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2009/03/11 - Start
Title 1Page
The shadow
of the discontinuity
Introduction
3/10/2009
Examples
Pores
Transverse &
Longitudinal
Cracks
Lack of
Penetration
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
[http://www.ndted.org/EducationResources/
CommunityCollege/Radiography]
Introduction
Ionizing Radiation
(Health Hazard)
Low
Energy
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Generation of X-rays
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Radiation Sources
X-ray Film
X-ray Generator
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min
min = 1.24 /E
Radiation Sources
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
High filament
heating current
Intensity
Intensity
High
acceleration
voltage
Wavelength
Wavelength
Radiation Sources
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
3/10/2009
-rays
Gamma-rays are emitted during the radioactive decay (disintegrating)
of unstable atomic nuclei and are at discrete wavelengths.
Commonly used radioisotopes:
Cobalt 60 (emits -rays at 1.17 and 1.33 MeV)
Cesium 137 (at 0.66 MeV)
Iridium 192 (at about 0.31 and 0.47 MeV)
( - ln 0.5 = 0.693 )
Radiation Sources
Radiation Sources
10
Gamma--ray Source
Gamma
Hand crank
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Relative Intensity
80
60
40
[R Nath,
[R.
Nath Yale Univ.,
Univ 2005 AAPM Summer School]
20
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Energy (MeV)
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Radiation Sources
11
Radiation Sources
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
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Penetrating Ability
X-rayy tube
voltage, kV
Thickness
limitation of
steel for
inspection, mm
X-rayy
min, m
1.24x10-2
0.62x10-2
1.55x10-3
1 24x10-3
1.24x10
0.62x10-3
100
200
800
1000
2000
8
25
110
125
200
Approx.
pp
-rayy
equivalent
Radiation Sources
13
X-rays
Advantages:
Variable/changeable
wavelengths
Adjustable Penetration
it's a disadvantage
Advantages
High
g initial cost
Disadvantages:
g
Radiation Sources
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z
z
Attenuation
15
Thomson/Rayleigh
Same
energy
photon
electron
electron
Compton scattering
photon
Pair production
positron
electron
[www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Physics/radmatinteraction.htm]
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
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Attenuation
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2009/03/12 - Start
Attenuation
18
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Attenuation
19
Subject Contrast:
ratio of transmitted
radiation intensities at two
locations of the workpiece
Affected by:
nature of the specimen
energy of the radiation
intensity and distribution of the scattered radiation
Not affected by:
time, distance, characteristics of the radiographic film
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Attenuation
20
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Attenuation
21
Subject Contrast
I0
Pb
Cu
Steel
Al
It
Film
Contrast due to
Differences in
Specimen Thickness
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Contrast due to
Differences in
Specimen Composition
Attenuation
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11
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Subject Contrast
Void
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Dense Inclusion
(e.g., W)
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12
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Subject Contrast
25
Recording
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13
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Photographic Films
Thin, transparent plastic base with emulsion Cross sectional view of industrial x-ray film
Emulsion consisting mainly of grains of
silver bromide (AgBr) dispersed in gelatin
Exposure to X-rays or daylight reduces
AgBr to silver, forming a latent image (which
cannot be detected visually or by ordinary
physical measurement)
Developing
D l i th
the exposedd fil
film
Selective chemical reaction converts the exposed AgBr
grains in the latent image into black metallic silver. The
metallic silver remains suspended in the gelatin, blackens
(part of) the developed (visible) image.
Recording
27
D1
G = tan
= dD / d(log E)
D2
Fog
level
Film speed
Log (E)
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Radiographic Contrast, CR
CR is determined by the subject contrast I1/I2 and film
gradient G
CR = D1 - D2 = G log (I1/I2) = 0.4343 G ln (I1/I2)
For example, when an inclusion is present of thickness i
and with a linear absorption coefficient, i, in a matrix with
linear absorption coefficient, M, the contrast due to the
presence of the inclusion is CR = 0.4343
0 4343 G (M - i)i .
A minimum of CR = 0.2 is desired in radiography even
though the eye is sensitive to contrast changes as low as
0.05 of photographic film blackening
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
29
Intensifying Screens
Used to improve image contrast and reduce
exposure time, particularly when the radiation
intensity is low or when the radiation energy
(frequency) is high
Metal foil intensifying screens (such as lead), when
irradiated by X-rays, emit electrons that affect the silver
halide grains.
Fluorescent salt intensifying screens emit visible light
photons when irradiated by X-rays. Photographic
emulsion
l i iis muchh lless sensitive
iti tto X-rays
X
photons
h t
th
than
to visible light photons.
Recording
30
15
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0.05
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
31
Recording
32
16
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Radiographic Definition
Radiographic Definition is the sharpness of the edge of the image
(resolution)
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2009/03/16 - Start
Radiographic Definition
The loss of image outline sharpness/definition is a function of focal spot
size of the source, source-to-film distance, and specimen-to-film distance.
Unsharpness ( or Ug) = Source Focal Spot Size b/a
High definition requires a small focal spot size of the radiation source,
the source-to-film distance be as large as practical and specimen-to-film
distance should be as small as practical.
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Ug
Recording
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
35
Effect of X
X--Ray Voltage on Uf
Uf [mm]
Recording
36
18
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Side Scatter
Internal Scatter
Back Scatter
Recording
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
37
Solutions
38
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Scattered X-rays
Scattered X-rays give rise to a general fogging of the film,
thereby reducing the sharpness and contrast
Methods to reduce scattering effects on the X-ray film:
Increased object-to-film distance reduces scattered
rays reaching the image
Secondary X-rays are of lower energy (frequency) and
can be filtered ((absorbed)) byy a thin metal screen in
front of the film
The edges and holes scatter X-rays very badly, fogging
the film unnecessary. Blocking materials or masks can
be used reduce this problem.
Recording
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
39
Wire Penetrameters
Hexagonal
Standard
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
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20
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Penetrameter Designs
Recording
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
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Recording
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
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21
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Recording
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
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Radiographic Exposure
X-rays
X-ray tube voltage
X-ray tube amperage
exposure time
source-to-film distance
-rays
wavelength
l
th
radioisotope activity
exposure time
source-to-film distance
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
44
22
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Exposure Charts
Provide an estimate of the exposure in terms of X-ray tube
current (resp. -ray activity) multiplied by time (e.g., mA-s or Cimin) for radiographs of aluminum and steel,
steel depending on the
thickness of the specimen and on the applied voltage (X-ray).
Usually provided for a particular X-ray generator, using
specified film-source distance, X-ray film type, film developingprocessing.
E
Exposure for
f other
th materials
t i l can be
b derived
d i d using
i equivalent
i l t
thickness factors.
Intensifying screens are used to shorten the exposure time, but
affect the unsharpness.
Recording
45
Aluminum
Steel
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
46
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Aluminum
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989] 47
[ASM Handbook, Vol. 17, Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, 1989]
ME 538 Welding Design, Fabrication & Quality Control
Recording
48
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I1 : I2 = (d2)2 : (d1)2
t . mA
A = constant,
t t
[www.ndt-ed.org]
t ... exposure time, mA ... tube current (X-rays) or source strength (-rays)
Recording
49
X-ray,
ray, -ray Radiation Safety
Ionizing Electromagnetic Radiation
can damage human blood cells and tissues resulting in acute or
long-term health effects.
Licensing
Controlling
C t lli Exposure
E
Safety
50
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Radiation Safety
Detecting and Measuring Radiation Exposure
Radiation Survey Meter
Personal Dose Meter
TLD
Thermoluminescent Dosimeter (TLD) traps radiation energy which can
later be released by slow heating and the released energy is measured
and recorded.
The monitoring of radiation exposure is controlled by the Federal
Government through the Department of Health and Welfare. The TLDs
are issued and read and a lifelong history of radiation doses received is
maintained by the Bureau of Radiation and Medical Devices.
Devices
Direct Reading Dosimeter (DRD) contains a charged quartz fibre which
moves when struck by radiation.
Warning Signs
"CAUTION, X-RAYS : NO UNAUTHORIZED USE"
"ATTENTION, RAYONS X: UTILISATION NON AUTORISEE"
Safety
51
Disadvantages
Radiation hazard
Less sensitive to cracks
Requires highly trained inspectors
Relative high capital cost
Sensitivity decreased on thicker test pieces
Two-side access needed
Summary
52
2009/03/16 - End
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