Periodic Motion

or
Oscillations

Physics 232

Lecture 01 1

Periodic Motion
Periodic Motion is motion that repeats about
a point of stable equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium

Unstable Equilibrium

A necessary requirement for periodic motion

is a Restoring Force
Physics 232

Lecture 01 2

Characteristics
T
A
A

Amplitude - A
The maximum displacement from the equilibrium position

Period - T
The time to complete one cycle of motion, peak to peak or valley to valley

Frequency - f
The number of cycles per unit time
Physics 232

f =

1
T
Lecture 01 3

Simple Harmonic Motion

Consider a mass m attached to a
horizontal spring having a spring
constant k with the spring unstretched
We now pull the mass to the right and
then let the mass go

What is the subsequent motion of the mass?

The restoring force is given by Hookes Law
Physics 232

F = ma = k x
Lecture 01 4

Simple Harmonic Motion

This is a second order differential equation
d2x
m 2 = k x
dt

Since this is a second order differential equation, there are

two constants of integration and the general solution is
x = A cos( t + )

where A is the maximum displacement, is a phase angle, and

is the angular velocity and is given by
k
=
m

A and are determined from the initial, boundary, conditions

Physics 232

Lecture 01 5

Phase Angle

Physics 232

Lecture 01 6

Simple Harmonic Motion

The period of the motion is related to by

m
T=
= 2
k

Note that the period of the motion is independent of the

displacement!
The velocity of the particle is given by

dx
v=
= A sin ( t + )
dt
with the maximum velocity being A
Physics 232

Lecture 01 7

Simple Harmonic Motion

We have so far that

x = A cos( t + )

dx
and v =
= A sin ( t + )
dt

The constants A and are determined from the initial

conditions, that is what are x and v at a specified time or some
other suitable initial conditions
The maximum displacement occurs when the velocity is zero,
which occurs at the extreme of motion (two locations: x = A)
The maximum velocity occurs when the displacement from the
equilibrium position is zero (two values: v = )
Physics 232

Lecture 01 8

SHM Energy Considerations

We assume that the system is isolated and frictionless
With the force being given by F = k x
It can be shown that there is a potential energy in the system
that is
1
2

U= kx
2

The total energy is then given by

ETotal = KE + U
1
2 1
= m v + k x2
2
2
Physics 232

Lecture 01 9

SHM Energy Considerations

If we substitute for x and v we find that

ETotal

1
= k A2
2

The total energy is constant

The energy shifts back and forth

between the kinetic energy and
the potential energy, but with the
sum of the two being constant
Physics 232

Lecture 01 10

SHM Energy Considerations

The relationship between kinetic energy, potential energy,
displacement, velocity and acceleration can be seen in the
following diagram

Physics 232

Lecture 01 11

Choice of Oscillatory Function

Note that we used the cosine function in our development of
Simple Harmonic Motion

x = A cos( t + )
We could have also used the sine function for our description
of SHM

x = A sin ( t + ')

The only difference is in the phase angle

Physics 232

Lecture 01 12

Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion can be used to describe motion in
many situations under appropriate approximations
Any potential energy function that under appropriate
circumstances can be approximated by a parabolic function
will exhibit SHM

Physics 232

Lecture 01 13

Simple Pendulum
Consider a mass m suspended from
a massless, unstretchable string of
length L
The forces acting on the mass are as
shown
The restoring force is the one
perpendicular to the string

Frestoring = mg sin
But this is a nonlinear function of
However for small angles sin
We then have that

Frestoring = mg

Physics 232

Lecture 01 14

Simple Pendulum
From before we have that Frestoring = mg
We also have that

= xL

This then yields that Frestoring

If we then let

k = mg

mg
=
x
L

this is then becomes the equation of SHM

1
The frequency of oscillation is given by f =
2

g
L

which is independent of the mass attached to the string

Physics 232

Lecture 01 15

Damped Motion
Real life situations have dissipative forces
The fact that there is a dissipative force, leads to motion that is
damped, that is the amplitude decreases with time
The dissipative force is often related to the velocity that is in
the motion

Fdiss = bv

The minus sign indicates that this force is in the opposite

direction to the velocity
The total force is then the sum of the restoring force and this
dissipative force

Fnet = k x b v

Physics 232

Lecture 01 16

Damped Motion
This net force leads to a slightly more complicated second order
differential equation

d2x
dx
m 2 + b + kx = 0
dt
dt
The exact solution to this equation depends upon the damping
constant
There are three possible solutions

Physics 232

Underdamped:

b < 2 km

Critically Damped:

b = 2 km

Overdamped:

b > 2 km
Lecture 01 17

Damped Motion - Underdamped

b < 2 km
The general solution for this situation is given by
2
k
b

x = Ae (b / 2 m ) t cos( ' t + ) with ' =

m 4m 2

This solution looks like

The envelope is the the term
describing the decreasing
amplitude

Envelope = Ae (b / 2 m )t

Physics 232

Lecture 01 18

Damped Motion- Critically Damped

b = 2 km
The general solution for this situation is given by
b
2 m t
t e

x = A1 +

2m

This solution looks like

Physics 232

Lecture 01 19

Damped Motion - Overdamped

b > 2 km
The general solution for this situation is given by

x = e (b / 2 m ) t A1e 2t + A2e 2t

b2 k
with 2 =

4m m

This solution looks like

Physics 232

Lecture 01 20

Damped Motion
The most efficient damping, as far getting back to zero
amplitude, is the critically damped case
Note that the overdamped case may yield some interesting
behavior depending on the relative values of the parameters

Physics 232

Lecture 01 21

Forced Oscillation
It is also possible to drive a system such as an oscillator with
an external force that is also time varying
The general differential equation is of the form

d2x
m 2 + k x + bv = Fmax cos d t
dt
where the term on the right hand side is the driving force
This solution to this equation involves two functions,
a complementary function and a particular solution

Physics 232

Lecture 01 22

Forced Oscillation
The solution is given by

x (t ) =

with

(k

Fmax

) + b2d2

2 2
md

1
2 d

cos( d t )

(b / 2m )

= tan
2
k
m

represents the phase difference between the driving force

and the resulting motion
There can be a delay between the action of the driving force
and the response of the system
Physics 232

Lecture 01 23

Resonance
The term in front of the cosine function represents the
amplitude

A=

(k

Fmax

) + b2d2

2 2
md

If we vary the angular velocity of the driving force, we find

that the system has its maximum amplitude when

k
d
m
This phenomenon of the amplitude peaking at a driving
frequency that is near the natural frequency of the system
is known as resonance
Physics 232

Lecture 01 24

Resonance
The strength of the amplitude depends upon the magnitude of
the damping coefficient
The smaller the value of b
the more pronounced the peak
The larger the damping
the peak becomes
broader,
less sharp, and
shifts to lower frequencies
If b > 2k m the peak disappears
completely
Physics 232

Lecture 01 25