bb' +
b'"a
l=b'-b
From
the third
O^c'.a
This
proves
"
may
cients
coeffi-
equationsmust
"
a'
c.
b'.c.
c'"c.
also
be
proved
[be a]
"
=-
[abc ]
b
[abe]
bxc.b
=0
[abc]
[abc]
forth.
Converselyif
a,
[abc]
and
c'.b
bxc
so
They
[abc]
and
a'.b
relations.
bxc
corresponding
,
a'"a
"
c'.cc'.
of these three
a'.a
the
c' in
the first
the second
'
r"c
non-coplanar the
from
0.
c'.
a'-bb'
sides of each
is
(31)
the formula
a'"aa' +
From
c'-b
Hence
from
directly
c'"a
but
That
accordingto
are
unity;
is zero.
the
(32)
a'
the two
equal.
b'-c
into the
r"a
c'.c
Since
b'.a
most
seen
Hence
b'-b
b,
reciprocal
system
a,
two
sets
of three
vectors
each, say A, B, C,
the relations
b, c, satisfy
A"a
A.a
A.c
B"a
B'b
=
B.C
C"c
=
C-a
1
=
(M"
AND
DIRECT
then
PRODUCTS
SKEW
a' +
b' +
A"b
a' +
C"a
these
Substitutingin
to
system reciprocal
A-a
85
VECTORS
b,
a,
c.
to that before
By reasoning similar
A
OF
b' +
C"b
c'
A"c
C-c c'.
relations the
sult
re-
is
A
a',
b',
c'.
Hence
Theorem
The
sufficient conditions
of vectors
set
and
necessary
reciprocalsof
that the
a, b,
these
a,
as
upon
That
c.
Theorem:
then
b,
a,
a,
c'-c
b'.c
the
c'.a
it is evident
If
be
may
the
reciprocalof
the
reciprocalsystem
of a, b, c,
These
definitions
but
c'
c'
could
are
system of
a'
a'
^
b'
(29)'
~[a'b'c']'
[a'bV]' "[a'b'c']'
relations
rather
be
long
and
b, c, then a, b,
demonstration
tedious
The
The
symmetrical and
a,
The
formulae.
desired.
directlyfrom
demonstrated
be
may
of
reduction
0.
the
regardedas
b,
c'.b
reciprocalof
a',b', c' be
b'
a,
(32)
is to say,
"
as
perfectly
symmetrical with respect
the
b,
b'.a
equations are
be looked
as
a'.c
is that
b'.b
as
must
depends
proof given
relations
hence
it
is
above
between
the
ward,
straightforon
is
cated
complias
short
the.
reciprocal
reciprocalsystem
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
86
45.]
Theorem
the scalar
If
'
'
'
and a, b,
[a b c]
and
tripleproducts [a'bV]
systems
reciprocal
be
are
numerical
is
That
reciprocals.
fb
,,
(33;
[abc]=l
[a'bV]
x
ex
axbl
axb].
cxa
[abc]3
[bxc
axb]
cxa
(bxc)x(cxa"(axb).
(bxc) x (cxa)
But
[bxc
Hence
axb]
cxa
[abc]c.
[abc]
c"axb
[abc]2.
[a'bV]
Hence
By
is
[abc]3
possibleto
(P.QxE)(A-BxC)
which
nine
replacesthe
terms
each
Thus
products are
two
crosses
removed.
P.B
P-C
Q.A
Q.B
Q.C
E.A
E.B
E-C
tripleproducts by
is the
To
give
in the
occur
the
(34)
proof
two
let P, Q,
expressedas
p
Then
But
P.A
A' +
P.B
B' +
p.c
cr
E.A
A' +
E.B
B' +
E.C
c'.
FPQE1=
P.A
P.B
p.c
Q-A
Q.B
Q-C
E.A
E.B
E.C
[A'B'C'J
=
[ABC]
of
sum
product
which
[a b c] it
formula,
P.A
scalar
two
of which
the
important reduction
an
prove
(33y
[abc]
between
of this relation
means
[abc]2
[A'B'C'].
scalar
E
be
AND
DIRECT
[PftR] [ABC]
Hence
The
OF
PRODUCTS
SKEW
P.A
P.B
P.C
Q.A
Q.B
Q.C
S.A
B-B
R.C
i,j, k is its
vectors
87
VECTORS
reciprocal
own
system.
.,_jxk
,,_kxi
--J'
_i_.
---
this
For
a
of
system
set of
TJie
Let
Then
is the
That
A, B, C be
which
are
their
reciprocals
own
set of vectors
the vectors
B.B
which
is its
c-c
i.
unit
k.
reciprocal.
own
Hence
is
B is
C.A
C is
Hence
A, B, C
46.]
scalar
in
equation
The
an
term
of each
o.
C.
o.
and
C.
O.
and
B.
equation of
each
value
of such
be
B-C
=C-B
perpendicularto
must
B and
perpendicularto
Hence
A.C
perpendicularto
B.A
Hence
are
A.B
once.
denote
to
by (32)
Hence
an
of rectangular
set
used
are
will
primes
A.A
The
to denote
another
',F', Z1
vectors
right-handed and
vectors.
needed
JT, Z, Z.
the
are
X]
just as
different from
axes
to denote
in the future
i,j,k
axes
not
are
reciprocalto i,j, k.
vectors
be used
therefore
primes i',j',k'
the
reason
k,_ixj_
must
i,j,
"
be scalar.
"(cxd).(exr)+
be
more
As
an
given.
f"r -f d
k.
vector
not
occurs
a-bxr
like
of which
term
or
0,
is
than
ple
exam-
where
a,
b,
c,
d, e, f
vector
unknown
where
is
known
vector
and
axb"r
{a
axb
(cxd)xe-r +
b
(cxd)xe
complicatedforms
more
to take
the desired
f}"r
"
"
d.
be nec'essary to make
use
be made
equation can
form,
has three
vector
f"r +
before the
r"A
it may
formulae
of various reduction
As
complish
ac-
of the
case
To
scalar.
known
a,
follows.
a
In
Z",c, d, known
a,
to the form
be reduced
r-A
and
equationof
scalar
may
vectors
known
are
Obviously any
scalars.
an
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
88
a.
freedom
degrees of
scalar
equation is insufficient
scalar
equations are
it is clear that
determine
to
one
Three
vector.
necessary.
The
of
geometricinterpretation
r-A
the equation
(36)
'A
is
interesting.Let
drawn
(Fig.24)
A
origin. The
be
from
fixed vector
equation then
or
cos
be
a
variable
fixed
drawn
vector
origin.
from
the
Let
same
becomes
(r,A)
cos
(r,A)
a,
=".
if r be the
magnitude
of
is the
of
projection
that the
projectionof
and
cos
upon
r
upon
that
of A.
The
expression
(r,A)
The
A.
a
equation therefore
certain
fixed
vector
states
must
90
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
equations
scalar
four
From
r"A
r.B
r"C
(39)
r.D=d
the vector
equations and
To
entirelyeliminated.
be
may
accomplish
the
substitute
value
this
in
the
fourth.
or
[BCD]
A
47.]
is
vector
an
[CAD]
"
equation of
vector
equationeach
of which
vector
not
is
unknown
an
vector
than
more
(40)
[ABC].
term
unknown
containingthe
[ABD]
+c
quantity
Such
once.
equationis
an
(AxB)x(Cxr)
where
and
A, B, C, D, E, F
the
unknown
be solved
r.
generalsufficient
to
The
with
dot
vectors.
may
of
solving a
successively
by
Thus
three
be solved
by
firstplacelet the
three
scalar
=0,
known
equation
unknown
in general
may
equation is
vector
one
scalar,
vector
which
in
is
is to
arbitraryknown
of the
multiply it
non-coplanar
obtained.
equations are
a*r
are
B b-r +
known
the vectors.
equation
foregoingarticle.
These
In the
equation be
A, B, C, D, a, b, c
are
the
vector
the methods
where
such
is to say,
determine
vectors,
One
That
method
a
known
are
vector.
for
contained
D ET
c"r
D,
No
vectors.
they may
be
scalar
cients
coeffi-
incorporatedin
It is understood
of
course
that A, B, C
are
non-coplanar.
But
Hence
a'
D-A'
a' +
c-r.
D-C' c'.
b' +
D-B'
is
b,
a,
also
generalvector equation
vector
contains
is it will
The
in
three
vector
type
type
Hence
a"r
reduces
"
"
vector
constant
be reduced
"
which
of three
in terms
The
to
and
b, c,
products
of three.
terms
a,
ples
multi-
the
always
may
expressed
all the
therefore
a"r
an
tor
vec-
scalar
are
vector
the vectors
all be
may
expressed in
the
not
known
known
are
which
terms
of
another
which
; terms
For
number.
consist
the unknown
of the
terms
which
vector;
and
coplanar vectors.
be
coplanarwill
types
product of
the scalar
known
multipliedinto
may
in
specialcases
D.
Exr,
r,
terms
unknown
of the
terms.
contain
the unknown
product of
non-
are
of the
terms
a"r.
multipliedby
and
A, B, C
here.
a"r,
b-r,
non-
c"r,
of all terms
sum
expression of
an
are
"
"
"
of
three
as
The
c'
b' b"r +
most
terms,
D-B'
The
unknown
to
non-coplanar.
The
vector
b"r
case
be discussed
That
D-Ar
accomplished in
coplanar and
which
a"r
solution is therefore
The
a.r
91
VECTORS
OF
PRODUCTS
SKEW
AND
DIRECT
terms
of the
B b-r +
a"r
types
and
Exr
c"r.
may
also be
expressed
in this form.
n
Exr
Adding
all these
wa'a"r
==
Exa'
terms
+
a"r
b'b"r
Exb'
togetherthe
c'c"r
b-r+Exc'
whole
equation reduces
to the form
a"r
b"r +
c"r
c"r.
K.
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
92
SUNDRY
In
the
in
vector
the
Mechanics
do
like
sufficiently
If
.same
the
produce
not
point 0, the
alike
in
Art.
3.
also
in
Nevertheless
line
magnitude
the
body
vectors
are
treatingthem.
fv f2,fg,"""act
sum
it has
but
are
effect.
of forces
is not
See
different lines in
lie upon
forces to be useful
number
direction
same
force
this book.
in
forces which
direction,but which
and
expressed.
r were
rigid body
of which
PRODUCTS
OF
understood
sense
application. Two
of
of
magnitude and
force has
vector
APPLICATIONS
mechanics
c'.
b, c in terms
a,
unknown
Applicationsto
48.]
K-N'
b' +
non-coplanarvectors a',b',c'.
of three
productscontainingthe
K.M'
system reciprocalto
the
form
These
as
K.L' a' +
solution is in terms
The
the
solved
alreadybeen
has
This
on
body
the
is called
vectors
as
at
the resultant R.
R
In the
same
the term
added
if f
way
resultant
if
justas
idea
of
Definition
:
equal
to
the
from
however
"
as
"
do not
applied to
...
act
the
at the
point
same
of these forces
sum
vectors.
f1 + fa + ", +
force.
therefore
As
differ from
The
"
2,
they were
far
a
moment
as
(41)
...
does
not
the resultant
introduce
the
is concerned
vector.
of
force f about
the
point 0
is
is best looked
is
of the resultant
line of action
a
x,
is still
The
f1 + fa + f, +
upon
defined above.
as
vector
The
quantity.
Its direction is
moment
Its magnitude
usually taken
to
be
normal
the
and
point 0
the
of
The
force
the
of the
area
magnitude
both
the
The
point P
of the
the terminus
be attached
and
direction
be
to
to denote
0 in the
of
the
of the
is
positive
0 is
point
includes
and
at
which
once
(Art. 25).
the
equal
point Q,
duce
pro-
follows
as
moment
origin;
to
definingthe
This
to
appears
point
Q.
the
which
arrow
will be used
letter M
triangle0
supposed
is
the
Q about
point
method
Q about
the
Another
of the force f
moment
to twice
the force
about
to rotation
trigonometric direction.
moment
which
line f upon
93
VECTORS
OF
on
tendency
PRODUCTS
SKEW
AND
DIRECT
The
subscriptwill
the moment
is
taken.
{t}
Mo
The
moment
of
sum
of the moments
If
*i
This
f
1"
is known
*2'
"
'
drawn
the
of the individual
**
"
"
"
the total
the
force
point 0
product of
unit vector
The
"
"
is the
(vector)
?*Qi'~
+
resultant
d sin
body
OPZ Qz
moment
"
..).
of the forces
if d be the vector
and
point in
distance
0 is the
(42)
dxf
d/sin (d,f)e,
d sin
of dxf.
(d,f)/e.
magnitude
point
of
in the direction
dxf
Now
"
dxf
be
or
f2,
forces.
(0 P! Ql
to any
d into f
For
e
acting on
Mo
if
x,
'
from
vector
of forces f
-Pi0i.
as
If f be
49.]
number
{fn fa,
Mo
from
to
f.
is
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
94
magnitude of
is the
This
is the
of dxf
{f}
Mo
"
"
{fJ
point P
is
Mo
{fa|
dxf
acting on
dxf2
dxf1
forces
about
resultant
f2,
"
j,
from
"
"
"
"
from
d1
{f!, f2,
"
is the
"
"
"
"
"
d1'+
"}
dxxf j
d/xf !
(dx
djXf i+daxf2
0' of
to f
"
"
"
2,
of those
0' of
the
(44)
to
point
any
"
be the vectors
"
"
in
drawn
Let
respectively.
d2'+
d2xf2
d2'xf2+
c)xf !
about
parallelhi direction
"
d2
drawn
f
x,
Then
"
f2,
c,
is the vector
moment
of forces f
about
from
in f
0 to 0'.
-\
----
"
jp
drawn
points
same
0.
"
0' to the
Mo
{fp
vectors
let
(43)
...
moment
be the vector
But
be
"
acting at
as
Mo
For
point.
dxfa
the
by
considered
Ro
d15 d2,
equal
increased
is
rigidbody
the moment
total moment
to
Then
{f!"
---
of forces
number
that
The
Hence
moment.
equal
acting at
Mo
{fa}+
Ko
same
0 to P.
from
d be the vector
0 of
of the forces
of the resultant E
Mo
the
acting at
"
2,
direction
dxf.
about
moments
of the
sum
The
proved.
the relation is
The
of the
direction
the
as
same
{f}.
MO
the moment
(d2
+
+
----
from
a
force
"
c,
"""
"
c)xf 2
cx(f j
0' to 0.
equal
but situated at 0.
in
"
"
+ f2 +
Hence
"
"
"
"
")
c
magnitude
Hence
f,
and
SKEW
AND
DIRECT
PRODUCTS
-cxCfj+fjj + ...)=Hence
{f1? fa,
M0/
The
resultant
is attached
supposed
act
is the
scalar
same
the
other
words
and
for all
the
the
points of
at
all
to
show
at
what
what
of the
the
0' and
relation follows
Me?
the
the
are
"
"}
"
the
relation
moment
is taken
to
is
is
a
it is
"
"
IRo}
fa,
"
The
of
the
in
variation
the
be found
"
"}
about
point
such
that
resultant.
RxM0
{R0}what
"."
|fi
M0'
Hence
The
{"lffa,
|B0 1
which
total
the
=0
M0'
the
the resultant.
parallelismis
RxM0'
"
matter
no
always perpendicularto
parallelto
important
equation
perpendicularto
variation
is
the
"
proved.
ant,
result-
is invariant
This
space.
{f^f-j, "}+
applicationbe.
due
the
them
"""}=". Mo
of R
moment
be taken.
moment
{fi,*2"-"}
Mo
{fj f2,
Mo
R.Mo'
and
For
the resultant
total moment,
pointsin
two
any
{fj,fa,
of
is taken.
is
of that moment.
angle between
immediately from
moment
point 0
point it
space.
ForE-Mo^f^fa,
But
The
points.
and
point the
B-M0'{fi,fa, """}=""
where
0'
about
total moment
the
product of
cosine
same
about
matter
moment
product of
no
{Ro}-
the
merely
when
M0'
{f15
course
of
pointof application
The
In
to
cxR0
95
VECTORS
proved.
is of
subscript 0
the
M0
is therefore
theorem
The
"}
"
"
OF
"
"
"}
0
for
problem is to
ExM0
is
to
be
R'B.
"
"
"
in the
"
2,
E-c
ExM0
c
0.
the
be
supposed to
is also
B"B
"
plane through
0 and
0.
c.
E"c
the
in
chosen
Then
E.
Ex(cxE)
"
quantity. MO
known
Let
known.
f
v
equation for
solve this
ExM0
Now
the f
to write
Then
{ }.
ExM(y
The
Replace M0'{EO}
random.
at
brevityomit
for
and
its value
braces
point chosen
is any
where
by
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
96
equation
dicular
perpen-
reduces
to
E-E
If
equal
be chosen
point 0 ',which
the
will be
parallelto
is at
the resultant
and
itself is constant
they
parallelthe
will be
The
about
If
about
is
in
the
0' is
parallelto E,
equal
merely one
to
that
to
the
E.
the
line drawn
Furthermore
only one
which
the
in
the
direction
the
since
where
case
total
may
about
but
moment
be summed
vanishes.
up
as
resultant.
cxB.
and
the
it is
the
which
the
solution
exists in the
"""}
Hence
0.
through 0
the
of the
vanishes
cxE
about
point 0'
point
and
it is taken
0 (Jfis
in
to c,
minimum.
which
find not
is
of
value
M0' |fi,fa,"""}=M0{f1,fa,
equal
is constant
it is clear that
numerical
total moment
For
from
distance
vector
about
total moment
E.
resultant
are
the
this vector
to
parallelto
found
in
possibleto
total moment
about
total moment
'
moment
is
equation
parallel
for
plane perpendicular to
The
follows
results that
:
any
have
is
"
been
velocity
The
axis.
the
to
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
98
of
product
the
its circle
in
point
any
equal
and
velocity
the
of
of
radius
the
by
the
angular velocity.
the
represent
drawn
from
any
The
body.
of
rotation
point
the
of the
equal
in
and
magnitude
of
terminus
its
r.
For
magnitude
distance
a
2"
*3 a
body
"
"
of
the
rotations
are
case
"
be
which
to
described
drawn
in
that
right-handed
Let
if turned
the
in
of
be
radius
to
taken
be
may
is
body
magnitude
of rotation
sin
to
vector
point
in the
its direction
is the
(a,r)
direction
product
the
If the
and
rotation
the
vector
body.
axis
and
(a,r) from
sin
is
product
vector
axr
is
axis.
vector
which
in
Let
The
advance
direction
rotating.
a,
be
which
in
would
screw
the
axis
circle
of
axis
direction
be
the
the
velocity
the
(Fig. 25)
the
along
25.
tance
dis-
point.
Let
FIG.
the
angular
to
the
perpendicular to
the
of
the
point
direction
equal
perpendicular
the
from
The
of
product
the
to
is
radius
the
the
is therefore
It
circle.
of
point
=
is
of
to
the
to
perpendicular
a
and
the
the
line
a.
gyroscope
through
the
v.
the
and
perpendicular
That
is
(45)
the
velocities
to
axr.
of
velocity v
same
due
several
point
to
as
the
axes
in
the
various
AND
DIRECT
where
"
SKEW
"
on
the vectors
intersection
the
are
"
"
"
"
drawn
from
99
VECTORS
point of
same
be drawn
"
the
from
the
points
body.
Let
point of
common
Then
axes.
rl
radii vectores
to the
"
"
OF
PRODUCTS
r2
r3
"
and
v
v2 +
vx +
v3 +
"
"
(a1 +
This
shows
that
the
body
the
"
"
This
parallelogramlaw
It
will
be
rigid body
shown
time
rotation
This
axis is called
axis is not
the
of
about
position. The
is the
radius
rotating with
of
the
the
angular
known
that
is at
drawn
each
of
any
instant
through
that
of
point.
axis of rotation.
instantaneous
The
constantlychanges its
rigidbody
the motion
point of
one
which
is
representedby
from
(45)
axr
angular velocity;and
instantaneous
drawn
vector
-)xr.
"
is sometimes
is fixed
axis
where
sum
theorem
which
of
motion
fixed is therefore
vector
same
a3 +
if
as
(Art.) 60
some
the
a2 +
a3xr
angular velocities.
later
point of
one
the
a2xr
moves
is
"
axxr
"
the
fixed
point to
r, the
point of
any
the
body.
The
is fixed
may
be
treated
point 0.
At
any
instant
Eelative
about
any
v0
to the
axis
point
of the
relative
drawn
body
velocity of
to
rigidbody
as
this
Choose
point
will have
through
may
and
point of
no
follows.
some
the
of
general motion
most
be
0.
Hence
velocityv0.
of rotation
velocityv
represented by
axr
the
v0 +
axr.
arbitrary
an
motion
the
which
velocity of
the
of
sum
that
point
0.
v
of
(46)
100
In
screw
advancing along a.
find
possibleto
velocityis
its
In
be done
may
a"a
Let
r, such
a, it
that
"
a"r
"
a"a
v0xa.
"
Then
a.
"
v0
v"
xa.
v0xa
"
to
perpendicular
be chosen
vector
Multiply by
(axr)xa
or
of
motion
to
perpendicular
the
and
v0.
"
follows.
as
is
That
zero.
axr
This
v0 is
case
point,given by
around
moves
preciselythe
is
simultaneously. This
body
a, the
parallelto
is
v0
case
along
is
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
a"r
is
and
zero
a*a
The
pointr,
is
If
zero.
this
about
In
be resolved
into two
pointmay
by
r'.
Then
motion
here
translation
the most
it may
"
such
points of
the
axr
that
"
the
a.
axr.
body
referred
to this
v0'+ axr'.
(46)'
along
general motion
point be
equation becomes
v
and
4- V
vo
v0'4- v0" +
be found
now
V*o
=
"
v0"
The
perpendicularto
and perpendicularto
respectively
parallel
are
denoted
rotation
components
'
point parallelto
of instantaneous
one
parallelnor
Vvo
which
this
axis.
new
v0 is neither
case
is
body
ity
property that its veloc-
through
line be drawn
of the
motion
a, the
the
that
of
axis.
a
It is therefore
rigid body
is at
an
seen
any
axis
that
instant
the
of
motion
definite axis
of
The
in space.
certain
of the
axis
of rotation
per unit
at
101
VECTORS
rate
along a
and
its rate
screw
to instant.
instant
conditions
The
52.]
principle of
methods.
virtual
Suppose
done
be
body
forces
the
by
be
may
treated
system of forces
any
obtained
equilibrium as
f
x,
be
finite
by
by
"
"
"
2,
displaced through a
this distance
whether
for
velocities
If the
rigid body.
work
OF
advancing
screw
advancing
PRODUCTS
SKEW
AND
DIRECT
vector
act
on
tance
dis-
vector
infinitesimal
or
the
the
is
D-fj,D.fa,
...
total work
The
is therefore
done
W
If the
the work
W
D-f
work
The
their
D.
done
D-f
2
done
by
resultant.
The
be
must
The
"
D"(f !
forces
the
This
total resultant
work
by
time
t is
is
be
must
equal
the work
to
for
D.E
""")=
0.
done
by
displacement
every
by
rotation
of
Hence
D.
be
must
done
if the
zero
force f when
body
be in
the
angular velocitya
equilibrium.
rigidbody
for
an
placed
is dis-
infinitesimal
approximately
d is
a
zero
a"dxf
where
"""
equation
The
zero.
D.R
holds
D.f
equilibrium under
in
be
body
D.f
vector
to any
components
drawn
point of
f ',f "
from
f.
To
t,
any
prove
point of
this break
up
f into two
to
paralleland perpendicularrespectively
a-dxf
a-dxf
'
a-dxf ".
a.
102
to
parallel
"' is
As
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
the scalar
product [a d
a"dxf
done
a
by
the
during
displacement.
the line
perpendicularfrom
vector
by
done
f"
during
of
rotation
W=hf"
The
d drawn
vector
at
If h be the
common
t",the work
for time
angular velocitya
from
point of
any
third is
tripleproduct [a d
f "]
only
perpendicularalike
to
and
a, and
rigidbody
by
and
if
the
"
"
be the
pointsof
forces f
body be
1?
f2,
"
W=
"
"
"
must
As
for
may
a"dxf
will be
"
"
"
be
act
infinitesimal
from
any
is
placed
dis-
time
point
the work
of
done
approximately
a.d2xf2 + """)*
a.M0
{fj.fj,,
"""} t.
equilibriumthis
work
|flf
f2, .} t
.
must
be
zero.
0.
of the
whatsoever
vanish.
Mo
which
t.
tltf 2,
an
drawn
the scalar
Hence
then
respectively,
zero.
product
of the
moment
"
In
of
a.M0
scalar
"
2,
f ".
effect.
the forces
vectors
(a^xfj
in
Hence
The
a.dxf
f may
is h, another
one
component
which
upon
"
If the
of which
that
point of
to any
parallelto
angular velocitya
an
d15d2,
to any
a"hxf"
W=
If
*hxt"t.
the
to
parallel
by
being parallelto
to the force
be broken
f'
For
the work
equal to
approximately
t is
is
f " is
by
to
perpendicular
is
done
the work
hand
the other
On
".
a.dxf
f '] vanishes.
{tv tv
.}
0.
the
moment
the
must
total
be
itself
DIRECT
The
SKEW
PRODUCTS
conditions
that
AND
necessary
under
the
of those
of
action
and
forces
Conversely
if the
vanish
the
total
resultant
simultaneously,
If "
total work
{fp f 2,
MO
other
point
"
"
\ be
"
ant
result-
point
any
in
"
Hence
equal
a
to
is any
"
'I
time
the
through
t with
space.
It has
forces
during
be
in
the
in space
equilibrium.
of translation
the
suffers
body
any
for
Then
0.
"
"
"
this
the forces
this
when
the
0'.
This
distance
proved
is
may
be
combined
that
displacement
equilibrium.
work
rigid body
The
about
the
is
total
the
line
zero.
regarded
work
as
line
done
the
proved.
rotation
suitable
Hence
is
is
is rotated
body
with
zero.
theorem
expression
about
angular velocity a
of
{BO}.
MO*
But
angular velocity a
been
"
whatsoever.
by
"}
"
0.
"
"
"
{fp fa"
point
"
Hence
zero.
(fp f 2"
an
displacement
translation
in
given point
{f:,f2,
is also
done
t with
passing through
Any
be
when
for
MO
vector
the work
time
and
0.
zero
a"Mo'
of forces
0'
by hypothesisR
where
will
body
is zero,
MO'
must
the
particularpoint
one
displacement
done
{fi?f2"
MO-
for
rium
equilib-
of translation.
displacement
Let
system
any
the
for any
0, then
the
for
about
moment
of
D.R
But
in
forces about
of those
moment
any
be
rigid body
103
VECTORS
shall vanish.
space
and
OF
by
in
the
forces
104
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Applicationsto Geometry
53.]
between
Relations
mutually perpendicularunit
such
be two
of three
right-handedsystems
two
vectors.
Let
"
i,j, k and
k'
i',j',
reciprocal
systems.
own
Hence
r
and
From
j'
k'
i'.ii +
i'.j
j +
i'.k k
j'.ii
j'.j
j+
j'.kk
k'.i i +
k'-jj
scalarsaj,
"2,
direction cosines
That
cj
In the
of
k'.k k
"2 j +
"3 k
b, i
J2j
53 k
Cj i +
b 3;
bv Z"2,
a3;
==
(i',
i)
cos
"!
ax i +
c3 k.
c2 j +
cr c2, c3
i';
j';k' with respect
the
respectively
are
to
(47')
i,j, k.
is
ax
]j
r.k'k'.
+
r.j'j'
The
r.i'i' +
r.jj + r-kk
this
i'
r.ii +
cos
cos
same
a2
cos
(i',
j) "3
cos
(j',
j) Z"3
cos
(j',
i) Z"2
(k',i) c2
(k',j) c3
cos
k)
(i',
cos
(j',
k)
cos
(k',k).
(48)
manner
i.i'i' +
i-j'j'
+ i.k'
k'=
j-i'i'
+ j-j'J'
+ j-k'k'
k.i'i' +
+
k-j'j'
) j-j
and
C k.k
r
k-k'k'
i' +
^ j'+
Cj
aa i' +
"aj' +
c2 k'
as i' +
6,j'+
c3 k'
i'.j'
j'-k'
6lCl +62C2
cj a, +
I k'.i'
ai
6j +
aa
62 +
+
c2 a2 +
a8
k'
(47)"
J3
53C3
c3 as
(50)
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
106
but
to
its form
the
left it is
upon
Its
of those
it must
Hence
the
lie in
to
seen
and
jk-plane;
the
in
wholly
lie
the i direction
j'k'-plane.
planes.
two
This
c^.
from
gives the
scalar relations
magnitude 1
The
i'. Hence
i and
the vectors
between
"1k'-c1j'
line of
is the
its
Eight
sine of the
of the nine
one
the
is
each
case
Various
54.]
be solved
by
1
Example
to
the
CA
to
to A
in the
Choose
~C.
of the two
angle between
Plane
the
of
tually
mu-
is in
planes.
Solid
and
sets
gives
of the vector
magnitude
Geometry
in
meet
the vertices
point
0.
To
show
originand
Let
point.
perpendicularsfrom
as
planes.
from
perpendiculars
the
the
may
products.
oppositesides
meet
B.
of
The
triangle. Let
The
jk-planes,and
between
angle
be
may
examples in
means
:
j'k'-and
lines of intersection
orthogonalplanes.
(53)
a,j-ask
angle
the vector
of the
intersection
magnitude
is the square
af
"
B C
to B C and
0 C
let OA
of
"
is
gle
trianbe
the
from
perpendicular
A, OB
B, and
Then
By hypothesis
A.(C
aQd
B-(A
Subtract;
which
B)
C)
0.
0,
C.(B-A)
proves
Example
2:
the theorem.
To
find the
vector
equation of
given
vector
A.
line drawn
0 be the
Let
B is
"
PRODUCTS
originand
from
vector
"
SKEW
AND
DIRECT
0 to
B the vector
any
parallelto
OF
Hence
A.
Let
OB.
dius
ra-
Then
product vanishes.
the vector
Ax(R-B)
be the
required line.
of the
point
107
VECTORS
0.
^\
is the desired
This
unknown
88)
to be
scalar
The
R.
vector
It is
equation.
equation of
equation such
E"C
in the unknown
The
found
point
at
vector
of
plane was
(page
seen
B.
The
of
line and
plane
be
may
equations are
(
Ax(B
B.C
(AxR)xC
B
AxB
(AxB)xC
A
A
(AxB)xC
(AxB)xC
(AxB)xC
Hence
C.R
A.C
B)
AxB
A.C
the
as
intersection
once.
equation in
vector
A.C
The
solution
evidentlyfails when
the line is
parallelto
3:
Example
Heretofore
the
plane and
But
point.
it is
The
analyticgeometry.
a
plane in
space.
Let
The
there is
to
use
analogous to
assumed
an
plane M
the
is to be
ever
how-
solution
of solutions.
plane areas
of
normal
to
was
to the
vectors
case
represent planes.
to denote
equal
was
no
infinite number
justas
plane itself,
0 be
In this
0.
of the vector
possibleto
result is
an
used
been
magnitude
of vectors
direction
plane area
a
have
The
the
are
introduction
vectors
"
plane and
plane,there
The
definite extent.
the
to
area
denote
vector
plane
to be
presented.
re-
not
represents
coordinates
of
origin. Let M N be
denoted
by a vector
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
108
of the
direction
is the
direction
whose
perpendiculardropped
whose
magnitude is the
upon
plane is
to
be the
the
the
nearer
which
vector
represents it.
If
be
plane and
in the
drawn
radius vector
any
be
if p
the
from
vector
the
originto
denotes
which
point
the
plane,
then
r.p
equationof
is the
the
Now
PI the
distance
is that
If
length of
from
and
p be
plane.
expressed in
Hence
the
reciprocalof
p is the
0 to the
(r,p) p.
cos
On
perpendiculardistance.
The
For
plane.
r.p
quantitiesu,
plane p
The
of
v,
the
upon
relation
r"p
Hence
vj
xu
are
the
yv
be
r"p must
(r,p)
cos
unity.
of i, j, k
terms
perpendicular
+
+
wk
zw
l.
of
reciprocals
the
interceptsof
axes.
between
duality. If
ui
the
in the
and
p is
symmetrical.
It is
tion
rela-
equation
be
point
development
It is familiar
to denote
Chapter VII.
through
of the
to
idea
which
of
all students
all the
dualitywill
of
planes p
not
geometry.
alluded
be
The
to
pass.
The
carried
out
use
of
tors
vec-
again until
AND
DIRECT
PRODUCTS
SKEW
SUMMARY
The
products of
scalar
CHAPTER
OF
lengths multipliedby
of their
II
is
vectors
two
109
VECTORS
OF
equal to
of the
the cosine
the
product
anglebetween
them.
A.B
A B
A.B
The
and
necessary
of two
product
(2)
^2.
(3)
sufficient condition
neither
vectors
B.A
A"A
vanishes.
(1)
(A, B)
cos
for the
of which
vanishes
scalar
products of
The
perpendicularity
the vectors
i,j, k
are
i.j=j.k
A.B
A-A
If the
The
the
them.
to the
rotation
appears
their
The
plane of
of less than
are
A*
B upon
vectors
A*.
180"
is
vector
is
vectors
from
(8)
B',
equal in magnitude to
the sine of the
of the vector
direction
the two
(7)
As B3
product is
that side
on
gle
an-
the firstvector
on
the
which
to the second
positive.
vector
vector
A2 B2
two
lengthsmultipliedby
AxB
The
k.i
A?
vector
product of
vector
product of
normal
A2
projectionof
between
A1B1
k"k
j'j
which
the two
for
sin
(A, B)
(9)
c.
and
direction to the
adjacentsides.
the
The
parallelismof
two
necessary
vectors
and
and
sufficient
neither
dition
con-
of which
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
110
vanishes
that
is
laws
their
product
vector
The
vanishes.
hold.
do not
(10)
AxB=-BxA
AxB
Bs
mutative
com-
jxj
ixi
ixj
="
jxk
"
kxi
"
(12)
kxj
ixk
jxi
(^3 B1
i +
"a)
kxk
Al
(13)
j
AxB
scalar
The
to the volume
edges
which
tripleproduct
of the
meet
in
[AB C]
dot and
and
without
the
of three
of
parallelepiped
[A
vectors
which
C]
A, B, C
is
are
equal
three
point.
A-BxC
B.CxA
AxB"C
BxC-A
C"AxB
(15)'
[ABC]
The
(13)'
A,
in
cross
the order
alteringthe
tripleproduct
(16)'
[ACB].
=-
scalar
CxA-B
of the
be
may
be interchanged
permuted cyclicly
product ;
but
change
of
[ABC]
[ABC]
(18)'
[a be]
(19)'
DIRECT
If the
AND
SKEW
PRODUCTS
of B
component
OF
perpendicular
be
to
111
VECTORS
B",
"_
(20)
"
(BxC)
Ax
(AxB)xC
(AxB)x(CxD)
A-C
which
A"B
C.B
A.C
B.D
[A CD]
[ABD]
equation
(AxB).(CxD)
The
A.C
(24)'
(25)
B.C
[BCD]
C-[ABC]
subsists
(24)
A.D
(26)
D.
between
four
A, B, C, D
vectors
is
[BCD]
A-[CDA]B+
Application
of formulae
of Plane
The
and
system of
of three
system
[DAB]
of vector
non-coplanar vectors
bxc
=
p-"
[a b
[a be]
its
be
may
reciprocalin
The
expressed
non-coplanar
similar
two
If
form
be
b,
reciprocalto
the
axb
c'
r'
c]
[a b
of
in terms
(29)
"
"
"
set
c]
of vectors
and
ways
r.b' b +
r.c' c
(30)
r.aa'
r.bb'
r.cc'.
(31)
that the
sufficient conditions
a'.c
the formulae
r.a'
vectors
obtain
(27)
a,
a'.a
a'.b
0.
and
necessary
a,
to
cxa
V
,..-,"
vector
analysisto
vectors
Spherical Trigonometry.
a'=
when
[ABC]
C-
b'.c
system
b'.b
=
systems of
b, c and
=
two
c'"c
b'.a
c'-a
reciprocalto
a,
c'-b
b, c
0.
then
a,
b, c
will
112
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
[PftR] [ABC]-
is its
system i,j, k
The
its
system be
of the
scalar and
theory
Applications of
and
force.
in the
of
the
of
virtual
a, and
which
angles
axes.
Application
form
under
in vector
between
vectors.
to
is
rigid body
to
the
finite
single
to
that
of
(46)
translational
ity
veloc-
angular velocity of
the
methods
of
the
the
to
direction
mutually
method
plane areas)
make
by
may
be
the
obtain
cosines
orthogonal
including
their
which
tation.
ro-
principle of
method
nine
of
obtain
to
of the
use
coordinates
the
in
treatment
analysis and
the
and
perpendicular
systems
plane
unknown
an
obtaining
vector
between
two
which
distinguishedfrom
by
exist
on
point, v0
Applications
of
Chapter II.,to
to
equilibrium by making
of the
the
the
in
system of forces
application of
velocities.
the relations
cation
Appli-
is
methods
any
handed
solution
the
(36)
plane
v0 +
left
vectors.
degree
rigid body
velocityof
Further
for
the
conversely
a.
of any
of which
if
to
direction
conditions
unit
plane
(34)
right or
acting
motion
is the
be
system of forces
where
R.C
in
Application
instantaneous
R.B
developed
couple
E.A
the methods
the reduction
particularto
force
a-c
must
of
equation
vector
of
a-B
of the first
r-A
treatment
Q.A
reciprocal systems
of
equations
vector
The
vector.
P.C
mutually perpendicular
of three
system
P.B
reciprocal and
own
reciprocalit
own
P.A
ance
appear-
planes (as
represented
114
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
by
Show
12.
of
methods
vector
vertices
four
whose
tetrahedron
formulae
the
that
for
the
ume
vol-
are
is
1/3
13.
Making
of
(34)
formula
of
use
[a
where
14.
is
of
termini
given
15.
sixth
in
of
that
the
distance
16.
If
through
three
lines
a,
b,
vectors
origin
a,
b,
c.
of
and
respectively
(c, a),
cos
the
the
volume
product
of
between
them
line
the
of
that
perpendicular
from
the
show
text
(as
a
upon
Use
(a, b).
cos
determined
plane
the
quantity)
vector
where
method
of
by
solution
46.
Art.
Show
the
dropped
lengths
(b, c),
cos
the
are
Determine
which
the
b,
a,
c]
the
is drawn
vertex
thus
and
obtained
two
each
the
sine
face
of
plane
perpendicular
lie in
is
edges by
opposite
and
in
tetrahedron
plane.
to
the
the
of
any
the
equal
to
one
lar
perpendicu-
included
angle.
triedral
third
angle
edge,
the
III
CHAPTER
CALCULUS
DIFFEBENTIAL
THE
IF
55.]
of
denoted
be
will
by
unrestricted
have
it may
the
a
vector
determined
values
be
it will
from
the
value
magnitude
variable
the
in
such
describes
to
change,
of
variable
radius
vector
the
curve;
r', of
space,
chord
P'
of
the
of
a
If, however,
function)
vector
be
will
t' of
be
unrestricted
of
completely
", which
give
of
quantities
the
vector
the
one
and
as
drawn
as
will
terminus
its
will
be
of
point
neighboring
curve.
involved
its
the
be
When
freedom
that
in
the
changes
will
curve
of
think
way
t and
(Fig. 26).
degree
one
also
(a
of
value
variable
r
the
direction.
function
conception
If
course
any
values
advantageous
vector
will
known.
clearer
independent
and
as
two
r', are
origin
is of
t the
the
and
and
ment
incre-
(1)
quantity.
A
regarded
fixed
possesses
vary
obtain
To
any
when
r'-r,
vector
increment
scalar
r' the
to
r' and
between
the
be
single
two
be
must
Variable
r.
Ar
where
from
changes
difference
the
usual
as
and
varies
vector
VECTOES
Scalar
of One
Functions
Differentiation of
OF
The
Ar
Al
point
ratio
P'.
FIG.
will
26.
be
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
be
will
ratio 1
the
in
When
A t.
PP'
the chord
collinear with
vector
P' will
approaches zero
the
approach
will
magnified
but
at
tangent
proach
ap-
P, and
the vector
dT
Ar
,
...
will
which
is
If
the
be
expressedin
components
r'
of i, j, k
terms
rt)i
O2
A r,
l
i.
along
A*
t?r
A*
the
in that
curve.
as
ra)j
r2$
"
directed
at
curve
of the scalar t.
functions
r2, rz will be
rv
("!+
to the
in which
sense
"
dt
tangent
vector
approach
(r8 +
r3)k
n
.
i 4^
'
V
*
A*
A.I
and
Hence
the
to
of the
components
components
first derivatives
the
are
of
The
r.
first derivative
with
respect to
is true
same
of
with
t of
and
spect
re-
the
higher
derivatives.
.
_i
_
dt*
__
dt*
dt*
\
*
j
__
dt*
|_
k'
(2)'
dn
d* rt
d t"
In
similar
manner
non-coplanarvectors
d t*
if
b,
a,
"
d^r_d^
"~a
dnr2
be
c
aa
7r
J +
dnr3
~dr'
expressed in
as
5b
"Z*J
cc
dnc
*c'
k'
terms
of any
three
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
Example
The
vector
and
describe
ellipseof
an
This
oblique Cartesian
of
b sin t.
t +
cos
117
VECTORS
be
may
by
seen
coincident
X, Y
axes
which
and
ing
assum-
with
Then
b.
diameters
of
Y=b
t,
cos
equation of
is the
which
will then
set
conjugate diameters.
two
are
Let
OF
CALCULUS
sin t,
ellipsereferred
an
and
lengthsa
to
pairof
jugate
con-
respectively.
dr
"
"
Hence
"
t+
sin
t.
cos
(t
cos
b sin
90") +
(t + 90").
CL t
The
for
tangent
0
the
to
90").
derivative
second
the
radius
vector
2
=
The
parallelto
is
curve
(a cos
"
b sin
t +
negativeof
is the
t).
Hence
r.
_
~
is
evidentlya
differential
Example
Let
The
b
are
vector
two
will then
equation satisfied by
cosh
describe
t +
an
the
ellipse.
b sinh t.
hyperbolaof
which
conjugatediameters.
dr
=
"
sinh t +
b cosh
cosh
b sinh t.
t,
CL b
and
t +
TT
Hence
"
"
"
dt2
is
differential
equation satisfied by
the
hyperbola.
and
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
118
56
same
the
on
as
in
ordinary calculus.
For
(a
(a b)
(a
"
a)
"
"
Aa-Ab
b +
'
~T7
A~7
A"
A"
A t
Aa
+
TT
A2
Ab)
Ab
A(a.b)
"
Hence
(b
"
Ac
0,
da.
db
,o,
(a"b)
a"-r
-(axb)
(o)
/ cZa\
l77J+(T7)
ax
xb
//"x
"4"
fdv\
d
dt
"
"
/ d b\
"^
"
f-
"
(a"bxc)
v
'
a.bx
-\
a"(
^-Ixc
(5)
(6)
[bx.].
The
as
be demonstrated
exactly
formal
differs in
one
may
no
point in
process
from
way
which
analysis,
namely
that
vector
The
differentiation
of
in scalar
vector
analysis
analysisexcept
in this
differs from
scalar
analysisalways
order
in
of the factors in
vector
product
THE
DIFFERENTIAL
cannot
be
Hence
of the
changed without
119
VECTORS
OF
CALCULUS
the
product.
formulae
two
and
the
first is
other
evidentlyincorrect, but
words, scalar
alteringthe
order
factors must
be
be
differentiation
of the
factors
differentiated
second
the
take
must
of
in situ.
place without
The
product.
vector
This
In
correct.
of
to
was
course
expected.
In
the vectors
case
the results
with
the
practically
respect
Suppose
occur.
three
are
depend
the
to
and
scalar variables
depend
upon
these
partialderivatives
b
#,
three
of the
are
y,
In
same.
scalar
than
more
upon
placeof
one
variable
tives
total deriva-
variables,partialderivatives
two
The
z.
scalar
variables, and
depend
which
vectors
product
it will
a"b
have
on
will
three
first order.
CT)
The
second
partialderivatives
are
formed
in the
same
5x9y
way.
it is
Often
convenient
more
(a-b)
d
d
and
If
example.
be
b)
As
forth.
so
(a
of
the
the
Differentiate
"
the
increment
This
vector.
sphere the
hence
*57.]
Vector
the
in
denote
where
f is some
be the
curve
unity and
0.
origin.
A
/A
is
Hence
the
will be
(d r)
of unit
two
upon
ables.
vari-
0.
is
vector
perpendicularto
point in
traces
the
tangent
employed advantageously
torsion of
and
Let
curves.
curve
of the scalar t.
t
In most
from
definite
some
is the chord
approximatelyequal
as
Let
toward
unit
that
point of
of the
magnitude
in
will be
directed
cations
appli-
increment
dr/ds
r.
be
measured
The
be at each
approaches unity
and
following
geometrically. If
mechanics
depends
unit
function
arc
infinitesimal.
curve
may
of
physicsand
Hence
curve.
of curvature
length of
the
sphericalsurface
seen
methods
vector
as
"
must
in
the
be
d
is
perpendicularto
discussion
(4)'
db,
(3)'
db,
"
consider
origin,
of
dr
can
variation
plane and
b +
(d r)
"
the
dealing with
when
equation.
Hence
Hence
but
unit vector
(d r)
illustration
an
about
radius described
to
da.
The
da.b
derivatives
the
not
use
(3),(4)become
formulae
The
firstdifferentials.
to
true
particularly
is
This
the differentials.
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
120
vector
becomes
tangent
portion of
the
122
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
t.t
c"c
and
t"c
the
Differentiating
first set
c"n
t.dt
c"dc
n"t
0.
n"d!n
0,
the second
and
t" do
But
dt'C
c"dn
to
parallel
d t is
dt
Hence
The
increment
of
is also
the
of
n"dt
"
perpendicularto
is T
tortuosity
n.
0.
the increment
But
parallelto
It is therefore
n.
dn/ds,
0.
0.
is perpendicularto t.
dn"t
to
consequently perpendicular
and
dc"n
n"
As
n"n
it is
dn
to
parallel
c.
hence
and
too.
The
is
T
tortuosity
d
T
"
ds
(txc)
"
dsds
dr
T
T~
The
been
seen
to be
magnitude
c
the
the
of this
first term
in the
direction
("
d*r
dsz
ds
scalar
of C.
of the
curve
away
therefore be
from
"
With
c
c.
dz
the
The
"
moreover
has
Consequently
the
i/ds2.
of T
normal
by
T.
the
appears
direction
which
unit
to have
turn
to
if viewed
the
or
tor
vec-
in
from
positivepart
appears
to
move
that is,n
is positive,
tortuosity
scalar value
c
(11)
c "C
this convention
when
given by
ds*
It is desirable however
c-plane upon
lies.
in the direction
turns
"2
product
tortuosity
positivewhen the
positiveor counterclockwise
expressionvanishes.
parallelto
of T is the
d*r
fdr
of the
will
tortuosity
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
CALCULUS
dBr
dr
c"T
"
c.
"
"
is
the vector
to
parallel
is
unit vector
"
-^"
Hence
shorter
ct
if not
c"n
Hence
0.
d
must
of
because
the
curve.
parallelto
Hence
be
dn/ds
n
another
by
"n
dn"t
dc
"
method
which
parallelto
taken
perpendicularto
But"Znis
The
c.
however
appears
clockwise
Hence
the scalar
"t
dt*n.
"
0.
from
the
the
may
n.
nitude
mag-
negative sign
positivedirection
T
tortuosity
be
of
given by
dc
.c
"
tortuosityis
the
Hence
n.
perpendicularto
with
dn
r=-
0.
dn"c
"
hence
n"t
dn"t
"
quite so straightforward.
dt"c
*?
be obtained
dc
"
(13)
Hence
d t
"
as
tortuosity
may
d t is
'"^x-^
ds*
--"
t"c
Now
Hence
C.
dzr
ft
is somewhat
^s2^sVC"C
as2
The
^s
Hence
in the direction
r=-c.T
ur
dzr
0.
C
c
dr
r/ds2.
d2
-T-
VECTORS
"
"
"
"
And
"
ds3"Y/c"C
ds
But
"
123
OF
n."
ds
ds
(14)
dp
txc-^"
as
(14)'
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
124
C
c
"
"
"
"
dC
do
c.c
ds
dC
dc
.
"
t x
"
,""-.
ds
t x
"
t x
But
-C
VC
"
0.
dV
t x
/^"
VC
"
"
"
C
^1
r=
c.c
t x
"
"
'
^TC"
dr
T=
(13)
dsz
In Cartesian
coordinates
this becomes
dy
dz
ds
ds
ds2
ds2
dsz
ds y
ds9
dBz
(13)'
ds
ds*
ds9
T=
ds2'
Those
who
would
surfaces in space
find the book
mann
"
pursue
the
further from
Application de
la Geomttrie
1
study of twisted
the
standpointof
la Methode
et
Naud,
1899.
and
vectors
will
Vectorielle de Grass-
Infinitesimale"1
by
Paris,Cam?
curves
FEHB
extremely
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
He
helpful.
is
works
The
elegant.
from
that
points of
with
used
by
difference
ct -I
to
exhibited
the
I
O
"*
L.
"*
J.
o
"i
""
treatment
slightlydifferent
The
fundamental
this table
["j "2]
/N^
I CZl
O_|
need
The
$o
Li
have
^Q
"
o_|
with
difficulty
no
are
treated.
They
will
Let
58.]
taken
be
radius
Kinematics
drawn
vector
of the
path
from
fixed
originto
The
equation
t be the time.
is then
particleis
the
of
velocity
This
of
its rate
The
change of position.
to the increment
rArn
This
velocityis
direction
the
"
The
term
scalar
value
followed
of the
here.
be the
of the
(15)
curve.
quantity.
vector
tangent of the
speed is used
of
the
Its direction
described
curve
frequentlyto
velocity.
This
by
denote
convention
is the
the
ticle.
par-
merely
will
be
Then
length of
differentiations
the
A t.
di
*asA*-*.-nrTTL*jFr
if
curves
be
not
the
here.
up
in
either method
surfaces
and
are
125
VECTORS
is however
present writer.
Clo
Jj
All
other.
Clo
used
used
the
"
OF
constantly.
vectors
notation
EJ
One
CALCULUS
the
arc
It is found
with
from
measured
convenient
in mechanics
quantitydifferentiated.
This
some
is the
by
dots
fixed
point
to denote
placed over
oldfluxionalnotation
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
126
by
introduced
the unit
tangent
to denote
Newton.
by
to the curve
equationsbecome
The
t.
dr
T=r=j*
dS
"
The
is
quantity.
vector
is the
acceleration
rtR\
(16)
s=-
of
rate
Let
(17)
t.
of
velocity. It
by A. Then by
change
it be
denoted
definition
LIM
"
and
Differentiate
the
expression
d7
dt
C is the
speed in
the
_dt
d t
where
~d~T
d
t.
dv
_dv_d(vt)
=
dz
dt
'dti^
""
d t
(vector)curvature
of the
these
Substituting
curve.
g?
A
The
t +
is the
equation
oZ
0a C.
%*
acceleration
the
in the
been broken
to
and
curve
values
the result is
'
di*
of
particle
moving
up into two
tangent
t and
components
of which
in
has
curve
of which
the other is
one
resolution
has been
be
is parallel
parallelto
curvature
accomplished would
fore
there-
That
unimportant
the
this
were
THE
DIFFERENTIAL
it not
independent of
It would
be
what
the
sort of
speed
of
change
it describes
same
hand
the
is
equal
speed
expressedin
be
"
the
curvature
these
change
of
xi
j/j+ zk,
x*
y*
"i
Just
The
be
The
greater
the
this
The
(16)'
^j+sk,
(18)'
the
any
assumed
vector
to
rate of
of
Jr
was
the
\V*v\
of
when
of
curvilinear
is the
vector
s"
change
the
of
rate
clearly
it is that
certain
he stated
of
velocity,
first became
his second
velocityis proportional
change
introduced
-^-
But
say.
change
origin the
in the
between
rate
but rate of
the radius
f , the
it in mind
hodograph
study
y y +
difference
hard
(15)'
"a,
this difference
had
impressed force
59.] The
With
The
curve.
;a ==g-
when
have
must
of motion.
to
of the
k,
the
speed,and
recognizedwould
aid
square
as
v=s=
formulae
apparent.
to the
tangent
of the
yj
^t
law
the other
to the
of the
i +
Newton
normal
product
of i,j, k
terms
is
On
curve.
the
right line
the
From
entirely
normal
r
It is
of
If
tangent is equal
the
curve,
speed of
rate
to
particleand
of the
sharperthe
the
magnitude
in
the
particleis describing.
the
the
as
particledescribed
with
127
VECTORS
speed.
the
curve
if the
same
it
parallelto
of
the rate
magnitude to
OF
fact which
of the acceleration
component
in
CALCULUS
of
by
motion
speed is
Hamilton
of
velocityf
hodograph.
not.
as
an
particle.
is laid off.
In other words,
of
hodograph gives the velocity
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
128
vector
radius
in the
vector
from
hodograph of
in
(Fig.29)
circle
with
uniform
angular velocity
speed of
will
particle
the
Let
drawn
The
vector
radius
the
The
is therefore
radius
describes
a.
vector
acceleration
which
acceleration A may
But
as
axv
be
to
the
r.
radius
vector
particle.The
It is
a.
tude.
magni-
of constant
circle of radius
r.
its circle,and
in
the
it
quently
conse-
angular velocity
same
of
rate
change
of
is
equal in magnitude to
v
a2
r.
the formula
given by
ax(axr)
then
r.
is the
and
always perpendicularto
The
the
to
f in this circle is
vector
of
advance
be
always perpendicularand
hodograph
The
The
is
and
The
a.
equal to
be
to
perpendicular
The
origin.
hodograph therefore
of radius
is
off the
by laying
the
velocityv
hodo-
the
construct
assumed
an
It is
instant.
any
is perpendicular
to the
a"r
plane in
a"a
"
which
r.
lies,a
"
0.
Hence
r
The
a
acceleration due
circle is directed
to
the square
"
a"a
"
to the uniform
a2
r.
motion
of
in
particle
toward
the
of the
angular velocitymultipliedby
centre
and
is
equal
in
tude
magnithe
is
path
A
at
The
r.
be
to go
radius
the
of which
by
r,
A r,
and
the
instant
+
This
r.
is
area
|rx(r+ Ar)=irxr
The
descriptionof
of
rate
^rxAr=|rxAr.
the
by
area
radius
r-
irx(r*-Ar)
Lm
A*=02
Let
f and
and
P0 which
r0 be
t~*
velocityat
together. The
near
are
of the
values
two
"
2r
~A*=0
A*
Ar_i.
Lm
is
vector
consequently
are
of the
area
chord
the
and
particle in
the next
at
approximatelyequal to
radii is
enclosed
triangle
of the
vector
of the vector
area
into
carefully
little more
one
bounding
the
If
question.
this
be well
it would
Perhaps
its
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
130
two
points
acceleration r0
P0
at
is the limit of
r
r'0 Af
"
'
A*
Break
up the vector
paralleland
Lz""
the other
into
two
components
one
Af
if
be
normal
to
Hence
r x
(r
(r
A t
when
zero
the
r0)
i?0.The
approaches
A t
r'0) x
vector
The
zero.
approaches
zero.
r'0
+
y A*
A*
(r0^
+
quantity
ap-
quantityy
n.
f0
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
OF
131
VECTORS
Hence
Ar
r0xi0="
rxf"
X
A
But
of the
each
order
point of
all
at
the
fixed
curve.
The
This
Let
space.
to any
But
proves
the
theorem.
of
the second
Moreover
i)i
in the
be drawn
(d r
of c"r
(xi
"
di+
(# j
"
di
(#k"di
But
i"rfj+j
j =j
"""!
j"dk
k"dj
k.di
i"dk
j)j
"
body
but
from
the fixed
i, c?r
"
"
(d r
j, d
yi "dj
yj
yk"c"j
"
+
i
()
or
j"(H
or
k.dj
or
axis
moving
"
in
point
k) k.
k obtained
"
k"k
"d
2i"^k)i
rfj +
i"i=j"j
i"^i
is
Then
body.
values
of which
equation
dr
Hence
fixed
vector
"
for any
point.
axes
(d r
of the
instantaneous
an
an
exactlyequal
point
one
about
rotation
is true
be
must
rigid body
the fixed
the
the
Substituting
Hence
rates
the radius
point of
This
is
tion
descrip-
infinitesimal
an
the
i,j, k be three
Let
P0 differ by
instant
passingthrough
the rates of
Hence
Hence
motion
is at any
right-handside
the
upon
with
points.
60.]
terms
and
at
area
second
three
infinitesimal
of
"
k"c?k
"
k) j
"k"rfk)k.
0.
i"rfj
"
dk
"
"
l.
=
0.
j.tfk
'k
"
di.
from
132
(2 i
d k
"
is
d
i"dk
i +
(Wj
Let
a
with
the
angular velocitya
from
rotations
be
a2 be two
Hence
be
d
d
If the
k).
of the
body
about
the
instant
be
may
is
The
like
dj
dz
51.
vectors.
displacements
ftl x
d1r
d1
d t,
aa
d t.
a, it becomes
displacedby
aj
a.1xidt.
aa, it becomes
d t +
[r + ("l
aa
d t +
a2
r) d f\ d
x
t.
(ax x r) (d t)\
higher than
first be
the
neglected,
d
which
a.
The
in Art.
added
one
line
to instant.
in the work
angular velocities.
are
displacedby
If it then
i +
motion
infinitesimal
If
k.
Two
them
j) j
di=axr-
fillsthe lacuna
to
"
l-d7J+'-dlk-
this theorem
due
"
d i
proof of
aj and
r.
angular velocitychanges
Let
k)
k)x("
rotation
This
shows
"
d i
"
d k
k-^1
Then
This
"
(# j
product.
vector
"
i) i
"
(y
This
"
expressionfor
in the
values
Substitutingthese
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"1
proves
d t +
a2
the theorem.
d t
If both
("1 + a2)
a1 +
sides be divided
dr
aa)xr.
t,
by
d t
This
In
the
case
(Art. 51)
before
obtained
was
of
direction
reduces
the motion
The
As
a
acceleration
does
and
hence
to
Inasmuch
is
as
all
parallelto
about
it
This
than
of
is
in
equal
depend
to what
the
upon
is known
the acceleration
(a
magnitude
velocitymultipliedby
in
move
such
one
centric
con-
a, it is
plane.
toward
particle
r.
the centre
r).
the
to
radius
the
r) is parallelto
is
moves
rotating body
more
(a
ax
is, it is perpendicular
planes perpendicularto
in
consider
to
That
r.
collinear with
be
must
of the
a.
(axr).
its direction
points
stant,
con-
r.
On
unnecessary
The
r.
circles
about
steadyrotation
r=axr+axr=axr+ax
change
not
axis, is
instantaneous
of
one
different way.
the
a,
to
in
It
angular velocities.
for
parallelogram law
the
is
133
VECTORS
OF
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
square
of the
of
circle.
the
angular
It does
not
to the radius
of the circle is
axr.
This
is
equal
in
magnitude
velocitymultipliedby
depend
in any
its rate
upon
way
of
the
upon
the rate
to
radius
differentials
word.
If then
It is
change
of the circle.
of
angular
It does
not
the
change.
of
depend
vector
scalar
upon
equationsin
variables
needs
which
but
d s,
C,
134
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
in any
case
particular
it is in the
justas
Example
projectile.
The equationof
the
is
motion
and
downward
due
where
is
velocityat
the time
is another
constant
of the
last
equation is
expressingit in
moves
The
under
integration. It
The
0.
of
of
the acceleration
is
For
"
Hence
this is
y and
"
(r
(r x j)
which
proves
the statement.
so
given by
be
may
areas
when
is constant.
the
radius,
0.
cl t
and
is
f(r).
"
positionvector
C,
seen
this
by
t.
eliminating
parallelto
(r x f)
is the
descriptionof
But
That
central acceleration
r
Since
evidentlythe
is
which
path
and
rate
tically
always ver-
b,
integration.It
t=
terms
is
gravity.
parabola.
0.
of
time
point at
Example
of
constant
acceleration
the
g t +
of
motion
g,
to
scalars.
simply
expresses
difficulty
some
of
equation
r=
which
of
matter
ordinaryintegrationof
Integrate
1:
be
may
of
case
accomplishthe integration
To
vector.
constant
is some
where
r).
r.
ticle
par-
THE
Example
with
moving
from
Integratethe equation of
an
acceleration
toward
of the
inverse
multiple
constant
OF
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
the
motion
for
centre
and
square
135
VECTORS
of
particle
equal
the
to
distance
the centre.
c2
Given
--
r.
r3
Then
Hence
0.
C.
"
X.
"
-^2-
7Frx(rxr)=:
r
Then
Differentiate.
"
"
side of this
"
and
by
I
r
"
"
of
integration, e
in its direction.
"
+
C*
C
"
rxr.CC"C
is its
Multiplythe
"
But
I,
constant
unit vector
r.
r2
I is the vector
perfectdifferential.
c2
where
equality is
Integrate. Then
"
c2
Each
7F
r2.
121?
Hence
{r'rr -'""}.
"
I.
tude
magnition
equa-
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
136
C
Let
"
and
Then
cos
Or
(r,I).
cos
cos
u.
COS
P
f=
6
equation of
is the
This
axis.
vector
The
lengthof
is the eccentricity.
of
direction
in the
is drawn
The
which
ellipseof
the
the
major
this axis is
drr
1
e2
"
"
It is
possibleto
So far
the time.
merely
A function
value
for each
scalar function
set
of
the
path
has been
found.
in
Space.
The
of Position
Scalar Functions
62.]
further
integration
the
carry
takes
(a?,
y, 2)which
of coordinates
#, y,
positionin
space.
(a?,
y, z) =x2
OperatorV
definite scalar
on
is called
in space
Such
obtain
and
function, for
ample,
ex-
is
V
This
function
(",y, z) from
be in
gives the
the
generalcontinuous
functions
theoryof
of
heat the
scalar function
and
theories
function.
If
of the
This, too, is
V
the
that
of
be set
equal to
the
function
surface
in space
V has the
same
such
value
that
c.
In
body
the
is
all-important
position.
constant, the
tion
equa-
(20)
r(x,y,z)=c.
defines
to
In mechanics
point.
scalar function
In
point of
potentialis
point
supposed
occurrence.
at any
positionof
of attraction
scalar function
of the
physicsscalar
In
valued.
single-
temperature
r2.
V will be
of constant
position are
distance
function
The
and
zz
of the
square
origin.
y2
at every
case
point
of it the
F be the tempera-
The
63.]
vector
or
vector
The
VF.
of V,
regardV
It is customary to
F.
VFfrom
vector
Hamilton
and
is
although owing
some
is
name
to
Fof
positionin
universal
number
that
the
of times
arises from
the
in
no
use
Others
harp.
coined the
the term
have
noted
to the
is read
has been
simply as
defined
easy
"
owing
h k
--
3y
to
its likeness
an
to
occurs
hearer
del F."
as
"
Qz
its fancied
to
"
by
Nabla
and
speaker or
dx
Some
short
so
found
inconvenience
.9
been
for it,
symbol
in which
of the
has
R.
There
complicatedformulae
repetition.V
Sir W.
by
frequent occurrence
practicalnecessity. It
even
space.
universallyrecognizedname
no
for
obtains
employment.
used
operator which
an
V V
reason
also
are
introduced
was
in
now
however, to be
seems,
as
scalar function
symbolic operator
This
slopeof
gradientand
terms
directed
"
F, the primitiveof
and
V;
this
For
speak.
to
so
will be
derivative
change of
rate of
representsa directed
rate of increase
is the resultant
which
sum
by VF.
of F is denoted
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
138
resemblance
inverted
A and
to
have
Assyrian
consequently
an
Atled by inverting
the order of the letters in
euphonious name
Theorie der ElecFb'pplin his Einfuhrung in die MaxweWsche
tricitat avoids
and refers to the symbol as "die Operation
any specialdesignation
V."
How
this is to be read is not divulged. Indeed, for
printingno particular
is necessary, but for lecturing
name
and purposes of instruction something is required
too
that
does not confuse the speaker or hearer even
something
when
the word
none
too
Delta.
"
often repeated.
that
so
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
it appears
depend
to
is in
realityindependent
from
the
of the
rapid
take
the
as
of the
axes,
be
surmised
would
magnitude and
of V.
To
to them.
Then
the
it
direction
demonstrate
i',j',k' and
of axes,
set
a/,y',z' referred
variables
increase
another
This
139
VECTORS
the choice
upon
of them.
of
interpretation
most
OF
pendence
indeset
new
referred
of
to this
system is
*
By making
formulae
of the
use
of
actually carrying
the
into
taking
out
from
details
method
shorter
V
which
Vis
V=
Let
c.
point
from
Then
any
the
=
by
the
The
point
be
may
radius
the
here, because
is to
be
given.
(Fig.30)
O, y,z)=c
and
be
which
a
A c,
are
fixed
the
surface
dius
ra-
in
by
surface
represented
actual increase
infinitely
moreover
r.
of Ffrom
FIG.
is
another
origin.
near
vector
may
this
to
fixed
any
neighboring
#, y,
drawn
(50),V
(49) and
omitted
(#,y, z)
denote
vector
are
constant
together. Let
near
finallyby
V.
surfaces
two
upon
and
by
into V.
proof
and
page
i, j, k to i',
j',k' and
identities
of demonstration
Consider
64.
of the
"22"'
differentiations
V'
The
axes
the
account
transformed
actuallybe
30.
to the second
quantity dc.
Tlie rate
of increase
is
variable
140
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
quantity and
depends
passingfrom
when
direction
the
upon
to the
surface
one
which
dr
other.
lowed
is folThe
rate
of increase
"
as, y,
surfaces
and
between
the
The
dr.
direction
the
in
the
Let
r.
of
segment
surfaces,n d
will
quotient
yd
be
the
be
the
to
intercepted
normal
that
then
normal
unit
for
least value
will therefore
be
equal in magnitude of
"
when
maximum
is
to
parallel
and
expression
The
n.
(23)
an
vector
of which
the direction
is the direction
most
rapid increase
of Fand
of which
magnitude
rate
of that increase.
is therefore
the
X, Y,
axes
second.
Then
From
this
gives the
in that
Let
Z.
is the increment
of Fin
let V
is
vector
be
direction
to show
first given. To
is the
entirelyindependent
its
replacedby
passing from
first surface
the
to the
F"be definedagain as
of most
rapid increase
Moreover
VFis
do this
multiplyby
"
which
vector
of V and
independent
the
of the
equivalentto
is
and
unit
normal.
must
be
the surfaces.
Hence
"
rate
axes.
the
one
r.
.rfr.
d
n
of
which
d V
equal
definition,V V is certainlythe
direction.
It remains
This
the
of
(25)
is the
projectionof
on
between
THE
DIFFL
ENTIAL
CALCULUS
OF
141
VECTORS
dV
VF.
dr
dn
"
dV.
(25)'
dn
9V
9V
But
dV=^-d
where
(d #)2 +
If dr
takes
dx+
9V
-^-dy
ay
(d z)2
(d y)2 +
equation (25)'takes
successivelythe
on
-~-dz,
values
"
r.
the
the values
on
9V
VF"
i d
TT"
dx
9V
VV.)dy
-rdy
(26)
9V
W*ls.dz
^"dz.
9z
If the
that
factors
the
d x, d yy d
components
be
cancelled
i, VF"
"
VF=
Hence
and
second
9V
9 x*
3y*
9z'
(VF.
i) i
VF=i
+
9
definition
j) j
(VF-
definition
d
The
of V
(24)
Accordmg
11
dy
(VF.
has
found
to
k)
the
k.
(21)
9 y
equation (25V
F.
j+k"
in
state
to
9V
consequently is equivalent to
*65.]
ative
equal
equations
k of VT
j, VF"
9V_
by(26)
The
these
9z
been
reduced
to
the
first
it.
above
is often
ordinarycalculus
taken
as
the deriv-
142
derivative
Definition: The
either
They
of
the
are
The
function
scalar
definitions
tangible. The
cannot
be
functions
has
for
But
before
given
of
computation of
frequentlycarried
treated.
by
the
See
be
better.
this last
subject of
Chapter
of
V
of
means
to
of
significance
real
the derivative
on
important
practicalpurposes
seems
appreciateduntil
been
and
natural
most
considerations.
more
definition
vector
certainlythe
definition is
theoretical
from
of
VF
of dr.
manner
satisfythe equation
shall
space
similar
followingdefinition.
the
positionin
In
this
Moreover
it is
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
VII.
function
linear
is most
ordinary partial
differentiation.
Example
Let
(x,y,z)"r
.dr
dr
3r
i^-+J^r+k^dy
ax
"
Vr=:i
,
Vx*
yz
z2
Vx*
z*
y'*+
Vx*
Hence
y'*+ zz
i*
and
The
This
and
derivative of
is
the
evidentlythe
rate
of that
is
unit
vector
direction of most
increase.
in the
direction
of
increase
of
rapid
r.
r
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
CALCULUS
Let
OF
143
VECTORS
1
r
x2 -f
y2
22
_i
(xz + v2 + z2)'
2
"
"
-=-
5"
+ y2
(a;2
^_
and
of
"
of
derivative
r, and
square
Example
whose
vector
direction
the
magnitude is equalto
whose
of the
"
r3
"
proof is left
Example 4
r1* =
denote
(#,y, 2) of
Let
'
F(#, y, 2)
the vector
drawn
F(#,y,2)
and
Hence
the
"
ia? +
"
to the reader.
log yx2
log V
/"
"
"
(k r)2
"
"
k k"r.
"
k k"r
"
=
"
originto
be written
"
#2
#2 +
j y).
the
V may
jy
from
log Vr
-f v3.
(i"
of
reciprocal
711*
a;
If
is that
length r.
The
2)
-Y
(r r)?
1/r is
j
=
-T
The
jy
r
=
ix
(-
^- "
22)
"
"
."
^K"rj*
k k"r
(r-kk.r).(r-kk.r)'
as
the
point
144
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
upon
of
method
is another
There
computing
is based
which
identity
Example
Let
YT
"
Vr"r
V
2
Example
Let
"
"
^7^=-^=
Hence
-'
r"r
a, where
dF=rfr-a
r.
is
vector.
constant
"2r.VF.
VF=a.
Hence
constant
Let
3:
Example
d F
2 dr"r
Hence
a"b
VF=
where
and
are
bx(rxa)
of execution
independent
of
preferred. It
the
method
of
The
case.
axes
in
r.
case
and
(#,y, 2) be
be
the
seen
their
has to be resorted
from
temperature
few
at
be
be
Fcan
be
cannot
so
to.
V
matical
in mathe-
pose
Sup-
illustrations.
the
is
therefore
function
when
But
latter method
may
the
be
shall
computing
physicsmay
V F.
cob'rdinate
terms
"
br"a
"
for
in that
is also shorter
expressed easilyin
*66.] The
methods
particularcase
ease
two
"fr
(rxb).
r"a
(ra"b-br.a)
*T"
'
dr"b
ar.b
"
r""
"
r-b
(ra.b-ar.b)
of these
applied in
dr-a
r"b.
r"a
"
2ra"b
Which
a"b
r"r
i-.*- ". la
VF=
(rxb),
"
vectors.
F
Ar.rtub*
relative
(rxa)
F=
point #,
y,
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
146
or
Potential in electricity
is
charge or
unit
per
potential
energy
unit
per
with
taken, however,
mass
the
negativesign.
the
operator
an
formal
same
example
for
quantity. Consider
treat
to
laws
as
that
as
partialdifferentiators
_?__?_.
9x* 9y* 9z
JL
far
As
laws
of differentiators
be if instead
scalars
three true
",
a,
For
given.
were
are
they would
preciselywhat
are
of these
combinations
as
instance
the commutative
law
d
99
"
"
"
-r"
a,
9y9x
9x9y
the associative law
9/99\/99\9
( ;r- ;r~ 1
;r-
9z\9y9zJ
and
( ir~
TT~
\9x9yj9z
a
"
(a w6)c,
(6 c)
9/9
9 \
-
5zJ
9
9x\dy
99
=
99
9x9y
9x9z
formulae
----
---
is
function
of
propertiesof differentiators.
placed
under
Such
patent
operand
must
the
error
influence
may
9
=
w^
u
such
course
as
where
Of
for scalars.
justas
aiM"
A
of
upon
on
account
scalar function
the
be avoided
be understood
hold
cannot
sign
cannot
9/9
be
differentiators.
of
by remembering
which
of the
is to
that
an
operate.
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
In
the
same
CALCULUS
147
VECTORS
be obtained
way
OF
by
lookingupon
f\
Sf\
*
4-
"
9
as
It is not
vector.
not
are
scalars.
true
course
"
dz
dy
true
4-
"
It is
differentiator and
vector
an
concerned
operations are
As
it
like
it behaves
far
as
vector.
of
formal
For
instance
(u 0)
if
and
#, y,
and
regardto
68.] If
A.
are
if
which
A
two
any
be
(V u)
i)
(c M),
of the scalar variables
scalar functions
scalar
(V 0),
independent of
the differentiations
variables with
performed.
are
the
vector
represent any
the
formal
combination
Vis
A-v=^+^ii; ^a4-'
+
provided
This
to
operator A
"
scalar function
is
Al
i+
-42j
A3k.
When
scalar differentiator.
e$ V
0 V
convenience
applied
(28)
^r=Al-+A,-+A3-.
Suppose for
"2T"
that A is
unit vector
-+a3C/ vC
a.
(29)
148
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
where
the
to
"
of
derivative
directional
well-known
the
It expresses
the
magnitude
the direction
a.
In the
the normal
to
direction
a.
The
operator a
yieldsthe
of
rate
of F
in
-this direction
is
increase
where
of
value
F, this relation
derivative.
"
applied to
result
same
of the normal.
cosines
the
as
scalar
of
function
direct
product
of
position
the
and
F.
vector
of the
of constant
nv
particularcase
surface
the normal
becomes
(30)
(a.V)F=a.(VF).
For
the
as
appears
3y
3x
5s
in
referred
is often written
This
if nv
Consequently (a V)
X, Y, Z.
axes
the direction
are
"2, "3
av
this
either
reason
be denoted
operationmay
simply by
a.VF
without
parenthesesand
omission.
The
(a V)
a.
On
the
direction
VFin
mass
any
hand
becomes
direction
in
Hence
The
(a
V) Fand
"
derivative
of F in the
(V F) is the component
The
to
directional
the
component
directional
In
derivative
case
sign must
of the
the
from
a
important
"
(V F)
theorem.
direction
of V F
in
of
in
derivative
potentialthe
gravitational
derivative
difference of
result
can
an
If Fdenote
that direction.
potentiala
"
equal
that direction.
theorem
in
directional
a.
is
forms
interpreted in
the other
direction
any
be
F is the
different
two
however
may
ambiguity
no
Fbe
of the
of the
force
electric
be observed.
or
potential
per
unit
magnetic
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
Vector
69.]
with
associates
F has
space
of
in
rigid bodies
of
each
position of
the
position in
of
scalar
The
V
Let
to
yieldanother
and
"
be
may
point.
In
point
of
ics
mechan-
of the
body
is
Fluxes
of
heat,
all vector
are
applied
F2 (a, y,z)j+
al
i +
04
"2
"2
a3
9
a
value.
physics.
functions
(a-V)
Vl
to
vector
tion
func-
function.
vector
Vl (x, y, z),i
(a.V)V
each
k.
space.
operator
Then
in
point
electricity,
magnetic force, fluids, etc.,
ponents
com-
F3 (x, y, z)
At
vector
definite
its three
numerous
very
definite
function
space
into
up
occurred.
velocity
of the
function
vector
the
are
has
is
in
y,
F2 (as,
y, z) j
VF
general
x,
broken
functions
Space
'
yj
be
in
z\
v
'
point
may
function
the
Already
F! (x,y,z)i+
of vector
Examples
(x
149
VECTORS
in space
position
each
function
The
(x, y, z)
^i^r *"-"
"*?"
"5"MJ
vector.
of
OF
Position
of
function
which
Functions
vector
v:
"
CALCULUS
k.
9
-
l~a3T"
"
3 y
i +
k
F3 (as,
y, z)
(a
V)
F2j
+(a.V)F3
9Vl
and
(a.V)V
(31)
150
This
"
in the direction
(a
appliod
when
dctiiu'd.
VV
"
Hence
VV
of the vector
meaning
the
but
the
has
yet been
not
interpretationgiven
one
be
at
the
of V
into V.
They
been
combinations
function
vector
has not
formal
two
present,1
and
operator V
be
may
the
defined
and
VxV
by
treated.
These
uct
(formal)vector prod-
are
and
of the vector
"
it
to
V.
cannot
symbol
are
"
yp.pt.nr fn notion
ft-
from
have
can
(a.V)
to
the
parentheses. For
without
V)
vector
write
to
possible
It is
a.
of the
derivative
directional
is the
(a V)
function
in the foral
be written
may
Hence
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
k_xV.
V, del
"32"
(33)
cross
V.
500
The
differentiators
"
-"
by
the
cross.
=lx+Jx
These
be
may
"
That
beingscalar operators,pass
is
kx.
of V.
1
(33)'
Vv Vv Vz
T^^
DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS
PV_3F1
Now.
^"
3F2.
^-i
3V
3F3v
9x
9x
9x
3F, i
9x
3F-
3F9
i
151
VECTORS
OF
"
3 y
3V
(34)
9 y
"
^
""
K*j-
9z
3V_3Fj
Then
Q)
c)
tC
ZC
3V
Hence
v.v
^^
Moreover
3F3
-r-2
3V
.
"
3FJ_.
3V=
3s
3s
3s
Hence
\ 3a;
This
may
be written
in the form
i
Vx
of
determinant
3y J
999
(33)'"
9 y
3s
C*K
some
productsof
which
looked
be
may
from
all
means
advisable
symbolic vector
laws
same
"
"
"""
"
as
-""
71.] That
"
just in
so
laws
as
same
the
functions
two
proof
operator V
be
may
is
intrinsic
to
in
Art.
is immediate
propertiesof
V
in
independent of
This
far
ordinaryscalar quantities.
and
"
flow of
V
a
some
63
it
that V
invariant
"
the
From
axes.
V and
of choice of
Let
therefore
the
this
represent
In order
axes.
to attribute to the
fluid substance.
vector
that
seen
of
very
forward
straight-
the
was
the choice
have
with
connection
function
differentiators
the
as
easilyrecognized. By
indicated
it
9z
Qy
obey the
formulae
regard
to
important physicalmeanings
function
and
operators
remembering
for
differentiator.
vector
"
(33)'
and
9x
as
ix+jx+kx.
practicalpurposes
by
seems
entirelynew
as
upon
symbols
by
V, shall be
for
that the
definition
the
avoided
be
objectionsmay
These
into V.
quitedistinct
But
"
as
appliedto
againsttreatingV
and
to be
operators are
the functions
From
that the
understood
It is to be
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
152
the
vector
flux
as
or
denote
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
154
"I
[3V
V(x,y,z)
dx\
"
dydz
#V
i
(x,y, z) dy dz
"
"
dx
"
"y
is
these
through
two
quantities. This
of these
sum
algebraic
the
faces is therefore
cube
the
from
outward
flux
total
The
dz.
dy
"X/
simply
i
d
In like
dx
"
dy
/.
Tdx
"
fluid which
The
quotient of
"
"
thus
matter
convergence
a
negativeof
much
as
change
the
the
matter
must
the volume
dx
of
to
is
satisfy
__
the
divergence.Maxwell
the
at
rate
-*.
az
density
employed
fluid approaches
This
is the
cube
therefore
3F3
"
unit volume
which
case
is
of
denote
per
dz of
dy
ay
diminution
be
as
enters
zero.
3F2
+
is
leave the
must
-i
"
cube
This
density.
3F,
divergence.In
of contents
unit volume
point per
the
represents the
leaves
3V
-
d y
at which
the rate
by
3V
.
c/a;
Because
this
of diminution
3V
j
dz-
9y
time.
dx
unit
"
dz.
o~
quantity of
rate
dy
is the net
gives the
dx
"
"=
3V
3V
"
This
V.V=i.
"
is therefore
the cube
from
3V
"
the cube
"
(i
1.3V
andj
dz
"
the
faces of
pairsof
other
through the
3 V
or
dy dz.
are
The
^ dx
-^"
ox
"
the fluxes
manner
the cube
dy dz
dx
"
"
it. The
total
For
this
any
sible
incompres-
reason
THE
where
DIFFERENTIAL
is the
known
the
as
CALCULUS
flux
of the
OF
fluid.
This
is
obeys the
then
laws
same
D be the electric
To
This
the
of
curl
of
positionin
connected
each
point.
the
easilyobtained
Consider
Take
at
before
sphere?
in
may
At
direction
translational
this it may
have
virtue
of
Finallyit
axis
which
through
an
sphere
translation with
definite rates
of
such
sphere about
off
as
any
of the
a
other
In
whole
words
it
addition
In
that
subjectedto
been
so
fluid.
has become
r.
at
divergence.
deformation
to
it is
no
by
strain
in shape.
slightlyellipsoidal
jis_a whole
rotated
therefore
about
is to say, it may
That
magnitude
or
flux
is neither
curl
moved
amount
dw.
definite
what
have
may
have
been
types of motion
the
that of the
instant
it becomes
angle
of the
spin
velocityof di/dt.
It may
have
may
an
undergone
longer a sphere.
indicates,it is closely
name
infinitesimal
place it
by
function
vector
the next
In the first
have
simple as
an
certain
is itself a
of
interpretation
definite instant
curl.
name
curl V.
the
If
widely accepted.
that
as
so
nor
the
gave
angular velocityor
the
But
placemen
dis-
0.
Maxwell
As
space.
with
is due
electricity
incompressiblefluid.
"
function
vector
in
hypothesiselectric
an
become
has
V
The
as
operator V
nomenclature
any
displacement,
div D
72.]
Maxwell's
accordingto
by
practically
incompressible. The
is often
equation
It is satisfied
hydrodynamic equation.
155
VECTORS
of
may
which
have
all of them
any
the
axes
have
dw/dt.
one
combined.
velocity. Second,
elongationalong
is
some
of
an
An
three
a
Firsjb,
strain with
of
an
three
ellipsoid.
156
Th0d,
angular velocityabout
an
which
type of motion
third
is
point and
that
The
of
motion
of the
of the
of
is
curl
Vxv
Let
expand
(a
is
product of V,
V
v0 is
constant
v0 +
a1 i +
constant
of the differential
vector
of
the
in the
linear
if it
case
It
treating
was
(Art.
seen
at
the vector
were
it may
of the
(V
any
triple
3a
"
"
a) r.
v0 vanishes.
6.
dz
be
"
dz_
\-
"
f\
r) a
dy
(r\
"l^+a2^+"3^
Therefore
in
"3 k
9y
1-"
"
operator,V
Vxv
fluid presents
(axr).
the term
"
Hence
rigid body
Vx
"
Hence
dx
is
a2
_dx
at
r.
(V
v0 +
vector.
"
of rotation
of
Then
r.
As
Vxv0
a, and
point
sufficiently
complex
operation.
r) formallyas
fact,
formula
the
given by
each
to introduce
In
the instantaneous
motion
rigidbody
adequate idea
give an
at
to twice
it is necessary
difficulties than
the curl.
curl.
axis
instantaneous
analyticdiscussion
more
has
It is this
that axis.
angular velocityabout
The
which
axis.
the
given by
is
magnitude equal
definite
vector
of the
direction
the
space
to
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
placed upon
a
V.
"
"
motion
2a.
of
the
curl
twice
the
rigidbody
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
The
multiplyinga
v)
of V
expansion
(a
157
VECTORS
2 a,
curl
v.
\ (curlv)
Vo +
be
r) formally may
then
and
out
curl
gVxv
\(V
v0 +
OF
(34)
r.
avoided
applyingthe operator
by
X
to
the result.
in the
73.] It frequentlyhappens, as
or
Let
of
operators V"V*"
of scalar
combinations
The
useful.
the
be
of
positionin
(u
V.(u
Vx(u
v)
v)
(u v)
V.(wv)
(" v)
Vx
V(u"v)
'
v)
+
+
(u
word
of such
v)
v.
Vu
is necessary
rule followed
By
tions
func-
vector
V.v
(36)
v.
(V
(38)
(39)
u)
(41)
(V
v)1
(42)
u.Vxv
Vv
n.
(40)
Vv
u"
"
"
(37)
wV"v
.?'+"
Vn
x
Vxv
Vwv
V.u
(35)
uV.v.1
of the
the matter
(43)
interpretation
expressionsas
to the nearest
1
found
Vv
Vxu
upon
Vwv,
The
be
vV-u
"
be
functions,
Vu
V"(uxv)=v.Vxu
V
u,
to
Then
space.
and
tion
applica-
have
x,
operation will
functions
scalar
functions,vector
followingrules
w,
of the
case
Art.
term
the
69
"
V)v-
'Vu
Vw.v,
in this book
only.
is that
That
expressionsv
"
the
v.
operator V
applies
is,
u
an(i
"
are
*"
be
interpretedas
158
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
V
V
to which
it,the terms
as
by expanding
vectors
the
"
(V u~)v
"
(V u)
it is
one
term
be
may
terms
follows
which
enclosed
in
thesis
paren-
equations.
given
naturally
most
of three assumed
of summation
of it the
means
v.
applied are
formulae
sign 2
The
the
than
more
"
(V u)
expressionsin
the
i,j,k.
By
the left-hand
upon
proofsof
The
appliedto
is to be
If V
unit
will be found
venient.
con-
take
the
form
The
summation
To
demonstrate
extends
over
Vx
#, y,
z.
wv
2.
Hence
To
V
Vx(wv
demonstrate
(u v)
.
Vv
(V
u)
(V
v).
OF
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
159
VECTORS
'
x)
Now
"v*
2v.^1
2
or
"
^"
-*
Hence
^n"
^
manner
V(n"v)
other formulae
71]
u)
Vu.
"
"
(V xv)
ux
u"Vv.
Bx
+
The
(V
In like
vx(Vxu)
-v-"
2v..-
(V
u)
demonstrated
are
in
(V
v).
similar
manner.
notation1
The
(44)
V(n.v)u
will be used
that in
to denote
is to be
That
the
"
it in
are
Let
generalif
formula
41.
thereby. The
(V X u).
idea of V
w2j
V
partial
certain amount
so
constant.
as
only partiallyupon
is to
be
which
which
are
carried
out
after
occur
for the
constant
parenthesisas subscripts.
to
of
regarded
functions
after the
MJ i +
notation of
But
of
functions
written
u
the
lost
out
number
any
those
parenthesis,
differentiations
of
In
product (u v).
partiallyupon
is carried
to the
w3k,
speak
may
be avoided
compactness
more
and
by means
simplicityis
complicatedthan
"
or
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
160
then
M.V
UIVI
u2v%
usv3
f\
and
(u v)
"
0*ivi
u*v*
But
and
":t
V(u" v)
Hence
Vw}
v1
v2 V
w2
But
V(tt.")m
"1Vv1
waVi?a + M8V"l
and
V(u.v)v
-y1Vw1
v2Vw2
Hence
(u v)
This
formula
"
(u v)n
the
corresponds to
v3V^3.
(u v)
"
(44)'
(45)
"
v.
in the
followingone
tion
nota-
of differentials
d
(u v)
"
or
formulae
The
written
with
(u v)
"
(u v)n +
"
"
followingmanner,
correspondingformulae
V
V-
(M
(n
(35)-(43) given
in the
the
v)
(u + v)
v)
=
"
"
as
in differentials
v~)u+
V.
(u
v)u
V.
(u
from
is obvious
(u
v.
(Art. 73)
above
(u v)T
v)u
+
V
(u
(u
(u
be
analogy
").
may
(35)'
v)y
(36)'
v)v
(37)'
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
162
if V, u,
formallyas
ux(Vxv)
second
The
which
upon
"
v.
"
parenthesisin
(V
But
operand.
an
as
v) is
be
must
it stands.
has
operator V
operate. It therefore
to
"
The
is not.
The
u"vV
as
capable of interpretation
is
term
Then
were
nothing
transposed so
being
outside
constant
Hence
u
and
If
be
the
vector
"
function
product of
Consider
(u v)u
.
(a v)a +
the
of
(x +
by (25)'
(46)
(47)
dv
dr.
d y,
d vz
dv3
dr"
Vv8.
of
direction
plus
the
a.
z)
v
"
Vt"2 j
+
d
"
(",y, z).
v8k).
ve
v)dr + (V
v)
the derivative
dr"Vv1
Vfl2
d VB k.
dr"
(d
"
v3k
(V vti
dvz
neighboringpoints.
v2
d vl i +
to
y +
#,
dv1
Hence
By (46)"
v.
(a,y, z)
vli
equal
v)
in that
at two
(x + d
Let
Hence
"
derivative
is
vector
the curl of
the values
and
v
(V
"
But
"
in the direction
projectionof
(n v)n
expresses
of
v)
vector
(V
r.
(48)
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
Or if v0 denote
value
at
the dels,and
(d
v0 +
expressionof
of
at the
displacementd
the
of
That
derivative
of
and
the
For
"
"
"
given point,
the expansion
by Taylor'stheorem,
is constant
(r v)v
v
v0 at
+/'("")"* *-
"
(r v)v
(49)
dr.
analogous to
variable
one
is
(r v) when
is
v)
of its value
/ (a) =/(*o)
The
163
VECTORS
point (#,y, z)
v)at + (V
"
in terms
scalar functor
of
the value
OF
neighboringpoint
v
This
CALCULUS
is
equal to
v.
v.
(V
r)
v,
999
V
Vl1
"
Vr
v"
TT-
vli
V
Hence
In like
vector
be
VBd
^3k
0~
9z
v,
0.
"
v.
r, an
infinitesimal
By (47)
T~+
9 y
v2j
(r v)v
if instead
manner
V2*
(d
"
v)v
v.
V(dr.v)dr+
v0 +
V(dr-v)
Hence
(d
V(rfr.v)d"
v)dr
"
(V
(d
+
"
v)
rfr
V^r-vV
v)
"
v.
:
Substituting
+ !(Vxv)xdr.
v=4v0+ ^V(rfr.v)
This
gives another
convenient
form
It is also
of
(49)
more
slightly
which
is sometimes
symmetrical.
(50)
more
164
*
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
76.]
Consider
velocityof
a
point of
each
this
(#, yt
the
small
"
z,
f)
time
be
the
round
Sur-
t.
sphere.
c2.
v0 +
8 1 the
of time
"
v.
pointsof
this
spherewill
have
the distance
moved
(v0 +
The
is
sphere the velocity
v
In the increment
Let
point (#,y, z) at
point(z0,y^ z0)with
d
At
fluid.
moving
point at
"
will have
the center
v)
8 1.
moved
the distance
v08t.
The
distance
the
upon
between
sphere
the
of radius
To
from
the
dr
The
has
been
fluid
A
may
90, and
transformed
duringthe
more
time
"
solved
the solution
were
of the
commencement
8 1
d r' it is necessary
Vv
to
St,
r.
for d
into
an
ellipsoidby
the method
by
substituted
of
sphere
the
motion
of the
8 1.
definite account
be obtained
points that
of that interval
dr"
be
equation may
the
at
extremity of
c2
first
the
equations
dr'
The
at the end
eliminate
and
center
of the
by making
use
change that
of
has taken
equation (50)
place
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
or
of the
The
v0 +
first term
V(dr.v)dr+(Vx
v0 in these
the infinitesimal
is
sphere
velocityequal to
of the motion.
The
moving
v0.
that
the
This
as
The
sphere
middle
is
known
becomes
undergoing
if vv vv vs be
rotation
set
be chosen
and
about
with
half the
an
an
lar
angu-
magnitude of
the
sphere
v1 +
this term
d y V
dr
v) x
is
is
undergoing
virtue
by
v2 -f d
fairlyobvious
of three
such
that
of which
that
it
that
03,
of
at
any
in the
tions
direc-
given point
mation
defor-
equal to
the components
respectively
It is
i, j, k.
may
one
homogeneous strain
as
ellipsoidal.For
(#""y"i zo) a
term
fact that
the
expresses
taneous
instan-
an
V(dr.v)rfr-(Vx
or
with
last term
velocityequal in magnitude to
v.
whole
instantaneous
equations expresses
curl
dr,
v)x
|(Vxv)xdr ^curl
shows
165
VECTORS
v)xdr.
[V(dr.v)dr+|(Vxv)x
dr]+|(Vx
v0 +
OF
equation (49)
v
CALCULUS
i,j,k
are
re-
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
166
simply
becomes
referred to the
will have
moved
of
totality
to
the
the
pointsupon
into
over
which
the
totalityof points
the
-2
statements
possess have
before
made
which
an
therefore
infinitesimal
succession.
This
will
forming derivatives
expressionsfound
axes
by
The
and
thus
V
of fluid may
appliedseveral times
correspond in a general way to
be
may
order
higher than
repeatingV
itself is.
the
will all be
There
are
first. The
ent
independ-
six of these
order.
(x, y, z) be
derivative V V
a
an
because
of
sphere
three
demonstrated.
been
now
of the
ellipsoidof
"2
"/2
types of motion
in
the
upon
equation is
~2
The
8 t it
sphere
"
goes
the
position
new
of
with
is therefore endowed
center
dz
dy,
d x,
The
expression above
the
Then
them.
spectivelyparallelto
scalar function
is
vector
function
divergence. Therefore
V.VF,
VxVF
of
and
positionin
hence
has
space.
a
curl
DIFFERENTIAL
THE
the
are
The
from
second
be
of
the
terms
that if
The
first
which
be
may
VxVF=curlVF.
(52)
function V
V
"
when
versely
con-
VF,
scalar function
expression V
All
curl,i. e. if
ho
possesses
0, then
some
of i,j, k.
in terms
is,
This
curl.
no
curl W
of
That
identically.
possesses
function
vector
W=
V vanishes
Later
out.
is the derivative
order
(51)
scalar
any
cancel
second
167
VECTORS
V.VF=divVF
by expanding
seen
OF
V.
expressionV
the derivative
may
of the
derivatives
two
obtained
CALCULUS
F.
expanded
in
of
terms
i,j, k becomes
C/
Symbolically,
The
operator
"
"
Cf
C/
"
"
is therefore
the
well-known
operator of
Laplace. Laplace'sEquation
c/
becomes
in the notation
ic~
here
ci
(53)
z-
"
y~
employed
(53)'
V.VF=0.
When
a
applied to
scalar
function
F the
scalar function
which
operator V
the
is,moreover,
"
yields
divergence of
the
derivative.
Let
be
the
p
flow
f is
the
temperature in
density,and
body.
the
Let
be
the
specificheat.
ductivity,
con-
The
168
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
The
rate at which
unit
time
is V
of
increment
The
f.
"
unit volume
heat is
per
temperature is
=-.
=-,v-vr.
"
dt
equation for
is Fourier's
This
Let V
be
operator V
The
the rate
function, and
vector
pk
of
"
of
change of temperature.
Tv Vv Vz
Laplace
its three
be
may
ponents.
com-
applied to
V.
(54)
If
function
vector
its three
order
scalar
of V.
The
has
"
VV.V
The
curl V
and
and
Of
these
the
of
divergence
83)
vector
function
"
some
(55)
a
curl,
div curl V
(56)
curl curl V.
vanishes
of any
x
in terms
vector
function
This
zero.
of i,j, k.
if the
i. e.
identically,
0, then .W
(57)
That
identically.
is
vector
conversely that
curl
derivative
vanishes
div W
is the curl of
"
the curl
"
expressions V
it will be shown
second
VxVxV.
by expanding V
seen
"
divergenceand
V-VxV,
V
dels of the
VdivV.
has in turn
Other
the divergenceand
by considering
divergenceV
of
does.
components
be obtained
may
satisfies
V.
may
Later
is,
be
(Art.
divergenceof
if
curl V,
It
of V" Vw
is interesting.
78.]The geometricinterpretation
depends upon a geometric interpretationof the second
derivative of
scalar function
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
170
That
xl and
Let
point x0.
of
derivative
Let
with
scalar variable
one
point xt.
at the
of the
it be
required
respect to
at
points equidistantfrom
x2 be two
x.
the
x0.
is,let
x
"
Then
"
"
pointsx1
the value
x2 and
distance of the
of
x2 from
pointsxv
dja
a.
of
the average
at the
of the
at x0 to the square
x0.
That
LiM
a==0
is
a*
proved by Taylor'stheorem.
easily
Let
three
be
scalar function
of
positionin
mutually orthogonallines i, j,
space.
and
Choose
the
evaluate
expressions
Let o!2and
x1 be two
x0 ; a;4 and
xs, two
x0 ; xt and
#6, two
pointson
j at the
points on
pointson
the line i at
k at
the
Lai
.
5"5
LlM
_
a=0
_J
distance
distance
same
same
distance
'-",
from
from
from
x0.
THE
DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS
OF
171
VECTORS
Add:
2
2_
LDI
-
a=OL
As
and
this
V"
be
expression may
then
still
for
of the
independent
are
evaluated
different
for
ii"\+ w2 +
X
-w=
a
of
"
of axes,
"
terms
"
at the
time
same
direction
in every
point
axes
infinite and
become
"
sets
set
etc.
one,
different
chosen,
results
these
Let
particularaxes
let the
different
issuingfrom
x0.
The
fraction
u1 +
u2 +
""
Qn
'
terms
6n
approachesthe
then
sphere
by
of radius
value of
average
upon
the surface
this
Denote
x0.
of
"""
"
of the
equal to
is
of
excess
the center
at
same
If
six times
on
constant
be
surface
to the square
reasoning held
u
the
the
factor
in
the limit
case
sphere above
of the radius
u
is
temperature of
which
of
approached by the
a
a
depends
vector
body
upon
of the
ratio
the value
sphere.
The
function.
V"Vw
the
(except for
material
of
the
172
equal
body)
is
77).
If V"Vwis
small
sphere
The
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
steadyflow
be
scalar
vector.
the average
the value
of
of the
that
Laplace'sEquation.
to
"
vector
"
Consequently
function
the center.
at
is
vector
with
of
solution
the function
on
In
whether
"
The
is
the
vector
may
it be scalar
whether
additions
of
excess
infinitesimal
an
case
average.
SUMMARY
that
steady
surface
function
in
it
are
additions.
vector
case
remain
for
dispersionis proportionalto
value
average
If
the
0.
function.
of
dispersion
The
concentration
name
vector
or
be called the
above
the
gave
"
is,the temperature is
Maxwell
the
center.
must
center
is
That
or
In
condition
the
the
at
warmer.
the
at
temperature
temperature
growing
Evidently therefore
constant.
flow
is
sphere
the
temperature (Art.
temperature upon
average
the
greater than
is
of
of increase
rate
positivethe
of
center
the
to
respect
of the
and
is
to
function
t is
tangent
whose
terminus
to
of
the
the
scalar
t the
described
curve
is
equal
curve
per
III
of
unit
vector
direction
by
to the rate
is
the terminus
of advance
change
are
of
derivative
quantity whose
vector
magnitude
along
CHAPTER
OF
the
of
t.
of
The
components
of the derivatives.
d^r_dnrl. dn r2
TT"~~dl** ~TrJ
A
combination
differentiated
of vectors
just as
in
dn rz
Trk*
of vectors
may
be
ordinaryscalar analysisexcept
that
or
be
performed in
and
situ.
scalars
THE
DIFFERENTIAL
CALCULUS
OF
d b
_(.."),_."
or
(a
b)
"
d(axb)
and
so
forth.
d b
b +
"
daxb
"
(3)'
b,
(4)'
axdb,
differential of
The
(S)
.._,
173
VECTORS
unit vector
is
lar
perpendicu-
to that vector.
The
derivative
curve
which
the unit
tangent
the
of
the
with
terminus
to the
along which
curve
vector
the
directed
curves
is
of
respect
supposed
the
to
that
derivative
direction
whose
of t with
is normal
to
to increase.
"""
respect to the
the
curve
arc
the
on
is
vector
concave
of the
the curvature
magnitude is equal to
is
part of the
"-*"
The
of
describes
vector
toward
arc
whose
side
and
curve.
d*r
dt
C-d~s~d^'
The
of
tortuosity
unit
normal
arc
to
the
osculatingplane
with
respect
of the
to
the
s.
^r=-^x^_i.
magnitude of
"
d s*
ds\ds
as
The
derivative
is the
in space
curve
the
).
"
(ii)
C/
is
tortuosity
j-4341
cL
cL
70
/T
(.to
ff
"
/"/ C
(* o
O
"
(13)
If
positionof
the
denote
'-"-*
"15"
"="=*
"16"
acceleration
The
which
of
rate
and
of the
change
path,and
of the
the
upon
proof
point of
axis
the
of the
two
tangent and
the
velocityv
of
depends
the
the
upon
particlein
the
particleand
the
of
components
perpendicularto
is
its
tangent
the
which
hodograph,
a
central
ture
curva-
fixed
particular motion
acceleration.
instantaneous
an
in
Application
of
rigidbody
rotation
about
point.
respect
differentiation.
in
(19)
the motion
that
is fixed is
through the
vz C.
t +
theorem
Integrationwith
of
into
up
velocityof
circle,parabola,or under
an
path.
Applications to
one
broken
scalar
to the
d2
the other
of which
depends
be
may
parallelto
is
one
t the time,
moving particle,
acceleration,
the
A
velocity,
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
174
to
scalar
is
merely the
inverse
due
to
given accelerations.
The
space
operator V
gives a
applied to
vector
increase
of that
the rate
of that
whose
function
increase
scalar
function
direction is that
and
per
whose
unit
of
of most
magnitude
change
of
positionin
is
rapid
equal to
positionin
that
direction
"22"
THE
The
CALCULUS
DIFFERENTIAL
defined
the
by
of
invariant
is
operator
the
175
VECTORS
OF
It
i, j, k.
axes
equation
(24)
",
VV.dr
or
of
Computation
of
V
far
the
as
formal
the
be
If
in
the
It
laws
unit
direction
of
vector
"
of
of
is
that
vector
vector
the
currence
oc-
vector,
laws
9/ 9
of
just
vectors
9 / 5 y,
#,
vector
9[ dz
in
obey
quantities
is the
directional
derivative
of
a.
F=
a.VF=(a"V)
If
ing
dependof
Illustration
formal
the
scalar
methods
two
fictitious
as
differentiators
scalar
by
physics.
upon
obeys
(25)'
(25)'.
mathematical
in
and
(21)
dV.
derivative
looked
be
may
differentiator.
so
the
equations
upon
be
may
function
function
"
(32)'
*.
+
3
derivative
directional
jx
(30)
(VF).
a.
+
d
the
J.
=ix
"
direction
+
d
is
the
in
(33)'
kx,
d
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
176
Proof that V
of
divergence
is the
"
and
V, the curl
of V.
V
V
V
V
(w
(u
"
(u
v)
(w v)
Vx(wv)
"
Vwxv
V(u.v)=vVu
(u
Introduction
V-
(37)
v,
(38)
v,
(36)
v,
(39)
v,
"
(40)
wVxv,
+
vx
(Vxu)
ux
(Vxv),
-Vv
u-n
(42)
uV"
upon
v.
which
"
performed
(41)
u.Vxv,
partialdel,V (u v)n, in
of the
are
"
ii"Vv
v)=v"Vu
V-
V"(uxv)=vVxn
Vx
(35)
V0,
V.
"
"
v)
curl V.
v)
4-
div V,
(u v~)
"
(43)
ferentia
the dif-
hypothesisthat
the
is
constant.
If
be
unit vector
The
of
"
expansion of
a
the directional
any
or
v0 +
"
function
which
(d
"
derivative
v)a + (V
vector
point (a;,,,
y# "0) at
v
(a
(46)
v)u-n"Vv.
(Vxv)=V(u"
nx
it takes
v)dr + (V
on
v)
a.
neighborhood
in the
the value
of v0 is
rfr,
(49)
dt.
(50)
v)
|v0+ V(^r.v)+^(Vxv)
Applicationto hydrodynamics.
The
order
are
(47)
six in number.
178
VECTOR
and
perpendicular
results
If
4.
where
r,
for the
radius
these
Show
is
is
of the
velocityand
function
a
where
direct
d, *e,f
in
are
of the
in
the
expressions
acceleration
along
of
Art.
in
Compute
constant
vectors.
equal
to
and
"
(r
Fwhen
VV,
when
the
Reduce
y,
#,
63
z.
that
the
axes.
for
computing
find
of which
term
"
Fis
a)
e,
r2,
r,
t,
or
-,
VV
is
V, and
equal
to -?
and
show
in
terms
"
"
r2
8.
space,
origin, "f"the
in terms
given
obtain
suggested
"
V"
the
case
(r r) r,
Compute
7.
method
the
of a;, #,
=
reduce
parallelof latitude.
method
of
and
path
coordinates
ordinaryform
the
second
the derivative
particleparallel
from
polar angle
independent
the
By
6.
polar
point
meridian, and
the
operator V
of
6 the
expressionsto
5.
of
distance
components
vector,
to the
tangent
system
angle,and
meridianal
moving
form.
"", 6 be
is the
the
to
the usual
to
of
accelerations
the
Obtain
3.
ANALYSIS
when
that
is
in these
r3
cases
9.
show
10.
the formula
Expand
that
they
Show
(58)
x
vanish
and
Prove
"
in terms
VxV=VV.V-V.
A.V(V"W)
Vx
of
i,j,k and
(Vx
of i,j, k that
VV.
VA.
and
(VxV)
(Art. 77).
by expanding
Vx
11.
VF
holds.
W)w
VW+WA-
VV,
IV
CHAPTER
INTEGRAL
THE
Let
space.
Let
C be any
drawn
from
Divide
the
79.]
(z,y, z) be
the
originto
at
pointof
some
limit of this
in number, each
sum
when
"
the
0 and
curve
positionin
and
curve.
From
dr.
the element
the
the value
"
r.
elements
approachingzero,
of
points of
these elements
2 W
along the
function
in space, and
product of
thus
VECTORS
curve
of the function
The
OF
vector
curve
fixed
some
of the scalar
sum
CALCULUS
dr become
infinite
of
integral
is written
dr.
If
and
fw"
J
The
the
definition
which
describe the
r
dr=
(1)
Jo
specifyin
d
have
curve
integraltherefore
usually given.
It is however
during
the
oppositesignswhen
coincides with
necessary
is
For
integration.
the
curve
supposed
to
to
the elements
is described
in oppo-
180
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
If
site directions.
by
the other
C and
'dr
"
-o
case
surface
such
closed
the
curve
C is
the
curve
will
always
that
the
direction
denoted
by
(7,
"
/W
In
descriptionbe
of
method
one
dr.
W*
bounding
curve
be
described
regarded as
enclosed
area
portion of
in
positive
appears
(Art. 25).
If f denote
force which
the
the
its
point
of
point r
The
function
scalar
r0 to the
F(z,
is
point r
of the function
That
line
F(r)
definition
r*
/
dV=
v
at
the
the initial
point
integral
dr.
the
derivative
point
the
between
and
of
point
the values
the
at
from
curve
any
the difference
equal to
the force
by
point r0.
is,
By
z) along
"(#,y, z)
from
from
vary
r0
integralof
y,
to
done
is the line
Ff.
JO
moved
applicationis
Cf.dr
Theorem
supposed
(7,the work
curve
C to its final
r0 of the curve
be
may
F(r0)
F(r)
F(r.)
F(*f
V F=
y,
")
(""
yw
O-
d V
F(a,y,")
F(*0,y0,"). (2)
r
o
Theorem,
curve
The
show
line
scalar
integral of
function
of
the
derivative
position
taken
V F
of
around
a
a
vanishes.
is denoted
To
The
integralis
by writinga circle at
taken
around
closed
curve
integralsign.
"
0.
(3)
INTEGRAL
THE
The
the final
F(r)
Hence
OF
CALCULUS
181
VECTORS
coincide.
point r
Hence
F(r0).
by (2)
Jo
Theorem
closed
Conversely if the
function
is the
vanishes, W
curve
I W
*/
The
line
any
fixed
"
r0 be
of
derivative
about
some
every
scalar
0.
show
Let
of
integral
Given
To
line
F.
point in
and
space
variable
point.
integral
f W-rfr
o
independentof
is
paths
G and
to r0 is
G.
path of integration
G' be drawn
of the
consists
the
closed
path G
between
from
r0 to
Hence
curve.
r.
and
the
The
path
let any
curve
"
two
which
G' from
by hypothesis
r
r0 and
For
"G'
/F
-G'
iw*dr
Hence
J
Hence
of
the value
and
integration
of the
*J
c'
fw"dr.
c'
182
VECTOR
of the
value
The
the
"
O,
between
taken
integralbe
function
scalar
coordinates
whose
point r
f.
Let
therefore
integralis
the
positionof
the
ANALYSIS
are
of
a:, y, z.
2).
y,
near
pointsinfinitely
two
together.
But
by
d V.
work
i,j,k be chosen
axes
done
from
moves
by
the
force
f"dr
(z
the
force
exists
is
Evidentlyif F
by adding to
equal
is
V
one
any
scalar
z0)
function
point
(ZQ
of
the force-function is
V=w=g(z0-e).
Or
The
more
simply
force is
"
"
VF=
g
-
z.
k.
Then
application
dz.
V
force-function
position V
the
another
force-function,
arbitraryconstant.
of
Let
z).
"
from
of
near
gravity.
fg
"
"/
each
at
"
mass
is
positionr
of
point
its
gk"dr
"
unit
upon
that k is vertical.
so
when
to
Hence
when
the
positionr0
"
"/
The
acts
the influence
system of
The
f be
the surface
the
demonstrated.
is therefore
theorem
80.] Let
Hence
The
V*
definition
derivative
may
In
such
the
that
VF".
be obtained
above
ample
ex-
THE
The
V
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
and
necessary
sufficient condition
moves
point of application
The
work
done
by
If
this
integralvanishes
f
when
only by
done
work
closed
unit
to
the
and
the work
done
can
particleis
For
exist.
moved
around
the
in
zero.
never
is directed
mass
closed
every
const.
force-function
of attraction
force
zero.
friction when
circuit is
The
its
constant.
by
circuit be
around
force-function
The
there is friction
no
case
taken
V
In
VF==VM;
vanishes.
integral
differ
force-function
I f'di.
converselyif
the
the force is
contour
And
by
closed
183
VECTORS
that
done
around
OF
exerted
toward
inverse
by
the
of
square
fixed
the
fixed
mass
mass
and
distance
upon
is proportional
between
the
masses.
M
f
r.
"
rs
This
of universal
is the law
It is easy
function
of the
to
see
this force
that
rr
w
"
coordinates
the work
Then
M.
mass
attracting
M
c
T"dr.
-r-
rs
Jr
o
But
"
"
"
"-""cM
cM
2
r
stated
is derivable
origin of
the
Choose
V.
gravitationas
d r,
done
by
from
at
is
Newton.
a
force-
the center
184
By
equal
had
where
rv
r2, r3,
from
the
The
would
made
therefore
may
be
derivable
carried
loss of energy.
function
exists
space.
above
be
any
elements.
which
the
normal
is
to the surface
equal to
the
surface.
is at
at
to
be
if
force-
a
a
point is
consequently there
bodies
force-
the
From
system.
moving
conservative
function
vector
Divide
elements
represented by
direction
forces
under
system
"
collide.
be any
These
of
conservative
do not
Let
be
and
zero
gravitationform
(x,y, 2)
may
law
forces when
it is clear that
Let W
and
the
converted
The
motion.
Conversely
mechanical
long as they
S
is
been
requires the
by
curve
81.]
done
is called
example justcited
so
during the
is moved
the assumption
on
has
energy
requires
point
is
unit
"
energy
This
zero.
force-function.
when
forces
"
of mechanical
therefore
energy
attracted
Mz, Ms
Mv
shall be
of energy
of
around
at least
the
by
the
of
distances
the
are
"
curve
from
function
"
"
forms
conservation
Mv
been
have
of the mechanical
none
Mv
__
done
closed
into other
plane
be
may
attractingbodies
attractingmasses
work
the
that
no
constant
force-function
of the conservation
law
around
is
the
units
several
been
force-function
that
of
as
If there
mass
ANALYSIS
The
unity.
to
chosen
the
choice
proper
VECTOR
each
that
magnitude
of
this surface
may
be
infinitesimal
point
the
area
into
regarded
vectors
direction
positionin
the
finites
inas
of
of the
tude
magni-
of the infinitesimal
186
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
gives the
the surface
the
volume
time.
which
matter
unit
per
which
unit
per unit
at
rate
time
which
of that substance
amount
time
It
was
leaving
closed
The
f.
"
point
bounded
by
is the
ordinary tripleintegral
of matter
surface
" per
V*tdv.
the
Hence
of
flux taken
integralof
enclosed
the
surface
the
in the
out
surface
flux
and
taken
surface
the
over
tegral
in-
volume
the
space
"
fff
Written
(6)
connectinga
closed
over
divergence of
the
by
relation
important
very
unit
per
total amount
leaves
space
passingthrough
before
seen
was
was
is
notation
(7)
of the
ordinary calculus
this
becomes
\f[Xdydz+
where
X, F, Z
theorem
is
components
is treated
is known
as
integral(taken
function
normal
and
to that
the volume
three
dx
the
Zdxdy]
familiar when
each
The
.
of the three
separately.
dy
fff*^dxdy
Gauss's
over
ff
This
the
are
Tdzdx
Theorem.
closed
cosine
surface
of
integral
makes
the
It states
surface) of
of the
with
the
angle which
the
(8)'
dz.
X-axis
partialderivative
product
the
is
of
exterior
equal
to
of that function
THE
with
respect
that
surface.
If the
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
to
taken
surface
S be
throughout the
the
CC
d
surface
187
VECTORS
volume
bounding
enclosed
is the volume
f.d"
V.f
of that
infinitesimal
an
dv
cube.
sphere or
Hence
(9)
J J
dv
This
V
"
equation
limit
be taken
may
the
From
volume
approaches
propertiesof
all the
to make
order
of
definition
the
of the
"
than
from
82.]
function
taken
consequently
Theorem
taken
by
over
That
is
This
from
interestingmore
the
In
develop
to
of vectors
treated.
face
sur-
that volume
it is necessary
be
the
to
evidentlyindependent of
divergencemay be deduced.
surface
the closed
"/
"/
in
of different
of
integral
integralof
curve
before
definition
theoretical
*J
be
vector
function
vector
that surface.
(11)
of Stokes.
all branches
proofswill
Cw-dr.
W-rfa=
theorem
the curl of
that
bounding
is the celebrated
great importance
number
equal
its limit.
integralcalculus
to the line
equal
around
The
f/Vx
This
f is
divergence
practicalstandpoint.
is
is
the
is
differentiating
operators can
of V
as
zero
of this definition
use
the
when
axes
as
The
f.
by
cube
sphere or
where
OF
On
account
of mathematical
given.
of its
physicsa
188
First Proof
S
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(Fig. 32).
Consider
by (50),Chap. III.,the
Then
where
\\W0
the
symbol
it from
of W
(W
"
has been
which
r)
(V
23 upon
the
at
is to be used
FIG.
be
vertex
W)
introduced
taken
the surface
W0.
neighboringpoint is
value at any
integralof
integration.The
triangle1
small
value
the
Let
j
,
of distinguishi
the
of
as
around
element
the
triangle
32.
Cw-di=lfw
t/A
"/
f (V
W)
Sr-dr.
*J A
Thefirstterm
\ Cwo.dr "W0. f dr
=
"/
vanishes
because the
this
case
vanishes
small
by
t/
of
integral
is zero.
triangle,
virtue of
(3) page
180.
around
The
second
Hence
closed
term
in
figure,
THE
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
and
dot
the
When
equal
is
to this side.
is the
and
side 31,
when
di
in the
opposite direction.
When
1 at which
W=
the
is twice
W0
BT
are
of
denotes
surface.
Sr
collinear.
is the
is
B r
triangle,
is also
di
Hence
In
the vector
a
line
like
manner
side.7#, but
same
product
drawn
Hence
triangle. This
2$r
where
product
the
from
the
area,
taken
vanishes.
the
product
vertex
is the
moreover,
Hence
123.
positivearea
the
of the
area
1 2 of
23, S
is the side
tripleproduct
side
Hence
because
vanishes
the
to
in this
/VxW'Srxdr.
"/
equal
cross
fw"dr=4
J
189
VECTORS
=l-
Interchange the
OF
the
For
d a,
of the
positivearea
the
relation
di
infinitesimal
triangular element
triangle therefore
the
/"
W*dr
W"
d*
holds.
the
Let
For
be
surface
convenience
made
up
of
S
let
the
be
the
sides
divided
into
curve
which
of
these
elementary triangles.
bounds
triangles.
the
surface
Perform
the
integration
A
around
each
of these
trianglesand
add
the results
together.
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
190
second
The
member
-8
is the surface
In
of
integral
adding togetherthe
those
Hence
which
surface
which
curve
of
surface
the
in the
arise from
S
cancel
arise from
those
of W
along the
Hence
sides
Hence
the
oppositedirections.
the
only
sum
make
which
up
reduces
sum
bounds
which
curve
in
triangleslyingwithin
of the
leaving in
out,
lie
twice
mentary
ele-
sum
those sides
of the surface.
which
traced
are
in the first
occur
to notice
trianglesexcept
curve
which
integrals
line
it is necessary
member
the curl of W.
the
the
terms
bounding
the
to
the
line integral
the surface
S.
1
=/w
W.dT.
t/o
Second
contour
Proof
drawn
is continuous
FIG.
C' be another
Consider
takes
place
passing
contour
C be any
upon
and
to C.
in
33.
Let
the
such
not
cut
itself.
near
S which
integralof
the contour
that C
contour
the variation
in the line
from
C".
does
closed
surface
It will be assumed
(Fig.33).
Let
to the
THE
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
"
(W "c"r)=
8 d
"
expressiond (W
The
value
the
difference
the
beginning
integralis
"
integralof
between
of
path
around
"
therefore
at the
integration. In
the closed
this
Hence
C.
contour
end
f*
Jc
//"
W
8 d
"
and
I SW
iw
C\
SW"dr
"di=
d W
-=
-=
9 W^
and
dW*Sil.
"
9W
d y +
"
-=
-z
d 2,
"
"y z
ay
9W
i
"
8 r,
I^W"8r,
"
9W
"
9W
d W
dr
"
9W
But
"
S I W*di=
or
I d W
"
"
"
-^
"
9 W^
-^"
"y z
*ST.
perfectdifferential.
of W
I dW
"
expressionwill
the values
of the
taken
that
dr.
r.
its form
r) is by
"
d S
c
I oW
/W"dSr=/d(W"8r)
The
of the
S d
"
8 d
/W
and
Hence
Jc
r
191
VECTORS
c
J C'
/r
OF
"
d r,
and
case
be
at
the
192
values
Substitutingthese
/r
W-dr=t
(3
i x
( 3
by (25)
But
ax
similar terms
5 W
In
Fig. 33
along the curve
C".
curve
coincides
curve
with
"
"
"
-^
in y and
from
"
r.
0 and
Hence
S
S
that
seen
r
is the
is the distance
d
is
equal
from
to the
between
of
element
the
curve
area
of
C and
arc
C to
an
mentary
ele-
C' upon
the
is
X
Cw*dr=
di
d",
TV
W"da.
startingat a point 0
the contour
bounding S.
in
The
expand
line
the value
at the
IW-dr
Jo
point 0
until
it
integral
fW'di
will vary
the
3 W
similar terms
Br
Let
jix-^""Srxdr
it will be
That
"
parallelogramincluded
S.
or
"
-="
/CW'di=J
surface
z.
3 W
r)
"
in y and
111
page
3 W\
"=
9 W
9 W
\-^--dr i-Sr--
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
to the value
194
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
of V
definition
plane
through
d
area
and
with
the
theorem
P,
finitesi
in-
an
plane
small
axes
to
Pass
P.
point
it,concentric
in
draw
Stokes's
Consider
area.
of
independent
is
by applying
be obtained
i,j,k may
which
circle of
a.
W-da
Vx
f W"dr.
(13)
Jo
When
line
has the
be
integralwill
between
will
as
equal
be
the
of the
the
angle
For
unity.
to
of
value
cosine
for the
maximum,
and
direction
same
this
of da,
value
Jo
Hence
the
curl V
of space
point
which
with
integral of
the
that line
integralof
given
one
from
theoretical
Stokes's
point
for
than
is
the
rather
Let
equal
be
It is
area
per unit
fact learned
force around
of the
rate
the circuit.
of
The
its
converse
of
of
area
like the
the
electric
force, B the
C the
experiment that
closed
circuit
total
flux
is
the
equal
force
of
duce
dein
magnetic
electricity
density).
current
magnetic
total electromotive
around
to
electro-magneticfield
of the
from
the
be used
may
(i. e. the
of
nitude
mag-
interestingmore
is
time
change
by
definition
divergence
divided
This
centric
con-
magnitude
the
to
in
practicalconsiderations.
from
or
The
maximum.
value
equations
simple manner.
is
plane
circle
small
each
at
that
to
about
it is taken.
81
theorem
Maxwell's
taken
has
the normal
maximum
which
Art.
in
of
point in question
function
vector
direction
the
the line
of
to
motive
total electrothe
negative
induction
through
is the line
integral
the circuit.
That
is
THE
The
total
induction
magnetic
integralof
bounded
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
the
induction
That
195
VECTORS
through the
magnetic
the circuit.
by
OF
is the
circuit
B taken
over
face
sur-
surface
is
therefore
Experiment
shows
that
/d
E.rfr
or
E*dr=
the
by
It is also
unit
equal
The
the
The
to
circuit.
"
integralof
That
a.
theorem
B.
"
carrying a
H
of
integralof
"
around
in
flux
"
curl E
B,
"
B.rfa,
positivemagnetic pole
done
total
surface
fact of
4?r times
work
line
of Stokes's
converse
J J
Jo
Hence
"
"
unit
around
pole
over
around
That
the
surface
rH.rfr
4?r
IJ
(NcZa.
is
the circuit.
circuit
is
is
bounded
that
teaches
circuit
circuit
is
Experiment therefore
in carrying
closed
through
circuit.
the
electricity
through
C taken
done
is the
by
the
196
By
the
of Stokes's
converse
With
theorem
addition
in
depending
interpretation
relation and
hypotheses,this
equations of
Heaviside
The
and
C.
TT
of
interpretation
proper
current
an
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
the
to
one
upon
the
placemen
C, as the dis-
current
conduction
current,
of Maxwell's
primary
precedingone
Maxwell's
theory,in
are
the
the fundamental
form
used
by
Hertz.
of Stokes
theorems
and
Gauss
may
be used
strate
to demon-
the identities.
V
0,
div curl W
VxVF=0,
Accordingto
Gauss's
fff
curlVF=0.
theorem
V.Vx
W"20
ffvxW.da.
J J J
According to
J J
Apply
CCC
the
this to
sphere is
point;
and
Stokes's theorem
Hence
0.
an
d?
Cw*dr.
closed.
the
f W-dr.
Wtd*=
Hence
its
around
integral
bounding
it,to
Jo
V"V
curve
zero.
fw."fr
V.VxWdv=
surface
0.
0,
bounding
reduces
to
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
THE
ffvxVF.
bounding
J
infinitesimal
this surface
the derivative
this
similar
for any
function
line
integralof
then
zero,
that
theorems
converse
divergenceV
"
is the
of
vector
curl
of
some
may
be
function
vector
W.
U
of
If the
curl V
then
is the derivative
d a, it follows
the
If the
everywhere
is
the
VF=0.
manner
demonstrated.
Hence
curve
equation holds
The
surface.
vanishes.
VF"
Vx
In
portionof
is closed.
V
As
fvF-dr.
da=
this to any
Apply
197
VECTORS
Stokes's theorem
Again accordingto
J J
OF
84.] By making
between
dels,viz.
the
use
is
everywhere zero,
scalar function
some
of
W.
function
vector
of
the
line,surface, and
three
F",
fundamental
volume
relations
and
integrals,
the
f VF.rfr
F(r)-F(r0),
(2)
"''o
ffvxW"rfa
it is
possibleto
transformation
obtain
of
fw.rfr,
large number
integrals. These
of
(11)
formulae
formulae
for the
correspond to
198
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
with
connected
those
They
calculus.
(u i?)
First
V(uv)'di
I
Jo
Hence
by integratingboth
obtained
are
in
ordinary
sides of the
u.
wVv"dr=
uVv"dr=[uv']
vVu'dr.
lvVu"di.
"
The
"
formulse, page
integrationby parts
"
(14)
"
r0
[u v~\
expression
ro
path,and
path
Second
wV
(u v~)at
beginningof
the
r, the
path.
vdi
"
vV
u"dr.
(14)'
Jo
(wv)
Vx
of
be closed
ff
the value
%Vxv
C C
(uv)"d*=
Vwxv.
C C
wVxvcU+
Vwxvrfa.
Hence
rfvwxv^a=
J
f
J
uvdr"
J J
uV
xvda,
(15)
or
rfwVxvda=
Third
fwvc?r"
Vx("Vfl)^ttVxVv
But
Hence
fTVwxv.^a,
VxVv
(u
VwxVtf.
v)
v,
(15)'
INTEGRAL
THE
CALCULUS
199
VECTORS
OF
cr^ux^v'dB..
(wvv)"^a=
8
Hence
i V
J J
da.=
"
uV
dr
v"
"
Jo
Fourth
(u v)
"
liivt(uv)dv
"
rrruvvdv
vV
(16)
dr,
u*
Jo
"
v.
r r
"
"z v.
Hence
uV*vdv=[
III
C i i ^U'vdv,
da,"
uv
(17)
or
dv=
v^"v
Fifth
vVwxv
Hence
f f \?
In
all these
surface
which
here.
most
functions
da,
formulae
of
C i C
"
which
surface
Vw"vxv.
"
u*\7
contain
(18)
dv.
tripleintegralthe
integrationby parts
multiplied almost
the
"
(17)'
integrationis performed.
Examples
given
S is the closed
the
VXV^*v
rrTwVv^v,
wv^a"
I I
without
It is known
limit.
as
important of all.
of
position,
like those
Only
one
above
more
Green's Theorem
and
is
If
any
two
and
are
can
be
will
be
perhaps
scalar
200
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
/ /V^*V^i?=//
/J J V
IV"("V*)rf""
(v V w)
"
V w,
"
Iu^'Vvdv,
J J TV V
"
"
"
0.
Hence
/ / /V^"Vv^v
/ /w
V?"
"
(wVVv
is obtained.
the
of Green's
due
generalization
"
theorem
(u^7 v
(i9"
"
w)
"
cZa.
of i,j,k
terms
be
may
obtained.
(Lord Kelvin)
to Thomson
d P,
(20)
ordinaryform
further
v^7"^u)dv=
"
formula
the
By subtractingthese equalities
f fvv-vwdv.
=r A"vw"da" r
"
is the
:
following
/ /
l"V"*V*"fr=i
/ I vwVU'd*
where
The
t0
of
any
*
is
"
of volume
in these
in these
dv
has
equationsor
two
uw^7V'da""
different
of
element
function
use
"
[w
w]
c?v,
(21)
position.
do with
nothing to
in those
senses
I u^7"[w^7v\dv,
the scalar
that go before.
can
The
to
misunderstanding.
85.]
In the
which
precedingarticles
have
been
subject to
the scalar
treatment
and
have
vector
been
tions
funcsup-
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
2Q2
along
value
the
The
might
It
"
to
79
of Art.
is not
is
false
were
which
is
difficulty
The
so.
value
TT.
of the work
bottom
entire
however
This
equal
is
results
therefore the
seem
the
consequently
that
and
vanish, but
not
does
curve
one
-i
F=tan
V takes
function
only the
not
on
the
single-valued.At
is not
F=
value
tan
^"
4
but
where
the
series of values
whole
k is any
origin,which
paths
of
fails to
therefore
that the
function
V.
not
would
have
included
origin vanishes
Inasmuch
vitiates the
not
but
so
an
the
results
the
closed
distorted
its
as
no
values
words
other
curve
origin
which
of the
does
integral
of the
value
the
not
to
appears
be
the
include
point
obtained,let it be considered
Any
which
longer to
continuity. The
closed
be shrunk
originmay
curve
seen
the
it should.
as
as
originthe
In
impassable barrier.
contain
a
the
closed
It will be
derivative.
differed.
integralaround
terminate
inde-
wholly
becomes
originis
If the two
("1,0) had
not
possess
semicircular
the two
between
function
the
integration,
and
by
included
was
at
up
surrounds
enclose
curve
or
the
that
C not
curve
as
which
marked
does
which
expanded
at will ;
origin cannot
point without
surrounding
the
be
ing
break-
origin
THE
INTEGRAL
shrink
may
the
origin.
only shrink
can
always
down
It cannot
remain
be
does
barriers.
Then
V vanishes
be
to
line
irreducible
singular points
of V
the
are
circuits
two
the line
integralof
region such
up
point of
to
without
about
them
closed
any
without
closed
acyclic. All
other
of
no
is said
to
be
theorem
In
to
such
more
then
may
of
any
It may
or
case
function
not
may
irreducible
one
coincide
be
another
with
of
any
the
are
same.
passing through
its
in which
is
of
the values
C within
curve
breaking
curve
it
or
within
passing through
nothing without
region every
means
and
that
and
The
as
without
and
tinuous
con-
breakingits continuity
circuit
so
have
all
impassable
as
one
circuit 0.
reducible
distorted
circuit
contains
Let
to
or
the derivative W
irreducible
be
C may
nothing
to
irreducible.
any
an
whatsoever.
contains
without
up
integralof
around
around
circuit
By
reducible circuit
marked
which
up
shrunk
so
be
which
circuit
it is said
The
circuit
shrunk
be
be
pointscannot
shrunk
F",then,
irreducible circuit
any
fails to be continuous
any
reducible; but
C is said to
curve
any
function
partialderivatives
point may
stated:
V is any
which
first
vanish
around
around
integral
that
next
points at
and
It must
vanish.
not
such
The
about
closer
of the function
case
integraltaken
but the
Suppose
the
the
and
continuity;
nothing.
to
encirclingthe origin.
that
C vanishes
down
In
in its
fit closer
shrunk
203
VECTORS
break
and
be reducible ; C, irreducible.
it is true
OF
nothing without
up to
but
CALCULUS
be
it may
singular
any
continuity,that is, a
reducible,is said
to be
cyclic.
regions are
simple device
any
be
cyclicregion may
dered
ren-
closed
acyclic. Consider, for instance, the region (Fig.34) en-
between
cube
with
which
contains
those of the
of
the surface
the
cylinderand
cylinder and
cylinder.Such
whose
the surface
bases
region is realized
of
coincide
in
room
204
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
in which
column
the
around
/"
"
"^^
without
breaking
of the
surface
the
of
the
by
surface
of the
is
the
which
In
like
be drawn
manner
continuity.
If
of
sufficient
of the
device
hold
true.
true.
To
column
the
the
to
formed
thus
cylinder,the
the
sides
two
acyclic. Owing
it is
of
the
to
the
tion
inser-
longer possible
no
around
completely
Hence
it.
the
region
region
the
inder
cyl-
closed
every
is reducible
For
enter
them
which
or
the
cuit
cir-
and
the
rendered
results
contained
not
into
even
may
as
be
in
or
discussion
is
the
respect these
primary object
questions
are
of
similar
in
point
been
has
they
is
are
tions
ques-
the
to
exposition
to
hold
not
as
seq.
belong properly to
connection
employed
et
the
any
notation
be
79
going
fore-
than
methods
than
may
the
this
at
diaphragm.
may
For
of
surfaces
Arts.
questions
They
bounding
acyclic by
superfluous.
ones.
The
of each
may
much
vector
concern
Cartesian
these
acyclic by
bounding
faces
two
regions
further
already
corresponding
of the
Indeed,
do
the
rendered
diaphragms.
consist
and
be
may
of
number
region
new
all
unnecessary.
which
from
reaching
region
cube, and
pass
in
any
acyclicregions
given
the
surface
prevents
given cyclicregion
In
to
acyclic.
inserting a
the
diaphragm
may
is
surfaces
contracted
cylinder or
diaphragm
shall
which
circuit
region
its
passes
84.
of the
"
be
It
ceiling.
which
inserted
cube
the
bounded
diaphragm
to draw
be
diaphragm
surface
FIG.
circuit
It cannot
now
-v
the
to
is irreducible.
nothing
x
cyclic.
is
region
this
that
is evident
floor
the
from
reaches
column
more
particular
the
with
here.
questions
of
it and
In
this
rigor.
THE
and
Hitherto
and
occurrence
For
sake
the
densityof
body
of
is
The
those
especially
frequent
especial
point
be
regarded as the
22). In a homogeneous
may
portionsof
varies
of the
In
from
space in which
no
tribution
non-homogeneous dis-
point
to
point; but
at
definite value.
from
assumed
any
origin,may
other fixed
point of
T1
from
ra
the
ri
vector
drawn
0"2"Vv i?a)"As
in the sections
designate
to
Vi"
*i)
space,
x1i
represented
by
the vector
y1j + z1k
origin. Then
same
Oa
be used
Let
On
is the
which,
integrals
the differentiating
space
yv
zero.
identically
has
vector.
vector
drawn
be any
point(x 2,
In
of matter
point it
positionin
defmiteness
at the
matter
exists V
matter
of the
is constant.
with
and
that
Suppose
scalar function
drawn
scalar
to their
owing
line, surface,
consideration.
the
both
connection
and
each
Potential
considered
functions
to their intimate
owing
been
205
VECTORS
There
is
have
there
integralsof
volume
OF
IntegratingOperators. The
The
86.]
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
*i)
Oa
i +
from
yi)J + Oa
the
this vector
*i) k
it will
immediatelyfollowing,
12
the
point
of times
be denoted
by
206
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
length of
The
r12
r12 and
is then
will
be
assumed
be
to
positive.
V ria
12
Consider
The
xv
r12
"
the
O2
tripleintegral
is performed
integration
y?flzi
tt*3^ k* with
"
with
respect
the
to
of
body
respect to the
variables
value
j,^
each
at
It is
FIG.
The
definite
function
integral/
of
be
The
of
mass
element
dm
body,
VII
^1
19
/
integral
a
dm
(xv
(xv
at
point.
divided
the
The
in
body
of
regarded as
V
set
is termed
limits of
either
is the
Zj).
yv
The
in-
sum
easy, if
is
matter
in space.
"2) is
Vdv.
of the elements
from
of
fixed
mass
point
is what
to the
yv
its distance
by
dmm
r*
due
densityof
yv
is therefore
each
the
regardedas
This
definite
35.
the function
in
mains
z^) re-
yv
has
The
During
point (xv
that
which
whose
densityis
in
integration
two
density. This
On
In
ways.
coincident
of limits.
the
the
with
the
I may
integral
the
the
indeed
other
first
limits
place they
of the
might seem
hand
the
be looked
may
body of
the most
integral/
at
be
which
natural
may
be
THE
regarded
is the
taken
as
the function
outside
the value
of the
to consider
over
of
This
all.
symbol
regardto
the limits
that
V=
Pot
It may
been
such
no
of
extended
writing in special
Fof
to its
itself then
tically
vanishingiden-
matter.
the
of
the
V"
The
variables
xv
during
the
to
but
The
r12.
potential,
z2 with
yv
of the
point
function
note
although
has
hitherto
matter
V is
entirelytoo
the
necessary
V,
no
to form
the
what
matter
potentialof
in
V.
The
space,
same
formal
law
as
the
such
an
integral
represents, that
reason
(22)
integration. These
an
accordingto
for it.
density of
function
called
used
such
the
it becomes
scalar
potential of
expression for
have
necessary
as
of
d"z ^y*id%y
not
therefore
for
interpretation
integralis
convenient
most
integrationis performed
in
regarded
of any
augment
fla
is fixed
which
be
Whenever
not
specialsymbol, Pot, is
"the
the
enter
infinite
are
as
integral
owing
ill
is read
which
(*!"y\) 2i)
and
does
function
points unoccupied by
function
variables
the
The
JJJ
is
hence
integral
It is found
particularcase.
Pot
Pot V,
limits
every
the trouble
saves
frequent occurrence
The
the
of the
The
87.]
and
207
VECTORS
value
when
infinite and
as
determines
practically
at all
body
integralat
all space.
The
at
identically
the
the limits
For
cases.
vanishes
OF
all space.
over
both
in
same
situated
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
true
for
which
calling
it has
it is formed
potentialand
208
which
types of integralsdo
other
Wfrf.
\*"S"
/"W
""
In
this
and
is
of
consequentlyitself a
function
vector
is
*,
*27
the
of
sum
Thus
to be
(z2,yv "2)
the
The
potentialof
sum
of the
potentialof
taken
over
instance, V
the
limits of
out
into space.
must
recedes
for
the
and
were
j Pot Y+
function
its three
scalar
is
the
potential
the
converges
everywhere
(xv
"2)
yv
""2,yv z2)
k Pot
Z.
equal
to
(24)
the vector
exists
at
Evidentlytherefore
as
A
indefinitely.
convergence
its limit
few
of the
to
definite
if the
as
limit
tegral
inas
farther
exist
point (#2, yv
za)
sufficient conditions
potentialmay
Let
the
is to
potential
the
If,
value.
in space
constant
important
point
integral
zero
tion
posi-
components
become
approach
Z.
components X, I7",
function
only when
all space
would
vector
of
potentials
(#i"y\t *i")when
for
i PotX
k Z
Pot
potentialof
scalar function of
(#2,yv "2) + j
iX
quantities
vector
function,just as
seen
(23)
If W
in space.
The
function
vector
a,
yy
vector.
vector
F'was
scalar function
possess.
(Xn, 2/o,Za)
integralis
the
case
of operation
down.
be written
may
not
potentialof
Pursuant
simple rules
has certain
of that formation
virtue
by
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
be
obtained
by
210
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
that the
weakly
it become
if
finiteor
function V remain
the
If
so
infinite
product
Vr
finitewhen
remains
as
far
to the
regionsnear
as
then
approacheszero,
the
integralconverges
For
concerned.
originare
let
Vr"K
r=R
r=R
III
r
^r
s*n
" dr
d 0
d"f"
"
d"j".
C C C Kdr
Hence
dd
r=0
I Kd
the
dO
dd"
tripleintegraltaken
of radius R
(where
4
is less than
regions near
the
to
all space
over
supposed
now
and
TT
is
to be
inside
small
quantity)
consequently converges
originwhich
is the
sphere
far
as
point (xv
zj
yv
as
are
concerned.
If
i.
e.
at
any
the
point (x v yx,
weakly
that
the
are
integral
converges
before.
These
integralPot
The
It is however
under
show
to.
to
The
concerned.
are
as
far
as
proof of
0/V
at
origin,
infiniteso
point near
that
to
point from
then
converge
to
indispensable
more
for the
They
not
know
when
whether
Unless
no
means
they
do
or
not
the
tests
stringentones
must
be discussed
here.
rather
given
of the
convergence
by
are
is like those
this statement
conditions
converges.
to the
regionsnear
sufficient.
the convergence,
the
becomes
of the distance of
integralmay
discussion
the
three
the square
with
coincident
not
sary.
neces-
not
an
integral
given
be
hold.
above
resorted
They belong
than
to
the
INTEGRAL
THE
theory of
the
functions
and
potentialis
88.] The
which
the
derivative
first partial
The
function
of
duces
re-
scalar
are
above.
of the
variables xv y^ z1
potentialat
of the
as
discussion
components which
function
with
constant
are
value
be treated
may
The
vector
211
VECTORS
Pot.
potentialof
of the
once
OF
integratingoperator
the
convergence
at
CALCULUS
point (xv yv zj
of the
be denoted
the
by
with respectto
potential
x1
is therefore
The
of
value
device
potentialat
due
to
same
as
the
point
due
to the same
the
amount
due
to
T and
body
the
If both
in the
But
by
the
amount
changed
the
displacedin
in
are
body
now
and
space
the value
translated
of the
if T be
the
displacedin
of
pointP
of the
body
A #, the value
A xr
It is
point be
from
A xz
simple
negativedirection by
positionsin
determines
to
where
the
findingthe potentialat
immaterial.
other which
same
by
potentialat
the absolute
determined
This
T.
For
xr
be
point
body
point P
relative to each
amount
the
body
certain
may
Consider
(Fig. 36).
the
is the
this limit
V at each
of the
by
the
tial.
potensame
changed.
potentialis un-
negativedirection
point of
space
is
212
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Hence
[Pot FOa,^,^)]^
,M
[Pot
$[Pot H****.*.*-
LlM
Hence
[Pot FOa
+ A*,
)
^
=
found
It will be
integration. Let
convenient
the
body
the
denoted
portion of
body
be
distance
overlap.
remainder
t As
Let
the
of M
all the
by
; and
be
regioncommon
m;
dropped.
let the
by
the
limits
of
filled by
originally
the
portion filled by
the
negative direction
M'.
The
to both
the remainder
followingpotentialsare
introduce
space
in the
xl be denoted
to
for the
of M'
through
regionsM
be M
mr.
,
pointxv
and
and
M'
let the
Then
and
THE
INTEGRAL
(*(*(*(
CALCULUS
VT
-I- A
l^2+Ag2,y2,z2;
f
II
OF
\
213
VECTORS
T^V/n
f* f* f*
rrr
y^vy
ni
" JJJfi
LlM
Tja
Aa;2=o(
Az2
ru
a
la
or,
12
AA
a;
CCC
LIM
A*=0t/
rrr
X"QjJJx
LIM
"/
*"
^c^a^
"""
y^
when
approacheszero
A Xj
which
are
and
both
t There
are
taken
the
mazes
at
are
no
point thicker
approach M
cases
in which
must
diminish
than
to
This
a,
regionsmand
approach
of the order
is a
the
region T.
zero
in which
the two
'
limits
leads to
rigor.
continuouslyto
zero
upon
bounding
the
surface.
TO',
limit.
this reversal
mathematical
as
as
If
Fchanged
outside
be
at
the
rivative
de-
meaningless.
every point
214
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
vanishes
5.//L
LlM
region
111
"-"
v^fl
finite and
Tis
that
bounding
surface
the
upon
the
that
assumed
if it be
Then
*"a"
#2'
~ay
7
"
V"
12
A"2
'
expression
the
Consequently
reduces
to
for the
of
derivative
the
merely
(26)
5%e
is
equal
The
to the
of the potential of
derivative
partial
of the derivative
scalar
of
derivative
derivative
tial
poten-
V.
potential
to the
V.
VPotF=PotVr:
This
the
upon
to
the
upon
xv
follows
statement
yv
the
the
2j, it may
be
it
this
Vr
may
be
applies to
the
Pot
identityV
may
.3PotF
i
written
former.
to
the
set
In
like
written
variables
V2
L.
of
ables
varithe
call attention
to
scv yv
be expanded
As
manner
zz of
V.
(27)'
V2F!
.SPotF
L
*J
the
from
applies
PotF=
Vj
demonstrate
side
side
right-hand
fact that
(27)
immediately
left-hand
Then
To
function
in
terms
of
THE
INTEGRAL
As
i, j, k
the
sign of integrationand
by
of
means
The
constant
are
they
vectors
the terms
and
be
placed
under
be collected.
Then
may
may
divergenceV
of the potential
of a
"
to the potential
of
equalrespectively
are
of
divergence
that
Pot
Pot
V2
curl Pot
Pot
curl W
and
Vj
Pot
Pot
V2
or
div Pot
relations
above.
It is
"
be
may
W,
"
Pot div W.
proved
in
analogousto
manner
and
go further
possibleto
even
W,
or
These
vector
function.
Vj
of
215
VECTORS
(26)
curl V
functionW
OF
CALCULUS
form
the
the
dels
higherorder
V
"
"
V
V
VV
"
VxV
The
show
dels upon
the
the
that the
the variables
xv
The
operator Pot
*89.]
region T
finite and
decreased
are
In the
Pot
"
Pot
Pot
Pot
Vx
Pot
left
W=
have
might
for
have
written
been
as
VF,
(30)
W,
(31)
W,
(32)
VxW.
(33)
"
subscript1
performed
are
y", zv and
similar
with
summed
be
up
attached
with
to
respect to
reason
operator V
differentiating
subscript2.
as
and
follows
the
The
:
integrating
commutative.
it has been
foregoingwork
continuous
so
"
finite and
was
Theorem:
Pot
Pot
differentiations
rightmight
results
F=
Pot
to
that the
inside
approach
These
of
zero
function
the
assumed
everywhere
Fwas
region T
and
continuouslyat
restrictions
are
that the
moreover
the surface
inconvenient
216
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
be
by making
removed
and
may
The
derivative
of the
surface
obtained
potentialwas
integral.
(page 213)
in
form
the
essentially
PPotF
otF
9 xl
sv
CCC
111
"
of
use
--
J J J
r12*"xz
Lra
LIM
1
9
Let
be
The
region M.
therefore
Hence
directed
element
of the surface
element
of volume
bounding
in the
dvz
the
region mr
equal to
_L f
A*2J
^('
ff
J J
m"
12
r r v"jx*
=
The
element
T12
d vz in the
of volume
d 02
1
rlenco
"
"
-7
a;,
'
9V
xz i
TT'f'v
\ v
/"/"/"
ill
"
is
region m
d
"
equal to
a.
"*
ti
is
"v
A Vn
r12
Consequently
"
-r
"
rlzdx^
dvi+l
r
"
r12
i.rfa.
(34)
is
218
this
point with
sphere
3PotF
9*i
region
5F
"
S denote
the
included
T not
"
dv2+
"
J*ru9xs
-i.
Js
r12
imposed upon
the conditions
Let
JR.
all the
/ / /
--
"
and
radius
Then
sphere.
the
within
sphere of
small
of this
surface
By
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Vr"K
f f
when
Consequently
and
smaller
Moreover
"i.rfa
ff
"
the
the surface
the volume
integral
may
and
may
J J
smaller.
Hence
the
limit when
at
which
product
Fr
remains
\Jv
and
the
product
surface
approaches
zero.
Fr
dx%
meaning
infinite in
at
point
such
of the
region
that
manner
the
finite.
smaller
definite
becomes
becomes
5F
J.
dxl
a
l-*f\+
"
always
zero.
equation
"
not
become
not
may
smaller
5xZ
PPotF
has
becomes
PF
r!2
approach
not
or
integral
or
of radius
sphere
f* f* f*
may
dd
finite at
the
approaches zero,
integralbecomes
Moreover
the
///.
point
the
smaller
volume
in
question so
constant
and
smaller
integral
is
zero
as
THE
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
definite limit
approaches a
the
as
OF
becomes
219
VECTORS
infinitesimal.
sequently
Con-
equation
5PotFPot5T
holds
neighborhood of
in the
finite
remains
that
Suppose
becomes
coincident
("2,y2, z2)not
laid upon
conditions
infinite
with
I is the
at
single point
some
to the
distance
Then
to it.
near
which
VI*
where
points at
it be discontinuous.
though
even
all isolated
of the
the surface
K,
"
point (xv
yv
"2) from
point
integral
V
.
r!2
need
become
not
and
zero
consequentlythe equation
PPotF
"
^
O
need
hold
not
if V becomes
5V
for any
Pot
#j
the
the
point (x^
infinite at #2, yv
surface
equation will
Finally
surface
In
this
Within
surface
z2 in such
the
region.
But
that
manner
"K,
as
its limit
and
hold.
function
the
bounding
this
z^) of
yv
suppose
case
"
C'S'a
VI
then
"=
there
surface
the
remains
region jP,but
exists
V
surface
is finite ;
not
vanish
of discontinuities
without, it is
integral
"
does
i" da
the
finite upon
zero.
there.
of
V.
The
220
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
does
9V
PPotF
"
Pot
jr
d xl
dx%
hold.
cannot
with
partialderivatives
the results it is
Vj
Let
V be
Pot
to be finite
ceases
be
sphere
which
are
the
which
have
each
small
point
sphere.
granted that
of
at
surfaces
of
discontinuityof
surface
been
by
mentioned
the
integralis taken
designatedby S.
vanishes
become
when
which
the surface
V.
Let
formula
If
faces
sur-
(35)
holds
surfaces
integraltaken
the
spheres
then
infinitesimal,
V1PotF=PotV2F
This
of the
these
all the
over
surfaces
all those
in space
Then
8.
space
Let
S.
denoted
Draw
(35)
let it be
by
above
and
denoted
also be
where
by
three
By combining
J- d".
ff
in space,
Surround
exists.
the
general
V2F
Pot
PotF=
function
any
of
respect to xv yv zr
that in
seen
each
applied to
be
reasoning may
Similar
over
equation
the
Hence
general.
not vanish in
(27)'
formula
V1PotF=PotV2F.
will
surely hold
finiteor
becomes
at
infiniteat
product V 1 remains
finite,and
becomes infinite.1
In
applied to
or
the
more
For
ascertain
complicatedone
extensions
and
if
the
product V
other
whether
remains
and iffurthermore
discontinuity
as
the
cases
possesses
(35) must
surfaces of
no
r3 remains
(27)'
see
finite
must
be
can
be resorted
that the
so
specialtests
formula
always
to.
exercises.
be
used
THE
The
relation
(27) is
that
function
that
surface
to
in
to another
conception of
fact
should
F'but
be
to
which
formation
trans-
such
possesses
convenient
function
which
V which
instead
has
of possessing
renders
from
the
one
potential
probably conforms
closely than
more
the
to
exact
more
of
standpointof
the
that
where
mathematics
pure
exist surfaces
there
be understood
to the volume
'
the
of Pot V
surface
includingthe
as
it is
which
at
becomes
always
in addition
to
V.
from
amenable
to
better to state
function
so
frequentlyfound
and
analytically
surface
VECTORS
assumed
another
Such
treat
221
OF
in
cases
is
as
the
as
other.
amounts
In
In
physical states
symbol Pot
general be
values
same
simpler to
actual
in
replaced by
as
of S to the
V
simple
it
discontinuity
V
and
so
holds.
discontinuityat
value
side
will
(27)
generalthe
a
of
S of
consider
one
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
integral
12
integral
VF
fff
12
In
like
similar
as
Pot V
manner
expressionsto
consistingnot
"
Pot V
W,
be met
only
of
surface
It is
formulse
in
New
in the future
volume
integralin addition,whenever
a
W,
"
must
integralbut
the vector
function
W
be
of
W
and
other
regarded
a
surface
possesses
of discontinuities.
preciselythis
which
general,and
operators an
convention
in
gives to
eleganceof
the
formulae
the treatment
treatment
interpretationof
as
(27)
of the
otherwise
to hold
ing
integrat-
unobtainable.
222
The
which
irregularities
into the
not
This
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
is the
90.]
arise
Gibbs's
method
of the
first partialderivatives
under
by differentiating
be obtained
thrown
are
analyticappearance
of Professor
essence
The
may
the
formulae.
of treatment.
potentialmay
also
signof integration.1
"
V)
gotr
*-
*-
In like
for
manner
vector
function
'
c"Potr
~
\jr
"
"
"X1
and
III
"
^
"
"
g"
12
But
If
manner,
an
Pot
F=
^^H- J n0^ +
(a?a
-ajj) + j (ya-yj)
attempt
it would
were
be
seen
(38)'
dvv
"
made
to
Zj)
r12.
partialderivatives in the
no
longerconverged.
integrals
("a
same
INTEGRAL
THE
Hence
III "^"3
V.PotW=
J
These
Each
physics.
separate
exist
integralsmay
must
looked
each
upon
upon
its
as
the
potentialby
great importance
has
its
own
Moreover
when
even
the
matical
mathe-
potentialeach
as
the
these
potential is divergent,
of it.
They
to
are
defined
integratingoperators
new
as
the
inasmuch
independent
three
in
the
quently
interpretation.Conse-
simply from
so
name.
merits
own
from
of
considered
be
(41)
dv*
12
are
obtained
although
given
(40)
dvv
fJfJf ^f"
integralsobtained
three
differentiating
operators
be
(39)
manner
and
they
223
VECTORS
* *r
VxPotW=
is
OF
fff Tjf~
Pot F=
In like
CALCULUS
defined.
potentialwas
Let, therefore,
(42)
'
r12x
12
(#2"y2"z2)^
""
Cv %n
12
'
32
"
Cv 30n Cv "/ n
*r
m
m
'
A"O
dxzdyzdzz
Ma,x.Vf.
(44)
12
If the potentialexists,then
Pot
V
V
V
The
first is written
New
"
F=
New
Pot W
Pot
F and
Lap
Max
read
(45)
W
W.
"
The
Newtonian
of F."
224
The
callingthis integralthe
for
reason
of attraction
will
be
read
"
the
at
and
electricity
C in space
the
Laplacian of
point (xv
yv
zj due
Max
used
and
of
and
by
read
Maxwell.
For
To
show
the
that
accordingto
Let
dmz
be
(#2*y-K"zz)'
the
the
any
The
due
z-^)
Newtonian
of the
law
element
force at
The
third
This
of I
to the
current
the
is written
integralwas
gives
of
inverse
square
of the
situated
mass
(xv yv z^)due
d
to
frequentlyin electricity
if W
Maxwellian
yv
used
frequentoccurrence
of W."
occurs
instance
point (xv
and
represent the
current.
It, too,
magnetizationI, the
at
potential
the
to
Lap
This
the Maxwellian
"
magnetism.
If W
magnetism.
body.
integralwas
It is of
by Laplace.
extent
to the
is written
This
is that if
second
The
Newtonian
z^) due
yv
Laplacian of W."
the
the
body
point (xv
later.
proved
considerable
in
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
to dm
at
is
distance.
the
point
equal to
mn
12
in
magnitude
and
point (xv yv zj
to the
Hence
r12 from
the
the force is
12
Integratingover
to the convention
where
the entire
here
V denotes the
body, or
adopted, the
densityof
over
all space
total force is
matter.
according
point (xv
zj
yv
total
the
all space,
Integratingover
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
226
upon
magnetic
force
actingat
positivepole is
unit
.3
12
integral
may
This
'12
The
2/2,za) =
O2,
("a
expanded in
be
"!"
i +
of
i,j, k components
J
(2/2 "/i)
-
Lap
J Y(xv
2/2"*a) +
-Xfyv
are
of i,j, k.
terms
("a
Let
2/2'^2)
respectively
(43)'
(200
Lap
"
In terms
of the
potential(ifone
Pot
i
"
Lap
exists)this
9 Pot
may
be writt
9zl
5PotF
=
To
show
point (xv
equal
to
that if I be the
^2, z
the
-^
dyl
intensityof magnetizationat
2),that is,if I
magnetic
9xl
moment
be
vector
per
unit
whose
volume
the
magnitude is
and
whose
INTEGRAL
THE
direction
is the direction
south
from
CALCULUS
of
north
pole to
magnetic potentialdue
pole,then
of the element
magnetic
The
and
moment
divided
moment
multipliedby
of
by
and
magnetizationI
of
the
the
of I is the
of volume
of
square
angle
vector
d v% is I d
vz.
is
the
equal
to its
distance
between
The
rla.
d v2
magnetization.
to this element
of the
the cosine
the element
the Maxwellian
distribution
the
to
227
VECTORS
magnetizationof
The
magnetic
OF
the
r12
tion
direc-
potentialis
therefore
the
Integrating,
total
12
-"?,,, Max
to be
I.
"*"
12
This
also be
integralmay
written
out
of x, y,
in terms
z.
Let
JA
If instead
xv
Vy
of xv
Max
given by
variables
x, y, z;
l
of
Maxwell.
instead
and
expressiontakes
the
i(f-f)+
/// {"a"f-")
According to
Max
f, ?/, ^ be used
variables
22 tne
the form
oil
z1 the
yv
(2/2
the notation
*
f f f (X*
employed for
~
the
C(S-z)
\^dv.
Laplacian
y'} Y+
fa
'-
(44)'
Maxwell
II. p. 9.
228
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
of
Maxwellian
The
in
be written
It may
function
vector
of the
terms
is
scalar
quantity.
potential(if it exists)as
c"Potr
Max
form
upon
mathematical
function.
is
The
applied to
the
potentialfails to
9L]
Let
exist and
have
and
If
potential.
But
be
the
The
The
the
tonian
Newvector
function
vector
yieldsa
not
applied,as
yieldsa
sort.
same
integralsshould
to
be looked
space.
and
applied
function
derivatives.
its
are
of
should
be
may
function
is
should
particularphysical
positionin
of the
vector
Moreover, these
derivatives
of
Laplacian
function
yields a
ordinarytreatises
They
which
scalar
the
above.
functions
any
applied to
is
and
to them
integratingoperators
potentialis,to
in
(44)"
---
"
used
much
with
indissolubly
associated
as
given
interpretations
upon
"5-
physics.
Newtonian,
be
not
--
expressionis
of
This
The
"
Maxwellian
scalar function.
looked
as
upon
the
when
the
converge.
and
be
functions
such
general definite
in
that
their
Then
values.
potentials
by (27) and
(29)
V"VPotF=V.PotVF=Pot
But
by (45)
Pot V
and
V.Pot
Hence
V.
PotF
V.VF.
New
F,
VF=Max
V
"
W.
NewF
Max
Pot
By (27)and (29) VV
But
by (45)
and
by (45)
Pot
.Pot
"
Pot
V
"
W
W
VPot
Max
New
VF
V.
W,
V
"
W.
(46)
V.VF
Pot V
V.
W.
INTEGRAL
THE
Hence
By (28)
But
Pot
"
CALCULUS
by (45)
V
By (56),Chap.
Pot
Pot
And
Lap
"
by (52),Chap.
Pot
Pot
VV
Pot
V
Pot
Pot
W
"
W.
(47)
(48)
W.
0,
0.
W
0.
PotF=
Lap
W.
Max
Lap
Lap
Lap W,
New
229
VECTORS
III.
Pot
"
III.
or
Hence
Pot
Pot
Max
and
Hence
OF
(49)
0,
VxPotVF=0.
or
New
by (58),Chap.
III.
Hence
And
V.VW
Hence
or
These
"
"
formulae
div if desired.
New
be
may
"
Max
0.
(50)
VV-
Lap
"
written
W-
V-
VW,
out
W,
Lap
(51)
W.
in terms
of curl and
Thus
div New
Max
curl
div
Lap
Lap
"
V
W
curl New
V
VV.W-VxVxW.
Lap
New
div W
Lap
curl W
curl W
Lap
div W
(46)'
V F,
New
Max
Max
(47)'
(48)'
0
Lap
0
curl W.
(49)'
(50)'
(51)'
230
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Poisson's
Let V
92.]
Equation
function in
"beany
space such
PotF
has in
value.
generala definite
Then
V.VPotF=-47rF,
c"2PotF
or
P2PotF
dx{
The
integralwhich
solution
of Poisson's
Pot F=
Vj
"
as
has
Poisson's
The
Max
F=
Equation.
defined
been
Equation.
New
-47rF.
902 9f
02
dy-f
equation is known
This
22PotF
+
"
(52)
V2
as
the
proofis
potentialis
follows.
as
^=
12
The
and
have
variables
with
subscripts1
clearlywhat
are
are
But
Vj
Vj
V2.
attached
to
respect to which
the
performed.
and
been
V2
C C
NewF=
"
"
=V2
C^7l
"
--
V2
V2
1"
V2F+
V2
V2
designate
tiations
differen-
THE
Hence
V2
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
"
V2F
V2
OF
1
or
Vt
V2
231
VECTORS
V2/F V2
1
v
"
"
"
I- V
22
'12
12
:
Integrate
V2
But
V2
"
"
0.
*H
That
is to say
Hence
Vx
"
Vx Pot
"
the
taken
taken
region
"
of
over
be allowed
space."
sphere of
to increase
without
to
the
presence
T"" v2
(53)
"""*".
over
the volume
integral.
the surface
R,
limit.
At
of the
12
the
bounds
This
integralmust
largequantity,and
owing
V2
r12
Hence
radius
YI
integrationof
all
over
integralis taken
surface
"
--
ff
The
T T TVj
F=
by (8)
be
must
integralbecomes
term
is
finite
in-
232
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Hence
the surface
sphere
of radius
include
S must
only
not
R" but
of
the surface
sphere of
of the
radius
As
to
it has been
assumed
potentialhold.
Vr
Introduce
(xv
yv
Zj).
K, when
r12 becomes
simply
for the
as
the
largesphere of
1
--.da
r12
surface
its limit.
Hence
when
point
*
"
radius
jrrasin0d0
"
d".
r8
that
integralover
becomes
the small
sphere approaches
zero
integralover
its limit.
sphere
1
r
"
"
--
integralover
r2 sin 6 d 0 dA.
r3
rla
the
the
zero
For
V,
Hence
originat
r
=
-V
large
the
Then
"
the existence
is small.
with
V,
Hence
coordinates
Then
is
polar
and
F" exists, it is
is
K, when
"
potentialof
That
F"r3 "
its limit.
as
that the
assumed
of the
approach zero
be allowed
'
that
sphere becomes
Fsin0
de
d"f".
the
234
Theorem
and
IfVandW
that their
V
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
exist
potentials
points at
93.]
which
It
be
made
at
will
not
be
to
are
91 that
VPotF=V.NewF=Max
V
similar
V
New
"
it
manner
"
Pot
Hence
or
New
VF.
Max
was
Max
New
V
virtue of this
equalityW
LapVxW
-r"
Let
"
W2
"
(54)
W,
TT
?r
(54)'
W.
into two
parts.
NewV.W.
"
7"
Wj
(55)
W2,
-.
4?r
W.
Lap
-r"
"
is divided
1
=
Lap
4?T
Lap
"
91 that
"
Lap
Lap
"
(53)
Art.
(51)
seen
TT
4?rF.
"
"
4-7T
and
(52)'
W.
TT
discontinuous
MaxVF=
where
potentials satisfy
(52)
which
become
(46) Art.
seen
was
or
By
which
here.
Hence
this theorem
and
V-
In
points at
F=-47rF,
Pot
"
in
modifications
up
those
continuous
VPot
V.
taken
all
space
Equation,
Poisson's
The
functions of positionin
then for
general,
in
finiteand
are
such
are
"
Lap curl
(56)
4?r
New
"
"
"
New
div W.
(57)
THE
INTEGRAL
Equation (55)
4
by
is
TT
and
equal
W,
"
that
states
of the
the
V.LapV
divergenceof
the curl of
V.W1
Wo
"
-r"
New
W2
"
Consequently
may
be divided
and
of which
two
such
In
and
As
vector
of
(58)
Max
VxV
-r"
scalar function
curl
W2
function
W2
curl.
no
is
W2.
zero.
0.
(59)
which
parts of which
into two
has
function
vector
three
into
has
has
one
This
potential
divergence
no
division
of W
potentialbut
no
parts of which
both
function
vector
into
LapVxW-^-NewV"W
"
be
divergence;
no
curl.
(55)'
W3.
its curl
may
second, no
before
"
"
Lap V
"
New
"
divergence
W
Pot
are
^"
Pot
"
0.
4?r
4-7T
part of
"
"1
"
and
r"
4-7T
4?r
The
"
the
divergence possess potentials,
Let
zero.
is
parts is unique.
case
divided
the
any
function
vector
4-n-
Hence
its curl
V-VxLapW,.
-r-
divW1
4?r
But
Laplacian of
4?r
Hence
multiplied
divergence. Furthermore
4?r
But
235
VECTORS
function
vector
any
of its
"
OF
difference
to the
Newtonian
the
CALCULUS
of the
therefore
236
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
JLvxLapVxW
VxVxPotVxW
"
47T
47T
VV
"
Pot
"
4?r
VV
"
T-
Pot
"
W.
4?r
"
Pot
Pot
-:"
"
0,
4-7T
4-7T
V
for
Hence
"
"
VPot
"
0.
W.
4?r
Hence
Lap VxW
is
equal to
"
VxW
VxWr
47T
curl of W
The
Lap
"
into
which
is divided.
"
"
7T
Hence
have
New
part has
no
Moreover
none.
VW
second
the
as
V"W
V"W1.
4?r
Thus
the
the
divergence of
second
is
equal
to
the
divergence of
part
-
New
"
"
W.
4"7T
into which
is divided.
divergencethe
has
part W8
third
neither
can
curl
Hence
have
nor
as
the
first
part has
Consequently
none.
no
the third
divergence.
This
proves
the
be
any
function
W3
statement.
By
which
means
of Art. 96 it may
possesses
neither
curl
nor
seen
that
divergence, must
either
THE
vanish
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
all
throughout
functions
divided
into
other
the
which
:
94.] Definition
the
function
vector
point
every
general a
of space
curl
be
may
divergenceand
no
the
divergenceof
is said
of which
which
to be solenoidal.
vanishes
into
two
point of
at every
have
With
all been
respectto
in the
and
one
and
tional.
irrotawhich
only
is solenoidal
one
may
one
and
be stated.
foregoingsections.
the operators
functionWj,
Lap
"
in
nor
function
followingtheorems
The
solenoidal
divided
of which
proved
solenoidal
be
parts Wls W2
They
is neither
shown
potentialmay
possesses
function
vector
it has been
But
way
phenomena
has
one
infinity.
at
is said to be irrotational.
space
In
at
function
vector
represent actual
at
zero
curl.
no
vanishes
become
not
generally vanish
parts, of which
two
237
VECTORS
must
or
space
OF
curl
or
4?r
are
inverse
operators. That
Lap
"
Wj
is
(60)
Wr
4?r
Applied
to
irrotational
an
That
giveszero.
respectto
New
"
irrotational
an
either
function W2
of these operators
is
Lap W2
"
With
Lap Wx
?"
4?r
and
W2
0.
function W2,
v
"
or
"
"
the operators
div
4-7T
are
inverse
JL
_
7T
operators. That
New
W2
is
"
4: 7T
New
W2
W2.
(62)
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
238
With
respectto
"
functionV
scalar
or
"
and
div
"
the
operators
New,
4?T
also
and
"
and
Max
~r"
4-7T
inverse
are
operators. That
is
(63)
=F
4-7T
-J-MaxVT=F.
and
4?r
JFtYA
respectto
Pot
"
solenoidal
awo* V
tf^eoperators
functionWj
V
curl curl
or
4?r
inverse operators. That
are
Pot
"
Wj
is
4-7T
Pot
"
fF^A
respectto
irrotational
an
Pot
"
functionW2
aw(i
"
Wi
Wr
(64)
7T
VV
the
operators
"
4"7T
are
With
Pot
VV
W2
respect to any
is
VV
scalar
Pot
vector
or
operators
"r"
Pot
and
4?r
are
mwrse
operators. That
is
"
"
W2
W2. (65)
function V,
the
THE
INTEGRAL
-"Pot
CALCULUS
V-
VF=-
OF
V.
and
4?r
Pot
"
"
Pot
"
4-7T
With
PotF=F
"
4?r
239
VECTORS
W.
47T
respect to
solenoidal
the
function Wj
(66)
differentiating
order
V
"
and
"
equivalent
are
With
respect to
"
Wj
irrotational
an
(67)
Wr
the
function W2
ing
differentiat-
equivalent.That
are
"
and
"
is
V"VW2
VV"
(68)
W2.
the equations
By integrating
47rF=and
by
of the
means
Hence
TT
TT
Pot
Pot
47T Pot
Pot
for
scalar
Lap
"
Max
Pot
potentialintegral
F=
TT
V.NewF
Pot
New
"
Lap
Lap Lap
functionsand
"
Max
"
Pot
New
New
V
Max
irrotational vector
New
"
F=
Max
W.
(69)
W
(70)
functions
Max
4?r
is
an
operator which
is equivalent
to Pot.
functionsthe operator
..
7T
Lap Lap
For
solenoidal
vector
240
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
potentialof
There
*95.]
of such
are
to merit
to
any
all scalar
integralsare
The
in
positionin
convenience
over
vanishing identicallyoutside
for all
they
Given
The
practicalpurposes
scalar
two
of the two
have
not
but
of certain
the
These
are
all space.
limits
them
be
will
double
tions
scalar func-
single value.
for
considered
functions
The
finite limits
of
by
mine
deter-
integrationin
finite.
are
mutual
theory of
expressions may
extended
as
They
physics as
extent.
quantities. They
the
integrationsin
case
the
considerable
space.
integralswhich
mathematical
of
of double volume
number
frequent occurrence
developed
be
not
are
part.
functions
?7, V
of
position in
is the
space.
be called,
sextuple integral
Pot
(71)
One
of the
integrations
may
Pot
( U, F)
be
performed
=fff PX*!,
yi, *i)Pot
Vd
Vl
similar
of two
manner
the mutual
functions W,
vector
W"
(72)
potentialor potentialproduct
is
(71)'
This
is also
out
scalar
quantity. One
integration
may
be
ried
car-
242
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
yields
integration
One
r)=
Max(W,
(78)
By (53)
4
V
"
U PotF=
TT
"
New
PotF=
U)
(V
[NewZ7PotF] =(V
(V
93.
Art.
U) Pot
New
"
*7) PotF.
New
"
(New Z7)
New
[New Z7PotF]+
Pot F.
New
U"
V.
Integrate:
f f fv- [Ne
f f CuPotYdv=:-
47r
4-7T Pot
f f fNewZ7
(Z7,F)
f f
surface
bounding
As
this
integralis to
the
upon
F New
Pot
taken
be
CT
the
surface
and
V vanish
as
If the functions
of certain finite
"
all
of
the
over
region of integrationof
regionof integrationis
be looked
civ.
T r fNewZ
The
NewF
"
the
(79)
a.
entire
volume
integral.
surface
space,"the
largesphere of
for
identically
all
surface
S may
radius
E.
side
points out-
vanish.
Hence
4
TT
Pot
( U, F)
f f fNew
New
"
Vdv.
PotW
Lap W"
Max
W"
"
"
Pot
Pot
W'.
(79)'
INTEGRAL
THE
But
[Lap
"
W"
Pot
W]
Pot
Hence
W"
[Max
"
Pot
W"
Lap
W]
Pot
Max
Pot
"
Max
Hence
4
W"
W'
Pot
"
W"
"
Max
W"
Lap
W"
Pot
Max
W"
Pot
"
W"
W',
W.
Pot
W]
Lap W,
"
W"
[Max
"
"
Lap W"
"
[Lap
"
W"
Lap
and
243
VECTORS
Lap W"
and
OF
CALCULUS
Max
Pot
W]
W.
substituting:
TT
W"
"
Pot
Lap
[Lap
"
"
[Max
-V-
W"
Pot
Pot
Max
Max
W"
W]
W].
Integrating:
4
TT
Pot
(W, W")
f f f Lap
If
f f PotW'
W'
W"
exist
over
now
and
integralstaken
and
4
Lap W"
da-
f f
only
in finite space
largesphere
Max
W"
Pot WW
of radius
a.
these
surface
must
vanish
then
TT
Pot
(W',W")
W'
=ff /Lap
W'dv
Lap
f f fMaxW'MaxW"rfv (80)
W'.
96.]
There
theoretic nature
are
which
"
Lap W"
W"
v.
W'
ff|*Max
Max
number
may
of useful theorems
perhaps be
mentioned
of
(80)'
function-
here
owing
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
244
in
and
of
applications
If
of
function
scalar
purely
position
definite derivative
generala
in
space.
VF=0.
Given
To
be
(x,y, z)
possesses
continuous, that
constant
in
as
portionof
if in any
and
given
practical
in
well
analysisto physics as
vector
which
in space
often useful
are
be
instances
some
of
work.
mathematical
Theorem
theorems
The
not.
some
will in
them
proofsof
The
vectors.
integralcalculus
the
with
connection
intimate
their
to
F=
show
Choose
fixed
const.
point (xv yv zj
in the
region. By (2)
page
180
fxt*
J
V V* d
Ffa
y,
*)
fa, yv *,)"
*u Vi, *i
But
F(#,
Hence
Theorem
If
y, z)
(xv yv Zj)
(#, y, 2) be
scalar
const.
of
function
position
'
which
in space
if the
divergenceof
continuous
; and
surface
in
vanishes
that
if furthermore
throughout
to
term
constant
exists and
that derivative
region or
the
infinite
or
the
or
region
but
of any
and
the
V ;
necessarily
F
finite
the
out
through-
is zero
derivative
all that
by
definite derivative
general a
at every
The
in
region of space,1finite
any
possesses
vanishes
portionof
derivative
function
duces
re-
precedingtheorem.
be regarded as includingthe
throughout
must
any regionof space
well
the region itself.
as
region as
boundaries of the
INTEGRAL
THE
Given
VF=
and
CALCULUS
VF"=
"
0 for
show
To
F=
VF
Since
0 for
finite
vanishes
in S.
constant
region T,
for the
surface
not
the
through
the
surface
portionof
small
surface
be
S cannot
be
$, it must
to
of
the
The
of
but
surface
the
sphere
which
For,
as
nearlyparallelto
in the
surface
cancel
each
that
integralall
other
portionof
vanishes
integralof
which
because
F taken
over
segment which
constant
the
given
have
one
upon
side of S
relation V
been
but in all
"
incorrect
portionsof
and
space
to the
Hence
the
portion
the terms
integral of
the
is not
The
over
surface
spherical
zero.
0.
0.
supposition that
F must
near
VF
of the
cannot
face
sphericalsur-
f f fv" VFd0
the
and
sign
same
that
appears
over
normal
Consequentlythe
zero.
f fvF'da
therefore
VF"
is in the main
surface
projectsthrough S
Hence
little
projectsthrough
interceptedby
most
projectsa
the normal
the
have
F is
f f VF.""a
But
It
is
rfa
The
out.
integralof
consideration.
VF.
in the
upon
of the normal
to
which
The
certainly
of S and
derivative
which
sphere
S.
under
side
one
the direction
zero.
sphericalsurface
S.
side
outer
surface
const.
constant.
Consider
S.
part upon
region T,
Suppose that,upon
were
245
VECTORS
portionof
OF
contradict
suppositionmust
be constant
to $ in the
is not
not
fore
there-
only in
region T.
By
246
the
throughout
Theorem
the
entire
If V
be
derivative
T of space, finite
is zero, and
exists and
value
constant
and
V(x,
recedes
then
infinity,
to
function
has
the
as
if
of that
out
through-
the
the
and
the
region
point (x,y, z)
entire
c
derivative
V possesses
bounding
value
constant
positionin
region T
the
the derivative
vanishes.
VF
The
follows
Tlieorem
in space
be any
If
V(x, y, z) be any
finite
exists and
is
infinity
;
at
function
equal
Theorem
in space
[U
of
and
if furthermore
(#,y, z)
tive
posiof
boundaries
at
discontinuous; if
and
of T
equal
infinity
; then
the entire
region T
the
and
c.
If
(x,y, z) be
any
possessingin general a
scalar
the normal
and
if in all the
component
infinite distances
1
The
in
region
or
F;
(if
if
position
out
through-
of this derivative
derivative
such
of
infinite,continuous
bounding surfaces
of the
T
function
derivative
"
zero
and
throughout
position
is either
V be constant
of T
any
and
the
or
if U
V;
positionwhich
upon
of
is constant
to
be generalized
upon
given
one
may
function
derivative
infinite,continuous
or
zero
theorem
scalar
negative throughoutand
divergenceV
The
the
region T,
to
from
essentially
possessingin generala
or
and
differ
not
case
as
the
does
proof
the
in
at
and
limit when
of
the function
throughout
same
constant
continuous
infinite,
or
surfaces
all the
z) approaches c
y,
"
if furthermore
in
be
to
seen
scalar function
or
is
T.
region
(x,y, z)
region1
certain
reasoning
possessingin generala
space
is
of
extension
an
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
there
be)
of the
exists
region
vanishes
the
or
and
product
THE
rz 9
V/
from
INTEGRAL
vanishes, where
fixed
any
derivative
the
of T
this constant
This
theorem
statements
when
If
0 for
The
borne
portion
portions
"
preceding
( U V F)
r29V/9r
the
language is
will
one
0 for
0.
foregoing theorems
following
not
perhaps
so
precise
be
stood
under-
in mind.
F, then
the
relation V
themselves, but
they are
region T
different continuous
of the
made.
theorems
entire
continuous
generalized as
the
be
may
the
in
as
of
corollaries
the
measured
same.
Urz9V/9r
V-VF=Oand
As
be
may
substitution
the
by
was
be the
distance
each
in
although for
not
may
and
247
VECTORS
the
throughout
vanishes
VF
OF
denotes
then
origin;
is constant,
CALCULUS
and
differ
at
by
most
constant.
V"V?7=V.VF
If
and
portion of surface
differs from
If
of the
If V
"
the
then
"
the
Theorem
27 and
for any
the
is
two
in T
or
of the
is
and
all the
equal
the
functions
W'
possess
curls
infinite but
/9 r
are
finite volume
in
W'
and
"
pointsof
extend
surfaces
V
are
V/9 r)
the
functions
and
is
region
is
position
divergences;
and
equal
T
of
if
continuous,
necessarily
divergence of W";
then
bounding
bounding
V
and
all the
of
all
vector
W"
bounding it;
region T.
or
points and
constant.
two
are
general
finite
any
"
rz(9
equal at
a
finite
equal.
components
only by
and W
in
Fare
if in
Fare
all
at
infinity(ifthe region
at
normal
to
equal
point of
every
in
region T,
of W'
any
at most.
points "7"and
F
'
If W
which
space
and
VFin
if at infinite distances
U differs from
and
in
"7
region
and
equal
zero,
VZ7
if U=
and
region
at all
constant
V.VF
thereto),then
of
only by
V"VZ7=
surfaces
$, then
if
or
equal
the
and
to
of any
to W"
divergence
if
moreover
each
other
at
finite surface
at
every
point
248
Since
of
Then
The
Theorem
owing
which
in
W"
region
the
then W' is
If W'
if
W"
and
in
and
W";
normal
W"
and
of the device
in
If
certain
and
is
W'
at
the
The
divergenceof
surfaces
of the
W"
equal;
are
functions
vector
definite
of W'
is
equal
equal
to
the
is
bounding
surfaces
W"
and
W'
theorems
W"
and
V
"
region T,
of the
The
A
curls
and
the
to
curl
region T
the
tions
the func-
then
carried
are
have
finite
out
by
means
in
bounding
throughoutthe
functions
such
general definite
values
vector
continuous
infinite,
or
two
are
W"
if in all the
of W'
tion
posi-
divergence of
equal ;
are
of
and
entire
surfaces
W"
are
region T
and
may
region which
tic. If it encloses
no
tinuous
discon-
or
of the
equal;
region
then
W'
region T.
not
the curl of
to
the
and
possess
curl
W'
these two
and
and
equal to
tion
posi-
suggested before.
Theorem:
that V
to
of
are
proofsof
The
general
of W'
components
divergences.
divergences;
equal
W'
W".
finite but
bounding
two
are
divergenceof
if in all the
W'
equal
preceding one.
throughoutany acyclicregion T,
necessarilycontinuous,
the
the
is
derivative
functions
vector
is
tor
vec-
region T.
throughoutthe aperiphractic
which
space
and
two
in all the
equal to W"
divergences;
W"
corollaryof
are
VF=W'-
tangentialcomponents
Theorem,:
in
Let
if furthermore
and
W";
to the
equalityof
divergenceof W'
the
equal
0.
aperiphractic2region T,
any
continuous,
necessarily
and
is
W")
the
generalpossess
throughout
W"
to
becomes
and
If W'
(W
(page 197).
therefore
theorem
curl vanishes
V"
"
W",
function
scalar
whose
function
if
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
three
ponents
com-
W".
hare
to
be made
encloses within
acyclicby
itself another
regionit is aperiphractic.
the insertion of
region is said
diaphragms.
to be periphrac-
250
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
'
'
'
3y
dz +
[X dy
dz
dx
dx
dy~],
(8)
components of the
function
vector
integralof
surface.
function
of
curl
taken
over
converselyif
And
TJ taken
function
over
any
ff V
if
JJJJ
surface
is
the
equal
line
the
to
line
bounding the
integralof
vector
the line
equal to
of
curl
boundary, then
integral
U
is the
equationsof
facts due
to
Gauss
vector
scalar
the
=J
the
"
theorem
dr, then U
of
Stokes
field from
electro-magnetic
the
proof that
function
is
function
is
(11)
Jo
Faraday. Applicationof
to
Formulae
f W"rfr,
W-da=
"
Application of
and
the
surface
the
is
the
W.
of W.
J J
and
around
around
taken
surface
any
taken
the function
integralof
surface
The
Theorem:
Stokes's
function
vector
and
zero
the
the
to
deducing
divergenceof
of the
the
experimental
two
the theorems
curl
(12)
W.
of Stokes
the
curl
derivative
of
of
zero.
analogous to integration
by parts
/u
v'd"
"
-Tv^U'dr,
[u v"fr
=fo
uv'
(14)
ff*-Jj^"VXY"rfl
dr,
(16)
THE
fw
ff
Green's
II
INTEGRAL
dv
"
CALCULUS
/ /
VM
vrfa
IV
"
dv
CCv
Kelvin's
da
"
uVvd""
I f Cv V
"
dv=
vV^Vw)
"
vdv.
(18)
iu
"
MwVv
"
dv
(19)
Vudv,
"
Vw)^a.
(20)
generalization:
| I I wVu*Vvdv=
the
I I I^U'vdv, (17)
"
f f TV**- V
If
Vw
C C C(uV'Vv
by
d"
"
251
VECTORS
Theorem:
The
OF
I fvw
I I I
I uw*7v"d""
Vu*da,"
integratingoperator
I Cv V"
known
as
u*
V[wVv]
c?v
dv.
(21)
[w VM]
the
potentialis defined
equation
Pot
Pot
f f
=f
J
V(X*
Vv
Zz)
-a;2y2^2
"**2^2/2^^2-
V
V
"
(23)
(27)
VPotF=PotVF;
V
(22)
(28)
Pot
Pot
Pot
Pot
W,
(29)
Pot
"
Vr,
(30)
Pot
V=
W,
252
V
"
VV
V
"
Pot
Pot
Pot
Pot
Pot
Pot
operator Pot
integrating
The
V
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
are
and
three
additional
TIT
Lap
MaxW
(32)
the
(33)
W.
differentiating
operator
i/2'
2x
the
(42)
^12
/-Af"\
(43)
^^2 *ir
"
-a
these
"
related
integralsare
Pot
x
New
F=
Pot
Pot
assumption
body,of
the
that
Lap W;
Max
Laplacian
is the
the
on
of magnetization.The
intensity
components in
lows:
fol-
W.
of the Newtonian
densityof
expressionof
z
attracting
an
is electric
that W
assumption
of #, y,
terms
as
(45)
assumption
the
on
to it
F,
of the physical
interpretation
meaning
their
as
"**2dy, dz2.
"
potentialexists
the
known
the Maxwellian.
VT
I I
or
W,
"
F=ri2F*2)
New
on
(31)
integratingoperators
The
W,
commutative.
The
If the
"
that
these
; formulae
is the
integrals
(42)',(43)',
(44)'and (42)",(43)",
(44)".
V
"
Max
V
V
New
Lap
Max
F=
W
New
Lap
(46)
F,
"
W,
W,
(47)
(48)
INTEGRAL
THE
Lap
"
The
"
CALCULUS
potentialis
New
Max
(49)
0,
Lap
Lap
"
0,
V-
"
253
VECTORS
of Poisson's
(50)
W
(51)
W.
That
Equation.
-47rF,
F=
Pot
"
"
VPotF
Lap
solution
V-
and
Max
New
OF
TT
(52)
(52)'
W.
F=^V.NewF,
4
-.
Lap
"
-.
"
solenoidal
In
exists.
must
and
be
the
case
other
the
list of
both
not
the
Let
which
theorems
function, and W2
j"
Lap
"
"
47T
New
be
Lap W2
"
exist
W2
Vx
"
New
"
7T
curl
from
certain
solenoidal
function.
W2
that
W3
differentiating
certain
LapWj
the
state
to
and
which
j"
0,
third term
immediately
scalar function, W,
Wt
is
one
follow
irrotational vector
an
inverse
are
a
which
divergence
(53),(55) and
equations (52),(52)',
operators.
(55)
W.
"
parts of
two
potentialdoes
integrating operators
7T
of which
added
vanish.
into
New
"
is divided
(53)
IT
4-7T
Hence
is,
(60)
(61)
W2
Then
Wr
vector
W2. (62)
254
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
-^NewF=
V.
(63)
Max
VF
F.
47T
Pot
--
Wi
Pot
Wj
(64)
Wx
47T
_-Lp0t VV.W2
4
V.V--PotW2
_i
Pot
4-Tr
4-7T
1
"
"
-V.VW1
V
4
4
be.
Formulae
The
of
theorems
inferred
from
have
Among
The
W.
Pot
W2
V
VV
(67)
VxVxW1
(68)
W2
"
New
Max
Lap Lap
are
New
"
(69)
Max
the
certain
facts
Newtonians, Laplacians,and
does not exist. These
are
functions
grals.
inte-
number
of
means
may
be
conditions.
number
But
of
By
nature.
these
Laplace'sequation
satisfy
6 is
potentialexists.
tions
integra-
the enunciation
that
boundary
done
Maxwellians
deal with
concerning
conditions
the exercises
work
with
function-theoretic
certain
(70)
W.
sextuple integrals.The
performed immediately ;
chapter closes
of theorems
that the
"
They
all be
cannot
and
TT
Pot W
TT
be formed.
these
Newtonians, Laplacians,and
potentials
Mutual
may
Pot
"
4?r
4?r
may
(66)
-"Pot
W2. (65)
4-7T
7T
many
worthy
for
of
Maxwellians
taken
of
tion.
especialatten-
part assumed
the most
the
formulae connecting
hold
when
up in Exercise
the
tial
poten-
6 referred to.
THE
INTEGRAL
CALCULUS
EXEKCISES
I.1 If F" is
of
255
VECTORS
CHAPTER
ON
scalar function
OF
IV
positionin
the
space
line
integral
"/"""
is
Show
quantity.
vector
that
c r
v
Jo
That
"/
is
closed
the
of the
the contour
integral of
line
is
curve
integralaround
if the
over
any
surface
any
closed
ative
the deriv-
spanned
and
zero
is
curve
into
that if V is constant
is
curve
around
integralof
further
closed
any
function
surface
Show
curve.
integralaround
the
taken
function
tjs
scalar
the skew
equal to
of the
i/
zero
conversely
the function
is constant.
Hint
it
Instead
of
(with a dot) by
reduce
2.
treatingthe integralas
it to the line
If W
is
arbitraryconstant
an
integralof
function
vector
vector
the line
~Jc W
it stands
unit vector
multiply
and
thus
function.
integral
di
is
vector
of the
the
integralbe
The
well'sche
W.
function
first four
Theorie
taken
If
is any
around
exercises
der
be called
It may
quantity.
are
taken
Electricitat where
the skew
constant
closed
from
they
line
vector, show
that if
curve
Foppl'a Einfiihrung in
are
integral
worked
out.
die Max-
256
and
In
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
the
case
surface
S is
that
when
of V
taken
"
any
VF"
taken
That
conclude
vanishes
and
over
integral
any
the
over
plane
the
vanishes
curve
integralover
any
scalar function
V is
Show
that
the
surface
surface
is
equal
throughout
the
volume
integral
the
to
volume
bounded
by
is
that
if V
a)
closed
over
that surface.
Hence
(W
be constant.
quantity.
vector
integralof
must
"
Jj
of
integral
surface
is
converselyif
and
vanishes
This
integraltaken
is constant
The
"
ffa[
the
plane curve
3.
a
plane curve
integralis taken over
the portionof plane included
by the curve
Show
|Jjs
"
the
be
surface
constant
closed surface
integralover
converselyif
and
vanishes
closed
face
sur-
the surface
the function
V must
be constant.
4.
If W
be
function,the
vector
may
be
called
quantity.
Show
the
skew
that
the
/ I
da.
surface
skew
surface
integral
integral.
surface
It
is
integralof
a
a
vector
vector
258
By exercise
It
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
small
and
when
becomes
function
integraltaken
is such
if F
that
shown
be
can
"
of
sphere
over
approaches
and
indefinitelygreat;
R', indefinitely
NewF=PotVF.
or
in
similar
of
(85),(86), (87)
V
Lap
V"New
Pot
it is
possibleto
Lap
(86)
W,
W,
W.
"
prove
/*
/""
VxLapW=/
and
/"
/"
l.plaVV.W
f C
Lap
"
Max
fpnVV"W
W
dv,
If
"
"*"
Hence
An
Lap
used by
integral
"
Max
Helmholtz
is
/j
c/ t/
"/
VMaxW=
Hence
dv2
s*
s+
t/ *J
t/
7.
that
prove
VF,
New
(87)
W.
"
F=Max
Max
V
Then
Pot
Max
means
(85)
that
manner
Lap
By
zero
Hence
small.
Prove
New
largesphere of
R'
radius
that
Vdva.
V
rPi"
I
14
IT
"
V W
rf"*
-*"
W.
-*
(88)
if W
or
be
function
vector
259
VECTORS
OF
CALCULUS
INTEGRAL
THE
(90)
zWdVr
Show
that the
if F" diminishes
integralconverges
rapidly
so
that
K
when
becomes
VJ2"
"
"
"
(W)
JT
(V
(V
New
W)
"
Max
W)
H(y
(r2 W),
( F)
2 Pot
Pot
(93)
2 Pot
W)
Pot
=-
(92)
"
(91)
(r2 F),
VF)=Max(r2VF)
"
(W)
(V F)
(V
(W)
( F)
( F)
indefinitelygreat.
C94)
(95)
W.
F:
(96)
W.
(97)
7T
JET(W)
Pot
Pot
VV.J5"
Give
8.
the
upon
proof
of Gauss's
physical interpretationof
fluid.
The
reasoning
and
the
first
proof
that
the
in
Show
9.
is
Theorem
is similar
of
to
Stokes's
division
which
does
function
as
that
(98)
(W).
not
the
employed
depend
flux of
in Art.
51
Theorem.
of W
into
two
parts, page
235,
upon
220,
unique.
10.
the
Treat, in
case
in
which
analogous
manner
has
curves
of
to
that
discontinuities.
page
CHAPTER
the definitions of
97.] AFTER
and
applied,two
differential and
in the
The
paths
theory of
of the
treatment
new
and
vector
of
advance
symbols
to the
"
were
linear
of
novelty both
in
function, the
the
One
was
substitutions.
homogeneous
topics led
to
new
ideas
derivative,divergence,curl,scalar
the
and
Laplacian,and
second
concept and
dyad, and
laid down
open.
treatment
been
the
first of these
the Newtonian,
auxiliaries,
The
products had
integralcalculus
of the
sense
and
FUNCTIONS
VECTOR
LINEAR
the
notation
the
"
with
dyadic
the
the Maxwellian.
likewise
topic will
in
Pot with
introduce
linear vector
their
appropriate
symbolization.
The
of
simplest example
of
product
scalar
and
constant
r'
is
may
linear
function
be obtained
Let
of
r.
linear
function
vector
The
vector.
vector
r'
(1)
cr
general
more
system of
axes.
The
function
linear
of
by consideringthe components
i,j, k be
is the
ually.
individ-
components
of
are
i
Let
each
may
be
of these
different
"
be
r,
r,
multiplied by
for the
Cji.r,
"
different
caj.r,
"
r.
scalar
constant
components.
c3 k
"
r.
which
LINEAR
Take
these
r'
The
the
as
(CiiTj+j
always equal
multipliedby
Such
and
function
has
for
strain and
cv
r'
becomes
'
or
This
sort
and
in
of
i cx
i cl i
of
each
etry
geomof
axes
along these
elongations
function
But
in
becomes
the
case
body
"?2j
kv kv k3.
E
linear
vector
phenomena
of
of
linear
For
and
electricity
function
of
constant
will be
axes
the
isotropicbodies
the components
non-isotropic,
multipliedby
of the
different
Thus
ik1i"'D
theory
is
r.
"
theory of elasticity
in the
dielectric.
merely
be
k c3 k
"
the
E
k cs 2,
y +
occurs
in
different
along the
constants
electric force
the
displacement D
the
j c2
In
kz
-f
"
hydrodynamics.
electric
the
Its components
linear function
magnetism,
The
r.
(2)
r).
in
applications
numerous
r=ri#+J7/
force
of
"
point
axes,
(c8 k
corresponding components
physics. If,
homogeneous
r'
linear
vector
new
(c2j.r) +
the
to
linear function
261
FUNCTIONS
components of
r' is then
vector
are
VECTOR
j"2 j .D
function
k"gk.D.
indispensablein dealingwith
is
electricity,
magnetism,
and
opticsin
non-
bodies.
isotropic
98.]
been
The
It is
done
most
possibleto
above, by
define
means
general definition
linear vector
of the
would
function,as has
components
be
of
vector.
262
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
:
Definition
of another
vector
linear
tion
func-
vector
of r'
components
along
expressiblelinearlywith scalar
are
of the
coefficients in terms
the
when
non-coplanarvectors
three
to be
r' is said
vector
of
components
those
along
same
vectors.
If
r'
and
and
x'
if
yb
#a
x'
"
[abc]
y'b
z'c,
b"y
c^z*
a1x
where
zc,
0,
-"
(3)
r' is
then
etc.,have
to
Another
i,j,k.)
and
Definition: A
said
to
sum
of any
be
from
it the
is the
sum
function
of
the
the
is found
be
of
b,
a,
foregoing may
when
be
linear
If
be
deduced.
function, then
the function
of
the
functions
of the
of those
/is linear if
of
scalar
times
and
is
if /
times
(5)
a/(r).
hence
/Oi*i
"i/(*i)
The
obvious
use
function
(4)
r.
/(ar)
And
is
vector
function
positive or negative
any
allel
par-
to be
)"
Theorem
Jj,cv
a15
of
however
vector
function
vector
constants
components
definition
vectors
That
vectors.
(The
r.
the
continuous
linear
two
of
with
connection
no
convenient
more
function
linear
proof of
is
this
trifle
of relation
"2r2
a3r3+
"2/(r2)+
theorem
long.
(4).
It
""")
"8/(r8)
which
depends
appears
upon
more
(5)'
or
less
making repeated
LINEAR
VECTOR
Hence
/(2r)
like
In
where
Let
w/(r)
is any
positiveinteger.
be any
2/(r).
/ (nr~)
manner
263
FUNCTIONS
other
positiveinteger.
Then
by
the relation
just obtained
and
Hence
That
is
rational
To
show
the
relation
Hence
for
note
that
0)=-2/(0).
/(O) =/(r-r)
0.
=/(r
+(-r)) =/(r)
+/(-r).
/(r)=-/(-r).
To
(5)
prove
a, it becomes
function
/.
for incommensurable
That
approach
through
of the
values
of the
use
constant
continuityof
the
is
J
x=
make
to
necessary
LIM
Hence
the constant
case
negative numbers
/(O)
Hence
Let
in
positivenumber.
/(0)=/(0
But
proved
'
_
~~
incommensurable
the
suite of commensurable
LlM
CC
/ (x r)
CL
_.
number
values.
f (r)
Then
by passing
264
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Lm
/""
"
""
(ar)=ar.
fm
tt
/(ar)
Hence
which
a/(r)
the theorem.
proves
Theorem
i-
determined
/ (r) is entirely
non-coplanarvectors
for three
its value
when
function
linear vector
b, c
a,
are
known.
Let
l=/(a),
m=/(b),
"*=/(")"
Since
is any
Hence
/ (r)
In Art. 97
99.]
it
whatsoever,
vector
1 +
expressedas
+ z~ft
of
particularcase
be
may
function
linear
was
expressedas
r'
For
the
which
sake
of
be
written
each
in
r/
In like
b3,
"
"
"
another
r'
is
set
aj
linear vector
character
relation
of
(4).
to
the
r.
the
in
vector
same
way
this
symbolic form
"
"
"
kc3k).r.
be any
a2b2-r
function
of
the
scalar
For
the sake
of
and
br b2,
expression
a3b3
; for
product
given vectors,
the
equal in number,
bj "r
repeating the
terms
(ic1i+ jc2j
k c3 k
"
save
of these
if ap a2, a3
manner
j c2 j
brevityand
in
occurs
may
i Cj i
"
owing
"
distributive
to the
this function
brevityr' may
(6)
""
of
satisfies
be written
bolically
sym-
in the form
r'
(axbj
aa
b2
a3
ba
""")'r.
(6)'
266
multipliedinto
of
order
into
"P
r.
r.a1b1
0, 0 is said
determines
another.
one
The
thus
in
postfactor
The
general
"
a3b8
bj ^
b2 a2
b3 a3
be
may
obtained
and
fact that
0a
dyadic
from
"
"
to
from
tions.
func-
vector
dyadic
"
"
other
changing
inter-
by
called
are
gate
conju-
conjugate of
is the
to either.
as
as
two
a
a
postfactor
gives
prefactor. That
0C
the
is
(9)
r.
dyadics
same
and
said
are
equal
when
or
when
0
r
"
0="c.
"
the
consequents,
one
used
100.] Definition
:
Any
or
as
"""
a subscriptC
by affixing
conjugateused
when
r,
linear
two
different
conjugate linear
be
as
multipliedin
as
aab2
"
its
or
is denoted
as
r.
are
called
(9)
...
function of r.
obtained
are
general different.
is
a1b1
Thus
result
direct
'
multipliedinto
"P =
dyadics. The
Theorem:
to
vector
the antecedents
another
The
dyadics
two
of which
each
in
pref actor
as
linear
They
#-
and
either
is
When
r.
post/actor
functions
vector
to
""")
r"a3b3
dyadic 0
prefactor
used
a3b3
r.a2b2
the
to be
dyadic 0
The
important.
^" r_andjr^_i?are
vectors
is
r-(si1l)1+ a2b2
0 is said to be
vector
and
multiplication.
is
Definition: When
scalar
or
Evidently the
"
direct
by
factors
the
of
product
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
"
of r,
of r,
of
"
and
(10)
r.
to
LINEAR
third
The
vectors
vector
"
"
Theorem
be
must
and
any
it may
to the
equal,the
are
second.
A
And
s
For, if the
products
of any
conversely if
vectors
be
must
the
equal.
"
In
first.
scalar
equal.
those
Hence
dyadic
the
every vector
be shown
267
FUNCTIONS
equivalent to
equal, then
are
manner
is
r
"
them
into
""!
like
and
product of
scalar
and
relation
"
VECTOR
is
are
equivalent.
completely determined
when
the
values
*..,
where
a,
This
a
b, c
are
follows
function.
hold
for
non-coplanarvectors
by
which
The
dyadic
is the
Then
to be used
to be used
as
vectors
and
three
function
a
/ may
be
prefactorand
by
to be used
as
represented
a
dyadic ",
postfactor.
completely determined
is
when
(say i,j, k)
are
Let
/ is equivalent to the
function
ai
bj + ck,
postfactor
; and
"=
are
non-coplanar vectors
0
as
as
function
givenby
dyadic defines
s.
three
linear
and
non-coplanar
conjugate of 0,
(page 264).
the
three
0 to be used
for
known.
are
If
linear vector
linear vector
its values
known
Any
non-coplanarvectors,
dyadics 0
consequently two
Theorem
three
any
immediately from
linear vector
(10)
"z".b, "/".",
00
to the
ia +
jb
dyadic
+
prefactor.
/ (r)
"
"
0^
kc,
"
dyadic
268
of linear
study
The
that scalar,or
when
the antecedent
and
(a b)
dyadic
each
of its
b is said
the
or
be
to
If
is said
is
be
to
(a b)
is
in any
the consequent.
(a a) b
multipliedby
consequent
is distributed
dyads
is identical
dyadics.
antecedent
the
therefore
functions
vector
dyad
:
Definition
when
of
study
the
with
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
scalar
multiplied by
between
manner
a'a"
the
multiplied by
multiplied by
that
scalar
scalar.
when
The
product
is written
0
The
as
dyadic a
a
applied to
postfactoryields a
obtained
by applying
0a.
or
vector
equal
vector
0 to
(a 0)
either
to
as
prefactoror
times
the
vector
that is
"
a($.r).
V
Theorem
The
That
is
combination
and
This
follows
"
(b + c)
in
is distributive.
dyad
immediatelyfrom
dyadics(10).
[(a+ b) c]
of vectors
the definition of
equalityof
For
(a + b) c
a(b
"
a c
"
-f b
"
(a c
c)
"
and
it follows
of which
multiplied out
"
c)
that
is the
sum
ab"r
dyad
of
according to
maintained.
.r
which
a
number
the
law
ac"r
consists of two
factors,
of vectors, may
of
be
ordinary algebra
must
le
LINEAR
VECTOR
269
FUNCTIONS
(11)'
...
cl +
The
which
it is
law
products
for
writing
the
"
cn+
product of the
it
as
distributive
with
dyad
inasmuch
composed,
the
...
two
the characteristic
law.
This
is
antecedent
and
of
case
cation
justifiquent
conse-
products
ordinary algebra.
From
lOL]
obtained
Form
Nonion
the
three
unit
by combining
If all the
i,j, k nine
at
time.
ii,
ij,
ik,
ji"
jj,
jk,
kj,
kk.
and
antecedents
if the
dyads
These
may
are
(12)
consequents in
of i,j,k, and
in terms
of a Dyadic
vectors
two
ki,
dyadic 0
be
distributive
(11)'and
law
be reduced
0 may
scalar
if the terms
to the
multipleof
one
of nine
sum
of the nine
pressed
ex-
resultingexpressionbe
simplified
by performingthe multiplications
accordingto
of
vectors
obeys
is customary in the
juxtapositionas
The
be
as
appears
of
in
in
therefore
dyad
cm
be
the
collected,the dyadic
dyads
each
fundamental
of which
is
dyads given
above.
0
This
"
anii
Theorem
dyadicsd"
The
and
ik
"23
a82kj
a33kk.
a31ki
be
ij +"13ik
+
aal
form
necessary
"
a12
j i + a22 jj
(13)
of 0.
and
sufficient condition
equal is that,when
that two
expressedin
nonion
270
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
form, the
corresponding(?ads be
equal.
equal,then obviously
If the coefficients be
of
value
for any
and
dyadics by (10)
the
of
and
"
"
Let
r.
and
"
equal,then by
are
"
and
be
must
"
each
take
the vlues
on
i,j,k. Then
i. #.i
"P.i
k.
But
14)
i.
gr.i
i" 0
k.
^.i,
k"
these
coefficients
dyadics 0
the
equal
are
be used
to
(10)
defininga
linear vector
:
based
of which
r.j,
k.^.k^k.^k.
W.
coefficients in ;he
nine
Hence
the
theorem
equalityof
the
a,
be
may
corresponding
proved.1 Thu
is
dyadics can
two
times
some-
fundamental
more
conception of
the
b, c and
antecedent
may
the
dyadic
as
are
three
any
sum
of nine
given
non-
n.
be
consequent, in
the
expressedas
antecedents
1,m,
then be reduced
the
i.".k
function.
non-coplanarvectors
every
k.
the
upon
dyadic 0
coplanarvectors,
and
i-"Z".k
definition
Every
?F.
and
and
of the
analyticstatement
dyads
"Z".j
i"
are
preciselythe
quantities
expansion of
Theorem
"
expressedin
terms
of 1,m,
n.
terms
The
of a, b,
dyadic may
to the form
"21 bl +
a23 bm
"23 bn
a318l+
a32
cm
a33
(15)
en.
9^
1
As
of
corollary
None
the theorem
of them
may
it is evident
be expressed
in
linearly
terms
dependen
in-
LINEAR
VECTOR
expression of
This
a, b,
and
1,m,
Theorem
but not
with
0
in
of vectors
set
reduced
be
may
chosen
arbitrarily
be
given
i,j,k.
which
that
each
expressionwhen
dyadic
both, may
than
general
more
coincides
Any
dyads of
three
to that
It reduces
(13).
is
271
FUNCTIONS
the
to
of
sum
the consequents,
or
provided they
be
non-
coplanar.
Let
it be
of which
three
b,c
a,
the
are
(P
express
of three
sum
Let
1, m,
then
be
(a21 1
" may
dyads
be any
other
expressed as
in
Hence
1 +
(au
ala
n)
als
+
+
or
In like
three
the
as
consequents.
non-coplanar vectors.
(15).
0
required to
if -itbe
manner
dyads
of which
aA
bB
required
the three
(a31 1
a32
n)
a23
n),
a32
cC.
to
"22
(16)
express
the
as
non-coplanarvectors
of
sum
1,m,
are
the consequents
0
where
L
M
N
The
Ll
Mm
au
azl b +
a31 c,
al2
aZ2 b +
"32 c,
"18
"23 b +
"33
c.
are
unique.
for
expressions(15), (16), (16)'
dyadics
which
a,
however
which
have
have
the
have
b, c, have
need
not
the
same
(16)'
Nn,
be
same
the
the
three
same
non-coplanar.
three
And
or
a
cross
and
b.
cedents,
ante-
these
"
equal dyadics
two
non-coplanarconsequents 1,m,
n,
three antecedents.
equal
non-coplanar
consequents A, B,
same
Two
vectors
a, b without
by
the
the intervention
product of
the two
of
position
juxtaa
dot
vectors
272
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
The
reason
products
"
and
and
symbolic
used
(11) and
certain
scalar
product
is
the other
hand
it is
"
does
purely
scalar
as
obey
not
distributive
the
obey
far
as
One
however
law
two
multiplication
(Art 100).
TJieorem
product
indeterminate
The
b of
two
vectors
is
multiplication is
scalar
which
in
general product
most
On
nor
The
The
meanings.
determinate
It does
law.
is this.
vector.
vector
the associative
is concerned
the
operator.
an
the commutative
law
definite
have
acquires a
as
indeterminate
term
is neither
ab
product
when
the
scalar,the other
certain
the
for
associative.
The
the
product
scalar
as
be
to be
be transferred
this
possible transference
other
words
Theorem
If the
are
equal, the
the
product
Let
of
associative,that is
(a'a) (a"b),
the vectors
determine
Any
vector
to the
other.
scalar
when
are
general.
more
given.
known
are
scalar
the
product
factor
from
Apart
indeterminate
two
vectors
of the
posing
com-
is known.
and
a',b and
lengthsof
and
products
b' must
or
of the
opposite directions
lengthsof
a
a' and
al i +
aa
b'.
as
k,
b and
be collinear
and
to a' and
(takinginto
equal
product
one
be
the
factors
two
b is
to have
In
"
positive or
product
from
(ab)
completely
to
may
product
(aa)
the
the
multiplicationis
and
their
is known
could
impossible
when
ought
product
Certainly no
a(ab)
it will
conceivable
general product
most
account
have
a' b'
and
the
tively
respec-
b')is equal
to the
274
the vectors
b, being
and
The
b.
also the
into themselves
and
The
"
nine
"
ixi
and
The
"
i, j
the indeterminate
and
are
if
the
known
is
ab
a'b',
hold
"
given,a
a'
"
fundamental
of it.
notation
Their
as
functional
0.
either
k.
the most
"
"
from
respectively
dot and
cross.
product.
determined.
are
b and
"
b and
a
is
and
b, all of which
and
tween
be-
cross
a'
b'.
(17)
are
known
impose upon
imposes five.
The
nature
for
is
if
togethera
the
products
the directions of
That
b' and
product.
b and
"
length of
converselythat
only
not
they
of i,j,k
of the indeterminate
of the
which
different.
i"k
b obtained
b appears
most
j,
is known.
ab
vectors
a
"
b and
"
product
when
It does not
a
and
kxk=:0,
productsdepend solelyupon
upon
ab
plane of
scalar
are
upon
quantity,
vector
independent
not
functions
are
is to say, when
For these
condition
nine
product by insertinga
the factors
That
The
k"j=k"i
jxj
products a
two
"
product
products (12)
of them
two
products are
vector
scalar
upon
fixed and
are
parallelogramof
independent.
are
The
to the
indeterminate
independent. Only
not
are
normal
of the
area
nine
The
the side.
b, being
The
conditions.
b is fixed and
lengths.
product a
vector
imposes three
are
of their
and
scalar
of
directions
The
b.
product
the
likewise
"
and
imposes Jiveconditions
product a
indeterminate
The
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
others
are
brought
merely
out
the
Hence
as
the
functions
clearlyby
the
LINEAR
: A
Definition
dot
by insertinga
of each
by
subscript$
0S
like
ax
manner
obtained
by insertinga
of each
a2b2
a2
0.
in
attachinga subscriptcross
0X
If 0 be
bj
at
0s
"Px
023
Or
0S
"px
(j
^32) *
equations (20)
expressed in
in
the
vector
From
",
this it appears
uniquely determined
be obtained
more
and
b3
(18)
of 0 may
is
and
(k
"
"
that
when
the
(ai2
a2i)k- (21)
k"
0-k,
(20)'
"
scalar
if
equal
"
"
"
k) j
0S
is
0
to
and
and
and
vector
when
"
and
are
the scalar of
0*
of
are
expanded
two
equal
" and
0X
"x.
are
given. They
convenientlyfrom
sometimes
(21)'
the
of ".
"3
by
(20)
coefficients of
sequent
con-
(19)
"
a^
the vector
0S
be
of i, j, k,
in terms
ais)3
Hence
equal to
If
of the
scalar of
of 0 is
(21)
form.
nonion
dyadics,the
and
terms
will be denoted
a3
aZ2 +
j) i
"
(i.0.j-J-0'i)k-
In
"
b3
the antecedent
+j.0.j
+
-
i. 0-i
...
the vector
form
("si
vector
b2
a2
an
quent
conse-
0.
to
a3
as
This
in nonion
expanded
between
cross
dyad
b2
"
and
a3b3
known
vector
This
be obtained
bx
0.
to
a1b1
the antecedent
dyadic.
of 0 may
the scalar
as
between
attached
In
in
dyad
If
known
scalar
275
FUNCTIONS
VECTOR
(20)
and
(22)
functions
may
of
sometimes
(21)than
from
not.
of * if it were
distinct
sufficiently
276
VECTOR
ANALYSIS
Products
of Dyadics
103.]
principle.What
to the
of
distributive law
obey the
(ab).(cd)
second
dyad
are
of
respectively
product
scalar
of
dyad
dyad (b c)
ab
the
into
a4. 1
b-c
the
(23)
consequent of the
antecedent
the
"
for the
the
dyadics
and
whole
is
consequent
multipliedby
the
of the second.
antecedent
Thus
the
product and
the
and
,.
a(b.c)d
taken
dyads
for the
(cd)
"
is,the antecedent
That
the
,,
equal to
definition
by
fact that
is true
multiplication.
(a b)
is
dyad
product of the
direct
d is written
for the
is true
the two
vectors
which
stand
togetherin
the
product
(ab) (cd)
"
are
a
defined
as
the formal
law) of
the
and
"P.
of
sum
products of dyads.
Thus
...)
^=(a1b1
+a2b2
+a3b3
^=(01*1
+c2d2
W=(^l^l
+a2b2
+a3b3
""")"
(cjdj +c2d2
+c3d3
""")
c3
be
may
the distributive
to
expansion (according
product into
to form
d3 +
"
"
")
a1b1"c1d1 4-a1b1-c2d2
a1b1
a2b2.c1d1 +a2b2.c2d2
a2b2.c3d3
a3ba.c1d1 +a3b3"c2d2
a3b3
"
"
C3d3
c8d3
+
+
+
"
"
"
(23)'
...
"
"
"
+
1
The
parentheses
may
he omitted
expressions.
LINEAR
bx
277
FUNCTIONS
axdj +b1"c2
cl
VECTOR
axd2 +b1"c3
a1d3
1"2'C2 "2d2
1"2
C3 *2
b3
b3
b3
c3
'
dx
Cj a3
"
d2
c2 a3
'
d3
a3d3
---
'
'
"
"
'
"
(23)"
The
of two
product
Theorem
The
regarded
as
to the
dyadics 0
show
Let
be any
ab
(ab
b
"
d)
"
(c d r)
the distributive
vector
of
third
0 defines
pointsP'.
pointsP'
over
go
0 carries P
into
such
"
"
"
"
(c d
"
r).
drawn
r
the
from
will be the
That
the
virtue
assumed
an
origin
positionvector
be
will
the
is to say, W defines
points P
pointsP".
of
dyadics in general.
$"("""*)
that
The
a,
"
(b c) (d r) a,
transformation
into
into P".
"
for
true
point P".
of space
of ".
(b c) (d r)
(24)
dyads. Consequently by
r"
and
point P\
r)
"
"
dyad
d any
positionvector
in space, r'
point P
another
for
"
prefactoris equivalent
r),
(d r)
W when
and
"/".(r.r).
it holds
law
the
denote
"
d)
"
is true
theorem
W.
"
the operator 0.
("
"
b'c (a d
"
(a b
The
If
"
W.
"
of 0 and
dyad
Hence
"
dyadic
dyadics 0
as
by
("Z".?F).r
or
to
W of two
"
operator W followed
Q
W is
be used
to
operator
an
Let
To
product
and
go
of space
singleoperation0
position
a
formation
trans-
over
into the
such
that the
" followed
Hence
"
of
"
by
also carries
P".
Direct
Theorem:
law.
That
multiplicationof dyadicsobeys
is
the
tributive
dis-
278
VECTOR
""("
($'
and
in
Hence
be
"
"P)
"
"P. " +
"'
"
"
00
"p" +
0"
"'
".
"'+
+...). ("+
expanded formallyaccording to
Theorem
That
tive,
"'}
(25)
generalthe product
(0+
may
ANALYSIS
The
of three
product
""+..")
the distributive
dyadics "P,",
is associa-
is
(^.^.Q=0.(".^
and
consequently
either
proof
three
written
without
(26)'
demonstration
taken
ef
of the
theorem
respectivelyfrom
the
"ef
ab.(cd.ef)
(b"c) ad*
(d-e)
be
also
may
ef
{("? V)
"
ab"cf
(d"e) (b"c)
af.
given by considering"#,",
Q\
Let
"
\(0. W)*Q\
{(?.(?T. ")}
r.
W)
"
(Q
r).
r'
r'
r",
0.i"
.r=
{((^.?F) j2|.r
.
Let
(0
".r
{($"")""}.*
Hence
three
operators
Again
for
Q.
(ab.cd)
as
in the
consists
proof
be
may
$.?."
dyadics 0, ",
The
(26)
product
parentheses,as
The
law.
T'".
"^".[(?T.J2).r].
{#. (?F.
Consequently
.r
and
LINEAR
The
theorem
the
to
of any
case
of any
number
be inserted
It
of
the
theorem
and
also when
But
the
the
dyadic is
dyadics and
number
product
b be
dyad
of
"
r)
"
(r
(a b
ab
"
"
Hence
The
of any
or
end
when
the
of
d)
omitted
ab
"
(a
cd
is not
dyadics
may
made
be
to
it will be
a
the
dyadics
greater than
two.
between
occurs
vector, and
another
assume
at
a
the
form
(b r) (a c) d,
"
"
that
end
"
"
(r c) a
"
(r"cd).
ab"
of any
with
(27)
of W.
be summed
number
distributive
and
be
may
product
other
some
of
factor
vector
follows
as
up
dyadics
at
either
associative
inserted
of any
number
positionthan
parentheses are
or
necessary
at
to
meaning.
by making
factor which
vector
placed
"
factor at
definite
seen
(r c)
the direct
associative
d)
parentheses
But
vector
"
the
obeys
pleasure.
dyadics with
Later
is associative.
vector
dyad
"
dyadics
ends
product
"
end
(24)'
"P.(r. ").
"
"
multiplication
at
either
of
both
of
W*r.
is
dyadic,a
"P,and
direct
number
at
or
laws
of
dyadics
(ab"r)
Theorem:
result.
precedes
of
The
may
associative.
not
(0.r).
Let
product
the
altering
vector
the vector
case
is untrue
The
dyadics.
direct
Parentheses
0.
".(".T)=
induction
that
(24)
of two
the
The
dyadics.
pleasurewithout
at
in
279
mathematical
is associative.
is true
theorem
by
dyadics
above
product
The
extended
of
(0. T).r
Hence
FUNCTIONS
number
omitted
or
shown
was
be
may
VECTOR
in which
of the
between
occurs
and
use
hence
the
conjugate
other
product
it is associative.
dyadics
may
be
280
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
104.] Definition:The
and
of
by
respectively
the
vector
vector
dyad.
obvious
The
Theorem:
to
ajbj
direct
positionthan
the end
(rx
$)
(r x
r
(0
but
the
s)
s)
(r 0)
"
(r x
".(TX
Furthermore
the
no
other
0)
"
0 and
"
d"
"
"
"
(0
V.
"
(r x $),
x
r)
"P"s,
than
meaning
is
"
...
dyadics
whether
dot
any
is
other
That
is,
"!""",
rx
(?T.r)x
at
associative.
=r
or
occurs
vector
of
cross
expressions
s
have
0)
not
(0-s)
end
asbg
by
with
vector
number
ends
rx(0"?r)
any
product is
0).s
(0
of
both
the
case
?F
"
at
or
a2b2
a3b3
xr
performed
in
But
either
at
dyadics is
product
multiplicationbe
associative.
denned
are
r),
vector
a2b2
either end
multipliedat
can
extension
the
and
a1b1
ab
into
ab
(r x a)b.
dyad
product of
The
dyad
a(b
rx(ab)
skew
into
dyad
equations
(ab)
The
of
products
skew
s,
"P
s,
x
a,
(29)
282
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
105.]
be reduced
or
the
be
to
or
singleterm
If 1, m,
other
"P =
dyadic has
If
three
let
be
may
expressed
bm
ayn
b) m
4-
n.
(ay
cn,
c)n.
to two
terms.
dyadicwould
reduce
to
the
of two
sum
cn.
reduced
been
(ax
as
(P^azm
Then
bm
of the
two
to
Thus
zero.
al +
coplanar one
are
of the
in terms
to
or
The
at
dyadic further
the
reduce
possibleto
terms
of three terms
sum
be
can
to
(Art.101) that
shown
was
dyadic would
dyadic 0
singleterm
were
and
if
vanish.
the
expressedas
be
If 1,m,
of three
sum
terms
d" =
of which
the antecedents
then
the
dyadic may
when
and
only when
The
proof of
given.
could
To
be
prove
reduced
a,
be
the
the
This
that
the
be the
mx
of two
sum
to
dp
1,
of
contradiction.
That
n.
just been
the
that
dyadic
terms
~jTmn]'
For
1 x
n
non-coplanar.
were
let
is,
_
"
[Imn]'
has
eq
n
m,
dyads
coplanar.
are
of two
sum
part suppose
to 1,m,
system reciprocal
the
to
non-coplanar,
consequents
supposition leads
to be
known
are
second
a
en
consequents
"P =
and
b, c
reduced
first
the
to
bm
al +
,
_
m
g
'
[Tmn]
1',m', n'
VECTOR
LINEAR
The
vectors
1,m,
been
"p.r
(al
But
and
"
m'
1'
By giving to
equal to
any
But
"
take
can
plane of
coplanar
on
d and
e.
leads
to
coplanar and
Theorem
that
"
n'
1,
yb
value
1' =
"
n'
"
0.
zc.
the vector
"
only
those
Thus
the
be
must
"
q)
(p
is
dyadic 0
"
r)
"
be made
may
values
vector
assumption
(q
"
d and
coplanarwith
contradiction.
the theorem
If
"
in space.
(dp
zn,'
m'
"
xa
suitable
vector
"
shows
n'
"
0"r
m'
"
vector
as
ym'
en)
Hence
This
bin
1' =
"
"
x\' +
non-coplanar. Any
of them
terms
non-coplanar because
are
to be
assumed
expressedin
be
may
have
283
FUNCTIONS
r).
which
lie in
that 1,m,
Hence
1,
expressed as
the
m,
Hence
e.
n
n
the
non-
are
must
be
proved.
be
sum
of three
terms
of which
the
the antecedents
dyadic 0
when
The
the
can
a,
of the
first
?F=al
to
n
xp
part
en,
known
are
to be
singledyad
non-coplanar,
when
and
only
collinear.
are
0 could
part suppose
W"0
bm
b, c
be reduced
consequents 1,m,
proof
the second
Let
"l +
given above.
was
be
dp
bmxp
expressedas
dO
+ cnxp.
0,
To
prove
284
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
second
the
From
for
postfactor
?r=iclxp
Hence
be
for every
zero
to a, b,
gives
2nxp.
0.
znxp
value
value
of #,
Hence
2.
lxp
1, m, and
been
demonstrated.
If the three
0,
Hence
the theorems
words
all
are
of the
would
antecedent
theorem
three
consequents of 0
the
sum
of fewer
dyadic which
may
be reduced
the
are
the
case
non-
of
by interchangingthe
Then
is
ther
fur-
antecedents
both
in which
case
coplanar.
than
three
be
reduced
to
when
which
to be
is reducible
to
may
be reduced
the antecedent
the
singledyad
the
to
and
the
to
be
to
complete. A
dyads, but
of two
sum
is said
and
reduced
be
to be
planar.
plane of
dyadic is expressed as
is said
to
cannot
is said to be
dyads
two
known
has
of two
sum
case
0.
the theorem
been
altered
dyads.
106.] Definition: A dyadic which
cannot
and
had
to be
dealing with
and
parallelto
have
and
0,
consequents 1, m,
coplanar instead
In
as
20',
2/inxp
zlxp+ymxp
must
the
used
From
y,
y b' +
a; +
vector
any
where
that
it is evident
equation
the
the
sum
In
sequents
con-
of
uniplanar.
dyadic
is said
be
linear.
singledyad
to
are
col-
LINEAR
VECTOR
285
FUNCTIONS
expressed that
be
zero.
In
The
this
in
expressed
the
case
vanish
nine
form
nonion
If
the
dyadicmay
dyadic
coefficients of the
be
is said to
dyadic as
vanish.
must
unilinear
dyadics when
regarded
operators
as
are
follows.
as
Let
s
If "
value
is
In like
the
If
is
vector
; but
used
as
in the
no
and
of the
The
zero.
vector
of
0.
is
to
uniplanar the
If 0
with
of
is linear
the antecedent
those
every
the
used
as
of 0
and
vector
have
20.
zn.
give
cannot
on
value
any
zero
vector
In
may
t any
in the
plane
0 when
dyadic
in space
to
particularany
vector
vector
consequents of 0 is reduced
a
postfactorreduces
plane of
to
In
zero.
every
the consequents
perpendicularto
statements
s
planes. The
in the
vector
the vector
x\
take
is reduced
same
hence
yb
ica
value in the
vector
particulara
of
desired
any
zero.
may
plane of
dyadic
the antecedents
"
antecedents.
the
in space
In
t any
values out
perpendicularto
to
itself is
prefactorreduces
plane
on
a',b',c'.
system of reciprocals
applied to
the vector
the antecedents
of 0
za')
possess
planar
to take
n'.
complete dyadic
unless
of
b, c
a,
0.
"
non-coplanar and
are
(xlf + ym'
"
manner
be made
t may
reciprocalsystem 1',m',
=
suitable value.
complete 1,m,
and
and
complete s
by giving r
As
is
case
the
plane of
the
dyadic
hold.
take
value
on
any
value
collinear
con-
286
sequent of "P ;
but
of
0.
particularany
of
are
zero
is
dyadic
the value
what
the
of
nullity. A
to
107.]
Theorem
planar;
of
Theorem
and
The
product
plane of
the
product
linear
is
The
as
consequent
the antecedent
loth
are
possess
zero
no
degreeof
one
degreesof
two
three
to possess
degreesof
lity
nul-
and
"
the consequent
the
In this
"'b
ab
W.
takes
"
planar
the
dyadic
of the
dent
antece-
product
reduces
plane
case.
2,
all values
on
is
of the first
case
dyadic, linear.
planar dyadics
two
this
planar dyadic,
linear
only in
"
complete dyadics
two
and
and
dyadic
vector
in the
plane of
c0
vector
s'
B' =
possess
product of
of
dyadic.
and
to
perpendicularto
Let
The
to
complete dyadic
of the second
to
is said
complete dyadic
except when
the
sequent
con-
be.
may
direct
The
of
complete;
in
zero.
vectors
is said
dyadic
zero
as
complete nullity.
or
is
dyadic
linear
0 used
line of the
dyadic
the
perpendicularto
vectors
reduced
thus
The
to the
"P used
perpendicularto
zero.
vector
any
In
If $
matter
to
dyadic
the
to
vectors
reduced
are
reduces
postfactor
of
vector
any
particular
any
In
0.
The
other values.
no
prefactorreduces
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
B'
J* (bj -oj) +
"
takes
on
the values
(bj c:) ax
0"2 Cl) a2
2^ (b2
'
(bj c2)}ax
"
(bj
"
'
C2) at
C) a2"
{x (b2 Cl)+
"
(b, c2)}:
"
LINEAR
VECTOR
Let
s'
where
x'
and
y'
These
desired
values
any
desired
value
JT'E!+ y'aa,
(bx c^
(bj c2),
a?
(b2 cx) +
(ba c2).
"
equations may
any
287
FUNCTIONS
"
be
always
x' and
in
y' are
the
"
"
solved
given
of
plane
for
and
when
that is,when
"
a^ and
a2
s' has
unless
"
the
determinant
b2
But
by (25),Chap. II.,this
(b!
x.
The
".
Their
vectors
is
b,)
j.
and
scalar
cx
unless
ax and
the
If however
planes
of
bj and
b2,Cj
in
only values
hence
(P
"
the
product
is
Theorem
The
except
and
"
when
the
of
In
this
case
the
ax and
first factor
In
plane
of
is
linear
the
case
case.
the
is
linear
of
consequents
zero
"
is
the
of the linear
the antecedent
product
a^, and
is perpendicular
this
take
proved.
dyadics
second.
this
the
the
planar dyadic
plane of
linear
two
of
in the
perpendicular.
are
of
of
pendicula
per-
perpendiculars' can
are
only in
product
c2
is therefore
consequent
value
any
of
the
planes are
theorem
The
antecedent
zero
c2
only when
the
on
and
sequents
con-
the antecedents
is therefore
b2,Cj
and
product
the
when
to
linear
The
"
"
is linear.
Tlieorem
except
take
of the
plane
and
Bf may
and
bx
when
is,when
a2 and
the
that
"
0.
plane of
vanishes
product
product
" /
c2, to the
perpendicular
are
of
j.
Consequently
plane
the
merely
(c, X Co)
"
c,
"
bj x b2 is perpendicular to
vector
of 0
on
b2
Cj
"
and
only
in
this
case.
Theorem:
dyadic
The
is linear
product
of
except when
linear
the
dyadic
into
planar
288
is
dyadic
this
in
only
reduce
they can
similar
to
to
the
to
only
those
given
above
in
left to
are
If
108.] Definition:
postfactorto
dyadic is said
to be
if
for
there
Theorem
the
zero
and
"
"
"
"P
the
the
of
the
reader.
prefactor
That
of r,
is used
capitalI
idemfactor
is
in which
"
form
nonion
as
or
the
vector
is
expressed in
planar
two
Conjugatesof Dyadics
The
that
proofsare
proof
to
of r,
direction
When
The
be
no
of
case
The
can
The
cases.
reader.
idem/actor.
the
quite so apparent
idemfactor.
is
of
mentioned
dyadic applied as
idemfactor.
an
an
an
d"
is
antecedents
cases
vector
any
if
For
in
the
product
It is not
stated, page
first theorem
then
the
case
that in the
zero.
zero
one
dyadics. They
The
of
plane
case.
reduce
products do
or
this
In
immediately evident
It is
the
perpendicularto
planar dyadic.
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the symbol
as
complete dyadic.
r
vanishes.
the idemfactor
is
(33)
Hence
To
all idemfactors
prove
merely
that
the
to
necessary
are
equal.
idemfactor
apply
the
takes
the
idemfactor
form
(33)
I to the
it is
vectors
i,j, k respectively.Let
I
In the
ii +
an
a21ji
a12
ij + "13
"22jj
I
to
ik
"23jk
plays a
role
analogous to unity in
290
In
dyadic.
a
possess
antecedents
the
Hence
set of
a;
By hypothesis
Then
"
x\
"
"
is
when
the
equal
to
equal
taken
are
"
(0
?T) 0
This
relation holds
must
take
"
F)
(r
all desired
product of
two
of
I.
That
the
is,
c'.
if the
the
product
product
reversed
=r.I
"
"
"
0,
"
order, is also
"
of
values.
r,
0)
*0,
(V
r.
(?)
"
As
Hence
0 is
by
"
#.
complete r
"
definition
I.
an
to
two
the
dyadics
are
to be
hence
related
so
idemfactor, they
idemfactor.
Hence
z.
in either order.
product is equal
This
two
!.
dyadicsis
"
be taken
zc
idemfactor.
r"(0.
may
the
in
r"("P. ")
If the
of #, y,
idemfactor;1 then
show
on
dyadics,and
two
0 ""
yV
equal.
b',
" be any
the
to
factors
"c'.
#a' +
be
non-coplanarand
are
Let
must
complete
r.
zn
Let
To
"
ym
a',
If 0 and
the
y V
a' +
r
correspondingcoefficients
Theorem
b,
a,
a',b', c'.
reciprocals
r
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
complete.
could
said
are
not
For
be
the
that
to be
product
equal
to
the
LINEAR
reciprocals^The
VECTOR
notation
algebrais employed
291
FUNCTIONS
used
for
reciprocalsin ordinary
reciprocal
dyadics. That is,
to denote
=0-i
Theorem:
Reciprocalsof
the
same
(35)
or
equal.
0
Let
their
and
"
be
two
defined
as
reciprocals
above.
0=
and
""
show
To
0.0-^
As
0=
0-1
1=
0-1
reciprocalof
reciprocalsystem
are
If
the
0~i
complete dyadic 0
For
0~i
(al +
Theorem
into two
bm
cn)
If the
dyadics "
1
An
I. "~i
"~\
antecedents
to the antecedents
are
(l'a'+
bm
products
are
no
of 0.
n' c'.
n'c')=aa'
of
(36)
+
bV
cc'.
complete dyadic
equal as dyadicsthen
incompletedyadic has
quents
conse-
en,
m' b' +
n'V
the
in the form
be written
!'"' +
direct
and
"~i.
dyadic whose
al +
"
"~\
1,
reciprocalsystem
is
reciprocal
"~\
the
"P =
its
0.
=0-1.0.
0-i
0 is the
to
"~i.
W.
0.0-i=
Hence
The
I.
"~i.
0-1.0
I.0-i
By hypothesis
W,
W~l
",
"~i
0-i
and
(finite)
reciprocal.
" and
0
Q
292
That
"
O.
and
if
and
if
"
0
This
be
may
vectors
any
vector,
"
s,
then
s,
then
0
r
last
"~l
0"1
Hence
t x
vector,
is
canceled
from
scalar
were
dyadic is
a
zero
110.]
"
either
what
end
is
of
admissible.
taken
in the
"
"P
"
as
s,
s.
follows.
Let
s.
s.
equivalentto
an
the law
of
if
expressionjust as
of
cancelation
It
t be
be
they
incomplete
an
the
corresponds to
can-
cancelation
ordinaryalgebra.
Theorem:
of
equations
factor in
number
t x
quantities. The
not
of the
t.
equal to
s.
t"Ixs,
celation
(37)
s,
"
equation proceed
t-Ixr
t is any
Q,
reciprocalof 0,
the
"=
by multiplyingeach
reduce
seen
To
then
0*8,
"
the
through by
The
reciprocalof
dyadics is equal
to the
the
product
product of
the
of
any
reciprocals
oppositeorder.
It will be sufficient to
the
two
is,
if
of
into
As
dyadic
and
or
product of
If the
equal.
are
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
productconsists
of two
dyadics.
To
the
show
case
in which
LINEAR
VECTOR
3F-i.
(0. ST)-i
W~l
"
0-1
"
Hence
(0
0
Hence
("
2T)
"
W and
"
5F"1
0"1
"
proof
same
for any
manner
obtained
or
Definition: The
of times,
the
number
customary
of
The
of 0 and
number
any
denoted
in
0 is the power
of
are
02
03^
(0-i)"
The
theorem.
nth
power
the
nth
of
the
be
reciprocalof
corollaryof
be
may
0
interpretedas
of space,
the
an
or
inverse
The
at
all.
be
denned.
single-valued.For
"
I.
transformations.
They
are
seldom
the
idemfactor
in addition
system of square
0
"
and
But
roots
-ii
of 0
idemfactor
that is,no
formation
trans-
irrational powers
to
used
these
of the
+
correspond to
The
fractional
instance
formation
trans-
negative powers
correspondsto
infinite
the
reciprocalof
the
of 0
positivepowers
the
roots
interpretedas
as
correspond to
square
ing
preced-
the
operator determining
not
(37)
of 0.
power
0~"
symbol
0-".
The
of
power
0.
(0")-i
will
taken
02,
reciprocalof
reciprocalof
If
in the
given
induction.
dyadic 0,
be
may
forth.
so
TJieorem
the
is,
manner.
and
dyadics
called powers
are
I.
reciprocals.That
mathematical
by
0-1
I.
be
sr-i. 0-i.
products of
itself
by
0-i
0-1)
must
(0. ?T)-i=
The
0-i,
"~l)
"
( ST"1
"
293
FUNCTIONS
kk.
form
of 0
and
are
has
the
it has
not
two
doubly
294
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Geometricallythe transformation
r'=
is
in the
reflection of space
replaceseach
figureby
situated
the
upon
oppositeside
of the
called
perversion. The
r' =
"
This
rotated
about
of 180".
roots
roots
but
idemfactor
in addition
and
111.]
the
it will be
The
the i-axis
thus possesses
infinite
doubly
seen
(Art. 129)
replaceseach
through an
angle
only two
square
systems of
square
not
two
conjugateof
dyadic obtained
consequents of
G has been
that
these
been
employed.
The
demonstrated.
conjugatesare
Theorem
by
are
no
to the
been
defined
(Art. 99)
antecedents
the notation
of
and
subscript
equation
0
The
0C
(9)
followingtheorems
concerning
useful.
The
conjugate
dyadicsis equal to
Theorem
dyadic has
the
by interchanging
has
of the form
roots
all.
means
as
equal
The
idemfactor
transformation
is a reflection in thei-axis.
its
formation
trans-
transformation
the
Geometrically
figureby
transformation
j k-plane. The
system of square
infinite
doubly
j k-plane. This
symmetrical figure,symmetrically
is sometimes
has also
"P-r
The
product of
the
sum
conjugate
the
of the
or
of
sum
or
difference
difference
of the
in the
two
conjugates,
product of dyadics
conjugatestaken
of
is
equal
oppositeorder.
LINEAR
It will be
the
product
VECTOR
sufficient
contains
demonstrate
to
factors.
two
295
FUNCTIONS
the
theorem
in
show
To
(0.T)C=VC.0C,
(0. 8%.r
Hence
(0
Theorem
of the
power
The
r-(0.
"
is
conjugate
conjugate of
corollaryof
be
0nc may
Theorem
equal to
the
interpretedin
:
the
The
the nonion
is its
the
of the
(41)
The
expression
reciprocalof
the
dyadic
dyadic.
0^.
conjugate
i i +
(42)
as
may
be
from
seen
jj+ k k
"
4"c
expression"c~l
may
equivalentways
"
( 0~^0
the
"
(0-%
therefore
as
I.
be
interpretedin
reciprocalof
the
to be
either
conjugate
is
((^c)-1
Hence
or
the
equal ways.
conjugate of
(0
dyadic is
**
either of two
own
((P^"1
of two
dyadic.
(0c)-i.0c
The
of
form.
I
Hence
4"c"
foregoingtheorem.
(0-% *"PC
idemfactor
The
(r.Q). V,
power
(0-i)c=(00)-i
For
(40)
"
of the
the
conjugate
reciprocalof
Wc
")c=
(*"%=
This
W)
case
the
self
-conjugate.If
it is
equal
to the
negative of
is said
its
con-
296
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
For
anti-self-conjugate.
is said to be
jugate, it
se"/-conjugate
dyadics.
r
For
r,
0C.
anti-self-conjugate
dyadics
r
Theorem
way
into
Any
0.
"
dyadic
00.
"
and
one
only
one
and
self-conjugate
is
one
in
the
anti-self-conjugate.
other
For
0=(0+0C}
But
(0
and
(0
the
Hence
|(0"
0c)c
0C
0CC
0C-
0CC
0c-0.
the
Thus
0C), anti-self-conjugate.
in
one
(0
it
"2"c)
Suppose
the
division
part
has
been
0' +
in another
way
*'
0".
possible to decompose
were
and
Let
way.
0,
0C+
^s self-conjugate;
^c)
(43)
(0-0C\
0C-)C
part |(0
accomplished
into
be divided
may
parts of which
two
r,
self-conjugate and
anti-self-conjugate
part.
an
Let
then
Where
(0'
Hence
if
Hence
(0'
")
is
,12)
(0" -Q)=
if
conjugate.
(0"
(0'
self-con
(0"
"
")
is
J2)c
0'c
jugate,Q
")c
0"c
is
Qc
0' +
self-conjugate.
J2e
J2
anti-self-conjugate
0"
is
^
anti-self-
298
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(0-0*)
"
"2"xX
-3
of 0.
the vector
Theorem
of which
minus
follows
theorem
This
as
Any dyadic
d"
0'
symbolically
113.] Any
vector
be
it must
This
dyadic.
antecedents
be found
follows
By (31)
o)
"
and
This
may
will
be
(45)
X.
multiplicationdefines
the
uniplanar
parallelto
(c
Hence
in vector
r,
operator
with
consequents perpendicular to
all vectors
\ 0X
equivalent to
(c
"
I)
{ (I
"
For
dyadic
will reduce
(I
"
parts
two
multiplication.
cross
possibleto represent
and
as
used
function.
linear vector
Hence
0'
"
other
"PX X
or
in
into
up
the
of "P used
one
equations(44).
be broken
0 may
self-conjugateand
is
one
corollaryfrom
o)
I)
(I
(I
"
be stated in words.
to
(I
1}
"
c)
x
"
"
c)
c,
of
that
so
{I (o
"
(c
"
I)
I)
(c
I)}
"
r.
"
"
r,
I).
its
it
dyadicmay
"
r=
plane
as
c) I,
(c
The
zero.
c x
(46)
LINEAR
Theorem
vector
The
is
VECTOR
vector
the
equal
to
multiplicationwith
r.
used
I
prefactors
;
as
and
In
operator
follows
is
unit
vector
any
in
right angle
of
lying out
I
is
parallelto
to
If the
r
or
line
as
and
c)3
(c
(c
that
of
c
I)3
I)2
vector
of
dyadic
which
is perpendicular
reversed
are
turned
x
back
or
in
through
c
to its
I four
original
therefore
(I
c
were
perpendicularto
they are
about
axis.
as
is
through
which
the vectors
times
component
dyadic are
the
is a unit vector
the operator I
of the
c)2
If
axis.
an
perpendicular to
powers
rightangles. They
two
vector
(I
dyadics
applicationof
where
rightangle about
appliedthree
If it be
position. The
(I
that component
turn
through
brings a
to be
positiverightangle
be to annihilate
rightangles. Applying
times
in direct
dyadics are
the
plane perpendicularto
the
perpendicular to
direction.
three
the
through
rotated
are
about
vector
any
I would
or
dyadic c
turns
I used
plane perpendicular to
the axis
therefore
or
vector
The
postfactors.The
r, as
precedes r
with
multiplication
vector
anti-self-conjugate.
are
to
in
dyadic I
If
if
the vector
case
used
299
FUNCTIONS
c),
I,
(47)
(I
(I
It thus
law
far
as
"
1 in
The
vectors
as
an
appears
as
c)4
c)5
(c
I)5
I)4
dyadic I
that the
its powers
(c
concerned
are
or
as
c,
I.
obeys the
the scalar
same
imaginary
algebra.
dyadic
Ixc
perpendicular to
annihilator.
To
quadrantalversor
cxlisa
or
c.
avoid
For
this
vectors
effect
parallelto
and
obtain
only
c
for
it acts
a
true
300
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
quadrantalversor
to add
the
dyad
to the
in space
dyadic I
it is
c
or
sary
merely neces-
I.
If
(48)
The
idemfactor.
imaginary V
and
1 of
"
and
If i,j, k
scalar
of
three
are
I
into
i, j, and
ixl
annihilators
when
used
ii +
about
an
the
along
in direct
ji
k k is
"
to
the
is
plete
com-
is anti-self-
jk,
(49)
i j,
kk
These
expressions represent
those
They
an
for the
an
vectors
idemfactor
axes.
to i
multiplication,
annihilator
dyad
the
respectivelycombined
expression (I x k)4 is
j, but
of
(IXk)"=(kxI)"
The
dyadic X
ik-ki,
jj
successively.
quadrantal versors
with
The
kj"
by multiplyingthe
seen
analogous
perpendicularunit
xj=j
I x
be
algebra.
root
c, self-conjugate.
may
is
versor
parts of which
two
Ixi
as
fourth
as
appears
quadrantal
consists
conjugate;
114.]
therefore
dyadic
The
respectively,
-(ii+jj),
idemfactor
direction
idemfactor
jx,
x,
equivalent,
are
for the
plane of
In
similar
k.
for the
direction
i and
ner
man-
k, but
an
LINEAR
annihilator
for
idemfactors
are
If
b, c
a,
the
VECTOR
301
FUNCTIONS
plane perpendicular
These
k.
to
partial
frequently useful.
are
three
any
and
vectors
system,
aa' +
used
as
plane
of
prefactor
and
b, but
Used
c.
in the
as
plane
annihilator
is
postfactorit
b', but
like
In
idemfactor
an
an
of a' and
c'.
direction
is
bb'
for vectors
idemfactor
an
the
in the
in the
tion
direc-
for vectors
annihilator
an
manner
in the
expression
cc'
used
as
for vectors
c, but
Used
as
in the
c',but
and
are
(a
b)
two
(a
in the direction
b it is
for
for vectors
annihilator.
an
the
in
vectors
in the
perpendicularof
vectors
any
and
idemfactor
an
annihilator
an
b',that is,for
If
is
for vectors
of
plane
postfactor it
direction
and
idemfactor
prefactoris an
plane
af
of
c.
vectors
b)
(a
b)
(50)
ab.
For
{(a
The
the
b)
I}"r
vector
dyadic (b
is used
as
X
a
b in
a
"
in direct
the
is
(a
symmetrical
formula
for
abT
"
b)
and
expanding
easy
a
be
must
(b a
(ba
therefore
"
"
(b a
form
so
b)
"
ab)"r.
equal
used.
r,
(51)
ab).
in which
triplevector
"
to
If the vector
multiplication.
prefactorthe dyadic
(a xb)
This
ba"r
multiplicationis
cross
b)
to
product.
remember
302
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Reduction
0 be
115.]Let
with
of
its
continuouslyand
varies
Theorem
a
of
sum
three
and
themselves
"P =
reduce
demonstrate
This
complete dyadic
antecedents
the
themselves
the theorem
ally
mutu-
are
ck'k.
Jj'j +
among
form of 0.
ai'i
surface.
r'
vector
ellipsoid.1
an
of which
This
the
"
describes
tent
consis-
the terminus
sphere,
consequents among
perpendicular.
To
unit
its terminus
terms
the
unit
all values
on
that is,when
"
always possibleto
It is
takes
of
It is fact
is closed.
surface
When
r.
surface
the
be
0-r
unit vector
being a
describes
to
of
linear function
let
r'
r'=
is
Form
and
complete dyadic
any
the vector
Then
vector.
to Normal
of Dyadics
described
the surface
consider
by
r'=0-r.
As
this is
which
a
the
any
as
be
surface
r'
maximum
called
i,and
This
may
be
proved
*
Hence
as
to
follows
*"*
r'.
r"r=l=
By expressingV
degree. Hence
is the
r' takes
plane owing
on
r' describes
ellipsoid.
Let
on.
at least
all the
values
The
i.
as
of
great
this direction
value
next
of r'
as
great
of
"
as
which
correspondingvalues
fact that 0
"
is
linear vector
*-L
(*c~1'*
gives r'
rate
any
direction
some
correspondingdirection
plane perpendicularto
of r' lie in
be
r' to take
Consider
a.
at
or
let the
in which
be called
"
there must
possiblefor
it is
direction
lie in
closed
makes
value
of
r'srUe-i.
~l)'i'
equationr'
quadricsurface.
"
"
r'
The
r'
"
V-r'.
1 is
seen
to
be of the second
LINEAR
Of
function.
as
of
be called
upon
the
value
of r' which
into a, b,
"P
It remains
dr'
r'. dr'
is
r'
perpendicularto
is
to
is
i and
i and
to
Let
j.
Since
k.
be
the
the
0
dyadic
in the form
expressed
ck.
vectors
a,
b,
as
determined
'
is
and
(ai
-f- bj
dr
is
plane of
b and
c.
rr'dr'
hence
is
takes
is
is
r'"b
is
Let
be any
(bj
r'''b
the value
ck)
dr
j, r' is
perpendicularto
dr'.
if
when
perpendicular
j and
of
But
is
and
plane of j
the
and
k.
ck)"r,
"
when
c.
is
in the
vector
(bj
b and
plane
the
next
always
Hence
Hence
a.
is
vanishes, and
r'"c
vanishes.
parallelto
be
must
dr
to
parallel
both
dr.
hence
and
unit vector
a
r
r'" ck"
maximum
perpendicular to
dr'
dr
"
perpendicular to j,
r'
When
bj
"
when
Hence
ck) .dr,
r'
Since
Consider
c.
bj +ck)"r,
ai"
"
r.
parallelto i, r'
the
perpendicular to k,
parallelto i, r
r
bj
(ai
dr'.
is
dr
further
dr
be
"i +
parallelto i,r'
perpendicularto
If
it may
that
to show
r'
perpendicular
mutually perpendicular.
are
When
great
as
correspondingdirection
changes i,j, k
above
let the
corresponds to
be at least
must
one
Finally choose
j.
303
FUNCTIONS
of r'
these values
other.
any
VECTOR
"
r'
dr,
c
"
dr.
in this
maximum
Since
"
is
plane and
unit vector
it is
304
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
when
Hence
to dr.
perpendicular
to j, and
is perpendicular
r'
Hence
value
is
"
Consequentlyb
b.
of 0
antecedents
Then
0
where
J, c
a,
reduced
whose
of
ai'i
Theorem:
The
to
of
116.]
sum
and
vectors
positiveor
all
made
of
proof
on
other
axes
negative.
are
the
reversed
Hence
the
in
one
the
the
(52)
be
always
may
coefficients
If two
either
are
all
coefficients
are
or
three
of
vectors
resultingsystem
is
two
vectors
the
the
Then
coefficients in
positiveor
to
all
right-handed
left-handed,but
the
are
If then
directions
of the
coefficients
all the
(52) are
to which
reduction
statements
right-handed.
the
(52) is negative,
reversed.
(53)
the
upon
of the coefficients in
then
case
depends
system remains
be
may
and
any
ck'k,
positiveor negative.
scalar
theorem
the form
"
be reversed
two
0 takes
be
may
antecedents
and
dyads whose
right-handedrectangularsystem
of the coefficients in
one
dyadic
+6j'j
whose
system be reversed
if two
three
three
20 that if
page
Consequentlythe
negative.
"
The
b and
complete dyadic
consequents form
unit
the
scalar constants
are
c.
the
perpendicularto
is
dr
c.
are
by i',j',k'.
denoted
that
perpendicularto
b is
that
is
parallelto j,
perpendicularto
is
shown
been
It has therefore
c, and
when
But
zero.
is
negative,
they belong
0
all
are
form
in
may
positive.
which
negative has
all
been
performed.
As
are
all
limitingcase
positiveand
between
that
that in which
in which
they are
all
the
coefficients
negativecomes
306
VECTOR
4"."P0
ANALYSIS
a*i'i' +
"P0*0
a2ii
j +kk
-a2
If i and
i' were
a2
"
this
dyadic is not
be
k'
k and
are
it is
a,
c
Z",
like
by
double
The
dot
researches
printedfor
shown
that
therefore
of
Professor
are
i and
plane.
different
i' must
j and
j ',
ckk
constants.
product of
product
a"c
J, c
Hence
by insertingtwo
ab:cd
This
a,
by multiplyingthe
the scalar
is denoted
in their
Multiplication^
quantityobtained
product
Jjj
annihilate
degrees of nullity
two
be
dyadic 0
would
I)
positiveor negativescalar
of the antecedents
k'k',
vector
planar.
it may
aii
: The
117.] Definition
The
possess
manner
Double
the scalar
a2
every
It is
parallel. The
are
+j'j
apparent that if
linear.
0=
where
hence
therefore
But
parallel.In
i'i'
"
i' and
I) would
be linear.
"t"m
parallel("P2
not
and
c2kk.
i and
vectors
(02
c2k'k',
62jj
"P =
Since
two
"2j7
Gibbs
of the
dots
two
scalar
dyads
is
product
consequents.
between
the
(56)
b"d.
commutative
law
cd:ab,
upon
Double
are
Multiplication
here
LINEAR
and
distributive
the
with
regard
to
of two
product
the
of
of double
If
"P
and
"
a1b1
the
c2
dyads
distributive
of
a3b3
c3d3
the
law
"
"
into
a1b1:o8ds
a2b2:c1d1
a2b2:c2d2
a2b2:c3d3
agbgZCjdj
a3b3:c2d2
a3b3 :c3d3
"""
(56)'
...
"
Definition: The
the vector
product
double
cross
antecedent
the
the
product
is
(56)"
...............
of
the
"
ajb^Oadg
antecedents
uct
prod-
...
which
dot
dyads.
a1b1:c1d1
of
and
double
by multiplying
products
d2
The
dyads.
the
a2b2
the
to
dyad
to
dot
c1^.1+
regard
is obtained
dyadics
number
with
in
vectors
307
FUNCTIONS
both
law
formally according
out
sum
VECTOR
two
dyads
of the
denoted
of
product
is the
and
consequent
by inserting
of
product
vector
of which
is the
dyads
two
the consequent
of the two
dyads.
crosses
between
two
the
is
The
the
dyads
ab^cd^axc
This
product
also
evidently obeys
bxd.
(57)
the commutative
law
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
308
the
and
distributive
with
regardto
The
double
product of
into
law
distributive
of
double
and
dyads
composed.
are
therefore
defined
product according
the
sum
the
dyads
dyadics is
two
of
expansion
formal
the
as
the
of which
the vectors
cross
regard to
with
both
law
the
to
of
products
cross
dyads.
a3b3
(57)'
bgXdi
+ a3xc8
+
(57)"
...............
Theorem
two
double
The
dyadics obey
the
multiplication.But
dot
and
associative
double
and
commutative
the
double
distributive
products
any
products
cross
of
meaning)
more
do
not
than
obey
theorem
is
W=
x
two
the
W 10
=
"
evident
sufficiently
without
of
of
laws
law.
0:
The
b3
bgXdj +a3xc3
+a3xc2
demonstration.
LINEAR
Theorem
dyads
is
dyads
are
The
VECTOR
double
equal
equal
dot
unity
to
The
double
taken
dyads
That
to
j "i
There
which
exists
the
three
if neither
But
product
with
ik
is
to
positive or
The
scalar
must
the
or
nor
sequents
con-
of the fundamental
one
negative sign.
three
the
double.
jk.
of
the
dot
double
product of
dot
multiplicationwith
first.
This
in which
the
and
be
factors
Let
the
is
product
crosses.
I cd:ef
in
any
are
double
dependen
entirelyin-
arrangedor
[ace] [bdf].
is
equal
be
ef
three
follows.
if the
of the
factors
tripleproductsare
and
dots
not
be
the
crosses
double
the scalar
the scalar
this
From
consequents.
For
by
(59)
by
product of
to the
if the order
scalar
"P,W, Q
Let
above
dyads
dyads,
ab
That
three
WiQ
The
performed
positionof
expression
quantity.
be
tripleproduct
are
multiplications
of the order
or
antecedents
equal
jxi
scalar
dyadics.
cross
of
fundamental
two
antecedents
and
of
if either the
ij*ki=ixk
the
two
is
ij
is
the
0.
product
zero
the
equal
are
according as
zero
i"k
cross
equal.
are
to
fundamental
two
different.
or
ij:ki
Theorem:
of
product
or
309
FUNCTIONS
cross
triple
product
triple
statement
be
interchanged
permuted cycliclythe
altered.
If the
made
two
cyclicorder
of
310
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
0 may
118.] A dyadic
tripleproduct changes
scalar
therefore
product
Their
sign.
each
is reversed
factors
the
altered.
is not
itself with
multipliedby
be
Let
cross.
0
0
The
$"P
in
"P*0
bm
(al +
bxa
mxl
cxa
nxl
(bxc
If a, b, c and
1,m,
bm
(al
en)
the
pairs.
"l +
en
bm
en)
Ixn
Ixm+axc
Ixl+axb
products in
equal
bxb
cxb
nxm
others
axb
non-coplanarthis
may
mxn
are
nxl
cxa
0 is
of 0
square
speciesof
The
"
notation
be written
c'n'"
of 0.
power
(60)
Ixm).
(60)'
It may
02 will
be
stricken
are
Hence
product 0 $
a
nxn.
The
as
mxn
cxc
diagonal vanish.
main
.(a'l' +b'm'
[abe] [Imn]
The
0*0=-__A
to
double
be
garded
re-
employed
2 has
been
Ixm)
(61)
out.
0*0
0%
"%-
(b x
mxn
nxl
cxa
axb
3S
The
three
tripleproduct
dyads
with
of
dyadic
itself twice
0$0:0
0Z:
In
(b
(al +
repeated vanishes.
For
expressed as
the
sum
of
repeated is
=
mxn
nxl
cxa
bm
every
scalar
0^:0
Ixm)
axb
en).
term
in
which
tripleproduct
letter is
of three
vec-
LINEAR
tors
of
two
reduces
which
three
to
VECTOR
[mnl]
"P2:0
or
[cab] [nlm]
"P*0:"Z"
The
six times
equal to
multipliedby
The
of
tripleproduct
product
after the
is
scalar
the
product
scalar
[abc] [Imn].
dyadic by
itself twice
tripleproduct of
tripleproduct
species of cube.
factor
[abc] [Imn]
[abc] [Imn]
the scalar
the
Hence
zero.
only
terms
02:"P=[bca]
is
equal
are
311
FUNCTIONS
6 has
of
It will
been
repeated is
its antecedents
its consequents.
be denoted
stricken
by 03
out.
d" X0"0
0.
If
119.]
0, the
seconds
and
the
[abc] [Imn].
---
following theorems
Theorem
to the
02
thirds
The
and
03,the
stated
be
may
of the
conjugate of
of that
the second
conjugate is equal to
the
products.
dyadicis equal
dyadic.
of
third
concerning
and
conjugates,reciprocals,
of
second
conjugate of
of 0
(62)
The
third of
dyadic.
"*"""= W"
(63)
4", (*"-),"
=
Theorem:
dyadic are
and
The
second
of
third
and
equal respectivelyto
the
the
reciprocalof
of
reciprocals
the second
third.
"*-'),
(*,)-'=*,-*
("^-1)3 W1
Let
0
"-i
"VJ
al
V a.'+
m'b'+n'c'
pi
[abc]
(36)
812
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(0a)-i
=
mb
la +
j
nc
[1'm'n'][Imn]
and
(0,)'1
Hence
nc)
;2~[a'b'c']
[1'm'n']'
[a'Vc'][abc]
But
mb
(0"1).
1.
"^-
[abc] [Imn]
(0-i)3=[a'b'c'][1'm'n'].
Hence
The
Theorem:
to
respectively
and
second
third
product of
the
of
the seconds
product
and
equal
are
the
product
of
the thirds.
(0-^2
="V^2
(*.*),"*.*,.
Choose
any three
of 0 and
let
non-coplanarvectors
(0.?P)2=bxc
cP2
=
^2
Hence
Hence
n'
exf
^2"?T2
+
+
al +
bxcmxn
m'
of
1',
m',n' be the antecedents
0
f +
bxc
exf
(0
V)^
((P. F)3=
nxl
d +
"
consequents
axb
axb
fxd
cxa
as
W.
fxd
1'
cn,
cxa
cxa
n'
1,m,
Vz*
[abc] [def]
dxe,
Ixm,
1' x
m'
+ axb
dxe.
dxe.
314
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"P2
al +
mxn
03
The
Theorem:
dyadic 0
cxa
cn,
nxl
1 x
axb
m,
[abc] [Imn].
and
necessary
complete is
be
sufficient
condition
be
that
different from
zero.
For
it
shown
was
consequents of
the
Hence
the
cannot
vanish.
The
dyadic 0
second
It
be
vectors
But
non-coplanar.
nxl,
linear.
But
and
linear.
Theorem:
this is
The
if 0
Hence
be
impossiblesince
0Z vanish.
be
must
The
zero
If
linear the
and
hence
vanishingof
of
03
that
but
the
dyadic 0
the
c,
each
that is,1, m,
"
second
a,
a,
of the
are
is
condition
the
planar
Since
vectors
quents
conse-
col-
planar
that
of
0, and
0, vanishes.
consequents 1, m,
these
the
for
vanishes
0%
the
vanish.
sufficient
products vanish
vanishingof
in
sequents
planarits con-
Hence
and
of the second
The
and
be
converselyif
linear is that
of
third
their vector
if
vanishes
necessary
consequentlythe
occur
condition
dyadic 0
"P2cannot
Hence
Ixm
non-vanishingdyadic be
For
if a
non-coplanar,the
assumed
mxn,
not
sufficient
planar and
vanish.
must
been
are
which
dyadic 03
b, c have
be
must
non-coplanar.
are
vanish.
(Art.106) that
1, m,
be
and
and
the antecedents
planar is
shown
was
tripleproducts
necessary
of 0 shall not
that both
complete dyadic
scalar
two
Theorem:
(Art.106)
n,
the
are
collinear.
consequents
of
of its consequents
consequents of 0
are
collinear.
ing
third,unaccompanied by the vanish-
dyadic,implies one
the second
impliestwo
degree of nullity.
degreesof nullity.
LINEAR
The
vanishingof
results
be
may
VECTOR
the
dyadic itself
put in tabular
"P3 0,
02
03
It follows
0,
"/"2 0,
=
immediatelythat
but
dyadic vanishes;
121.]
:"
the
is
complete.
0,
0 is
planar.
"P *
0,
0 is linear.
does
If 0 be
(69)
anti-self-conjugate
For
not.
such
any
be linear.
cannot
Determinants}-
Form.
complete nullity.The
form.
0 is
03 ^ 0,
315
FUNCTIONS
Invariants
form
expressedin
nonion
"P
"12ij + "i3ik
OII ii +
a21ji+a22jj
a31 ki +
(13)
"23jk
kj
a32
of a Dyadic
a33 k k.
scalar coefficients
conjugateof 0 has the same
they are arranged symmetricallywith respect to
The
0, but
as
the
main
diagonal. Thus
second
The
"12 j i +
"13ki
Let
it be
What
terms
in 0
The
ij?
the vector
vector
must
These
are
terms
be
The
of
cross
instance,one
determinants
higher orders
is through
must
the
ij in "P2.
product equal
the antecedents
only for
results hold
determinants
double
k ; and
"33 kk
for
consequents
j and
computed. Take,
product of
the
(70)
"32 j k,
"23Jk + "33kk-
requiredto
can
yielda
productof
antecedents
be
of "P may
term.
"22 jj +
must
be
be
j. Hence
to
i and
the
consequents, k and
i.
aai a33 i J
MultipleAlgebra.
The
extension
to
316
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"P2is
in ij in
the term
Hence
(a3la23
a21
~~
This
a8s)iJ'
'11
"13
(23
"88
This
is taken
minor
coefficient
coefficient of
the
as
the
of any
the
of
the
dyad
in
generally by large
The
is
0.
in
even
The
That
of the
is
merely
negative sign
the
term
odd.
or
to
is, the
cofactor
cof actor
subscripts of
the
"P2is easilyseen
term
the
positive or
consideration
corresponding
An
with
sum
is under
first minor
is termed
determinant.
taken
first minor
according
the
in
ij
negative sign.
what
"P2is
of i j in
the
with
whose
The
efficient
co-
be the cofactor
cofactors
are
of
denoted
letters.
is the cofactor
*M
is the cofactor
of
of
a11(
12-
*33
612
a21
With
this notation
is the cofactor
of
a-,.
32'
a2
X23
the second
of "P becomes
(71)
Asl
The
as
value
the
sum
of the third
of three
ki
^32
of 0
may
dyads
(ani+a21j
a31k)i
j+
be
^33
kk.
obtained
by writing
VECTOR
LINEAR
[Oil1
"21J + *81k)
j
This
is
to be
easilyseen
equal
(a2li + "22J
a33k)] [ijk]
to the
'21
determinant
(72)
'22
(32
For
this
and
is written
03
reason
is
idea
regarded
unless
the
of
be
most
in
determinant
is very
that
(72)'
natural
form.
form
of
On
the
when
the other
conception
is
hand
of
"P3,
natural.
more
reciprocalof
the
I0 I
nonion
in
expressed
0, is
determinant
expressed
as
third of
The
the
33
frequentlycalled
03
The
317
FUNCTIONS
easilyby making
dyadic in
of the
use
nonion
form
may
be found
identity
0^0o=^sl
(68)
or
or
Hence
0~l
(73)
31
318
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
be denoted
If the determinant
If " is
second
product
form
nonion
as
" of the
"
dyadicgiven in
the
by
readilybe
dyadics may
two
found
a!3
32
a21
"11+
a22
a23
"32)JJ
a31
"11+
a32
a33
"21+
+
J21+
a!2
ll
13
a23
J3l)J i
(a21J13+
"33
^82)k J + Ca31"12+
i+
a32
33
(a21"12+
a22
"3l)k
a!3
23
J23+
tt23"3s
(a31"12+
"28+
a2
a83
a3
"3s)
31
Since
product
the third
of the
determinants
or
determinant
of
determinants, the
follows
from
product is equal
law
of
to the
multiplicationof
LINEAR
VECTOR
319
FUNCTIONS
"12
"13
"
'23
22
'32
31
C21
[31
The
f31
"33
"u
rule
12
22
32
be
may
form
with
and
row
elements
column
#]
'13
a2
as
"0
the
nth
column
with
of
To
"31
a33
^31
(76)
the
the
element
of the
sum
minants
deter-
multiply two
of which
is the
row
"23
32
in words.
determinant
23
"M
stated
the
in
^22
21
in the
products of
first determinant
and
the
nth
of the second.
If
"P
02
bxc
al +
mxn
bm
cn,
nxl
cxa
Ixm.
axb
Then
(02)3= [b xc
[mxn
axb]
cxa
nxl
Ixm]
Hence
Hence
The
-12
L13
an
aiz
21
L22
L23
a21
*22
a"
L31
L32
L33
a31
a3"
determinant
122.]
0 is
equal to
the square
three
has
quantitieswhich
expressed.
the scalar of
or
cofactors
dyadic
three scalar
which
of the
determinant
quantitiesare
These
are
of
scalar
If 0 be
determinant
of
given determinant.
invariants
independent of
that
"
the
form
is
in
are
33
given
of the
(7T)
of
expressedin
0, and
nonion
the
form
third
these
320
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(78)
(22
''32
'31
No
of these unit
the
in the main
coefficients.
The
cofactors
or
three
dyadic
sum
scalar of the
of
third
These
important that
Theorem
The
first minors
diagonal
main
be
may
diagonal.
the
right-handedrectangularsystem
scalar of 0 is the
The
of
vectors
same.
sum
of what
in terms
matter
the three
-xl\
"
(0
far
by
are
as
(0
be
may
(0
This
(0
x.
dyadic 0
But
08
the
most
"
of which
II
"22
of
I)3
the
"
a;
"2
x
02S + x20s
x*
"
seen
xl\
equation
scalar
That
"
in
the
equation
"
Hence
terms
the coefficients.
xT)c
"
(0-xl)s
is the
determinant
cubic
Any
By (68)
the
of 0
possesses.
dyadic satisfies a
invariants 0S, 0ZS,08 are
:
of
is the
invariants
second
"
(0
is
"
"
holds, if
depends
upon
in
xz
023 +
identityholding for
an
It therefore
which
I)c, 03
"
xs.
of the
all values
place of
nine
0S
scalars
the
be
scalar
a?,
the
substituted.
is
the terms
upon
the left
0*
08
0* +
are
zero.
identically
02S
0"I
0.
Hence
(79)
322
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
dyadicsare
Two
all vectors
upon
or
equal
equal
when
they
upon
three
non-coplanar vectors.
are
operators
as
That
is,when
0
"
or
"
"
"
coplanar values
of r,
or
g"0"r
of
coplanar values
linear vector
Any
Dyads
regardto
obey
function
the
the two
vectors
non-
s.
representedby
law
of
composing
the
distributive
non-
for three
or
and
be
may
(10)
for three
s"?r"r
non-
of r,
coplanarvalues
or
for three
or
----
dyadic.
multiplicationwith
dyad
al +
bl
am
an
"
bm
bn
"f cl +
cm
en
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
(11)'
Multiplicationby
two
by
laws
means
scalar is associative.
be
dyadicmay
into
expanded
of the fundamental
In virtue
a
of nine
sum
ik,
(12)
If two
their
anii
Ji
kj, kk,
+
a12 ij +
"22
"2i
a31ki+
dyadics are
equal
terms
dyads,
ii, ij,
as
of these
jj
(13)
"23 J k"
"32kj
the
a13 ik,
a33 kk.
correspondingcoefficients
form
are
equal
and
in
conversely.
LINEAR
Any dyadic
be
may
the
given non-coplanar
the
or
323
FUNCTIONS
expressed as
antecedents
the
which
VECTOR
consequents
This
vectors.
of three
sum
are
dyads
of
three
any
unique.
The
symbolic product
of two
general product
determined
vector
the
by
of
functions
are
and
directions
between
and
vector
cross
0a
the
"PX
ax
aj
0j
bj
a2
bx
a2
i.0.i
+
=
The
""23
-
direct
and
first
dyad
product of
the
product
the
scalar
the
antecedent
of
direct
according
to
the
b2
b2
are
j.0.j
a3
b3
b3
(18)
(19)
"
k.0"k
(20)
(21)
0.i)k
a13"J + Ol2
a'
'
a3
dyads
two
of the
is the
respectivelythe
"2l) k"
dyad
whose
antecedent
cedent
ante-
of the
multipliedby
second.
the
product of
scalar and
product.
are
products
vector
(ab)
The
""31
consequent
and
(i. 0.j-j
"32) i
lengths
any
~^~a
their
and
functions
are
of
product.
the vectors
scalar and
indeterminate
the
most
multiplicationby
upon
product
The
product.
be obtained
may
and
the
is the
dyad
the indeterminate
five conditions
product imposes
Their
b.
as
in which
vectors
It is called
scalar is associative.
The
known
ab
"
(cd)
two
dyadics
distributive
(23)
(b.c)ay.
is the
law, of the
formal
expansion,
product
into
the
324
dyadics and
of
such
be
may
at
In
product.
the end
at
the
by
the vector
the
product
is
of
product
Q.W.Q
(24X26)
altering the
and
of
the
positions than
associative.
longer
dyad
value
other
at
occurs
no
vector
be
may
defined
equation
(ab)
skew
formal
and
that vector.
associative law
connected
the
r,
b.
and
vector
product
The
for direct
with
dyadic
of that
expansion
dyads
of
product
(ab)
The
obeys
pleasure without
case
skew
The
ends
sequently
multiplication.Con-
s.tf.r.r,
without
written
inserted
be
at both
expressionsas
"."P.",
0.V.T,
or
of
laws
associative
and
the distributive
at either end
vector
multiplication of dyadics
Direct
productsof dyads.
of
sum
or
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
into
equal
of
sum
holds
skew
dyadics in
is
made
statement
products
(28)
to the
products of
concerning the
the
when
is
vector
multiplication.The
expressions
r
"P
may
?F,
"
4"."xr,
be written
inserted at
without
"P
"
s,
"
parentheses and
pleasurewithout
s,
(29)
parentheses may
value
alteringthe
of the
be
product.
Moreover
s
(r x "P)
(s x r)
0
But
the
The
(r x
necessary
reduced
to
zero
is
to
and
the
the
( d" x r)
("P x r)
sum
"
"
(r x s),
".
(31)'
be omitted.
sufficient condition
that, when
of which
0,
5T)
parenthesescannot
be
dyads
"
of two
dyads
expressed
antecedents
or
as
that
to
the
dyadic may
single dyad
of
sum
(or consequents)
are
or
three
known
LINEAR
VECTOR
to
be
be
respectivelycoplanar
non-coplanar,the consequents
is
dyadic
reduced
to
which
just two
to
complete dyadic
in
direction
no
planardyadic
direction
prefactorand
dyadic
used
as
postfactor. A
products of
The
linear
or
The
dyadic
products of
as
of
in space
for which
nullity.
respectively
planar or linear,except
are
relations
of
between
perpendicularity
the antecedents
degree
more
linear
case
of
nullityinto
dyadic by
the
linear
dyadicby
dyadic
equal and
the
which
when
linear
dyadic
where
cases
of the
introduce
The
reducible
Or
product of
any
to
one
product
general linear
The
of
but in
cedent
ante-
product of
zero.
applied to
is called
The
is in
linear.
the consequents
product vanishes.
dyadic is
zero
that vector
are
dyadic
as
space.
any
used
in
in certain
product.
two
are
complete,planar,
of the second
the
as
degrees of nullity
planaror
one
annihilator
an
vector
every
planardyadic with
three
possesses
linear
respectivelycomplete,planar,or
are
one
used
There
directions when
two
is
when
it is
dyadic is
postfactor. A
It annihilates
complete nullity.
or
be
can
annihilator.
an
annihilator
degrees
dyadic
zero
linear
it is
an
used
prefactorand
which
one
of fewer
sum
degreeof nullity.There
no
it is
when
two
possesses
is
one
for which
one
to
complete
singledyad.
for which
space
independent directions
when
zero.
reduced
dyads.
possesses
possesses
in space
or
planar dyadic
be reduced
can
of
sum
be
cannot
dyads.
three
than
is
which
one
(or antecedents)shall
collinear
or
325
FUNCTIONS
an
any
vector
idemfactor.
in space
produces
re-
All idemfactors
the form
ii +
aa' +
dyadicand
(33)
jj + kk.
bb' +
an
cc'.
idemfactor
(34)
is that
dyadic.
326
If the
factor
product of
the
canceled
completedyadicsis equal to
two
dyadics
reciprocalof
the
other.
the
either end
from
the
multiplicationby
dyadics possess
the
of
for the
complete dyadic
cancelation
reciprocalof
The
that
reciprocalof
taken
reciprocals
conjugate of
sr-i.
dyadic is
taken
is
product
in the
0-i.
conjugateof
the
conjugate.
one
way
the
A
(38)
by
of the
product
changing
interThe
consequents.
"c. 4"c.
")"=
reciprocalis equal
be
dyadic may
into
the
conjugate and
the
other
^(0+ 0c) +
of
sum
the
the
order.
and
to
in
zero
jugates
con-
oppositeorder.
(0.
The
equal
vectors
equivalent to
dyadic obtained
the
be
may
product is equal to
is
called
dyadic. Incomplete
in inverse
conjugate
is
(0. gr)-i
The
either
the idem-
reciprocals.They correspond to
no
ordinaryalgebra.
product of
and
commutative
are
ordinaryalgebra;
in
as
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(40)
to
divided
the
in
reciprocalof
parts of which
two
and
one
one
only
is self-
anti-self-conjugate.
2L(0-0c)-
(43)
"
Any
dyadic
anti-self-conjugate
the
or
anti-self-conjugate
is equivalent
part of any dyadic,used in direct multiplication,
to
minus
one-half
the
vector
of that
dyadic
used
in
skew
multiplication.
]r.(0-0ff)=-lrx0x.
A
dyadic of
the form
used
in
direct
used
in
skew
or
is
and
anti-self-conjugate
multiplicationis equivalent to
multiplication.
(44)
the
vector
LINEAR
Also
The
dyadic c
rantal
4"
vector
x
the
dyadic
may
coefficients
the
constants
a,
the
b)=r
of these
true
dyadics
1, as
"
may
to
the
b)
reduced
be
unit
three
all
-(49)
(50)
ab
"
"
(51)
(ba-ab).
"
each
of
"
themselves
to
form
all
form
normal
be reduced
right-handed
of which
and
6,
but
reduction
is
different.
are
be
may
the
(53)
dyadic.
to this form
The
zero.
are
the
negative.
the
of
three
and
themselves
vectors
positiveor
of
sum
reduction
Any
(b a
may
b)
among
are
the
the
In
one
or
they
case
may
An
unique
accomplished
self-conjugatedyadic
in
be
plete
incomof
more
in
are
case
not
than
more
reduced
to
form
"
in which
is
cc
j k, etc.
"
antecedents
among
is called
(a
(ax
0="
normal
annihilator
an
quad-
multiplicationis equivalent to
b)
scalar coefficients
the
kj
b)
of which
way.
and
imaginary unit V
(a
rectangular system
one
skew
complete dyadic
different
is
vector
powers
multiplication.
consequents
This
The
I in direct
dyads
unit
0.
"
dyadic Ixc
of the
in
(a
The
c.
I)
geometric interpretation.Applied
b)
is
the
(c
(46)
r,
"
i,j, k
unit vectors
"
I)
perpendicularto
parallelto
from
seen
(o
==
c, where
behave
(a
"
c)
327
FUNCTIONS
o)
(I
or
quadrantalversor
The
(I
for vectors
versor
for vectors
be
VECTOR
the constants
aii
a,
", c
6jj
are
not
ckk,
(55)
positive.
necessarily
328
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
is defined
the
by
double
and
dot
double
The
equations
b
the distributive
double
double
dot and
but
One-half
is called
10x0
of
is called
bxc
tripleproduct
tripleproduct of
The
The
second
third
of
al +
of the
the
bm
mutative
com-
product of
and
is
of the
the second
equal
to the
antecedents
of
the
The
the seconds
second
second
and
product of
0 and
the
[1m n].
and
and
and
the
to
third of the
third
0
the
scalar
(62)
the second.
third
of
the
are
reciprocal
of the
third of
second
product are
and
the
thirds.
(0.3r),= 0a.JTa
(*"
of 0 and
of 0.
0=[abc]
second
(61)
Ixm.
axb
The
itself
cn,
conjugate is equal
dyadic.
productsof
dot
dyadic 0 by
nxl
\0* 0:
reciprocalsof
third of
The
If
the consequent
originaldyadic.
the
products of dyads.
product of
mxn+cxa
of
the third
0Z
of
of dyadicsis
multiplication
0.
of the double
One-third
scalar
of dyadics
multiplication
product formally,
according to
cross
"P =
02
(57)
bxd.
sum
cross
double
second
the
(56)
associative.
not
the
b.d,
cross
the
law, into
"
axc
by expanding
is obtained
double
and
dot
double
: c
ab"cd
The
of dyads
multiplication
cross
").!-"",
(65)
330
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
6.
Prove
the
of the
statements.
that if Q is
Show
7.
"P and
"
equal.
are
dyadics that
is to say, two
homologous. Show
from
proof by
commutative
are
that if any
of
number
to each
other and
""
then
theory
dyadics are
neous
homoge-
be obtained
may
direct
multiplication
given dyadics.
to the
Justify the
equal,be
called
if
that
statement
"~l
"
quotient of
that
"
said to be
are
"
verse
con-
"
of
that """=
them
"
means
one
homologous
are
the
"
the
dyadics such
Definition: Two
to
Give
if "P
and
complete
and
106
Art. 109.
developed priorto
8.
in Art.
made
statements
Show
gous.
homolo"~l
or
"
by 3F,then
0,
which
are
rules
the
division of
governing
these
understood
and
the
incomplete dyadics
that
10.
Show
that whether
being
to
zero,
algebraand higher
the
with
(I x c)
"
not
or
" and
c x
a,
(c x
I)
"P =
"
c x
0.
b, c be coplanar
b
[a b c]
bxca+cxab+axbc=[abc]I.
If a,
11.
the law
b, c
are
normal
What
triangleand
coefficients which
This
may
be done
to the
plane of
is the condition
coefficients in the
the above
coplanar use
scalar
vectors.
12.
it
practicallyidentical
is
abxc+bcxa+c
unit
rules
quantities.
Show
with
analogous
are
9.
and
the
"
that
of scalar
with
identical
the
exists
to
relation to prove
obtain
between
the
three
relation
coplanar
by multiplyingthe equation by
a,
b, and
which
expansion of
c.
must
dyadic
subsist between
into nonion
form
the
if
LINEAR
the
be
dyadic
self
self
Prove
the
number
of
normal
form.
14.
15.
in
What,
if
in
Art.
made
which
dyadic
shall
be
Show
that
dyadic
the
be
dyadic
be
anti-
be
that
the
concerning
reduced
condition
is
zero
116
may
sufficient
and
necessary
self-conjugate
dyadic
-conjugate?
statements
ways
The
331
FUNCTIONS
-conjugate
13.
VECTOR
that
the
its
to
anti-
an
of
vector
the
zero.
if
be
the
dyadic
any
product
"PC
"
is
self-conjugate.
Show
16.
how
demonstrate
that
17.
Show
by
Show
itself
if
for
Show
20.
Show
21.
Show
by
the
linear
that
that
that
the
f)3
")3
scalar
cyclic permutation
" V
03
of
of
02
to
self-
"P2
"
"
dyadic
the
0.
f.
of
dyadics.
of
obtain
"PZ : "PZ
product
the
of
Hence
form
4"3 +
"P
product
the
Wy
vanishes.
in
dyadic
"P
"PX
116).
4"*
dot
dyadic
(0
(0
"P2
double
the
vanishes,
condition
19.
that
relation
consequents
(Art.
same
W\
the
and
4"z $ 0Z
("P
18.
the
are
that
and
of
use
antecedents
the
dyadic
conjugate
make
to
Vz
dyadics
That
"s.
is
is
changed
un-
VI
CHAPTER
IN
123.]
the
has
dyadics
There
themselves
of
then
is
nearly
old
some
the
Moreover
objectof
it
develop,as
to
analyticaltheory
That
the
of space
as
the time.
drawn
as
from
into
remains
Consider
the
same
point
extended
and
strains
necessary,
the
further
transformation
from
Let
origin.
fixed
origin,and
r'
b 40
"
of r'. The
terminus
regionsof
b -f
"
formation
trans-
at the terminus
needed
now
situated
at the
not
was
regardedas defininga
be
in the finite
r'
of the
knowledge
0-r.
of space
pointsP
Points
It is
rotations
to denote
drawn
as
appear
tions
applica-
developed.
was
mentioned.
becomes
of the
chapter to supply an
used
be
may
fixed.
applied to physics
sake
them
present
present themselves
is
theory of
practicalpurposes.
of the
r
for the
of
state
of
dyadics.
r'
This
was
may
alreadybeen
precisenature
at
of
dyadic $
has
dyadic
the
to
questionswhich
new
the
the present
far
brought
final for
theory of
the
applicationof dyadics to
and
analyticaltheory
questionswhich
when
dyadics that
and
of
number
form
new
geometry.
or
with
which
and
dealt
however,
are,
under
foregoingchapter the
been
completeness
STRAINS
AND
ROTATIONS
a.
space
a
line
of
origin
remain
in
ROTATIONS
straightlines
Hence
the
parallelto
lines
into
over
go
the
Such
planes
the
and
transformation
(Art. 76)
called
known
of such
y'
z'
Theorem
124.]
points of
of the
the
"P2,
strain
strain.
In
by
with
the
physics.
For
fluid
geneous
geometry the homo-
different
It
names.
origin fixed.
transformation.
Or
The
is
it is
tions
equa-
are
asix
If the
that
dyadic
is due
which
"33".
gives the
to
all volumes
$3, the
transformation
homogeneous strain,
of
transformation
strain and
in the ratio of
a^y
third
or
plane
areas
magnified by
are
of
determinant
unity.
to
"p
Let
The
the
1',m', n'
vectors
planes determined
and
The
b.
(ft,
=
Hence
due
bm
al +
changed by
are
by
m'
en
into
a,
the
mxn
Hence
b, c.
and
by b and
plane determined
dyadic which accomplishes this
into
transformed
a
homogeneous strain.
space
to
invariant.
sphere in
of "P,gives the
second
is due
which
that
planes
manner
of the infinitesimal
transformation
=
like
in
homogeneous
linear
as
into
frequent occurrence
affine collineation
an
the transformation
as
generallyknown
is
lines
qualityof parallelismis
homogeneous
strain
and
In
a.
"
is known
is of
strain
Homogeneous
by
line 0
same
straight lines
over
go
333
STRAINS
into
over
go
line
same
parallelto
AND
nxl
cxa
axb
c,
result
m'
are
and
is
Ixm.
if
to 0
denote
any
replacess by
in space, the
plane area
the
area
s'
s' such
0
"
s.
that
transformation
a,
334
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
It is
important
transformed
is not
area
be if it denoted
the latter
line.
0 acts
case
that the
notice
to
on
vector
into
the
This
is evident
s'
vector
same
from
in the
whereas
denoting a plane
it would
as
former
02
case
acts
s.
upon
that
show
To
unity
choose
volume
of
which
The
volumes
three
any
the
the
reciprocalsystem
Hence
b,
above
the volume
f into a,
unless
[d
d,
f ] is
to
b,
0 with
d, e, f
"#3to
equal
the
the
tors
vec-
consequents.
as
(which
e, f are
changed
ratio of
determine
form
a,
the
in
d, e, f which
vectors
dyadic 0 changes d, e,
from
magnified
are
different
are
to
1',m', n').
[a b c].
[d'e'f]
Hence
[a be]
The
But
the
vectors
[a b cj
d, e, f
125.] Theorem
dyadic represent
reducible
to the
about
The
Let
vectors
all volumes
03
Point.
and
about
is to
unity.
which
are
this ratio is
Fixed
necessary
as
mine
deter-
changed by
as
$3
is to 1.
Versors
sufficient condition
some
axis
is that
that
it be
form
0
i',j',k' and
systems of unit
three
any
rotation
[d e f] is
to
ratio and
same
dotations
where
were
parallelepiped. Hence
[def] 3"y
i'i+j'j +
i,j, k
are
two
k'k
right-handed rectangular
vectors.
a"i +
(1)
2k
ROTATIONS
Hence
if 0
is reducible
into
changed
are
changed
from
relative
suffers
to
i',j',k'.
Hence
is effected.
The
rotation.
The
shape
strain
i',j',k'.
The
dyadic
reduces
to
no
rotation
it
the
subjected
of unit
Let
vectors.
therefore
may
tion
posi-
same
Conversely suppose
i, j, k must
vectors
is
transformation
that is,suppose
"
right-handedrectangularsystem
be
the
by
i,j, k
vector
any
to
i',j',k'.
of
change
the vectors
i',j',k' and
positionrelative
no
form
given
vectors
body
to
the
the
to
335
STRAINS
its
change of shape
which
AND
be
reduced
these
to
the
form
0
i'i +
which
j'j
k' k.
to the form
is reducible
j'j + k'k
consequently represents
is called
rotation
versor.
Theorem:
The
equal, and
conversely if
dyadic
equal
are
multipliedby
and
conjugate
the
Let
the
dyadic
conjugate
reduces
i'i+j'j
0c
second
part let
0c
i'i' +
ai
"Pc
If
Hence
are
reciprocalof
versor
or
versor
k'k'
j'j'+
ia +
is
proved.
ck,
b +
kc,
0-0c
bb
0c.
fl-^00
aa
kk',
the
versor
k'k,
ii'+jj'
0-*=
Hence
to
and
negativesign.
"P =
0.
the
reciprocalof
cc
I.
To
prove
the
336
the antecedents
(Art. 108)
Hence
a,
b, c
be
must
sign
to
to
or
third
unity;
that of the
Hence
the
-(i'i
the
it is
0C=I,
j'j
due
to
transformation
reflection in the
rotation about
sign then
reverses
the
system
but
the
0C
one.
in the form
is
(2)
plus
minus
or
one
that if
to state
(2)'
the transformation
03
I0 I
(3)
due
to 0 is
origin.
it is
"
direction
the
of rotation combined
one
dyadic i'i+j'j +
The
definite axis
dyadic takes
minus
that
the
=
of every
causes
negative
and
respect
of i' and
j' the
rectangular,
form
i'i+j'j -k'k,
"
it with
right-handed and
(i'i'
+ j'j'-k'k')
with
in space
vector
directions
k'k
The
versor.
figuresymmetrical to
be stated
of 0
evidentlyequal to
versor.
0
or
is
03=I0I"0,
such
replaceseach figureby
to
negative
08=I0I=1.
only necessary
"
be
may
k'k).
negative sign,to
determinant
0
The
may
I,
dyadic 0
0
rectangular
system
of
geometricinterpretations
two
a
left-handed
versor
versor
0 is
are
a
a
0.0C=I,
There
k'k,
j'j
of
0.0C=
if 0.
Hence
the consequents
by prefixingthe
with
versor
criterion for
as
and
left-handed
i'i +
determinant
or
inasmuch
b,
Then
vector.
The
The
vectors.
right-handedone
each
right-handed or
system of unit
changed
a,
reciprocalsystems.
either
be
must
Or
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(i'i+j' j + k'k).
338
"P =
ii +
cos
(jj
jj
Hence
If
ii +
dyadic 0
show
apply it to
to
r
a;
be
The
a.
the
to
suffers
is rotated
vector
Let
were
about
is therefore
a
be
"
given
dyad
but
"
if
as
by
"?,
(6)
a.
is
an
the
for vectors
idemfactor
for vectors
idemfactor
an
The
a.
and
accomplish
is
denoted
denoted
annihilator
an
aa"r
a;
but
an
dyadic
perpendicular
parallelto
a.
If then
been
any
vector
rotated
in terms
a2
sin q
an
perpendicularto
x
in its
its
r.
plane through
component
degrees.
through
of i, j,k
a2
that
as
ij +
"3k,
0
the
parallel
perpendicularto
component
angle of
of
(or components
in space
about
aa
is
rotated
ax i +
ii +
If
a.
but its
through
r.
all vectors
has
aa=
The
for vectors
cos
change ;
no
axis
sin q I
parallelto
parallelto
are
the vector
If
(5)
is
rotation
a)
dyadic
unchanged
d"
angle q.
i.
leaves
vectors)which
i-axis any
that axis be
(Art. 113)
"^"r
0
(4)
plane perpendicular to
annihilator
an
parallelto
Hence
a;
j k).
"
r.
but
Hence
of the
quadrantal versor
sin q I
i) +
"
(I
vector
in
all vectors
annihilator
is
"
i.
about
parallelto
perpendicular to
for
cos
this
that
accomplishesthe
a a
(k j
I-ii,
as
rotation
which
"P =
rotation
(I
be taken
angle of
before the
To
jk
sin q
generallyin place
more
the
k)
kk
"
cos
kj
by
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
ik
The
angle.
whole
ROTATIONS
AND
"2al
J*
azal
ki
I
I
"22 JJ+
+
+
0ii
"3Ji
"2ik,
"JJ-"iJk,
-"2ki
"32 kk,
kk,
"3ij
"
J*
"2a3
kj
a3a2
ii+jj
339
STRAINS
^kj
Okk.
Hence
0
the
0X
{a^ (1
{a1"2 (1
{a1a3 (1
{"2ai (1
(a22(1
{#2as (1
{agffj(1
(as a2 (1
(a32(1 -f-cos q)
If 0
127.]
and
i+
of
cos
"
i +
"
cos
the
The
axis of rotation
negative of
direction
(j j
"
of the
depends
on
the
be reduced
i is
vector
axis
of
invariant
to the form
3.1*k
in
q} jj
?} j k
ai sin
~~
a2 sin
"
ax sin
^) +
q}
cos
q}
ki
q} kj
(7)
k k.
equation (4)
of 0
the vector
found.
k
-f sin q
k)
(k
j x k)
"
2 sin q i
"
kk)
cos
1 +
to
seen
vector
of the
negative
may
the
^)
0a
The
cos
be
0X
Qs
#)
as
g-}i j
"2 sin
cos
cos
cos
"
may
q) +
cos
"3 sin
"
ji
2) + a3sing-}
cos
"
"" i i
cos
#)
cos
"
"
q)
cos
"
be written
scalar
j)
cos
"
of
sin q
The
"
j k),
"
of
the direction
is true
This
of rotation
0.
"
q.
have
0.
(k j
of
proof
property of
any
versor
of this
"#x. Any
in
"
"PX,
general.
is the
statement
versor
direction
0
of i
340
of 0
reduction
rotation altered
made
of
negative
the
any
by
such
is
the direction
But
"PX.
reduction.
negative of
the
with
tangent of one-half
determined
when
..
cos
the
the values
the
completely
in the
direction
Q, be
equal
of
"PX,the
"
tion
direc-
q is
of
0X and
@s
is therefore
known.
are
of
invariants
are
0.
"
version
Let
ft be
axis of rotation.
the
to
direction
0s
of
angle
versor
of the
of
"
1 +
vector
axis
1 +
of
Hence
the
by
is the
nor
seen
of "#.
the vector
sm
is
altered
not
"
coincident
always
After
of the axis
The
The
"Py is
particularform
to
direction
been
has
this reduction
be
the
with
coincident
to
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Let
the
tangent of one-half
mine
$, deter-
vector
the
The
drawn
magnitude
angle
of
version.
The
ft determines
vector
By (6)
the
of
semi-tangent
0
versor
versor
version.
expressed in
was
ft will be
completely.
of
terms
unit vector
Hence
is
of the vector
space.
The
(I
if ft be the vector
cos
There
cos
a)
sin q I
expression for
version.
'
versor
Let
represented by ft carries
"
ft
into
ft
a.
version
sin
semi-tangentof
version
semi-tangentof
compact
more
"
c.
be any
in terms
vector
in
ROTATIONS
AND
ft.
if
result of
would
(c
ft
C'C
Since
of the two
vectors
c) (c
ftxc)"
ftXC"ftXC
"
ft and
term
second
"
"
into
ftxc.ftxc
"
ft X
vanishes.
ftxc).(c
c2
(1
the statement
For
ftxc'ftxc
ft.ft
c2
C"C
"
ft"C
"
c2
(1
the
the two
"
ft x
ft"C.
tan2
"
In
the
equal to
is
q.
ftxc"ftxc
"
c2
equality.
vectors
ftxc)_c"c
\q}
tan2
tan2 i q)
(1+
Hence
and
ft the
C"C
perpendicularto
parallelto
zero
equal.
c"c
it)were
be
c.
are
is
by hypothesisperpendicular
are
c"c
The
is carried
case
of
ft x would
multiplyingby
be that
"
this in
341
STRAINS
(1
tan2
\q)
q)
'-
COS
c2
(1
tan2
i q)
40
(c
ft x
"
c) x (c +
ft x c)
(ftx c)
c2
(1
tan2
1 q)
2 c2 tan
c2
(1
and
the
must
the
+ ft x
angle q
cosine
c
are
and
and
sine
tan2
I q)
sin q.
Hence
of
the
angle
to
equal respectively
the
between
cosine and
Now
"
ft x
sine of
the vectors
342
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
and
ft
"
(c +
1
(i +
a), (i
Multiplyby
c)
the
the
a)-1 (c
"
ft x
(I +
c
"
of
value
due
The
"
ft)
"
c)
ft
c.
dyadic
version
(I +
ft)
"P =
what
"
a)-1- (i -ixft)=i+ixft.
(i + ixft)"(i-ix
Hence
(I
I+ 1
the
the
ft carries
ft x
dyadic
semi-tangentof
(10)'
ft)-1
Hence
c.
to the vector
dyadic
ft) (I
no
matter
"P determines
version
vector
the
ft.
ft x
"
into
(I + ft-ft)c.
(I + Ixft)"(c
I
(I +
Hence
the
ftxc)
"
ft).(c-ft
to ft as
ftxc
c)=c
ft x
"
has been
into
ft-ftc
rotation
the
ftx(ftxc)
"
(l
ft"ft)c.
Ixft)2
1 +
ft-ft
of all vectors
equal
ft) (I + I
"
to
be
dicular
perpen-
in the
a
plane perpendicular
vector
ft
parallelto
ft.
ft)
xQ,
1+ft-ft
c, if
vector
to ft.
ftxc
"
(I +
dyadic
produces a
(I +
=
ft)
n
-ft
1+ft-ft
xQ,
=
1+ft.ft
ft
ROTATIONS
obviate this
To
AND
the dyad
difficulty
versor
(i
Hence
This
ft) (i +
ft) (i
ft)
"
is
annihilator
an
added
to
the
merator.
nu-
written
ixtt)*
ft-ft
i +
ft) x ft
be
be
1 +
(i
(i
a)
then
may
^=aa
(i +
Q,Q, which
perpendicularto ft,may
The
343
STRAINS
ft +
(i
ft ft
ft).(i x Q)
ft ft i.
:
substituting
may
be
expanded
1 +
ft.ft
in nonion
form.
Let
-(11)
0
128. ]
If
is
unit vector
*
is
Mquadrantal
points of
This
be
may
0
it may
or
The
be
every
Theorem
versor
seen
cos
vector
(I
"
directlyfrom
leaves
The
axis
right angles.
through two
to
in
TT
the
turns
the
general
versor
a a
dyadic
That
the
the form
(12)
by setting q equal
seen
expression for
dyadic of
2aa-I
versor.
about
space
vector
a)
is
of
sin " I
parallelto
two
a,
geometrical considerations.
perpendicularto
product
unchanged
but
verses
re-
in direction.
biquadrantal versors
perpendicularto
the
axes
is
of the
344
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
b be the
and
to the axis
of two
axes
of which
angle
angle from
Let
the
and
biquadrantal versors
is twice
the
of the first.
The
biquadrantalversors.
product
"=(2bb-I).(2aa-I)
certainlya
is
is
brings
Hence
2 b
the
from
angle of
this
the
perpendicular
versor
and
sequently
con-
(b a)2
.
is
as
the
b
changed.
un-
axis.
is
"
and
this line
cos
(b,a).
the
to twice
equal
the
them
between
given
let Q be the
angle
angle
given
from
resolution
by
compounding
two
W be two
to
the
given
versor
half
one
axes
the
equal
I) (2
.
into
the
immediate
finite rotations
given
to
and
b be unit vectors
Furthermore
versor.
half
one
the
angle
of
foregoingtheorem
versors
an
J?x of this
"
to b be
the
Let
versor.
(2bb
of
axis
affords
versors
of the
the axis
expressed
of which
angle equal
an
be
may
versor.
the
Then
versor
biquadrantalversors,
two
0 and
plane perpendicularto
versor.
The
"
about
perpendicularto
let the
"
angle of
include
For
b.
originalposition. Hence
to Q
and
it in direction
rotation
angle from
product of
lie in the
and
"
this
reverses
perpendicularto
common
a
versors
to b.
Theorem
the
"
its
to
is therefore
cosine of the
The
as
the
leaves
Q
"
it back
two
any
perpendicularto
in direction.
product Q
a a
of
product
common
biquadrantalversor
The
the
Consider
versor.
the
for
versor;
versors.
aa
product
and
about
Let
of two
simple
a
be
(14)
I).
rantal
biquad-
method
for
fixed
point
Let
unit
vector
per-
346
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
0s
F
?FX
?F
"P =
"
("
(?F
$)x
"
0)^
"
ca
"
QJ
~^r
Ho
y
A
c c
"
"
"
"
c)
1.
axe
~~
(a
" "
"
fa b c]
b)
Hence
[abc]b
bxc
"
ft
[a be]
"
"
a"b
"
a"r
bxc
b"r
cxa
ft,
"
Q,,
"
axb
c"r,
axbc.b.
axe
b b
"
"
ft2H
"
-b
axb
"
"
cxab"b
ft2 x
"
"
bxc
Hence
"
"
"
"
But
I,
a,
"
"
Hi
bxc
Q.
I,
b,
(c a)2
"
(b
O
"
"
axb
HfillCfi
-2cc
-2bb
cb
"
4(a.b)2-l,
"
ftQ
"~-
"
bb"
a.e
a
"
b b"
_(axb)"(bxc)_a"bb.c
a
Hence
"
Q!
Q
"
g2
"
"
ft2 + ft,
"
"
b
b
"
"
ROTATIONS
formula
This
AND
If the rotations
of the
Neglecting infinitesimals
reduces
infinitesimal
combine
rotations
addition.
This
velocities.
angular
second
The
the
law
the
from
treated
subject was
of
for
different
60.
Cyclotonics
be written
it may
versor
in the
(4)
0
ii +
cos
axis of rotation
axis is q.
Let
angle of
an
mula
the for-
parallelogramlaw
Cyclics,
Eight Tensors, Tonics, and
The
order
according to
demonstrates
Arts. 51 and
standpointsin
form
mal.
infinitesi-
Q,j+ Q,2.
vector
both
to
Q,3
The
finite rotations.
two
ftjand Q,2are
infinitesimal
be
347
STRAINS
(jj
is i and
be
k)
the
another
equal to q'.
ii +
q' (jj +
(k j
j k).
"
of rotation
the
with
versor
sin q
angle
rotation
cos
sin
(2
?') (jj
that
axis and
same
q' (k j
k)
about
j k).
"
Multiplying:
0
"
ii
cos
kk)
(16)
kj-jk).
This
two
versors
the
same
of which
axis
angles of
If
the
and
considerations
02
and
0n
with
axes
an
are
expected
coincident
angle equal
"
the
is
product of
with
versor
to the
multipliedby itself,geometric
alike make
ii +
ii +
the
be
of the
sum
given versors.
two
be
versor
to
was
cos
cos
it evident
and
analytic
that
2q (jj + kk)
sin 2 q
(kj -jk),
(jj+ kk)
sin nq
(kj
nq
"
j k).
348
On
hand
other
the
let
4"*
The
product of
i i.
Hence
0n=
(ii
"
The
raised
dyadic "/"1
The
dyadic 02
raised
"!
and
kk;
02 equal
0l
"P2is
or
to any
the
01 ;
The
(Art.114).
raised
into itself is
02)n
(Pj"-1 02 +
"
reproducesitself. 0^
power
gives
power
third power,
power,
and
zero
sin q
cos""1*?sin
$2)n.
sin q
to the fourth
cos
(cos q "Pl+
ii +
cosn"? $!* +
ii +
$! ;
ii into either
Qn
on
0l equal jj
Then
kj-jk.
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
fifth power,
dyadic 01 multipliedby $2
"
"Pr
negative
negative of "PZ;
the
to
the
"
raised
"P2and
is
so
equal
to
Hence
02.
0n
ii +
cosn
01
sin q
cosn~1q
"PZ
n(n"~L)
cos"-2
q sm2
2!
But
0"
Equating
ii +
cos
coefficients of
01
(n
01
and
sin
in
tf"2
$2 +
71
these
"
"
"$v
expressions
two
for "Pn
cos
cos*
"
--
1)
^-^-.
"
cos""2
q sm2
q +
"
"
"
"
Thus
the
ordinary expansions
obtained
in
they
generallyobtained.
are
The
Let
a,
manner
versor
cos
be
may
Consider
the
cc')
sinnq
in
manner
generalizedas
reciprocal
system.
and
nq
similar to the
very
expression for
for
and
are
which
follows.
a',V, c',the
dyadic
+
sin q
(cb'-bc')- (IT)
dyadic leaves
This
in
the
of b and
plane
to
parallel
vectors
suffer
349
STRAINS
AND
ROTATIONS
similar
change
Vectors
unchanged.
rotation.
to
Let
r
r'
variable
and
unit
circle
f
the
into
The
such
circle.
Thus
geometrical
is
regarded
ellipseof
an
which
(page 117).
Let
the
parallelprojectionof
the
i +
sin q
the
circle
j.
radius
and
(p
i +
b of the
same
ellipse.
r' in the
radius
the
i and
vector
a
from
cut
are
ellipse
projectsinto
projectsinto
cos
the vector
of 0
is rotated
This
as
in the
through
statement
an
may
definite constant
which
ellipse
vector
of the whole
then
describes
area
be
which
that vector
given
The
sector
as
projectionf
neater
a
are
through a
the
tion
applica-
form
q is to 2
sector
the
ellipse. The
the
radius
vector
area
of
which
is to the
area
vector
of this sector
Hence
TT.
in
conjugate semi-diameters
the
circle may
radius
area
q is to
use
changed in
unit
The
TT.
ellipseas
by making
are
of which
sector
prefactor to
two
f in
vector
of the
of the whole
and
changed by
so
parallelprojectionareas
circle
dyadic 0 applied as
its
(jp+ q) j.
angle q.
ratio.
area
sin
is
ellipse
regarded as describinga
is to the
q)
prefactorthat
of
The
c.
that
f'
be
in the
"#" r,
to
r, when
vector
semi-diameters
two
radius vector
equal
cos
q)
definite
conjugate semi-diameters
f in the unit
is
as
ellipseand
The
(p
parameter, describes
ellipsebe regarded
cylinder.
sin
conjugate semi-diameters
two
is, the
c,
given
The
this
That
be
may
scalar
are
(j? + q) b
follows.
as
interpretation
sin p
b +
cos
transformation
This
as
cos
an
the
ellipse
advances
is to the
area
of
350
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the whole
2-Tr.1
q is to
as
ellipse
radius
vector
sector
q from
it is the
its
called
be
may
displacement of
of which
ordinary rotation
an
the
through a
rotation
elliptic
an
similarityto
projection.
of the form
: A
dyadic 0
Definition
Such
a' +
is called
cos
(b V
4-
The
cyclicdyadic.
(c V
sin q
c')+
is
versor
c') (17)
"
of
specialcase
cyclicdyadic.
of
the powers
versor
the
0n
cos
If the scalar q is
(b V
nq
c')+
(c b'
sin nq
sub-multipleof
integral
an
the power
by
be raised.
dyadic is to
a' +
"
of
the powers
as
were
to which
formed,
cyclicdyadic are
that
geometric or analyticconsiderations
from
It is evident
"
2 TT, that
c').
is,if
2?r
m,
"
9.
it is
namely, the
0 may
then
In like
manner
to raise 0
factor and
0
power
to such
in
the idemfactor
which
differs
Hence
any
by
as
idemfactor.
it is
little as
power
of
pleasesfrom
one
be
cyclicdyadic may
possible
the idem-
equal to
incommensurable
are
TT
of the
commensurable
are
that it becomes
2
that
fixingthe
fixes it
ellipsepractically
an
TT
power
if q and
even
It is evident
vector
the
integralpower,
an
regardedas
of the idemfactor.
root
1
to such
that it becomes
if q and
the idemfactor.
a
m,
regarded as
be
be found
may
dyadic 0
raise the
possibleto
in
that
ellipse.
plane
may
be
result
of the
regarded
as
of
application
in the
scalar
plane
4" to all
of
multipleof
b and
a
radii vectors
c.
radius
For
vector
any
of
AND
ROTATIONS
transformation
The
130.] Definition:
d?adic
where
", c
a,
aii
righttensor
0=
(aii+jj
The
order
The
strain.
pure
kk) +(ii+jj
these factors
in which
(18)
is called
be factored
+ "j
kk"(-(ii
the
righttensor.
may
representedby
Jjj+Ckk
positivescalars
are
351
STRAINS
ckk).
is immaterial.
occur
The
transformation
p'
is such
but
the
of
j components
is altered
k-component
transformation
The
(ii + jj + ckk)
in the ratio of
therefore be described
may
remain
vector
as
is
: but
elongation
true
to 1.
stretch
If the constant
k.
altered
un-
if
or
greater
is less
than
ratio
of
cases
the
of the
k-components are
the
as
case
successive
of
to
1, b
1, c
Their
compression.
The
one
or
directions
a,
If
are
not
are
",
a,
are
lengths
regarded
that
or
those
of the
more
or
are
called the
principalaxes
altered
the strain
by
the
as
the
ponents
com-
the ratios
of the constants
more
known
be
in
respectively
", c be different,
every other
scalars
The
elongationof
one
may
directions i,j,k
constants
If
to 1.
unity,components
The
simultaneous
or
unity.
dyadic 0
is less than
becomes
the
to
is
altered.
not
to
then
due
transformation
The
the constant
in which
comes
a,
", c
directions
constants
not
of
altered.
the strain.
whereas, if the
direction is altered.
principal ratios of
elongation.
In
Art.
reducible
115
it
to the
was
seen
normal
0=
"
that
any
form
(ai'i
is
Jj'j + ck'k)'
352
where
Z",c
a,
the
(a i/i/
"
0=
or
j'j'+
"
is the
which
the
It turns
versor
ii +
(a
"
6jj
ckk).
k'k
factoringis
of
i,j, k into
the
vectors
representedby
its
vector
vectors
be
may
version
k'k)
either method
in
same
(19)
i'i+j'j
factor
The
(i'i+j'j
"
be
This expressionmay
positiveconstants.
product of two dyadics.
are
into
factored
0
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
versor.
i ',j ',k'.
This
semi-tangent
of
as
i
"/"
i/j
v/
TT
*' +
k/
other factor
i'i' +
is
and
right tensor
the
case
has
strain
the same,
before
the
associated
space
"
with
that
Theorem
and
versor
product
them
the
reversal
Any
righttensor
version
accompanied by
order.
in
principalaxes:
elongationare
strain
of directions
taken
about
a
In the two
pure
have
must
of all vectors
in
cases
the
according as
product
and
of the
product
through
either with
or
of
without
in
and
the ratios of
but
the
it is
principalaxes
performed
before
or
tion
rota-
angle
sion.
perver-
the rotation
same
definite
performed
may
positive
be
strain
of
general transformation
most
consists
strain
the
to
either order
definite axis
and
are
in
the
dyadic
rotation
differ
first
negativesign occurs
pure
is reducible
dyadic
of the strain
strain
the
representable
by
The
If the
and
version
or
to 1.
In
strain.
pure
the ratios of
cases
1, c
to
both
In
1, "
to
"
represents
the
or
ii
or
j'j'+ ck'k',
either
tion
elongaof the
after the
354
components
If
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
of the
more
or
one
direction
tonic
stretches the
but
well
as
into
three
the
1, c
" to
in
a,
b,
are
of
versed
re-
The
which
each
of the vectors
parallelto
components
ponents
com-
magnitude.
factors
one
to 1.
negative the
are
changed
as
components parallelto
unchanged
leaves
6, c
a,
1,
to
correspondingvector
factored
be
may
ratios
the
constants
the
parallelto
in
in
stretched
are
a,
the
b,
other
two.
The
three
any
of
value
But
are
of
the
expressiblein
one
if the constants
way
constants
with
in
5 and
say
the
reduces
to
and
product of
is
with
the
and
commutative
scalar coefficients
is
The
"=
V.0
a' +
=
cos
aaa'
az
a' +
q
+
the
(b V
KbV
If two
be
substituted
equal the
are
the
of the two
"2b
b' +
tonic
three
Any
c.
axes
with
tonic
of the
coplanar
vectors
may
b,
a,
these
the
axes
are
the
and
products
of
dyadics.
c2 c c'
aiaza"' + J^bb'
of
generalization
a
two
to
equal respectively
correspondingcoefficients
0.
is
expressiblein only
so
for a, b,
of which
tonics
ejCaCc'. (22)
cyclicdyadic
c
c')+
stituted,
sub-
which
dyadic
the idemfactor.
be taken
may
is
and
be
b,
reciprocal
system a',b',c'.
different.
are
multipleof
two
is
Z",c
them
a,
corresponding changes
change,
tonic
place of
with
c.
constant
if in
equal, any
are
non-coplanarvectors
same
a,
this
corresponding vectors
place of
The
of
form
the
in the
exception of
the
altered
that
course
be made
necessary
with
is not
respectivelycollinear
vectors
provided
which
tonic
sin q
cc') +
(c b'
(cb'-W),
c')
(23)
a,
is the
reciprocalsystem
are
into
always
where
and
the
negative scalar
cos
',b ',c
That
is,
and
are
changed
the
positive
(which
may
TT)so that
(24)
c=psinq.
and
'
be
dyadic may
quantitiesa, J, c,
by determining
positiveor
between
be chosen
the
This
form
convenient
more
scalar p
and
negative scalars.
positiveor
of which
non-coplanarvectors
three
where
b, c
355
STRAINS
AND
ROTATIONS
tan
(24)'
2=.
Then
(P =
This
a' + p
cos
be factored
may
0=
(aaa'
{a a' +
The
leaves
those
negative
the
unchanged
plane
of b
semi-diameters
as
Other
scalar
in
Vectors
in the
of the vector
TT.
parallelto
and
are
vectors
factor
second
vectors
radii vectors
(cV
the
rotated
is to
the
in the
but
which
through
plane
first is
and
to
1.
tonic.
1.
The
and
of the whole
If
of the
but
a
It leaves
in
is
but
conjugate
are
that
ellipseas
may
is
reversal
third
such
vector
of b and
unchanged ;
remain
b
tonic
all vectors
stretches
to
"
c')}.
accompanied by
ratio p
area
The
is also
parallelto
ellipseof
multiplesof
"
ratio of
be
dyadics
+pcc')
parallelto
in the
c'). (25)
"
three
bb'
sin q
vectors
stretchingmust
The
cyclicfactor.
area
c')+
parallelto
direction.
the
product of
"
(cV
sin q
cc') (aa' +p
unchanged
stretches
in
(b b'
c')+
into the
bb' +
cos
order
which
(b V
be
the
q to
regarded
ellipse.
356
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
is reducible
: A
dyadicwhich
Definition
"P =
a' + p
owing
cos
fact
the
to
product of
vectors, a, b,
that
it combines
al
a' + p1
cos
"
az
a' + p2
cos
"
"
third
d" =
(b V
(b V
q2
Theorem
either to
tonic
the reduction
which
be
may
proof
of
the
and
of
left
If
plane in
to the
(cb'
only one
which
"
mutative.
com-
c')
c')
"
cos
o1)-
c')
(26)
Forms
be
may
reduced
for which
dyadics
regardedas limitingcases
desired degree of approximation
importance of
the
as
the
the
be
a,
direction
the vectors
the
suffer
all the
tedious.
somewhat
is
generalhowever
in
be
b, c may
The
seen.
of
discussion
theorem
tonic
cyclo-
generalizationsof
natural
applicationof
such
tonic and
directions
cyclotonicand
the
may
unchanged by
tonic.
p2 sin qz
any
treated
proving
If three
is
c')+
theorem, including a
The
patent.
cyclotonicand
(cb'
be
three
same
reciprocalsystem
cyclotonic. The
the
been
that
the
pl sin q1
the
cyclotonics.
or
special cases
method
represented to
right tensor
the
(ft+ 2a)(cb'
impossiblemay
have
have
to
this theorem
which
the
In
or
tonics
by
From
is
propertiesof
of Dyadics to Canonical
c'), (25)
c')+
ax a2 aa' + p^p2
Reduction
"
cyclotonic.
+ Pi PZ sin
132.]
the
and
antecedents
as
(cV
sin q
which
cyclotonics
two
c')+
cyclicdyadicand
The
(b V
to the form
found
are
then
can
be
change
dyadic indeed
which
such
proves
must
as
to
be
that due
be
such.
AND
ROTATIONS
question is
The
applicationof
the
by
find the
to
If the direction
the
dyadic
d"
(0
or
dyadic 0
The
direction
the
in
aside
"
al).a
unchanged
are
0.
planarsince
In
zero.
(27)
it reduces
be
vectors
which
special cases,
for the
linear
or
set
are
In
zero.
dyadic
if the
case
any
to
which
0.
"
I is therefore
"
directions
unchanged,then
is
357
STRAINS
0-al
reduces
degree
one
collinear with
vectors
of
nullityand
to
third
the
it possesses
zero
or
least
at
determinant
of
"P
vanishes.
(0-aI)8
Now
(3"+
(page 331)
(4"
Hence
al)3
")3
"P8
I,
Hence
the
value
of
a2
+
ffia
which
cubic
W +
I3
a2 0
d" :
12
"2
a3
"3.
18
1.
ffi
solution
of
cubic
4"zS-4"z
0.
is
1 +
"2 :
(28)
equation becomes
a3
The
0.
"P3+ "P2:
I and
0
But
"
(29)
that
aa
equation.
Let
replace a.
The
equation becomes
(29)'
358
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
of
value
Any
which
satisfies this
will
equation
be
such
that
(0-sI)8
That
say, the
is to
its
to
leaves
such
has
of
133.
three
or
has
to
three
a
real
vector
Hence
zero.
the
tonic
cubic
discussion
further
of
pendicula
per-
or
cycle-
equation
in
equation
"Z3 -0S=0
dyadic 0
(29)'
in
may
general
be reduced
tonic.
For
let
be the three
in
vectors
of these
a,
of the
roots
are
03
the
roots
The
roots.
x*
to
the form
If the cubic
xs
is reduced
whether
upon
(28)'
planar.
unchanged.
real
Theorem
I is
"
dyadic to
depends merely
one
consequents
direction
of the reduction
tonic
dyadic
0.
"
",
"P
I,
Let
perpendicular to
the
dyadics
b,
a,
The
bl,
"
"
cl
be
planes
respectivelythree
of the consequents
dyadics.
b
(0-cI).c
Then
0.b
0
If the
equation.
general planar.
drawn
roots
coplanar.
a,
For
Z",c
are
"
Jb,
C C.
the
suppose
c
ma
(30)
0.
a,
distinct
0,
Ttb
(30)'
vectors
a,
b,
are
non-
(P
a,
"
0.a
But
Hence
(a
and
(a
c) a
c)
"
Consequently
if the vectors
distinct; and
not
vectors
a,
a, b
b, c
c,
b,
a,
c)b
"
(b
0,
c)
"
or
0.
c.
coplanar,the
are
if the
it is still
(30) hold.
a,
0,
=
This
b,
b,
a,
roots
such
In
the
dyadicwhich
are
the roots
case
choose
that
manner
there exists
being so,
and
roots
distinct, the
are
always possibleto
in
0.
necessarily
non-coplanar.
non-coplanarvectors
reciprocalto
("
ft
therefore
are
distinct
not
are
b, c
or
?i c
"
"P.b="b.
Hence
"P "})
"a,
"
c a
"
359
STRAINS
AND
ROTATIONS
three
the equations
system a',b',c'
carries a, b,
into
is the tonic
ccc.
Theorem
If the cubic
xs
has
a
real root
one
equation
x2
the
+
tf"s
dyadic
"P2S "P3
in
may
(29)'
generalbe
reduced
to
cyclotonic.
The
cubic
equation has
one
real root.
This
must
be
tive
posi-
the
the consequents
of 0
"
I.
(0-aI).a
Determine
and
let the
This
cannot
a' also
so
0,
that
lengths of
be
and
a' be
accomplished in
so
the
adjusted that
specialcase
a'
"
in which
l.
a
360
a'
and
the
mutually perpendicular.Let
are
a'.
perpendicularto
0"1
"
In
The
thus
the cubic
would
0
dyadic
["P
"P b
more
changes
a, 0
a'.
Hence
0"b
is
$2"
b, "03"b,and
lie in
vectors
("P2 b)
"
"02 b, 0
"
products are
as
and
b3
~l
=
4"
(b2 + b)
b2
vectors
b and
bx
b2
b3
b1
2?ib2
"
(31)'
b.
plane.
other.
(31)"
sign,let
same
(32)
0~2
$*
"
"
b,
b,
etc.
(33)
etc.
b2,
bj
Their
Hence
0"bxb.
=^
0.
parallel. Let
are
spectively
re-
(31)
b].
same
to each
08
bj^bj
"
b2 =p~*
b^
b2
b, "P b
a-i08.
b_1=^2^-1-b
or
"
the
"
a, "PZ "
a
("P b)
tf"3
a' and
"P3have
"
a.
(0-b)
*"
also
b)
parallelto
and
"P8[a
"
and
unchanged
real root.
one
"
b)
Inasmuch
("
"
"
parallelor
parallelepiped
b]
"
as
b, b into 4"
"
02
be
cannot
than
of the
"
well
as
volume
Hence
Then
have
But
The
in
0.
manner
and
"
direction
The
Let
"
similar
vectors
the
have
vector
vector
"
would
The
any
plane.
The
I)
perpendicularto
is
(0" al)"b
Hence
("P
"
b be
a'.
to
plane perpendicular
a'
one
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
b1
(34)
br
b2
27ib3
etc.,
(35)
b
b_
2wb
b.
b_r=2wb_
etc.
362
There
134.]
is
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
remain
as
impossible,
be
can
two
cases1
seen
by looking over
used
1 the reduction
be "
which
in
the
the
reduction
In
proof.
in the reduction
tonic
cyclo-
to
the antecedents
0-al
the
and
vectors
plane
perpendicularand
a
a' shall be
"
the
a' used
and
of
consequents
are
in the reduction
to
it is
The
"
1,
If
Let
reduction
b_j
b_i
Choose
c^bj
Consider
the
"
Hence
The
"
"
=p
transformation
it
factoring
order
or
"
dyadic
"
a' + p
into three
In
these
which
and
case
(a
cases
a' +
it will
them
be
of the roots
distinct.
imaginary part
two
of
two
dyadics may
two
b_r
"
a' + p
to this
(b b'
J9 b
"
(b b'
2 b.
2 b.
b
that
through.
"
a' such
are
c')+
dyadic
factors which
"
cbr
b'
C.
be
(37)
best
by
independent of
the
may
are
c')-f-p
seen
arrangement
In these
one
bx
b b' +
c') {a a/
(a a'
"
"
falls
=p'b1
due
bj
cyclotonicform
determine
impossibleto
unity.
perpendicular the
of the roots
The
be
seen
equal
limit
of the two
and
the
cubic
in the
(bb'
bb' +
lying between
limitingcases
and
the
tonic
in which
all
imaginary
the
as
be
regarded
imaginary roots of
may
of the tonic
as
approaching each
cb').
three
of
case
c')}
cc' +
equation has
other
three
are
regarded
are
that
the
either
real
them.
Thus
in
cyclotonic
roots
other.
real
are
by
taking place
cyclotonicbecoming zero
the
roots.
the
pure
or
by
ROTATIONS
first factor
The
ratio
factor
second
The
of b
The
(I +
(I +
unaltered.
c
b')
the
plane of
in
vector
"
"
"
and
fixed
remains
that
b and
in
c.
parallelto
b is increased
the
a
point but
tor
vec-
other
that the
the
points
distance
and
of the
plane
in
c.
to the form
cb'
and
shearer
shearing dyadic or
it
for
In
is such
space
and
the
by
b to b.
plane are
I +
which
The
c,
vectors
point
proportionalto
transformation
b +
pointsin
#a,
which
is called
parallelto
of
x"
leaves
transformation
amount
an
is undisturbed.
in
cb'.
V)
I + cb'
planes parallelto
by
the form
multipliedby
words
V)
(I +
dyadicof
and
the direction
to 1.
the ratio p
plane
363
STRAINS
in
elongation
representsan
1.
to
AND
is called
causes
the
geometrical
shear.
The
more
general dyadic
cc')+
will also be called
which
to
elongationsin
If
The
"1
shearingdyadic or
it
gives
the direction of
instead
dyadicthen
of
rise is
a
and
oV
(37)
The
shearer.
combined
shear
is in the
plane of
(a aa'
bV
with
b and
the
c.
same.
becomes
cc')-cV
0
formation
trans-
cc') {aa'-p
.
(bV
(37)'
cc')} (I + cV).
"
364
factors
The
the
are
0 then
combined
c, and
Suppose
with
The
is
With
new
This
taken
i and
coefficient B
on
case
The
j k.
the antecedents
"#" al
For
+ B
is
Square
Hence
The
Then
"
dyadic "
and
the
of
plane of
perpendicular.
the
plane of j
takes
and
form
of
arises.
Let
k and
the form
the
dyadic
of the cubic
root
Nothing new
follows
as
e'
"
be
chosen
then
may
W*
must
plane
But
equation.
tonic
if B
may
be
vanishes
Let
in the
otherwise
the
to
to the form
ab' +
a
tion
elonga-
an
a,
are
dyadic then
the reduction
be reduced
where
with
shearingdyadic
of direction
vanish.
must
occurs.
may
sents
repre-
combined
the direction
respectivelyas
before.
as
The
dyadic
the scalar
this root
carried
plane.
plane of
of the
planes be
planar and
in that
reversal
that the
plane of
now
shear.
the consequents
these
of b and
elongationin
represents an
which
plane
the
reversal
b and
same
stretchingof
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
be'
e' =
D
0
ki
and
parallelto
k ; and
be transformed
k,
b'
into
A
O
"
b'
1.
ac'.
Ci+Di
=
c',parallelto i.
AND
ROTATIONS
this choice
With
desired
0
0
or
This
aaa'
of which
order
directions
representswhat
If
r
is
is
IT
is
which
be called
the
proportionalto
the
".zb
""a;c
of two
dyadicsthe
it is
is
to
of
ab'.r
the
b and
magnitude of
in
which
bc')" #b
#b
(I +
ab'
bc')"#c
xc
be reduced
ab' +
term
tional
propormanner
of
term
r.
ab' -f
al
If
magnitude is
in
(I +
like
In
addition
the
the vector
may
of
magnitude
r.
r.
dyadic Q.
the
bc'"
addition
vector
changed by
to
by
and
the
equal
For
complex shear.
=
in all
space
factor
second
changed by
equal
+
+
x"
#b.
to the form
bc'
(38)
complex shearer.
complex
before
dyadics.
to
be'.
stretchingof
: A
Definition
dyadicwhich
The
aV
it is left unaltered
magnitude
direction
0 is reduced
the
(38)
product
bc'^r
it is
parallelto
is called
to
bc'
+
The
to 1.
is in direction
in
into the
ab'.r
parallelto
to
ace'
represents
may
parallelto
which
if
al
in the ratio
r'=
dyadic
ab' +
abb'+
the
reduces
is immaterial.
first factor
The
al
be factored
may
of a, b,
form
365
STRAINS
are
shearer
as
well
limitingcases
as
the
of the
simple
shearer
cyclotonicand
tioned
men-
tonic
366
135.]
of the
systematic treatment
more
dyadicswhich
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
may
arise may
be
various
given by
kinds
of the
means
Hamilton-Cayley equation
03
the cubic
and
0g 0z+
equation in
If a, ", c
the
are
equation may
be
03I
"P23x" 03
of this cubic
roots
written
the
In
(29)'
Hamilton-Cayley
as
(39)
0.
=0.
(0-aI).(0-"I).(0-cI)
equation takes
"Paxz
x3"
0_
0zs
root
one
the
(40)
Hamilton-Cayley
the form
cos
"
"P+p*I)
=0.
which
is satisfied
equations and
II.
is the
equation of
general therefore
In
which
of lower
be satisfied
may
equation.
The
("P-aI
a
I).("P-" I)2
IV.
(0-
!)"("/"- 61)
VII.
by
("P-aI)3
0.
(0-aI)2
0.
0-aI
tion
equa-
degree
the
That
tonic
the
0.
0.
=0.
or
dyadic
equation
dyadic is
called
occur.
followingpossibilities
(0-
VI.
to
degree.
an
of the above
specialcases, however,
III.
V.
is
lowest
one
corresponding reductions
equation
degree
its characteristic
(P. In
hold.
satisfyan
of lowest
by
the
cyclotonicform
0 may
degree in
(41)
0
In
second
the
aaa'
aaa'
the
case
+ p
In the third
Jbb'
is
dyadic
ccc'.
cyclotonicand
may
be
cos
dyadic is
the
case
simple
(cV
p sin q
(bb' + cc') +
be').
"
and
shearer
may
be
to the form
reduced
"P
fourth
In the
ratios of
aaa'
dyadic is again a
the
case
the
elongation are
"P
fifth
In the
"
dyadicis
the
case
of ways.
infinite number
an
(bb'
of the
Two
tonic.
followingreduction
The
same.
aaa'
cb'.
(bb' + cc') +
accomplished in
be
may
reduced
be
may
to the form
reduced
0
tonic and
form
the
to
is
dyadic
the
first case
In the
367
STRAINS
AND
ROTATIONS
cc').
complex
shearer
and
may
be
expressed that
so
0=
In the
sixth
be reduced
may
al
In the seventh
reduced
in
the
case
seven
dyadic may
kinds
of
are
one
ab'
bc'.
the
case
doubly
=
al
take.
+cc')
dyadic is again a
infinite number
the
are
which
shearer
(a a'
are
then
all different,two
three
shearer.
alike,or
only seven
all
may
be
to the form
cc').
"
tonic which
of ways
bb'
cV.
different
only essentially
There
dyadics
complex
-4-bb'
cb'=a(aa'
togetherwith
the
to the form
"p
These
al
forms
which
reallydifferent
the ratios of
equal,and
limitingcases,
the
two
the
tion
elongatonic
cyclo-
simple and
368
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
of Chapter VI
Summary
due
transformation
The
pointsin
of
volumes
The
third
of the
of the
the
formation
trans-
v'=0av.
sufficient condition
rotation about
dyadicgives
s'=02"s,
and
necessary
homogeneou
changed.
are
r'=0"r,
linear
transformation
the
of the
The
plane areas.
ratio in which
gives
second
The
space.
dyadic is
itself
dyadic
The
strain.
to
that
dyadicrepresent
to
the form
4"
or
that
d"
or
that
The
and
necessary
a
rotation
which
by
i'i +
"
"PS
sufficient condition
with
(2)
"P3"
(1)
"PC
combined
each
"PC
"
k'k
j'j+
that
dyadic represent
transformation
of reflection
figureis replaced by
symmetrical
one
to it is
that
0
"p."pc
or
that
or
that
dyadic of
(1)',a
"P
the form
==
ii +
"P3"
is called
(1)
"
0.
(3)
versor
of the
; one
form
cos
axis of the
ii +
be
chosen
sin q
(kj
versor
the i-axis
or
to
unit vector
0
The
I,
of rotation of
axis
reduces
0
If any
d"3
(1)'
perversor.
versor
or
"PC
"
j'j + k'k)
I,
If the
the
-(i'i
cos
(I
kk)
versor
cos
(I
sin q I
i i) +
"
is directed
(jj
along the
"
coincides
a)
j k)
(5)
i.
(4)
axis of rotation
sin q I
in direction
with
(6)
"
"PV.
370
cyclicdyadics which
of two
duct
b,
a,
and
dyadic reducible
0
where
a,
", c
represents
ratio
to
1, b
righttensor,
and
linear
or
unaccompanied by
immediate
to
in
the
principalratios
strain.
product
of
versor,
homogeneous
rotation and
ckk).
strain may
be
strain
pure
(19)
regarded
accompanied
perversion.
of
generalizations
cyclicdyadic is
It
right tensor.
pure
the
expressed as
as
The
is
"
of
of the
root
(18)
called the
are
(ai'i'+ Jj'j'+
combination
their
positiveor. negativesign.
Consequently any
as
ckk
"
0=
or
be
by adding
principalaxis i,j, k
transformation
This
may
is called
the
to 1 which
1, c
to
antecedents
same
regarded
"jj
stretchingalong
Any dyadic
aii
the
to the form
positivescalars
are
elongation.
be
cyclicdyadic may
idemfactor.
have
consequents
angles q.
of
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the
the
righttensor
and
the
tonic
(21)
and
cyclotonic
cc')+ c(cb'-bc)
or
"P
aaa'
where
+ .p
cos
*/ 52
(bb' + cc')+^sin
C2 and
tan
(eb'-bc') (25)
therefore
tonic
is that
cyclotonic.
the
cubic
The
reduced
to
the
condition
(24)'
(23)
either
form
that
to
the form
(25), and
a
is
dyadic be
equation
(29)'
AND
ROTATIONS
shall
have
three
reduction
the
only
the
dyadic
it
be
cannot
be
may
is
is
to
their
(0
"
it
or
al
I)
"
("P2
("P
(0
"
the
ab'
which
in
cases
form.
In
these
cb'
(37)
form
bc'
(38)
be
may
cos
!)"($
al).
(0
(0
("P
"
"
"
("Z"
61).
"
"
"
have
classified
ing
accord-
equations
aI).("P
"
takes
cc')
Dyadics
characteristic
("P
(bb'
+p
shearer.
complex
that
shall
equation
cyclotonic
to
arise
one
condition
limiting
two
occur
=aaa'
and
cubic
the
as
shearer,
simple
The
which
than
ways
more
this
reduced
written
and
There
in
cases
roots.
that
is
root.
in
equal
cyclotonic
real
one
cases
has
equation
be
dyadic
Special
roots.
accomplished
be
may
when
real
371
STRAINS
"P
("P
b
"
I)3
I)2
I)
I)
0
p2 1)
I)2
"
"
cl)
"
tonic
=0
cyclotonic
simple
shearer
special
complex
special
simple
special
tonic
shearer
shearer
tonic.
CHAPTER
YII
MISCELLANEOUS
APPLICATIONS
Surfaces
Quadric
$
If
136.]
be
is
in
quadratic
be
the
divided
The
r.
into
the
dyadic
equation
(1)
const.
case
it be
hence
the
in
constant,
and
not
zero,
equation
may
takes
form
or
The
W
0.i
the
dyadic
constant
any
dyadic
is
be
may
"
1,
(1)'
"
"
0.
(2)
assumed
be
to
anti-self-conjugate dyadic,
an
identically zero
is left
as
for
all
an
exercise.
is reducible
dyadic
of
values
the
product
The
proof
116
Art.
By
the
to
r.
self-conjugate.
any
of
"
this
""
bz""
7
yj
ici +
represents
The
signs
sign
equation
a
quadric
different
are
is
all
surface
which
cases
positive, the
negative
it is
"
an
"
7/2
real
zz
(4)
imaginary.
or
arise
zk,
r.,.r="_"|i"_i.
the
ment
state-
\.
")
c2
#2
Hence
is
(3)
"*"
a29
"
form
-1-
if
self-conjugate
*="-"y""
If
For
are
quadric
hyperboloid
is
four
a
real
of
one
number.
in
If the
ellipsoid.
sheet;
If
if two
one
are
negative,a hyperboloidof
is
If the three
sheets.
two
all
373
SURFACES
QUADRIC
like
In
imaginary.
signsare
the
manner
equation
r.0.r
is
to
seen
represent
the
imaginary according as
Thus
the
which
cone
different
signs are
"
"
in
the
case
quadric surface
be
may
surfaces
"
from
"
the
surface
the
the
central
form.
62
const.
"
c2
0
"
"
which
represents
r
where
a,
"
(r
"
of the second
the
last,independent of
order
sorts of terms
scalar
in
expressionwhich
is
r
"
"
equal to
The
"
which
ones
quadraticin
r
"
"
"
r,
"
r.
"
r.
stant
con-
like
c,
first two
only
quadraticin
terms
d
c,
vectors.
(r a) (b r)
"
is
"%-
c2
Moreover, it is evident
r.
the
are
But
and
)r,
"
constant
are
are
four
a) (b
"
"
bz
set
quadric surface,contains
r,
b, c, d,
consequentlywhen
k k
jj
"
axe
zz
"
"
a2
self-
quadric
They
i i
the vector
to
central
suitablychosen
normal
corresponding dyadic 0 is
most
reduces
const.
y2
"
"
a2
The
all alike.
or
Conversely any
zero.
equations of
to
x2
"
The
or
in the form
reduced
when
The
representedby
is evident
is
constant
conjugatedyadic 0
This
real
const.
either
equation
r
be
may
can
terms
;
and
that these
occur
in
374
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
be reduced
generalquadraticexpressionmay
the most
Hence
to
r.0.r
0
where
a
is
scalar.
constant
The
dyadic
by replacingr by
(r' t)
-
r'
vector, and
constant
be
may
regarded
self-
as
desired.
conjugate if
To
(7:=0,
dyadic,A
constant
r.A
"
r'
r'
"
A, make
"
change
of
origin
t.
"
(r' t) + (r' t)
-
"
"
r'
"
r'
"
"
"P
"
t +
"
"
"
-fr'.A-t.A+C'^O.
Since
equal.
the
self-conjugate
is
"
$ is
now
r' +
"
the
2 r'
case
is
"
of 0
as
the
case
The
unless
discussion
quadrics is
here.
the
A
quadric surface
The
The
or
"
and
is
is not
"
C'
t) +
t may
terms
are
that
so
A.
form
const.
lies in the
or
wmlinear
plane of
because
in the line
or
equation
situated
a
to central
form
the reduction
central
is still possible.
is
impossible.
surface.
It will not
exercise.
interesting
present objectis to developso much
an
0.
be chosen
l 0-1-
wm'planar
reduction
so
4"
to the central
r'
is
be the
may
incomplete it
0 is self-conjugate. If A
vector
quadric is reducible
r'
In
(|A
"
complete the
^A=
Hence
third
and
Hence
r'
If
second
non-central
be taken
of the
up
theory
of
quadric surfaces
will be useful
as
375
SURFACES
QUADRIC
in
physicswith especialreference
Hereafter
therefore
will
ellipsoid
137.]
The
the central
"
"
is
the surface
this normal
be denoted
by
tangent plane,
from
"
p.
the
Hence
r.
"
"P
the vector
be
is
Let
n.
(6)
"
"
r.
"
($
drawn
is
the
"
r.0-r
inasmuch
as
p and
0.r
perpendicular
the square
"
root
of
"
p.
p2.
"
p.
l.
p.p
p.p
But
The
n.
r._Z_
LH
Or
originperpendicularto
(r,p) p
cos
Hence
the
parallelto
equal to
r)
"
from
originto
It is also
Hence
(5)
equal and
are
0.
differentiation.
of p
particularthe
0.
terms
and
r)
root
by
extremity of
at the
d"
distance
dr
"
two
the
perpendicularto
to
in
1.
"
these
self-conjugate
increment
normal
be found
dT'0
The
media.
non-isotropic
to
quadrics and
dr
0 is
matical
mathe-
be discussed.
Since
to
applications
are
r.H
l.
parallel,
they are
N="
p.p
equal.
(7)
376
On
108
page
it was
of the normal
be taken
may
plane and
the
extremity
The
found
of the
equation of
from
( r
Hence
"
the
originto
is not
plane.
merely
the
to
plane
Hence
normal
of the
reciprocalof
the
to
plane.
distance
ellipsoidat
r.
ellipsoidin plane
the
magnitude equal
of that
plane tangent
vector
by eliminatingr
Hence
is in
coordinate
is the
"
which
the
"
the
is also
the
origin to
that
is,the length of 0
from
from
coordinate
the vector
tangent plane,but
That
which
the distance
equation shows
the above
the
as
seen
to
reciprocalof
to the
the
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
the two
0
"
coordinates
be
may
equations.
1,
d"
the desired
equation is
H.^-I-H
I.
^-U^jj4.kk
"I
+
Tf
--
(8)
c2kk.
Let
and
where
plane
written
w, v,
upon
in
are
the
either
a?i +
yj
ui
vj
the
k,
reciprocalsof
i,j, k.
axes
of
zk,
the
two
the
interceptsof
the
the
ellipsoidmay
be
Then
forms
familiar
in
Cartesian
geometry.
/y"
or
N.
Q-i.
a2 u* +
77
bzvz
c2wz
l.
(10)
378
The
the
vectors
"P
b'
a,
"
a'
"
a"b/
and
a"0"b
dyadic0
0"1
and
system
of
may
three
of 0.
volume
constant
and
of
For
let a, b,
b'V
three
determinant
of the
1,
"
"
0,
the forms
c'c',
bb
"
(12)
cc.
directions
obtained
a,
and
from
b,
c, be
if in
infinite number
which
form
similar
number
of
interpretingthe
vectors
of ways.
three
concurrent
vectors
is
rectangularparallelepiped
be any
or
to the
be called
upon
called
conjugate radii
of
parallelepiped
a
a
doubly
c.
0.
system of three
of the
ellipsoid.
0-J
The
expressed in
equal in magnitude
constructed
c'
4"
"
b,
a,
1,
"
"
be
may
in
edges constitute
"
be obtained
The
c.
"
geometric theorems
invariants
a'a' +
"
b'
"
the three
manner
"
0,
the
If for convenience
system of three
be therefore
may
a'
"
"P
system reciprocalto
c' =
b,
"
1,
c' =
The
"
the
a',b',c' form
vectors
0"a,0*b,"P*eby
into
changed
are
Let
dyadic "P.
For
b,
a,
a' =
The
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
third
aa
bb
of 0~l
in which
cc.
is
is
an
invariant
expressed.
08-i=[abc]2.
and
pendent
inde-
0-1
if
But
a2 ii +
Z"2jj +
03-i
a2 bz c2.
the
demonstrates
The
of the
sum
in
ellipsoid
radii vectors
that:
drawn
of the
is
ellipsoid,
of
in
three
concurrent
constructed
parallelepiped
planes
to the
equal
the
upon
system
magnitude equal
those
and
constant
an
is constant
perpendicularsupon
distances
the
to
of the semi-axes.
of the
of the
show
whose
parallelepiped,
of the
reciprocalsof
center
of the
preting
inter-
by
manner
possibleto
of the squares
sum
in the directions
of three
the
the
volume
edges are
it is
squares
like
In
equal to
The
0"
c2 kk,
ale.
theorem.
and
"P3,^V"1,
and
[a b c]
Hence
This
379
SURFACES
QUADRIC
from
to
the
reciprocal
semi-axes
of the
ellipsoid.
The
of the squares
sum
of the
from
dropped
the
the squares
0a
4"a-i
Let
a,
b,
be
"p
0-i
i.
and
constant
system of three
to the
equal
i +
i +
radii
three
sum
of
the semi-axes.
mutually perpendicularunit
origin upon
of
reciprocals
If i,j, k be three
of
reciprocals
0-i
in
vectors
"
"
"
vectors
k,
0-1
the
"
k.
ellipsoiddrawn
respectivelyparallelto i,j, k.
0
a.
Hence
"
"
ffia
"
"P
"
"
0
"
"
in this
0-
"
"
0
k
k directions.
Hence
"
1.
expressionare
of
reciprocals
"
\-
But
drawn
"
0"
the squares
in
respectively
of the
the
i,j,
380
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
The
of the
of the squares
sum
in
radii vectors
perpendicular
in
similar
the
manner:
an
of three mutually
reciprocals
is constant.
And
ellipsoid
of the squares
sum
of the perpendiculars
For
let
of
be the vector
of any
vector
s
of
"
i/
_J-
(13)
the
polarplane. The
joinsthe terminus of
is
sa
pointlies upon
1.
point in
ys +
If this
pointupon
the surface
a
/v"
i/
_I_
"""""
y)2
If the terminus
of the ratio
in
of
x :
magnitude
and
+ y
X
xy
g.0.8+
n.0.i
2/)2
a.0.a
l.
2/)2
lies in the
vanishes.
Hence
is the
of
desired
"
equationof
"P
"
the
polarplane of
the
terminus
a.
Let
or
be
replacedby z
a.
"
The
d"
"
polarplanebecomes
"
z
1
real
It is
or
by
be
When
increases
the
In
Hence
the
is the
as
is
polarplane of
same
statement
vector
z a
infinite
The
which
"
is
If
important.
(r
equation
represents
or
radius
identical
The
equation
"
is
becomes
a.
of
In like
with
of
other
In
points.
equationswhich
are
"
Q and
case
and
and
1)
"
and
plane P
(r
"
"
is
this
linear in
"
curves
those
0'
which
and
of
to
given,
are
the
curve
Q along that
1)
"
given,
through
the
Q and
cuts
is factorable
which
curves
Q' at
into
no
two
consequentlyrepresent
intersection
two
Q' are
and
"
passes
equation
r,
C)2
tangent
(r
standpoint
through
passes
which
Q' and
lie into
quadrics Q
1) +
"
another
0,
which
if two
planes,the
plane
"
quadric surface
of intersection
two
Q and
"
from
quadric Q
"
manner
(r
equation
represents
"
obtained
quadric surface
intersection
become
the vector
case
of
be
curve.
In
polarplane
This
a.
terminus
"
the direction
and
the
0.
as
a.
the
therefore
the
of
becomes
plane conjugatewith
frequentlytaken
of
terminus
in
point at infinity
the diametral
of the surface
"
the
the
polarplane becomes
s
of
polar plane
381
SURFACES
QUADRIC
planes.
of
Q and
Q'
382
If A
This
cone.
the
plane of
For
let
pass
through A
cone
touches
the
If this
which
conditions
with
comparison
The
polarplane with
(r
If this passes
(a
Hence
(r
"
"
"
d"
4"
"
"
cone
is
equation
140.]
the
if its
Hence
tangent
plane
to be
"
(0
the
the
a)
"
1 which
polar plane
of A.
of intersection
curve
which
touches
is
+
Jfe(a
1) (a
any
1.
seen
be
a.
"
"
I)2
0.
I)2
0.
point A,
1)
vertex
Let
by
by
1,
through
the
whose
"
"
(a
"
By transformingthe origin to
a
satisfied
lie in
1)
curve
through
satisfied
equation is
passes
quadricalong that
to be
point A.
1.
be
(13)
quadric which
of this
the
the
are
therefore
pointsr
must
The
The
point A.
the
to
its
plane contains A,
on
polar plane of
the
"
of any
the
tangent
the
drawn
be the vector
if all the
are
being
curve
quadric and
of the
pointoutside
is any
planes which
a
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
ffi
"
1)
(a
point A
the
is at that
"
"
this is
I)2
0.
easilyseen
point.
dyadic.
self-conjugate
It is expressible
in the form
0
where
A" B, C
ii +
^jj
tfkk
negative scalars.
positive or
are
let
A
Bl
"B
"
((7- J5) kk
0
-
(B
Ay
ii.
more
Further-
Let
Then
"I
"
Then
dyadic
multipleof
Bl
been
has
and
This
expression for
sections of the
the
Substituting
of
value
B
"
have
the
from
is that of
of the
curves
"
that
the
"
lying in
"
and
the
p.
q
the
-4, B, G
zero.
"
"
to
"
the
1 becomes
1.
By
substitution
"
circular
the
the
"
0.
of
terms
the
"
all
passes
w)
"
The
the intersection
difference
0.
quadric
and
order
intersect
planes
"
second
given quadric.
the
(r
If the
of
sphere and
sphere
quadric which
Hence
the constants
1.
"
"
coefficient B.
same
subtracted
equation
sphere because
from
plane perpendicularto
is
constant
sum
closelyrelated
"
"P,
be
"
Let
This
of
sum
quadric surface
r
be any
the
qp.
and
is
j.
(14)
qp).
tacitlythat
each other
a.
q.
half the
one
has assumed
different from
are
"
expressed as
the idemfactor
reduction
|-(p
q +
"
a)(c-a)+(c-a)(c+a)
and
pq
The
V B
and
cc-aa=^ j(c+
Let
The
383
SURFACES
QUADRIC
n.
in
two
plane
384
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Inasmuch
these
as
lie upon
curves
Hence
planes perpendicularto
In like
manner
the
q cut
follows
circles.
quadric hi
is
of the
radius
"
the vector
is of constant
section.
The
convenience
be reduced
then
hi
1.
q, the term
p q
"
"
ishes.
van-
equation
section is therefore
is
quadric be
positive.
equal
hi
circular
length
to the
ellipsoid. The
an
stants
con-
reciprocaldyadic 0~l
The
manner.
k k
i i
"
ti
0-1
"
ff
dd
Jo
\\(f +
*
d) (f
f +
0-i
i
=
and
I +
d)
(.
(f-d)(f
Then
the center
satisfies the
plane
Let
"
section
similar
or
ii
Let
as
quadric.
0-1
Then
circles.
be conducted
may
The
let the
are
"
r-r
of the
of the
A, B, G
may
in
planes perpendicularto
proof
in this
length.
radius
semi-axis
For
in the
vector
mean
The
quadric perpendicularto
Hence
and
that
quadric
circles.
.Z? r
If
the
cut
be shown
it may
(u v
d)j
v.
u).
(15)
386
the section is
the
rotation
the
projectionor
the
parallelto
from
which
the
about
axis is
axis of the
some
by
and
necessary
minor
Differentiate
"
be
is to be
three
major
or
the
or
"
the
major
through
and
value
and
chosen
that
the
changes
hence
at
equal
to
projecting
be the
r
ellipsoid
and
center
"
vector
"
"
d"
major
"
perpendicularto
0.
0,
"
0.
"
0,
"
minor
axis of the
and
equations show
Converselyif
be
perpendicular
other axis
mininum
to the same
may
is
coplanar.
Furthermore
dr
The
section of the
and
These
axis.
axis
sufficient condition
maximum
plane of projection
projectingcylinderhave
it passes
this
Let
the
the
positionin
the
to
ellipsoid
of the
semi-axis
is that a, r, and
if
the
minor
one
axis, from
it. As
circular.
cylinderare
The
At
axis.
infinite distance
an
the
and
as
ellipsoid
plane
upon
perpendicularto
mean
which
the minor
mean
at
perpendicularto
from
the
point
its
shadow
plane,the
by
consider
manner
ellipsoidcast
direction
positionhi
axis of the
mean
in
rotated
major
to the
to that
axis
mean
like
In
circle.
of the
shadow
plane and
that
is
ellipsoid
or
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
hence
is
Hence
d"
"
r]
0.
[a
"
r]
0,
perpendicular
to
Then
d
"
they are
[a
0.
for
perpendicularto
that a, r, and
dr.
section
"
are
is
dr.
gonal
all ortho-
coplanar.
(16)
their
common
plane.
QUADRIC
Hence
is
maximum
It is
141.]
of
This
of
is
one
perpendicularto
a.
advantageto
"*
be done
may
"
dyadic such
square
root
that
W* is
that
of
the
write
cipal
prin-
equation
and
there
1,
(17)
1.
k k
jj
h
--
"
--
of the
if
ii
"
"
because
is
and
the form
instead
mininum
frequentlyan
in
ellipsoid
an
or
of the section
semi-axes
387
SURFACES
0.
equal to
written
W may
$*.
as
other
are
'
be
But
square
regarded as
be
it must
of
roots
"
"
membered
re-
for
example,
i i
kk
jj
*
i
__
__
and
"
"
'
For
this
reason
which
root
denoted
been
"P* is that
particularone
which
has
by ".
equation of
The
by
in mind
to bear
it is necessary
is meant
the
or
.
Let
the
sphere is
be written
ellipsoid
may
.
"
"
vector
of
r'
"
r'
unit
1,
(?T.r). (?F.r)
1.
in the form
l.
sphere.
The
equation of
388
into
transformed
radius
each
W~l
a
into
vice
r, and
r'.
vector
the
"
"
2P2
"
Wz
"
"
"2
operator "
unit
sphere may
inverse
if a,
Furthermore
in
vectors
"2
an
ator
oper-
b, c
are
ellipsoid
5F2
"
"2
"
respectivelyW
a',b',c' denote
the
versa,
be
ellipsoidmay
an
ellipsoid
by applying the
an
radius
each
to
that
sphere by applying
unit
vector
be transformed
evident
becomes
^'rit
If r''=
to
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
a,
"
b,
r.c,
a'
a'
"
b'
a'
"
b'
"
c' =
Hence
which
three
the
by
form
conjugateradii
perpendicularunit
Theorem
ellipsoid
by
Let the
equationsof
the
be transformed
of the
0
W
"
"
strain 0*
changed into
"
of the
means
sphere are
of the
into
into any
other
strain.
1.
radii vectors
r'T'
the
in like
of the
unit
first
sphere
l.
radii vectors
manner
ellipsoid.Hence
r' of
W~*
strain
transformed
second
formed
trans-
1,
the
r'=0*T,
By
ellipsoidare
be
ellipsoids
"
are
ellipsoid
0.
homogeneous
and
means
a'
are
left-handed
By
1,
vectors.
of
means
"
c' =
in the
vectors
Any ellipsoid
may
c'
operator "~l
right-handedor
c'
the
by
product r
is
changed
r.
V-*
0i
r.
(19)
transformation
The
than
transformed
without
in the
Hence
by
suitable
strain is then
be
can
sphere
strain into
142.]
The
of
sphere
in
of
equation
be
may
and
three
any
or
others.
be carried
of the
semi-axes
only one
ways
rotation with
into
changed
the
more
completely determined
performed
unit
means
three
be
may
the
the semi-axes
by
perversion. Any
in
accomplished
r' of
themselves
among
vectors
be
may
radii vectors
The
one.
389
SURFACES
QUADRIC
second.
the
over
The
transformation
way.
of confocal
family
quadric
faces
sur-
is
az
If
"
b'2
"
and
"
"
c'2
"
"
"
surfaces
two
are
of
the
family,
i i
jj
i i
nr
k k
jj
*
L_
"
"*
"
".
a2"
k k
62"
","
"
j:
^tt
0-1
Hence
"
T2/
y-i=
The
necessary
and
72.
"
"
"
1 1
"^~ ( C
K.
kk)
"
"
quadrics
multipleof
71
---"
wi) T-
"
"
n^ (ii + j j
sufficient condition
and
be
~f" Cb
(%
n*
"
"
(wa
=
c2
7i"
"
"
differ
by
the idemfactor
0-i
y-i
a.i.
(21)
390
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Let
they do
quadricsintersect,
confocal
If two
quadricsbe
the
and
"
Let
the
Then
"
"
1,
"
1.
and
0-1
where
by
the confocal
quadricsintersect
0
"-1
at
s'
In like
a? s
Add
s'
y-1
"
"
W-*
s'
a; s
"
and
s' as
l,
l,
s'
xit
5P-1
"
perpendicularity
perpendicular.
( y~l
"
for
That
is,
0.
"
be
"
s'
"~l
s' =
"
s'
0-1
"
Hence
(0-1-
"
"
s'
If the
is
parameter
resultingconfocal
one
is
"
(0~J
s
the theorem
which
of
I)
"
8,
s'=
SF-1
"
s'.
manner
CM
and
.s
0-1
=
s'.
"
the condition
and
"
s' =
W~l
in terms
yr-i
But
r,
property,
0-i
If the
s'. ?T-i.s'
and
and
be written
quadrics may
s
*'
and
"
0-1
rightangles.
at
so
"
0-1
"
"
"
s'
"
0-1
JP"-1)sr
"
s'
I)
aj
"
a; s
"
0-1
"
"'
"
a;
s'
s'.
1.
"
s'.
0,
proved.
n
be allowed
vary
from
consist
of
to
quadrics will
"
oo
three
ellipsoids
; another, hyperboloids of
sheets.
to
oo
families
one
the
of
sheet
By the foregoing
theorem
surface
each
of the
other
of
family cuts
one
any
The
orthogonally.
two
one-sheeted
hyperboloids)cut
orthogonallythe
of
called
are
the
radius
through
of
vector
that
form
of two
family of
other
are
ellipsoids
two
point
point
the
are
the
to
for any
same
family
cut
the two
the
by
soids.
ellip-
components
of
axes
triply
families
the
"
that
two-sheeted
family
correspondingpointsupon
be shown
It may
the
which
points in
ellipsoids.The
these lines
and
surface
every
surfaces
lines of intersection
The
orthogonal system.
391
SURFACES
QUADRIC
of
ellipsoid
corresponding
two
points.
For
be given by
ellipsoid
let any
neighboringellipsoidin
dyadic
the
The
U
*^
n-"
as
dyadics they
Therefore
"
and
be
may
two
family is representedby
kk
""
c2
By (19)
than
higher
(0
dn)
(0
dn)~*
(I +
4"
1,
"
0*
"
dn)-1*
(I
i
_
dn)
"
r,
r,
1.
n
,
"
-~
8, p. 330)
in
algebra.
first in dn
the
then
d"
Ex.
Idn.
I dn.
are
neighboringellipsoids
and
ordinary scalars
as
V=*
"
homologous (see
are
the
,
*^
dn
"
0-1
of order
if terms
treated
omitted,
The
bz
dn
"
JF-i=
Inasmuch
dyadic
JJ
W=
a?
the
r.
be
392
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
The
f and
vectors
differ
by
multipleof
(P. Hence
to the ellipsoid
perpendicular
points,for they lie
r are
corresponding
which
of
f in the direction i
and
are
"
"
r '-x-
-"- -^
is
of the
--""
"
2 a2
Va2
dn
"
"
dn
2 a2
dn
"
manner
Vc2
andj
only
differ at most
ratios of
the
immediatelythat
drawn
by
by
of the
terms
of the
Thio
completesthe
143.]
The
treat
hence
two
parameter
from
in dn
follows
of the vectors
ellipsoids,
rated
sepan,
only
differ at
be identical with
electromagnetic
equations of
may
order in d
ellipsoids.It
any
and
them.
which
be written
followingdiscussion
the
second
of the
must
demonstration.
medium
isotropic
waves
To
The
-.
neighboring ellipsoids
two
those
in the
firstorder
and
ellipsoids
The
of
axes
finite variation
z
=
axes
infinite
terms
correspondingpointsupon
to
most
by
the
dn
"
of the vectors
correspondingpoints upon
to
Hence
from
and
-i
by
drawn
dn
"
dn
"
V"2
like
In v,
"
"
Va2
are
ratio is
Their
a.
the direction i
in
ellipsoids
"
TL
(7
-=!
x
axes
"
Of
The
ponents
com-
and
dn
i.
"
The
of the lines
one
upon
"
is
dn
m
which
"
orthogonally. The
family of ellipsoids
the
cut
"P
subjectfrom
the
must
the ether
is transparent to
or
of any
netic
electromag-
in the form
be
regarded
as
mathematical
standpointof physicswould
be out
not
of
physical.
placehere.
394
Then
where
and
represents
the
quotientof
is
wave
considered
it must
Substitute
the value
The
value
obtained
x.
The
is
the
"
then
"
D, and
"
to
(m
cos
of the vector
in
the
medium
that medium.
"
"
which
"
may
be
equal
to
Hence
t)
"
is
in D.
longer occur
no
of that advance
reduces
variables y and
in
place
equations.
easilyby assuming
m.
magnitude
equationsof
of D in those
D, V
take
velocityv
electromagneticwave
two
scalar
constant
The
m,
vibrations
m.
by
an
"
and
wave
satisfythe
of V
most
with
is,the
")
"
The
waves.
That
"
vectors
in the direction
advances
If this
(m
cos
constant
are
A.
is the
m.
train of
direction
wave
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
5D
V
"
"
-="
Hence
"
"
"
"
"
"
m2
"
m2
"
i i
"
"
sin (m
(m
"
f)
"
"
cos
sin
VV."P.D
"
"
"
"
"
nf).
t~)
"
"P
"
(mx
cos
(m
"
-mm."P.D.
d2D
Moreover
"
nz D.
"
d t*
Hence
(4)
if the
harmonic
D is to
satisfythe
tions
equa-
of the medium
w2 D
and
vibration
"P
"
"
0.
"
"P
"
(5)
(6)
THE
The
PROPAGATION
latter
equation states
be transverse
The
OF
at
of
IN
that
once
the direction
to
former
LIGHT
395
CRYSTALS
the
vibrations
propagationof
the
must
waves.
equation may
0.D.
Introduce
(5)'
The
of
vector
s
quotientof
is the
velocityof
the
by
The
wave.
This
n.
vector
The
m.
of
reciprocal
is the
magnitude
therefore
may
the
called
be
the wave-slowness.
D
This
Dividingby
(s x
that
phrase of
upon
the
The
motion
of
Let
displacementand
or
are
rather
drawn
directions in
of
slowness
a
"
"
"
so
"
determined
(9)
1.
(8)
may
"
of the
ss.0"a
propagationof
by
plane polarized.
the discussion
which
all
to the form
0.a
at
(8)
reduced
"
not
its direction.
direction
be
(7)
1.
medium
non-isotropic
a
A.
be discussed
are
in the
s.s
equationsby
the
"
becomes
sx(0-a)xs
the
depends
only upon
of
s.
88.0.
"
which
waves
magnitude
These
but
"),
plane polarizedmay
then
"
D)
"
"
slowness
vector
that
D.
"
(0
s"s
into
let the
equation (7)
(m
cos
wave
not
"
the vibration
wave
be
D)
"
the
wave
the
decomposing
144.]
sx(0.A)xs
s s
"
as
"
It is evident
The
"
also be written
may
wave
of the
in different
be carried
s
"
s.
velocity
on.
(10}
396
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Hence
the
direction
radius
due
to
displacement in
is
slowness
wave
drawn
vector
the
in
in
ellipsoida
direction)to
0
"
the
"
1 in
the
that
direction.
axa
"
direction
a
ellipsoid
to
"
"
and
the
wave
The
along that
line.
By
to be the condition
formed
ellipsoid
the
perpendicularto
there
are
of the
principalaxes
by
of
minateness
such
"P
"
these
when
are
as
s may
parallel
This
happens
axes
of the
when
is
advance
is likewise
the
and
obvious
is
the
of advance
These
a
ellipsoid
"
the
are
"
perpendicularto
when
is
along
one
the
deter-
and
perpendicularto
of the
perpendicularto
have
given just
geometrically. If
direction
a may
ellipsoid
ellipsoid
concerning the
of
of
principalaxes
given direction
center
any
pletely
com-
in either direction
of the
one
from
the
line of
displacementis
displacement.
is directed
ellipsoid.If
of
given
have
is perpendicular
statements
are
to the
displacement the
advance
for any
cut
ellipse
exceptionsoccur
a
Since
To
s
of
shall be
line of advance.
drawn
the
with
the direction
to page
possiblelines
two
(11)
regardssign when
may
Hence
s.
Hence
pletely
evidentlycom-
the
"
a.
"
it is
to
velocityof
that
"
plane
a.
the
reference
"
0.
the normal
of
vanishes.
a]
compatiblewith
however
wave
"
lies in
direction
determined, the
known.
as
and
magnitude
in
except
Given
of the
advance
twice
1 at the terminus
equal
axs."P"a
[a
"
therefore
determined
is known.
"
displacementand
of
"
wave-slowness
The
"
contains
s.s(ax0"a)'0"a
But
s"s
one
a.
principal
of
the
THE
PROPAGATION
When
direction of
the
slowness
be eliminated
must
from
(I
or
dyadic in
The
"
"
"P +
"
ss
"
s s
The
third
s.s"P
a.
to
the
vary
of s,
equation
allowed
the
"
397
CRYSTALS
"
"P)
"
"
"
0.
(12)
the
parallelto
vectors
IN
displacementis
obtain
To
varies.
LIGHT
OF
determinant
or
it annihilates
is
This
zero.
gives immediately
(I"
(tf-i-s.
or
This
the
is
scalar
extremity of
number
(0
when
is
of transformations
+
0B
f )3 =
I +
the
in
equation
ss."P)3
"
locus
possibledirections.
Ex.
By
03
(13)
It is the
s.
be made.
02
"
all
0.
vector
given
may
e
ss)3
0,
0^1
"
of
A
19, p. 331,
"
"P3.
Hence
Dividing out
the
factor and
common
remembering
that 0 is
self-conjugate.
1 +
(0-l-""
s.
\- 8
Hence
0.
"
"
"
Let
"
"
1-8.
8-8
1.8
S.
si)-1*
-=
"
"
0.
(14)
398
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
i-.
?/
Let
i +
equation of
the
Then
ic
"2/
and
s2
the surface
\--
I
x2 +
c2
z2.
y2 +
in Cartesian
coordinates
"
~~cf
(14)'
l-fl
The
in
equation
is
Cartesian
coordinates
be
may
obtained
directlyfrom
(0-1
determinant
The
a2
By
"
xz
Z"2
ss)3:=0.
s2 +
"
y2
cz
relation s2
of the
means
1 +
dyadic is
of this
s2 +
x
_8.
xz +
0.
(13)'
assumes
the
s2 +
"
z2 this
y2 +
forms
z
x2
z
_
a2 ic2
9
s'5
o
"
c2 z2
Z"2yz
*
I
I
a*
sz
", 9
"
_i
T
o'2
==
9
s'5
0
**i
c^
"
This
equation appears
of
only the
to be of
fourth.
The
the
terms
sixth
degree.
It is however
cancel
out.
The
vector
plane wave
polarizedin
the direction
passes
that
originat
Suppose
the
PROPAGATION
THE
OF
instant of time
certain
unit of time
it will have
the
equal to
be in this
the
plane at
upon
the
the
plane by
connected
of time.
reciprocalof
cuts
reciprocalsof
u,
coordinates
plane
of the
polarizedin
waves
surface
to
the
surface
distance
plane will
off
v,
intercepts
w.
These
the
plane.
of
pointsin
the
in
and
slowness
of the
locus
the
of
wave-surface.
u,
v,
equation of
is identical with
terminus
of the
v2
w^
unit
The
is the
the
origin at
plane coordinates
the
possibledifferent
at the end
the
as
wave
all
through
pass
is known
which
the
wave-
the equation
slowness
vector
B.
equation is
uz
^o^o^o
s2
forms
given previously.
Wave-Surface.
397
The
w*.
In
of
an
This
The
vector
"
(15)
\/
may
be written
be
in any
is known
surface
equations in
if the variable
plane instead
145.]
vz +
o*
where
u2 +
72
~T""*"
"*
a4
page
(page 108).
perpendicularupon
The
of
end
wls.
the coordinates
supposed
This
for
The
s.
the vector
vj
the
with
plane
be
instant
surface
the
the relation
directions
the
At
of
magnitude
the
to
therefore
If different
same
ui
equal
quantitiesare
are
the
expirationof
axes
399
CRYSTALS
this slowness.
positionrepresentedby
*
IN
of
reciprocal
If
They
with
LIGHT
form
vector
FresneVs
as
are
of the
given
on
regardedas determining a
point.
isotropicmedium
light is perpendicularto
the direction of the wave's
the
direction
the wave-front.
advance.
The
of
It is the
velocityof
ray
same
of
as
the ray
400
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
equal
is
this is
medium
velocity of
the
to
And
advance.
wave-front
travels off
ray travels
along
of
gency
the
Thus
the radius
direction
and
direction
velocityof
the
the
wave
the
upon
the
the condition
of the
In
s.
the
the
like
plane
v' may
"
d v'
be
0,
2a
Multiplyby
0
it.
dicular
perpen-
"
"
0 and
"p
a_s
da
"
"
"
"P
"
"
"
s s
take account
a
"
perpendicular
of
the
ray.
v'
"
by
the
1 because
Moreover
s.
"
"
ads
"
Then
of the
Hence
(16)
0, s'
0
"
0,
a,
d"
follows.
as
"
"
"/" da
"
da..
of the relations
s.
v' perpendicula
the condition
1,
s s
slowness
1 and
v.
the
the
of a, s, and
terms
s'
wave-
denoted
s'
0, v'
ds
and
1 and
of the
and
if s' be
the wave,
d s'
"
"
v'
"
expressed in
d"
the
manner
velocityof
the
upon
extremity of
Then
ray.
and
and
ray
that
seen
wave;
the
that v' be
to
it is
velocityof
extremityof
ray and
tan-
represents in magnitude
of the
is the locus
slowness
the
situated
are
v' be
Let
envelop
If instead
wave.
be considered
represents the
point of
to the
vector
velocity of
the
wave-surface, the
wave-planes
the radius
the
fact,whereas
to the
rays
of the
the
upon
The
of the
in the wave-surface
In
drawn
vector
termini
the
travel perpendicula
not
which
wave.
always tangent
wave-plane.
wave-surface;
of
velocitywith
the
does
ray
non-isotropic
"
is
In
wave.
The
longer true.
no
to the wave-front
wave's
the
"
0 and
402
and
normal
the
~l
0
ellipsoid
It
146.]
the wave-slowness,
ellipsoid,
the
to
that if
seen
was
in the
direction
of that
instead of at
curve
the
in which
curve
directions
two
called the
are
In like
v'
last
the
center
which
is
v'
of
that
states
"
have
however
regard v'
to
wave
to
the surface.
the
of
elements
The
of
axes
this
of 0
equal
"
and
a']
"
0.
of two
one
Hence
as
along one
ray is to take
directions.
It is
cipal
prin-
definite
a
more
venient
con-
determininga plane.
vector
of the
a'
first equation
[0
states
that
radius
is the
point of tangency
of
element
is meant
of
major
the
of that
an
or
one
element
minor
axes
cylinder. Hence
possibledirections
v'
a]
of the
0
in the
v' : if
passing through
of
0
ellipsoid
principalelements
to
parallel
given the
of
==
drawn
vector
about
cylindercircumscribed
two
if
0~l
will be directed
of the section.
the
[a' v'
if
velocities.
ray
ellipsoid@~l
the
equal to
a]
the
to the surface
wave-surface
are
in
singular
These
any
and
Hence
touches
being coplanarwith
equation
axes
The
normal
unequal
has
along the
of the
center
are
direction
same
placein
all directions
plane is tangent
primary opticaxes.
manner
For
singlepoint.
the
which
["P
The
the
singularplane
velocities but
wave
from
drawn
cone
the
of the circular
one
take
wave-surface
This
s.
the
to
could
section.
had
Hence
plane perpendicularto
along a
normal
was
displacementa
plane
magnitude.
same
wave-slowness
plane the
and
the other.
on
sections of 0 the
this
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
by
to
of the
principal
the extremities
orthogonal plane
sections
displacementare
those
radii vectors
circumscribed
the
about
cylinderis
If the
be circumscribed
about
may
be any
direction
in the
cylinderwith
of the
direction
point there
a
are
direction to the
any
of these
the directions of
surface
and
are
along one
along
Variable
the
the
to
elements
The
the
secondary optic
of
one
ellipsoid0
are
For
constants.
in
of variable
the
If
axes.
the
wavea
ray
planes
wave
Integral Calculus
have
the
up
expansion
the elements
constant
dyadics,however,
of the
been
and
constant.
the scalar
form
in nonion
theory and
dyadics suffice.
leads to
for
The
simplification
unification of the differential and integral
calculus of
and furthermore
variable dyadics become
a necessity
more
of the
of the two
cone.
elementary applicationsthese
in the
dyadics considered
occurred
vectors,
singukr
originto
singularpointsof
and
Differential
coefficients which
introduction
one
magnitude
the
axes
the
secondaryoptic axes
entered
and
of the
of the
which
been
in
from
the
Dyadics.
vectors
to
this
equal
called
Hitherto
147.]
and
ing
tangent planesenvelopbe
directions
At
all
are
travel
line drawn
about
cylinderscircumscriptible
circular
travels
The
tangency
direction
the wave-surface.
of
the center
of
same
perpendiculardrawn
planes.
displacement
for
ray-velocity
the
wave-velocitymay
and
of
curve
It is therefore
infinite number
an
The
cone.
common
der
cylin-
cylinderswhich
ellipsoid.The
singularpointsof
of the
They
the
magnitude.
same
body
the
displacement has
directions of
these
have
circular
and containingthe
ellipsoid
of the
The
two
the
v'.
to
ellipsoid
parallel
of the
one
may
the
principalplanes of
lie in the
which
ellipsoid
of the
403
DYADICS
VARIABLE
advanced
curvature
applications
"
of surfaces
point of which
and
4s fixed.
in the
dynamics
of
theory
a
rigid
404
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
be
Let W
from
drawn
the vector
dr
fixed
dxi
positionin
of
function
vector
originto
dy j
^"
9W
d W
\i
"
(
The
expression enclosed
appears
and
change
of
the consequents
of #, 2/,z.
analogousto
The
del and
-7".
"y z
9W
i- j
--
9W)
h k
--
in the
braces
is
dz
is
antecedents
found
in
It thus
dyadic.
expressionis
linear function
The
position.
"
"
d y
dx
differential
space.
be
k,
--
ax
Hence
point in
9W
dz
Let
9W
9W
d W
any
space.
of d r, the
of W
with
spect
re-
precisely
manner
by
i, j,k,
are
W.
(1)
Then
"2W
This
equation
function
is like the
one
may
nonion
(2)
be
form
regarded
VW
as
scalar
VF.
"
definingVW.
If
expanded
becomes
dx
Qx
Qx
9Y
3y
9Y
+
9Z
iT-+kj^-+kk^r-,
oz
if
F.
dV=dr
It
dr.VW.
dz
into
VARIABLE
The
operators V
function
become
now
For
standpoint.
scalar and
and V
"
are
of the
divW
dyadic
V
VW
may
In the second
other
from
hand
W
W
be
function
(5)
of the
the
as
placestaken
On
W.
is to
terpreta
important in-
divergenceand
the
by
curl
analyticidea
of VW.
function
be
derivative
the
of
scalar
VVF=
ii
VVT,
Qzy
+
^r
d x*
ij
="
Qzy
^-
ik
d y 3
d x
~f~ fcj
result of
dyadic.
;
3n
^J
twice
to
n
o
"
V is
(VV
'
z*
scalar function
vector
evidently
92V
52 Y
V=
'
its scalar V
V.V
V
n
dz
dz
dy
v.
do
applying
This
J k
dy*
7:"=-,
dy
zero
dyadic V
be lost if the
J J
is
and
"
standpointof physicsnothing
32 y
ator
operscalar
V,
where
be
place the
justas to a
operators V
two
=dT'
The
of the variable
the first
function
may
the
(V W)x.
functions
their
vector
vector
less than
nor
(4)
In
place the
and
purely analytic
the introduction
much
forgottenand
"
vector
(VW)^
vector
the
indeed
of V
If
W.
positionsas
to
gained and
of W
dyadic V
these.
applied to
be
reduced
be
therefore
are
function.
the
more
analyticadvantages of
The
applied to
were
nothing
V.
curl W
are
which
superfluous from
they
the vector
405
DYADICS
V)a
-=-j
5 xz
.-s-j
d2
52F
+
-^-T.
3 zz
is
V
to
seen
X
406
If
attempt
an
to
made
were
cally
apply the operator V symboli-
to
scalar function
of twenty-seven
sum
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
"
93T
9s V
""
This
is
without
not
be discussed
be
applied twice
of
and
"
"
^-
placed in juxtaposition
are
similar
be
a dyadicand
respectively
90
i
where
n, v,
and
"
"P
Or if
here.
operators
0 to
yield
vj
90
k
-r-
(8)
-r-.
wk,
of
positionin
Vx
"
(7)
kx-r-,
3
Vxvj
i +
i
hence
90
+
dy
i +
"
^3 x
"
functions
The
dyadic
90
ui
vector
are
Vx
"
triadic and
90
lx-5-r jx3-d
=
tion
dyadic func-
vector.
ax
to
once
If
or
applied to
90
Vx0
if the operator V
discussion
the
to
expressions will
manner
function,
however
may
etc.
dz
positionin
outside
In
vector
vectors
here.
to
"
multiplication.Such
of
sign
any
*
a
x*
Three
triadic.
j k
r,
+
k
"
space,
wk,
(7)'
k.
(8)'
w,
9y
and
V.0
^
d
In
may
similar
be
manner
d y
^.
The
(8)"
dz
appliedto 0.
like
terms
1 1 1
be
(a
result is in each
"
V) and
case
(V
"
V)
dyadic,
(V
The
operators
are
no
The
the
"
"
9 x2
and
applied to
as
individual
be carried
out
W,
steps may
when
V)
V)
"
applied to
made
The
without
of
confusion
of
danger
a
Formulas
similar to
by
of
means
W.
steps without
just as
those
the
in
that
case
removed
of the
may
the
use
be removed
were
176
page
upon
making
may
they
be interpreted
cannot
differentiating
products
to
parentheseshowever
function
vector
"
operators
successive
of two
up
the
dyadic
(V W)
"
0.
be
in
dyadic.
given for
differentiation
dyadics.
(u v)
(v
w)
==
(v
"
Vx
V
"
"
(v w)
(v w)
"
principlein
"
0
these
before,namely
"
+
+
"
"
"
"
"
"
v,
v,
w.
vxVw,
0 +
"
"
"
"
"
(u 0~)
VxVx
"
v,
Vwxv,
"
w)
V(vxw)=Vvxw
The
regarded as singleoperators.
(V W)
"
of the triadic V
Vx
tions
func-
vector
dyadic VW.
as
lead
"
9 z2
?/2
be
(V
case
to
longer necessarily
(a
But
V)
"
and
all similar
The
operator V may
cases
0,
etc.
"/",
is that
be treated
ciated
enun-
sym-
408
bolicallyas
which
it is
V
[V
[V
[V
Hence
V
Again
(v
w)
[V (v
Hence
w)]v
["
It
of the
is
function
at
and
of
"
v)]v
w)]^
w.
v.
denote
curve
"
v^xv.
if C
that
point is r
scalar function
w,
the final
difference
the
to
w,
"
(Art. 79)
derivative
equal
product
(vw)]^
[V (v
Vvxw
seen
was
(w
which
implies
vxVw.
"
w)]v
w]v
w)]w
V(vxw)
148.]
curve
[V
Vxvw
[V (v
[V (v
[v
"
(vw)
Vx
(vw)]v
(v w)]w
(v w)]v
factor of
each
upon
it
applied. Thus
(vw)
in turn
out
which
differentiations
The
vector.
carried
be
must
to
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
between
taken
along
values
the
of
the
of that
r0.
f"Zr.VF=F(r)-F(r0).
*"
In like
idr.VW
manner
W(r)"
"
(r0),
id
and
"
0.
"/o
It may
be well to note
that the
fdr.VW
are
by
vector
no
means
cannot
the
be
same
and
integrals
fvw
thing.
VW
placed arbitrarily
upon
"
dr
is
dyadic.
The
410
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
surface
The
taken
integralsare
region throughout
surface of the
the
over
which
complete bounding
the volume
integrals
taken.
are
250
page
added.
cian and
other
to
functions
The
The
for himself.
also be extended
vector
be added.
might
obtainingthem
and
of
formulae
Numerous
of
Maxwellian
Lap
integratingoperators
To
the
The
'"
fff
of its
sum
the
these
natural
most
which
as
way
in which
expressed with
will be
matters
occur
be
vector
developed
as
the demonstrations
function
the
as
components,
dyadic 0
upon
Lapla-
12
integralsmay
These
the
and
"""
Zk
Yj +
and
be
given is by consideringthe
be
may
scalar
be denned.
dyadics may
fff
analytictheory of
before.
may
dyadic may
function
vector
The
potentialsof
potential,Pot "P,of
of
in
difficulty
no
'-///
Pot
New
The
cases.
the
Newtonian
those upon
them
when
differ
so
at all
n, v, w,
left at this
was
variable
the constant
dyadics are
the
vice versa,
point.
to indicate
slightlyfrom
or
consequents
The
objectof
the natural
considered.
simple cases
tering
en-
extensions
These
which
tensions
ex-
have
CURVATURE
THE
OF
411
SURFACES
gone
out
assumed
or
than
rather
to
from
analogy whenever
merely to
mention
what
the
The
Curvature
may
in advance.
develop them
to
attempt
they
extensions
be
It is sufficient
and
are
needed
how
they
be treated.
may
There
149.
In
of surfaces.
form
metic
by
different methods
two
are
three
curvature
and
In
second
the
method
the
dyadicslead naturallyto
the
Let
surface
origin to
radius
of
or
vector
Much
true
especially
single
of
simpleapplication
dyadics. Moreover,
the
connected
surfaces.
drawn
the
from
surface.
arbitraryfixed
an
The
increment
to the
surface
VF=Q.
V.Fis
collinear with
Moreover, inasmuch
of what
made.
thus
"
in the
method
was
expressed by
importantresults
the most
dealing
r.
the derivative
surface.
para-
0.
affords
dF=dr*
Hence
z)
in
it is the
reference
x,y,z
of variable
point of
variable
is
variables
elementarytheory of
be
and
curves
of treatments
differential calculus
with
vature
cur-
(w" v)"
(Art.57)
to which
latter method
expressed in
=/8
followed
book
the
The
is
treatingthe
(u,t").
of
torsion
in the
Fehr
the method
analogous to
employed by
surface
y
r
with
of
equations
or
is
the
one
This
of Surfaces1
as
and
free from
follows is practically
of the treatment
of
Arts.
geodetics,
the
the
the normal
negativeof
use
155-157.
of
to
the
F when
dyadics.
This
is
412
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
equated
to
considered
the
case
give
zero
the
as
surface
the
normal
normal
increases.
Let
which
may
be
in the
direction
the
(#,
y,
denoted
by N,
of N.
z)
of the
defined
be
may
In
surface.
by
const.
side
which
upon
represented by
be
family
that
lies upon
to
belongs
side
either
upon
the
geometric surface, V
same
and
let
be
the
unit
the
constant
of
magnitude
normal
drawn
Then
(1)
If
"
is the
drawn
vector
the terminus
of r,
the
of the
equation
s"
to
and
in like
or
translated
150.]
plays
an
is
into
The
variable
of the
V^=0,
kV
form
of
dn
important part
in
because
and
normal
These
give
the
unit
the
theory
is
unit
"
line is
parameter.
variation
Cartesian
perpendicular to
at
V^=0.
equation
(s-r)
where
tangent plane
tangent plane is
the
manner
in the
perpendicular. Consequently
are
(s-r).
and
point
any
equations
the
familiar
normal
of
vector.
to
curvature,
may
be
results.
a
surface
dn.
is
THE
CURVATURE
413
SURFACES
OF
-/v
The
dyadic
to
"
and
is
idemf actor
an
annihilator
an
for
dicular
perpen-
parallelto
vectors
n.
Hence
dn
and
(I
"
n)
"
d n,
F*
(I
V^.(I-nn)=0,
Hence
dn
"
VV
"
nn).
"
N
But
dr
di
(I-nn)
Hence
dn
nn).
"
VV.F.
"
dr"-
(I
"
(I-nn)
"
Let
tfi
(I-nn).'.-
N
Then
In the
the
of
vicinity
unit
normal
radius vector
The
Evidently (I
is
a
0 is
0.
the variation d
surface
variation
of the
of
of the
For
self-conjugate.
(I
n)c
to
parallel
planar and
antecedents
"
function
linear
n),
(I
self-conjugate.Hence
vector
r.
dyadic
N
point upon
any
is
and
n, the
in fact
the
(VV
"
F)c
n) and
0C is equal
"
(I
by (6) Art.
to 0.
When
uniplanarbecause
consequents
n) 0.
147
appliedto
It is therefore
self-conjugate.The
lie in the
tangent plane
to
414
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
It is
surface.
the
possible(Art. 116)
reduce
to
the
to
form
0
i' and
where
j'are
and
dn
The
of the surface.
The
151.]
the
"
b have
be
is
regarded as
with
it.
is
result
pair
of the conic.
if
of
If
they are
directions.
with
directions
the
indicatrix
known
are
specialcase
of
surface which
If
of the indicatrix
the
surface
is convex,
and
are
"
These
to
parallel
the
equal
totes
asymp-
called
are
surface
directions
cide
coin-
i',j' of
They
the
are
the
an
In
ellipseand
case
the
imaginary.
are
dyadic 0
equal.
may
may
be
then
such
be
that
cients
the coeffi-
reduced
to
the
form
0
of the asymptotes
asymptoticdirections.
is
jugate
con-
which
directions upon
The
zero
hyperbola;
an
principalaxes
indicatrix
to
the
principaldirections.
the
curve
on
the
the
are
of the conic
on
and
to
be set
at
convex
The
the
as
the
the
specialcases
a
with
known
are
asymptotic directions
In
"
conjugatedirections.
coincide
ellipse,
an
surface is
plane drawn
directions
of
the
as
point
to
approximately equal
directions
The
is
concavo-convex.
to conjugatediameters
parallel
are
point
If this conic
straightlines.
ellipse.Two
imaginary,an
from
hyperbola,that is,if
an
the
j'j').
sign,the
same
to
the
surface
near
lying in
is variable.
1 may
"
"
the
oppositesignsthe
.
(5)
vectors
a, b vary
point in question.
and
point;
have
i'i' +
(a
"
dyadic 0
conic
j'j'
positiveor negativescalars.
are
dr
The
surface at the
that is,if
vectors
perpendicularunit
two
i'i' +
a(i'i'+j'j')
(5)'
in
of ways.
infinite number
an
give principaldirections
called
an
umbilic
is
umbilic.
The
convex.
The
In another
surface
dyadic 0
"
indicatrix consists of
to i'.
The
Such
further
point is
of
an
imaginary.
are
linear and
cible
redu-
(5)"
lines perpendicular
pairof parallel
called
parabolicpoint of
other
of these and
discussion
point is
neighborhood
becomes
circle
i'i'.
this
Such
asymptoticdirections
the
specialcase
the
in
to the form
The
of
surface.
the
upon
be
indicatrix becomes
The
Any
circle.
j'may
The
perpendiculardirections.
two
any
415
SURFACES
OF
CURVATURE
THE
the surface.
will be
specialcases
omitted.
The
of
quadric
points.
are
of
of any
point
umbilics.
is
it is
points upon
a
upon
The
in
have
and
hyperbolic,
parabolic,
A
which
curve
axes
lines
of
curvature
of
divide
rectangles. An
which
has at each
indicatrix.
one
of the
point the
of the
point. Through
The
points of
dicatrix
in-
indicatrix
The
cone
or
all
cylinder
parabolic. A
all
face
sur-
elliptic,
types
"
The
of
direction
principalcurvature
point the
direction
direction
of the
asymptoticdirections
of the
is
cipal
prinat
curve
the surface at
surface
two
Thus
the
pendicula
per-
lines
mal
system of infinitesia
upon
surface is
curve
curve
upon
one
on
pass.
into
asymptoticline
surface
of the
direction
upon
principaldirections
any
the
ellipse.
an
umbilical.
of the indicatrix.
one
is
points are
are
principalcurvature
has at each
pointis always
that
of
line
points
it
sheets
The
The
circle.
point upon
The
upon
kinds
two
concavo-convex.
hyperbola.
an
indicatrix of any
generalmay
152.]
is
sphere is
lines.
pair of parallel
them
points upon
sheet
one
of the various
hyperboloidof
the
indicatrix of
The
hyperboloidof
The
examples
and
ellipsoid
The
convex.
afford
surfaces
at
the
point is always
surface.
Through
416
any
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
given point of
lines
surface
imaginary if the
are
they do
in
not
and
necessary
surface be
along that
surface is
line of
which
sufficient condition
""
dr
Then
dt
evidentlyd
is
It is
The
and
i' or
to
parallel
frequentlytaken
differential
The
the
surface
is
of statement
increment
an
lie in
element
of
as
one
advances
and
line of curvature
to the
when
only
proved.
is
Q.
(6)
line of
upon
is therefore
statement
plane when
one
curve
as
equation of
method
For
when
parallel
are
dnxdr
Another
point.
yj'.
i' +
j7.
by
angle
(a i'i'+ I j'j') dr
dr
The
increment
to
parallel
dn=
that
is that
principalcurvature
the
curve,
that
real
is bisected
point
any
through
pass
when
rightangles.
at
These
pass.
Even
convex.
at
asymptotic lines
surface is
general intersect
the two
between
asymptoticlines
two
and
the
element
only when
the
of the
element
differential
The
curvature.
principal
surface,
to the
[n
The
surface
that
and
necessary
be
dn
the increment
perpendicularto
"
is
zero
asymptotic direction.
"
that
as
one
dn
If then
that
dn
(7)
sufficient condition
asymptotic line,is
an
curve
dr]=0.
dt
d
The
dr
"
dr
"
statement
curve
advances
to the
upon
along
surface
is
For
0
"
"
0
r
"
is
dr.
zero.
Hence
is therefore
is
proved.
an
It
418
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
(J
n
d
"=.
"
,
-f-
"
"
dr
dr
dr
dr
"
Hence
cos2
(i',d r) +
" cos2
(j',d r),
or
cos2
(i',dr)
J sin2
(i',df).
The
normal
from
section varies
through
passes
follows
as
through
the
of the
P, there
normal
actual
one
section is
01
and
another
one
position of
the
Hence
which
those
cos2
in the section at
Cz
These
sin2
(i',dr)
C1+C2
proves
njinimum
If
and
of
curvature
normal
and
For
sections.
5 sin2
right anglesto
values
concavo-convex
the
in two
is constant
(i',c?r)+
The
it
sections
independent of
the
curvature
(i',dr),
this
" cos2
b=0s
of the curvatures
(i',dr).
(11)
and
02Sis equal to
b of the lines of
the product
ature.
principalcurv-
"Pzs=ab
the
in
the statement.
It is easy to show
Hence
asymptoticdirections.
the
are
passes
" when
of curvature.
for which
about
plane
value
is
C of the
and
surface
of the curvatures
sum
the
the
of
turns
curvature
when
principallines
directions
exist two
rightangles to
at
j',the
i', to
The
plane p
principaldirection j '.
section vanishes.
154.]
i' to
(10)
curvature
a maximum
algebraically
in the directions
unlike
the
the value
other
have
at
When
principaldirection
the
of the curvature
6 have
surface from
to the
the normal
plane
is
for the
this formula
of
interpretation
section
equation
xz
"
4"sx
"zs
(12)
THE
is the
CURVATURE
which
quadraticequation
and
equation
the
OF
determines
b at any
point of
scalar
quantitiesa
the
surface.
the
419
SURFACES
and
b may
atures
principalcurv-
By
of this
means
be found
in
terms
oiF(x,y,z).
(I-nn)
VVJF.
"
(I-nn)
VV^-2_
N
(nn
"
VV
nn)5
"
"a
Hence
(nn
"
nn
nn:
0S
These
expressionsmay
"PZSare
as
even
VV^=n.
VVJ?7.
n.
V..
V.V.P
Hence
they are
(nn
(nn" VV^)5
but
VV^T)5=
"
(13)
-"
"^-
be written
extremely long.
longer.
The
in Cartesian
out
Cartesian
The
expressionsfor
expressionmay
vector
coordinates,
be
obtained
follows:
(I-nn)2.(VVJQ2.(I-nn)2
(I
"
nn)2
nn.
Hence
155.]
tangent
Given
to
the
any
curve
curve,
upon
a
surface.
unit normal
Let
t be
to the surface
and
unit
m
420
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
defined
vector
as
The
i, j, k system.
an
Hence
(m
"
n)
"
Hence
Moreover
Hence
t x
The
a
0.
"
"
of
increments
line of
A
each
geodeticline
smooth
surface
acting under
along
stringis
that
surface
elastic
and of
at
must
and the
curve
The
vectors
that
is
(16)'
are
its
all parallel
in
of
case
the
two
lie in the
t and
In
surface
lie in the
to
it.
The
be drawn
can
string
upon
Inasmuch
the normal
at every
and
brium
positionof equili-
given points.
as
Hence
curve.
point of
the
of the
reactions
the
the
the
curve
geodeticline.
d t lie in the
case
the
osculatingplane lies in
perpendicularto
will take
following
be smooth
pointsof
the
between
the
surface
osculatingplane of
to the
itself is
from
seen
the
That
be drawn
is constrained
the surface
upon
osculating
the surface.
can
which
curve
whose
curve
any two
tensions
own
plane.
Let
between
the shortest
rest
be
may
stringwhich
plane is normal
to the
Q.
of mechanics.
between
surface
(16)
0,
surface
upon
be stretched
surface
dm.
"
0.
considerations
let
0.
r.
becomes
point is perpendicularto
points upon
two
of
principalcurvature.
geodeticline
plane at
and
element
(15)
dn
"
constitute
the
parallelto
dmxdn
or
n, t,
line of curvature
t x
t is
vector
for
the condition
Hence
three vectors
The
t.
the normal
n.
osculatingplane and
curve
is
the surface
Hence
geodetic,the
and
mine
deternormal
consequently is
OF
CURVATURE
THE
or
differential
The
equation of
d
the differential
the
The
surface
of
system
or
covered
along
turning
be any
not
along
that
that
is,along
form
the
term
dt
156.]
as
the
order.
infinite
surface
is curved.
there
is
There
left. If
rightor
one
and
may
to be
possibleroute
is in fact the
straightline
the
right or
down, it is
shortest
is
advances
the
turning to
no
Such
a
surface
The
case.
is d t.
Since
n,
mm.
of
to
case
the
this
the
mm"dt.
of
In
nn
nn"dt
amount
amount
measure
turning
and
up
left.
right or
part of the
is
curve
The
vanishes.
second
down;
Hence
deviation
"
the
d t is
from
geodetic this
term
expected.
was
curve
or
tt +
unit vector
straightestline.
vanishes
from
tt"dt
represents the
proper
i, j,k system
doubly
upon
along the
geodetic.
t is
second
pointsof
two
turning up
is
of deviation
an
Hence
of the
with
curve
there
total amount
Since
(18)
over
and
up
turning to
such
curve
expected
t, m
0.
any
any
"
r]
due
may
d*
is therefore
be drawn.
advances
one
m,
0.
geodeticline
geodetics. Through
some
necessarily
axis
(17)
equations of
is therefore
geodeticmay
As
and
one
0,
d t
"
d t
"
[n
Unlike
d t
t X
"
421
SURFACES
which
surface
of
the
may
be
mapped
A
normals.
parallel
unit
normal
at
the
upon
fixed
unit
originis
point P
of
422
VECTOR
is laid off.
given surface
the surface of
upon
pointsP
sphere.
This
like
mapped
upon
the
sphere has
the surface.
be
element
corresponding
02
da!
Hence
The
its
ratio of
is
hodogram
at P
curvature
is
was
"
total
seen
to
to the
or
given
region T'
upon
of the
region T
upon
the surface
upon
the
surface,the
where
sponding
corre-
(Art.124).
j'j'
ab
nn
the
ab
nn.
(19)
da..
"
at
product of
of
reciprocal
to the
point P
the
the
of
area
principalradii
product of
the
of
cipal
prin-
at P.
curvatures
It
equal
of surface
element
an
of the
The
the
j' i'xj'
unit
(Pi*da..
i'i'+
i' x
ab
of
sphere is
upon
arc
sphere is da!
da!
surface
dr.
"
area
the
upon
of
of
element
element
hodogram
origin,
same
may
sphere.
the unit
upon
the
at all
of the surface
region T
element
an
the
lies
surface
sphericalimage
the
called the
to
from
upon
whole
region T'
been
an
curve
manner
If d
If da. be
If the normals
is called the
curve
In
curve.
trace
terminus
constructed
thus
are
will
The
sphere.
curve
points P'
the
be
of
ANALYSIS
that the
d t.
If then
amount
of
of
measure
C is any
curve
turning to
drawn
the
rightor
left
surface
the
upon
the
is the
curve
integral.
(20)
For
manner
of
any
closed
curve
analogous to
Stokes's
theorem.
this
that
integralmay
evaluated
be
Consider
two
curves
in the
and
C'
in
proof
near
THE
The
together.
the
of
curve
CURVATURE
variation
which
Cm"dt=
Cs
Cm-
(m
taken
when
idemf actor
The
for t
"
d t and
m"
St)
the
dt"
(m
"
5t).
t) vanishes
dm
Sk
"
similar transformation
St.
"
relations
the
By differentiating
c"
(m
nn
/(Sm"n
dt=
Cd
Hence
"
vanish.
the term
Bt
"
Bt +
"
curve.
Cm.Bdt
dt+
"
St +
Sm
I^tt
"
Sm
C dm
closed
C to C' is
perfect differential
is
from
dm*
m"^t=
be effected upon
integralundergoes when
d t.
"
Bm*dt-
around
(m. dt~)=
"
dt=
integralof
The
the
integrationis changed
8
423
SURFACES
OF
Then
dt
"
may
"
dm
"
0 and
n"8t).
"
"
0 it is
that
seen
Sm"n=:
dm
Hence
Cm
"
"
"
\m*dt=\
dt=
"
"
Bn
"
Bt
"
"
dn
"
dt
"
(m"Sn
t"dn"
|(mxt"Snxdn)="
8n"t
dn
"
In
"
dn
"
t.
t"Sn)
Bnx
dn.
424
differential 8n
The
the
hodogram
the unit
surface
which
desired
in
TT.
size.
if H
But
The
denote
of the
closed
plus the
curve
equal to
upon
the
surface
sphere will
is
so
described
hodogram
above.
appear
must
be
taken
Let
the
spread out
which
the
to
is
quired
re-
point is
dt
"
of
hodogram.
(22)
dt,
region enclosed
question is
the
curve
upon
the
area
appears
matter
area
of the
any
curve
convex
the
into account
by
turningalong that
concavo-convex
This
TT.
2ir.
of the
in
H9
"
Cm
negative.
and
"
positivewhen
is
C'.
turning
dt
sphere will
"
?r
total amount
appear
stripof
the
circuit about
If the surface
?r.
of
and
surface
hodogram
of the
area
Cm
H+
area
TT
da!
"
of
in
area
integral
curves
dt=
d t
of
integralis
hi the
"
The
hodogram
the
upon
"
H=
or
is
The
the
the total
or
the
infinitesimal
Hence
"
total amount
an
of
area
total variation
point
making
The
"
sphere.
between
lies
C start at
curve
total
represents the
dn
upon
any
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
area
the
positive.
upon
the
sign of
the
in the statement
made
426
VECTOR
Harmonic
The
158.]
ANALYSIS
Vibrations
differential
integralof
choice
this
of the constants
the
point x
place of
0.
The
x.
Consider
is
be
sin
back
Let
reduced
by
and
the
i A
displacement
along the
entire
of
axis
denoted
by
t.
cos
At
x.
JT-axis
be written
merely
not
along the
displacement be
sin
sin
forth
x.
the
near
point
2 k
but
suitable
t.
equation may
D
This
harmonic
to the form
represents a vibration
in
rectilinear
"
equation may
about
of
equation
dt*
This
Bivectors
is
motion
The
and
points
TT
where
Te is
times
wave
these
the
equation
axis
The
The
zero.
nodes
at these
wave
has
be
of the
plane
is likewise
plane
along the
direction
vibration.
variables
of which
#,
is
the
y,
If the
it represents
perpendicularto
cos
equation
(m
"
vibration
i with
is
(1)
f)
the
perpendicular to
wave
stationary. The
between
x.
displacementgiven by
=
stationary
points midway
maximum
three
in
as
variable
At
points.
the
wave
Dj
not
equation represents
points of
regarded
plane
the
to
all
at
harmonic
velocityequal
axis of
and
to the
but
advances
quotientof
HARMONIC
by
If
m.
VIBRATIONS
be the
AND
velocity;
p
427
BIVECTORS
period; and
the
I the
wave
length,
2?r
The
-,
m
place in
direction j, not
before
This
the
the
in
vibration
it is
extension
direction
the
the wave-front.
"
is
for
A
of that
advances
the
the
much
for
(m
cos
the
discussion
The
advancing in
of
"
same
is the
waves
direction
The
A.
maximum
of A.
magnitude
the
motion.
The
ment;
displaceas
before.
monic
Elliptichar-
wr.
"
obtained
cos
(3)
wave-length are
the
obliqueto
be obtained
may
oblique to
is
t).
"
advances
wave
vibration
direction
by
may
as
B sin
t +
is
t.
carried
be
of
general wave
the
The
A.
harmonic
as
f)
"
Then
x.
dt*
wave
velocity.
longitudinal.By a
be defined
The
i.
the
generalform
direction
generalintegralis
displacement takes
more
rectilinear
may
of
the
velocity,period, and
motion
The
Hence
displacement
in
the
with
direction
displacement in
nt)
direction
of
(m
cos
x.
still
The
(2)
-.
that
the
of
m
by substituting
So
"
instead
seen
displacement in
along
in the
is transverse
wave
particularthat
the direction
proceeds in
simple
amount
Azcos(mx
DJ
This
TT
displacement
differs from
D2=j
is
2
/
"
through
ellipticharmonic
seen
to be
as
viously.
pre-
motion
428
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
dV
=
]A
7i
"
(m
cos
dt
sin
velocityof
is the
in
ellipse
from
An
(m
the
"
(m
is of
"
any
f) \ (5)
"
the
in
moment
ent
entirelydiffer-
course
wave.
is obtained
divided
(4)
t).
"
by subtractingthe
velocitymultiplied by
the
1 and
This
the
result
interesting
"
B sin
t) +
"
(m
displacedpoint at
velocityof
the
"
"
B sin
f)
"
it vibrates.
which
from
unit
"
by
the
placemen
dis-
imaginary
n.
D-
The
is
an
"
sin
{A
(m
has been
one
is called
vector
bivector
ordinaryimaginary scalars
of bivectors
is found
harmonic
elliptic
plane
of
of the
wave
bivector
Indeed
be
may
and
an
the
or
of two
159.]
in
The
sign
and
divided
by
analytictheory of
vectors
very
differs from
that
much
as
the
in
character
distinguishing
real vectors
the
velocity of
1-
The
The
use
of
monic
harelliptic
above
any
of
"
discussion
undamped
the
by
duct
pro-
real part
The
point and
the
displacement
n.
bivectors
differs from
analytictheory
of real scalars.
concerned,
liscalars.
exponential factor.
the
is
}.
t~)
"
imaginary vector.
representedas
"
imaginary scalar V
called
any
(m
its form
convenient
very
motion.
sum
be
may
as
reversed
any
far
multipliedby
B sin
t) +
"
It is the
imaginary vector.
Such
real
expressionhere obtained, as
which
pure
"
of
It is unnecessary
for bivectors
just as
that of
biscalars
to
have
it is need-
HARMONIC
less to have
of which
symbol i
usual
and
could
two
i differ
considerablyin
the small
The
vector
bi-
extension
real vectors
for
with
the
used
1.
"
There
is
i for the
vector
in
!"
the
same
place
the Clarendon
Whenever
it becomes
have
German
or
be
may
of two
the
appearance.
to
Greek
bivector
inevitable
sum
hardly be
reason
especiallyconvenient
tors
for biscalars.
will be maintained
of confusion
429
BIVECTORS
and
natural
multipliedby
likelihood
that the
reason
as
It is the formal
has been
one
much
not
regarded
real vector.
of the
AND
notation
distinguishing
be
may
The
VIBRATIONS
letters may
expressedin
terms
be
called
of
i,j, k
Oi
upon.
with
plex
com-
coefficients.
If
and
Oi
rl
xl i -f yl
r2
#2 * +
"2)
or
bivectors
Two
parts
are
product
a
bivector
the
is
In
other
other
direction.
The
Let
Then
if
if
*2
(real or
it has
of
the
TJ +
=
s,
r||s
i r2
ri
r
bivectors
"i and
=
is the
imaginary).
complex
statements
a;s
one
or
If
real
imaginary
difference,direct, skew,
two
and
imaginary
it is said to have
sum,
These
their
parallelwhen
are
real vector
*a) k"
2k.
scalar
k"
is obvious
may
follows.
z^
products of
as
yj
cases
special definition.
analyticform
* y-i)J +
when
by
value
indeterminate
ra
bivectors
parallelto
direction.
and
Two
equal.
of
#i
2/2J +
(Vi +
equal
are
TJ +
s2 +
r2
(xl +
i sa.
s2
x^) B,
be
out
with-
put into
430
(rx + BJ) +
(T!
(rx X
B!
(rjBJ
rs
Two
bivectors
of
sort
product of
of the
statement
be made
may
Oi
"
Oi
"
r2" (ri
If the bivector
or
cyclicfactor
as
ra) X (rx
ra)
r2)
(riri
TJ +
i ra be
it is
ra)
+
BJ).
vector
or
the product
similar
differences.
rx + ra
r2)+
any
equal to
order.
2 i r2
ra
Sj)
conjugate when
and
r2
conjugate of
same
gj),
imaginary parts
The
TJ
"
s2 +
r2
biscalars is
the
r2
real scalar
itself.
in
pure
concerning sums
ra) ""!
(TJ+
their
and
conjugatestaken
(TI x
""! s2
s2 +
"
said to be
and
bivectors
s2) +
are
vector
or
(TJ
conjugate of
The
the scalar
equal to
sa) +
"
Ba)+
r2
equal
only in sign.
(r2 + sa),
r2
"
are
differ
ra
biscalars
real
parts
"!
"
or
their
is
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
ra,
"
rx,
02
multipliedby
ri
root
frequentlycalled,that is,by
ri
r2"-
of
unity
an
nary
imagi-
q +
where
the
i sin q
a2 +
"2
(7)
J,
1,
conjugateis multiplied by
"
J, and
hence
the
four
products
ri
are
Thus
'
ri +
*2
unaltered
r2"
*2
Tl r2 +
*H
by multiplyingthe
T2 r2"
bivector
r2 rl
by
such
if
r'
r/ +
ri' 'i'+
'
rz
ra' (a
=
'
'a'
=
TJ
"
5) (rx+
rj +
ra
"
ra),
ra, etc.
Tl f2
factor.
HARMONIC
160.]
bivector
VIBRATIONS
closer
by
examination
geometric results.
r/ +
r2' (cos q
"
ra'
=
to Art.
with
multiplication
would
0
used
as
their
of
and
conjugate
r2'are
also
are
of which
sector
q is to 2
as
cos
1 +
and
diameters
When
has
to
rotated
which
is considered
and
ellipse,
as
must
parts of
ellipse
they are
they are
bivector
the
a
which
two
vector
rx and
not
r2
are
ellipseof
the bivector
true
the
the
positivedirection
in
If the
known.
complex part
the
r2
directional
real and
if in the
Hence
ellipse
ellipse.The
positivedirection
in the
r.
the bivector
When
said to be retarded.
an
pairof conjugatesemi-
ellipseis
said to be advanced
ellipse
q.
from
turn
r^
r2, by
called
always be
of that
of the whole
been
in
are
that
appears
positionhas
directional
the
as
vectors
semi-diameters
in that direction.
bivector
same
from TI toward
ellipse
of
r2
is any
area
by
be')
"
be
It then
sector
TI and
direction
angular direction
r2.
is to the
change
(c V
supposed to
are
in the
area
rightline
complex
change produced
cyclicdyadic
sin q
pair of conjugate
is called
by
"
semi-diameters.
reduces
parts of
ellipseof
the
the
of
ellipse
that the
seen
c')
rx and
(8)
ri si*1?"
those vectors
(bb' +
Such
TT.
"
it will be
upon
cos
r2).
Consider
ellipse.They
a
ra
with
respectively
plane.
pair
prefactor. b
collinear
a' +
cos
imaginary vector
produced
be
q) (TJ+
r2 sin #,
rx
129
i sin
r/
reference
of the effect of
Let
Then
By
431
BIVECTORS
multiplyinga
and important
yields interesting
cyclicfactor
AND
nary
imagiin the
tion
negativedirec-
multiplication
of a
432
by
bivector
It is
factor
with
the
of the
axes
(cos q
"
bivector
and
ellipse
reduction
(cos 2
b)
where
cyclic
coincident
q) (a + i b)
"
follows
proceed as
i sin 2
q +
such
perpendicular.
are
(a +
by
become
imaginary parts
i sin q)
accomplish the
r
If
real and
the
that
ellipse
by
cyclic
factor.
To
the
angleof
the
it in its directional
retards
factor
cyclic
equal to
sector
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
Form
(a
"
0.
b).
0,
"
(cos 2
i sin 2
q +
Let
"
and
2 q
tan
q) (a
"
"
"
b).
b,
-.
With
of q the
this value
given by
the
i b
and
in
the
bivector whose
"
If
The
condition
is not
"
sufficient to
x2 +
0, which
ensure
direction
ellipseis
a
bivector
both
the
a
angle
A
circle.
circle is called
condition
lar
circu-
that
be circular is
"i
b of
Hence
sufficient
and
0,
r.
and
vanish.
"
is
ellipse
necessary
non-vanishingbivector
directional
directional
q)
perpendicularin
and
The
The
i sin
"
imaginary parts a
expression for
is indeterminate.
bivector.
(cos q
equal in magnitude
are
case
ellipseare
equation
a
In
directional
of the
axes
the
circular.
2/j + 2k,
y2 +
z2
0.
vanishing of
impliesr
bivector.
0,
The
434
ANALYSIS
VECTOR
that r2 and
The
hence
BI and
shows
that the
s2
are
of
that
and
for
conditions
planes coincide
whose
the
of the
axes
that
are
the
of those
hold
for real
Let
which
well
as
and
in both
The
nothing
as
conditions
for
coincide.
and
the
parallelto
r2
perpendicularto
stated above
is
apply.
plane of
Hence,
ellipseof
other
the
the
either
bivector
Consider
and
It should
same
form
as
into
ponents
com-
the
plane
of rx
r' which
bivector
two
components
and
the
ellipseof
directional
bivectors
positionvector
1
planes of
the
plane contribute
that
the
this bivector
if two
is
conditions
the bivector
of
ellipse
the directional
perpendicularthe
are
and
the
the
plane
bivector
D
where
therefore
perpendicularto
r'
upon
are
of
be noted
of the
are
their
bivectors
point in
and
space.
the
similar, have
major
axes
pendicula
per-
type
(9)
Ae,i(m'r-n()'
n
is
biscalar.
It is therefore
to be
is the
con-
is not
of major axes
perpendicularity
of perpendicularity
of real parts and imaginary parts.
the condition
have
one
directional
ellipseof
directional
of that
162.]
the perpendicula
s.
projectedupon
same
r2 each
Hence
of
evidentlythe projectionof
the
the
both vectors
conditions
The
rx and
s.
"
plane
The
and
same,
degenerate into
perpendicularto
To
s.
the
imaginary vectors.
Resolve
of
the value
is
perpendicularbivectors
components
to
ellipses
are
ellipses
perpendicular.1If
directions.
be two
do not
s.
sl to
bivectors
two
their directional
paralleland
respectively
of
from
i^ to r2 and
of
perpendicularity
are
ellipses
real directions
have
second
of the directional
axes
major
the
proportional.
are
the
Hence
from
angular directions
the same,
and
perpendicular. Moreover,
are
s2
perpendicularand
are
s2
of