General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements (Chemistry Class XII)

Steps
Concentration of ore

Definition
Removal of unwanted
materials such as sand and
clay from ores

Methods
1. Hydraulic washing
2. Magnetic separation
3. Froth-flotation method

Conversion of
concentrated ore into
oxide
Reduction of oxide to
metal
Refining

Oxidation of ore into its

oxide

4. Leaching
1. Calcination( limited or absence of air)
2. Roasting (regular supply of air)

It involves heating the oxide

with reducing agents such as
C, CO and some metals.
Conversion of impure metal 1. Distillation
into pure metal
2. Liquation
3. Electrolytic refining
4. Zone refining
5. Vapour phase refining
6. Chromatographic methods

Ellingham Diagram

Graphical representation of Gibbs energy

Useful for predicting the feasibility of thermal reduction of ores
Predicts whether a reaction is feasible or not
Does not give an idea about the kinetics of the reactions.

Metallurgy of metals:
Ore and Methods
Ore

Iron
Haematite, Fe2O3

Concentration

Magnetic
separation
CalcinationFe2O3.3H2O(s)
Fe2O3(s) +

Conversion of
concentrated ore into
oxide

Zinc
Zinc blende or
Sphalerite, ZnS
Froth-flotation

Copper
Copper pyrites,
CuFeS2
Froth-flotation

Aluminum
Bauxite, Al2O3. x H2O
Leaching

RoastingRoasting- 2Cu2S Calcination2ZnS+3O2 2ZnO + 3O2 2Cu2O +

+ 3O2
2SO2
Al2O3. x H2O Al2O3 + x

Reduction of oxide into

metal

Refining

3H2O(g)
H2O
Fe2O3 + CO 2FeO ZnO + C Zn + CO Cu2O + C 2Cu + 2Al2O3 + 3C 4Al + 3CO2
+ CO2
CO
FeO + CO Fe +
CO2
Electrolytic
refining

Distillation

Electrolytic
refining

Zone refining

Mond process for refining nickel

Van Arkel Method for refining zirconium or titanium

All the oxygen and nitrogen present as impurity are removed

Crude metal is heated with iodine in an evacuated vessel

Metal iodide is decomposed on a tungsten filament, electrically heated to about 1800 K to

give the pure metal

Questions that were asked previously

Q. How is copper extracted from a low grade ore of it? (2012 Delhi Set 3)
Q. Explain the role of each of the following: (2012 Delhi Set 3)
1. NaCN in the extraction of silver
2. SiO2 in the extraction of copper
Q. Describe the principle behind each of the following processes: (2011 Delhi Set 1)
1. Vapour phase refining of a metal
2. Electrolytic refining of a metal
3. Recovery of silver after silver ore was leached with NaCN

Q. Describe how the following changes are brought about: (2010 Delhi Set 3)
(i) Pig iron into steel
(ii) Zinc oxide into metallic zinc
(iii) Impure titanium into pure titanium.
Q. Describe the role of (2010 Delhi Set 3)
(i) NaCN in the extraction of gold from gold ore
(ii) SiO2 in the extraction of copper from copper matte
(iii) Iodine in the refining of zirconium
Write chemical equations for the involved reactions.
All the best,
Team Meritnation!
Add comment March 9th, 2013

Mastering Surface Chemistry (Chemistry Class XII)

Distinction between adsorption and absorption

Adsorption is a surface phenomenon of accumulation of molecules of a substance at the

surface rather than in the bulk of a solid or liquid. It is an exothermic process.
Absorption is a bulk phenomenon. In absorption, the absorbed substance gets uniformly
distributed throughout the bulk of the solid or liquid.

Types of Adsorption

Physical adsorption or physisorption Here, the accumulation of gas on the surface of

a solid occurs on account of weak van der Waals forces.
Chemical adsorption or chemisorption When the gas molecules or atoms are held to
the surface by chemical bonds.

Freundlich adsorption isotherm

Freundlich adsorption isotherm gives an empirical relationship between the quantity of

gas adsorbed by a unit mass of solid adsorbent and pressure at a specific temperature.

Graph is plotted between the extent of adsorption

at constant temperature (T)

against the pressure (P) of the gas

Adsorption from Solution Phase- It can be approximately described by Freundlichs

equation by using the concentration (C) of the solution instead of pressure

Some common important terms:

Catalysts alter the rate of a chemical reaction, and remain chemically and quantitatively
unchanged after the reaction.
Promoters enhance the activity of a catalyst.
Poisons decrease the activity of a catalyst.
Homogeneous catalysis Here, the reactants and the catalyst are in the same phase
Heterogeneous catalysis Here, the reactants and the catalyst are in different phases
Selectivity Ability to direct a reaction to yield a particular product
Enzymes Complex nitrogenous compounds which are produced by living plants and
animals
Kraft temperature (Tk) - The temperature above which the formation of micelles takes
place
Critical micelle concentration (CMC) - The concentration above which the formation
of micelles takes place.
Peptisation Process of converting a precipitate into colloidal sol by shaking it with
dispersion medium in presence of small amount of electrolyte (peptising agent)
Dialysis- The process of removing a dissolved substance by diffusion through a suitable
membrane.
Tyndall effect- The scattering of light in all directions due to colloidal particles
Brownian movement- Zig-zag movement of colloidal particles
Electrophoresis- Movement of colloidal particles under applied electric potential
Electro osmosis- Movement of dispersion medium through the membrane, in an
applied electric field
HardySchulze rule- The greater the valence of the flocculating ion added, the greater
is its power to cause precipitation

Smoke- A colloidal solution of solid particles (carbon, dust, arsenic compounds, etc.)
Emulsifying agent: The third component used for stabilising an emulsion
Emulsification: Process of making an emulsion

Colloid:
Features
Definition
Classification

Colloids
The range of diameters of colloidal particles is between 1 and 1000 nm.
Lyophilic colloid (solvent attracting)
Lyophobic colloid (solvent repelling)
Multimolecular colloids( diameter < 1nm)
Macromolecular colloid(diameter > 1nm)
Micelles

Purification

Dialysis
Electro-dialysis
Ultra-filtration

Examples

Blue colour of the sky: Dust particles along with water suspended in air
scatter blue light.
Food particles such as milk, butter, fruit juices are all colloids.
Fog, mist and rain are also colloids.
Blood: A colloidal solution of an albuminoid substance
River water: A colloidal solution of clay
Fertile soils are colloidal in nature, in which humus acts as a protective
colloid

Emulsions: Colloidal systems in which both the dispersed phase and the dispersion medium are
liquids.
Types of emulsions:

Oil dispersed in water (O/W type)

Water dispersed in oil (W/O type)

Questions which were asked previously:

Q. Define peptization. (Delhi 2012 Set 3)
Q. Write three distinct features of chemisorptions which are not found in physisorption. (Delhi
2012 Set 3)
Q. Define electrophoresis. (Delhi 2011 Set 1)

Q. Explain how the phenomenon of adsorption finds application in each of the following
processes?(Delhi 2011 Set 1)
(a) Production of vacuum
(b) Heterogeneous catalysis
(c) Froth flotation process
Q. Define each of the following term: (Delhi 2011 Set 1)
(a) Micelles
(b) Peptization
(c) Desorption
Q. Give an example of shape-selective catalyst. (Delhi 2010 Set 3)
Q. How are the following colloids different from each other in respect of their dispersion
medium and dispersed phase? Give one example of each. (Delhi 2010 Set 3)
1. Aerosol 2. Emulsion 3. Hydrosol
All the best,
Team Meritnation!
4 comments March 8th, 2013

Mastering Chemical Kinetics (Chemistry for Class XII)

Average rate:

Rate of decrease in concentration of any one of the reactants

Rate of increase in concentration of any one of the products

Instantaneous rate: The rate of a particular moment of time

Rate expression: The stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products
Rate constant: The rate of reaction when the concentration of each of the reactant is taken as
unity
Order of reaction: The sum of the exponents power of the concentration in the rate law

Molecularity of a reaction: Number of reacting species (atoms, ions or molecules) taking part
in an elementary reaction, which must collide simultaneously in order to bring about a chemical
reaction
Feature
Order
Differential
rate law
Integrated
Rate
equation

Zero order reaction

0
d[R] /dt = k

First order reaction

1
d[R]/dt = k[R]

Second order reac

2
d[R]/dt = k[R]

Mol-1s-1

Unit of rate
constant
Graph

Half-life
Example

t1/2 = [R]0 / 2k
Some enzyme-catalysed
reactions
Some reactions which occur
on metal surface
Thermal decomposition of HI
on gold surface

t1/2 = 0.693 / k
Hydrogenation of ethane
All natural and artificial
radioactive decay of
unstable nucleus
Decomposition of N2O5 and
NO2

t1/2 =1/k[R]0
Hydrolysis of an e
alkali (saponificati
The decomposition
into NO and O2
Thermal decompo
chlorine monoxide

Pseudo first order reaction: These reactions depend on the concentration of only one reactant,
when the concentration of other reactant is given in high concentration. Example: Hydrolysis of
ethyl acetate
Factors affecting the rate of reaction:
1. Concentration- Generally rate of reaction increases when concentration gets increased.

2. Temperature- Increase in temperature increases the rate of reaction.

3. Catalyst-Catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
Arrhenius equation:
k = Ae-Ea/RT

Activation energy: Minimum energy required to start a chemical reaction. It is represented by

Ea.
Questions asked in previous years:
Q. A reaction is of second order with respect to a reactant. How is its rate affected if the
concentration of the reactant is (i) doubled (ii) reduced to half? (All India 2012 Set 3)
Q. Distinguish between rate expression and rate constant of a reaction. (All India 2011 Set 1)
Q. Nitrogen pentoxide decomposes according to equation: 2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
This first order reaction was allowed to proceed at 40oC and the data below were collected:
[N2O5] (M)
0.400
0.289
0.209
0.151
0.109

Time (min)
0.00
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0

(a) Calculate the rate constant. Include units with your answer.
(b) What will be the concentration of N2O5 after 100 minutes?
(c) Calculate the initial rate of reaction. (2011 Set 1)
Q. Define rate of a reaction. (Delhi 2010 Set 3)
Q. The rate constant for a reaction of zero order in A is 0.0030 mol L -1 s-1. How long will it take
for the initial concentration of A to fall from 0.10 M to 0.075M? (Delhi 2010 Set 3)

Q. A reaction is of first order in reactant A and of second order in reactant . How is the rate of
this reaction affected when (i) the concentration of B alone is increased to three times (ii) the
concentrations of A as well as B are doubled? (Delhi 2010 Set 3)