[Downloadedfreefromhttp://www.anmjournal.comonMonday,July07,2014,IP:121.54.54.

248]||ClickheretodownloadfreeAndroidapplicationforthisjournal

Original Article
A study of prevalence of anemia and
sociodemographic factors associated with anemia
among pregnant women in Aurangabad city, India
Pushpa O. Lokare, Vinod D. Karanjekar, Prakash L. Gattani1, Ashok P. Kulkarni2
1

Departments of Community Medicine, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Memorial Medical College, HFWTC, Amravati,
Government Medical College, Aurangabad, and 2Maharashtra University of Health Sciences, Nashik, Maharashtra, India

ABSTRACT
Background: Anemia in pregnancy accounts for one fifth of maternal deaths worldwide and is a major factor
responsible for low birth weight. In India, 16% of maternal deaths are attributed to anemia. The association
between anemia and adverse pregnancy outcome, higher incidence of preterm and lowbirth weight deliveries
have been demonstrated. However, high prevalence of anemia among pregnant women persists in India
despite the availability of effective, low-cost interventions for prevention and treatment. A knowledge of the
sociodemographic factors associated with anemia will help to formulate multipronged strategies to attack this
important public health problem in pregnancy.
Aim: To study the prevalence of anemia and the various sociodemographic factors associated with anemia
among pregnant women at an urban health center in Aurangabad city, India.
Setting: Urban Health Center (UHC) of Government Medical College, Aurangabad, India.
Study Design: Descriptive cross-sectional study.
Materials and Methods: The study was carried out from August 2006 to July 2008. A total of 352 pregnant
women were selected using a systematic random sampling technique. The participants were included only
after confirmation of the pregnancy.
Statistical Analysis: Chi-square test, Chi-square test for trend.
Results: Overall prevalence of anemia among the pregnant women was found to be 87.21%. Factors such
as religion, level of education of women and their husbands and socioeconomic status were found to be
significantly associated with the prevalence of anemia in pregnancy (P<0.05).
Conclusion: Low socioeconomic class, illiteracy, Hindu religion were significantly associated with high
prevalence of anemia during pregnancy in Indian women.

Access this article online

Website:

www.anmjournal.com
DOI:
10.4103/0331-3131.100213
Quick Response Code:

Key words: Anemia in pregnancy, literacy, religion, socioeconomic class

Introduction

nemia in pregnancy accounts for one fifth of

maternal deaths and is a major factor responsible
for low birth weight. In India, 16% maternal deaths are
attributed to anemia. The association between anemia
and adverse pregnancy outcome, higher incidence
of preterm and low birth weight deliveries has been
demonstrated.[1] In view of the low dietary intake of iron
and folate, high prevalence of anemia and its adverse
Corresponding Author: Dr. Pushpa O. Lokare,
Staff quarter No. 4, Panchawati, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Memorial
Medical College, Amravati-444603, Maharashtra, India.
E-mail: pushpa.lokare1981@yahoo.com

30

health consequences, India became the first developing

country to take up a National Nutritional Anemia
Prophylaxis Program (NNAP) to prevent anemia among
pregnant women. NNAPP was initiated in 1970 during
the fourth 5-year health plan with the aim of reducing
the prevalence of anemia to 25%. The Government
of India recommends a minimum dose of total 100
iron and folic acid tablets to be prescribed during
pregnancy.[2] Public health program of distribution of
the iron tablets to the pregnant women (during last
trimester) and preschool children is in operation in
India as part of Maternal and Child Health (MCH)
services.[3] However, high prevalence of anemia among
pregnant women persists despite the availability of
this effective, low-cost intervention for prevention and
Annals of Nigerian Medicine / Jan-Jun 2012 / Vol 6 | Issue 1

[Downloadedfreefromhttp://www.anmjournal.comonMonday,July07,2014,IP:121.54.54.248]||ClickheretodownloadfreeAndroidapplicationforthisjournal
Lokare, et al.: Socio-demographic factors associated with anemia in pregnancy

treatment.[2] Unfavorable sociodemographic factors are

the major barriers to the efforts put in place for the
prevention of anemia during pregnancy. Knowledge of
the sociodemographic factors associated with anemia
in pregnancy can be used to formulate a multipronged
strategy to attack this important public health problem.

Gestational age was assessed from the last menstrual

period. For those women who did not remember the last
menstrual period date, gestational age was co-related to
the local calendar events and assessing fundal height. The
height and weight were measured using a detecto weighing
scale, which has in-built adjustable height measures.

Materials and Methods

Laboratory method

Subjects

The present cross-sectional study was carried out at

Urban Health Center (UHC) established by Government
Medical College in Aurangabad, India, to determine the
prevalence of anemia and the association of the various
sociodemographic factors with anemia in pregnant
women.
The UHC is situated in an overcrowded area of the
city and provides medical care to the majority of the
inhabitants. The total population covered by this center
is approximately 60,000 people. The Ante Natal Care
(ANC) clinic is conducted weekly on every Friday.
Registration of the pregnant women visiting the ANC is
maintained by the health worker separately for the first
and the subsequent visit of the pregnant women. The
study was carried out from August 2006 to July 2008.
Atotal 352 pregnant women visiting the health center for
the first time were included in the study by systematic
random sampling technique. The participants with the
history of amenorrhea underwent a urine pregnancy
test and vaginal examination in doubtful cases to
diagnose pregnancy. Pregnant women with multiple
pregnancies, history of high-grade fever in the last
3months, passing worms in the stool, bleeding disorder
in the previous pregnancy and taking iron and folic
acid tablets before registration were excluded from the
study. Informed consent was obtained and explanation
as to the purpose of the study was offered. A pilot study
was conducted with the predesigned proforma and
necessary modifications were made. Thus, pregnant
women were interviewed with the predesigned,
pretested proforma and clinical examination was done.
A detailed demographic profile of the women, that
is, age, age at first pregnancy, religion, type of family,
family size, educational level of a woman and her
husband, occupation of a woman and her husband,
was collected. Socioeconomic classification suggested
by B.G. Prasad was adopted and updated.[4] A dietary
history was taken with the help of 24-h recall method
and also assessed about various food items avoided,
especially during pregnancy.[5]
Annals of Nigerian Medicine / Jan-Jun 2012 / Vol 6 | Issue 1

Hemoglobin level was estimated by Sahlis acid hematin

method of hemoglobin estimation.[6] According to World
Health Organization (WHO), hemoglobin level below
11g/dL is labeled as anemia during pregnancy and
classified as mild (10.010.99g/dL), moderate (7.0
9.9g/dL), and severe (<7.0g/dL) anemia. The same
criteria were used for diagnosing anemia in pregnancy.[7]
Individual discussion with each mother about anemia,
importance of regular treatment with iron/folic acid
tablets and correction of faulty dietary practices was
conducted. Those women who had severe anemia
as well as high-risk pregnancies were referred to the
Government Medical College for further investigations
and treatment with the referral slip. Ethical approval for
the study was obtained from the ethical committee at the
Government Medical College, Aurangabad.[8] Whenever
pathology was detected, appropriate treatment was
given and referral advised.
Sample size determination

Minimum sample size required for the study was

calculated with the help of practical manual for sample
size determination by S.K. Lwanga and S. Lemeshow at
10% relative precision and 95% confidence level.[9] Data
analysis was performed using Epi info software version
3.5.1. Descriptive statistics, including mean, range, and
standard deviations, were calculated for all variables.
Proportions were compared using Chi- square tests and
chi square for trend at 0.05 level of significance.

Results
In the present study, the mean duration of married life of
pregnant women was 4.3 years. Mean age at menarche was
found to be 13.2 years. Similarly mean values for gravid
status and parity were 2.3 and 1.0, respectively. Mean
spacing interval was 1.7 years. Mean height and weight of
the study subjects were 152.1 cm and 48.9 kg, respectively.
Average calorie consumption per day was 1551 calories
with deficit in 18.1%. The demographic characteristics of
the study subjects are summarized in Table 1.
The majority of the subjects were between ages 20 to
29 years with an average age of 22.7 years. About 2%
31

[Downloadedfreefromhttp://www.anmjournal.comonMonday,July07,2014,IP:121.54.54.248]||ClickheretodownloadfreeAndroidapplicationforthisjournal
Lokare, et al.: Socio-demographic factors associated with anemia in pregnancy

of all the pregnancies occurred among teenagers and

5% were among women aged 30 years and above. It
was observed that the maximum number of the study
subjects 182 (51.7%) were Muslim. The study subjects
who belonged to joint family were 160 (45.4%) followed
by nuclear family were 133 (37.7%). The maximum
numbers of women were from social classes III and IV
(30.3% and 30.9%, respectively).
As shown in Figure1, the overall prevalence of anemia
among pregnant women was found to be 87.2%. The
prevalence of mild, moderate, severe anemia were
observed as 24.7%, 54.5%, and 7.9%, respectively.
Thus the prevalence of moderate anemia was high in
comparison to the other degrees of anemia.
As shown in Table2, it was observed that proportion of
Table1: Demographic characteristics of pregnant women (n = 352)
Parameter (n = 352)
Age group (years)
<20
2024
2529
30
Religion
Muslim
Hindu
Buddhist
Christian
Type of family
Nuclear
Joint
Three generation
Socioeconomic class
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Total

Number

Percentage

86
166
84
16

24.4
47.1
23.9
4.5

182
124
45
1

51.7
35.2
12.7
0.28

133
160
59

37.7
45.4
16.8

21
64
107
109
51
352

6.0
18.2
30.4
31.0
14.5
100

Figure1: Distribution of anemia in pregnant women

32

pregnant women suffering from anemia was maximum

(93.7%) in the age group 30 years and above followed
by the age group below 20 years (88.3%). The observed
difference was not statistically significant (P > 0.05).
Figure2 shows the prevalence of anemia in pregnancy
with respect to religion. It was observed that 94.3% of
Hindus were suffering from anemia when compared
with 84.9% and 82.2% of Muslim and Buddhist women,
respectively. The association observed between Hindus
and other religions with the prevalence of anemia during
pregnancy was statistically significant (P<0.05).
Table3 shows that the proportion of pregnant women
suffering from anemia in classes I and II were less
(47.61% and 71.42%, respectively) as compared with
the lower socioeconomic status (93.51%, 94.49%,
and 94.11% in classes IIIV, respectively). It was
obvious that as the socioeconomic status decreased,
the prevalence of anemia increased. Risk of anemia
as compared with class I was 15.87 times higher in
class III, 18.88 times higher in class IV and 17.60
times higher in class V. Thus, lower socioeconomic
status is associated with the increase in the risk
of development of anemia in pregnancy. This
association between the socioeconomic status of the
family and anemia in pregnancy was found to be
statistically significant (P<0.05). Table4 revealed
that proportions of pregnant women suffering from
anemia were 96.4%, 94.8%, 92.1%, and 91.5% among
illiterates, those educated up to primary, middle
school, and high school, respectively. It was found
that the lower the educational level of the women,
the higher the probability of suffering from anemia
during pregnancy. This relationship was found to be

Figure2: Distribution of anemia in pregnant women by religion. Chi-square

test (Hindus and other religions) = 7.79, d(f)1, P = 0.005, OR = 3.34 (1.378.50)

Annals of Nigerian Medicine / Jan-Jun 2012 / Vol 6 | Issue 1

[Downloadedfreefromhttp://www.anmjournal.comonMonday,July07,2014,IP:121.54.54.248]||ClickheretodownloadfreeAndroidapplicationforthisjournal
Lokare, et al.: Socio-demographic factors associated with anemia in pregnancy

Table2: Distribution of anaemia in pregnant women according to age (n = 352)

Age
(years)

Moderate

Severe

Total

Normal
n (%)

Total

Mild

<20
2024
2529
30
Total

23 (26.7)
38 (22.9)
21 (25.0)
5 (31.3)
87 (24.7)

46 (53.5)
96 (57.8)
43 (51.2)
7 (43.3)
192 (54.5)

7 (8.1)
10 (6.0)
8 (9.5)
3 (18.8)
28 (7.9)

76 (88.4)
144 (86.7)
72 (85.7)
15 (93.8)
307 (87.2)

10 (11.6)
22 (13.3)
12 (14.3)
1 (06.2)
45 (12.8)

86
166
84
16
352

Anemia n (%)

Chi-square test (below 25 years and up to or above 25 years age) = 0.01, d (f) 1, P = 0.919

Table3: Distribution of anemia in pregnant women according to socioeconomic class (n = 352)

Socioeconomic
status
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Class V
Total

Anaemia n (%)
Mild

Moderate

Severe

Total

7 (33.33)
14 (22.22)
18 (16.66)
23 (21.10)
25 (49.01)
87 (24.71)

2 (9.52)
25 (39.68)
74 (68.51)
71 (65.13)
20 (39.21)
192 (54.54)

1 (4.76)
6 (9.52)
9 (08.33)
9 (08.25)
3 (05.88)
28 (07.95)

10 (47.61)
45 (71.42)
101 (93.51)
103 (94.49)
48 (94.11)
307 (87.21)

Normal
n(%)
11 (52.38)
18 (28.57)
7 (06.48)
6 (05.50)
3 (05.88)
45 (12.78)

Total

Odds
ratio

21
63
108
109
51
352

1.00
2.75
15.87
18.88
17.60

Socioeconomic status (Modified B. G. Prasads Classification) Chi-square test for linear trend = 36.07, P = 0.00003

Table4: Distribution of anemia among pregnant women according to their educational status (n = 352)
Education of
women
Illiterate
Primary school
Middle school
High school
Intermediate
Graduate
Postgraduate
Total

Moderate

Severe

Total

Normal
n(%)

Total

Mild

Odds
ratio

22 (39.28)
25 (43.10)
24 (21.05)
13 (15.85)
2 (10.52)
1 (05.55)
0
87 (24.71)

22 (39.28)
22 (37.93)
76 (66.66)
59 (71.95)
7 (38.84)
5 (27.77)
1 (20.00)
192 (54.54)

10 (17.85)
8 (13.79)
5 (04.38)
3 (03.65)
1 (05.26)
1 (05.55)
0
28 (7.95)

54 (96.42)
55 (94.82)
105 (92.10)
75 (91.46)
10 (52.63)
7 (38.88)
1 (20.00)
307 (87.17)

2 (03.57)
3 (05.17)
9 (07.89)
7 (08.53)
9 (47.36)
11 (61.11)
4 (80.00)
45 (12.78)

56
58
114
82
19
18
5
352

36.00
16.49

Anemia n (%)

1.00

Chi-square test for linear trend = 51.94, P<0.05

statistically significant (P<0.05). Among the pregnant

women whose husbands were illiterate, the percentage
of anemia was found to be 97.87. The proportion of
the pregnant women suffering from anemia was found
to be decreased in those whose husbands had higher
education. The prevalence of anemia was almost 3
times higher in pregnant women whose husbands
were literate up to high school, whereas it was 16
times higher in pregnant women whose husbands
were illiterate as compared with the women whose
husbands had education at intermediate levels and
above. This association between the educational status
of the husbands and anemia in the pregnant women
was found to be significant statistically (P<0.05).

Discussion
Although much effort has been taken to prevent anemia
in Indian women, still the prevalence of anemia during
pregnancy is found to be 87.2% from this study. A study
Annals of Nigerian Medicine / Jan-Jun 2012 / Vol 6 | Issue 1

carried out among 7 states by Nutrition Foundation of

India had observed the overall prevalence of anemia
as 84% among pregnant women similar to the present
study.[10] Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
Task Force Multicenter Study revealed that the
overall prevalence of anemia among pregnant women
from 16 districts was 84.9% (range 61.0% 96.8%).[11]
The prevalence observed is similar to that reported
for pregnant women (60%77%) in Dar es SalaamTanzania,[12-14] Sudan,[15,16] and Nigeria.[17]
In developed countries, the prevalence of anemia was
only 18% among pregnant women as reported by
WHO (1998).[18] The socioeconomic developments,
higher standard of living, better utilization of health
care facilities along with increasing literacy rate are
associated with the low prevalence of anemia in
developed countries. A high prevalence of anemia
among pregnant Hindu women as compared with
Muslim women was observed in the present study. The
33

[Downloadedfreefromhttp://www.anmjournal.comonMonday,July07,2014,IP:121.54.54.248]||ClickheretodownloadfreeAndroidapplicationforthisjournal
Lokare, et al.: Socio-demographic factors associated with anemia in pregnancy

religion itself may not be the cause for this finding, but
probably it works through different dietary patterns,
food taboos, and so on. In India, pregnant Hindu
women are advised to avoid non vegetarian diet during
pregnancy as it generates heat. Low socioeconomic
status was associated with a higher prevalence of
anemia in pregnancy. A cross-sectional study in New
Delhi had revealed that there was a trend of decreasing
severity of anemia with higher per capita income as
found in the present study.[19] In the present study, it
was found that anemia increases steadily with decrease
in the level of educational attainment. One study found
that anemia was most common in illiterate women
(53.7%) as compared with 37.1% in literate women.[12] A
study conducted in 7 states with similar sample used in
National Family Health Survey (NFHS) -2had observed
an association between the literacy status of husband
with anemia in pregnant women.[10]
Unfavorable sociodemographic factors are the major
barriers to the efforts in place for the prevention of anemia
during pregnancy. Educating the women only will not
produce any desirable change but increasing the degree
of literacy of the family will definitely help to solve this
problem. The educational status of the husbands and
the women are equally important factors as it makes
the couple receptive to the advice given by the health
staff. Therefore, there is a need for dietary counseling
and nutritional education in antenatal clinics to tackle
the issue of anemia in pregnancy with missionary zeal,
innovative approach, and evidence-based interventions.

References
1.

2.

34

Government of India (sample registration system). Maternal mortality

in India: 1997-2003, Trends, causes and risk factors. Register General
India, New Delhi in collaboration with Centre for Global Health
Research University of Toranto, Canada.
Agarwal DK, Agarwal KN, Roychaudhary S. Targets in national
anaemia prophylaxis programme for pregnant women. Indian Pediatr
1988;25:319-22.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

12.
13.

14.

15.

16.
17.

18.
19.

Nutritional anaemia. National Family Health Survey (NFHS-3) 20052006. Volume 1. Ministry of Healthy and Family Welfare, Government
of India, New Delhi; 2007. p. 308-9.
Baride JP, Kulakrni AP. Text book of community medicine. 3rd ed.
Mumbai, India: Vora Medical Publications; 2006. p. 12-35.
Jelilifee DB, The assessment of the nutritional status of the community.
Geneva: World Health Organization; 1966. p. 132.
Sanyal S. Clinical Pathology: Prep manual for undergraduates. New
Delhi: Elsevier India Private limited; 2005. p. 25.
Toteja GS, Singh P. Micronutrient profile of Indian population. New
Delhi: Indian Council of Medical Research; 2004.
Government Medical College. IEC. Meeting circular No: Pharm/200/2007
dated on 09-04-2007.
Lwanga SK, Lemshaw S. Sample size determination in health studies:
A practical Manual. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1992.
Agarwal KN, Agarwal DK. Prevalence of anaemia in pregnant and
lactating women in India. Indian J Med Res 2006;124:173-84.
Toteja GS, Singh P, Dhillon BS, Saxena BN. Micronutrient deficiency
disorders in 16 districts of India Part 1 Report of ICMR task force study.
District Nutrition Project. Ansari nagar, New Delhi: Indian Council of
Medical Research; 2001.
Desalegn S. Prevalence of anaemia in pregnancy in Jima town,
southwestern Ethiopia. Ethiop Med J 1993;31:251-8.
Kidanto HL, Morgen I, Lindmark G, Massawe S, Nystrom L. Risk for
preterm delivery and low birth weight are independently increased
by severity of maternal anaemia. S Afr Med J 2006;99:98-102.
Massawe S, Urassa E, Lindmark G, Moller B, Nystrom L. Anaemia in
pregnancy: A major health problem with implications for maternal
health care. Afr J Health Sci 1996;3:126-32.
Adam I, Khamis AH, Elbashir MI. Prevalence and risk factors for anaemia
in pregnant women of eastern Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg
2005;99:739-43.
Haggaz AD, Radi EA, Adam I. Anaemia and low birth weight in Western
Sudan. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2010;104: 234-6.
Uneke CJ, Duhlinska DD, Igbinedion EB. Prevalence and public health
significance of HIV infection and anaemia among pregnant women
attending antenatal clinics in south eastern Nigeria. J Health Popul
Nutr 2007;25:328-35.
World Health Organization. The prevalence of anaemia in women:
Atabulation of available information. 2nd ed. Geneva: WHO; 1992.
Gautam VP, Bansal Y, Taneja DK, Renuka S. Prevalence of anaemia
amongst pregnant women and its socio-demographic associates in
rural area of Delhi. Indian J Community Med 2002;27:157-60.

Cite this article as: Lokare PO, Karanjekar VD, Gattani PL, Kulkarni AP.
A study of prevalence of anemia and sociodemographic factors associated
with anemia among pregnant women in Aurangabad city, India. Ann Nigerian
Med 2012;6:30-4.
Source of Support: Nil. Conflict of Interest: None declared.

Annals of Nigerian Medicine / Jan-Jun 2012 / Vol 6 | Issue 1