A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature PDF

r-
A CONCISE HISTORY OF
CLASSICAL SANSKRIT
LITERATURE
GAURINATH SASTRI,
M.A., D.Lrrr.
Principal, Gooernment Sanskrit College, Calcutta
SECOND EDITION
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

1960
Oxford Uniaersity
Press,
Amen House, London 8.C.4
GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTOI

BOMBAY CALCUTTA J\4IADRAS KARACHI KUALA LUMPUR
CAPE TOWN IBADAN NAIROBI ACCRA
PRtrFACE TO THtr SECOND EDITION

'lrrr,; history
GAURINATH SASTRI
First published
Book
as
An Introduction to Classical Sanshrit by Modern
Agency
..
lg43
Second edition-published as A,Concise History of Classical Sanshrit
Literature by the Oxford University pres
Gaurinath Sasrri,
of Sanskrit literature is by itself a fascinating subject

of language but also the intelJigentsia
rr seneral finds an abiding interest. This prompted rne to
nrrrlcrtake the first edition bf the book under tii,e title, An
Ittlrocl,uction to Classical Sanskrit, in a short compass in 1943.
It is indeed a matter of gratification to me that the edition was
r,rlr;rusted in a rather short time, and there has been a persistent
rlt'rrrand for a rrerv edition of it. But I have to admit that due to
lor'es beyond my control it could not be brought out earlier.
'l lrc prescnt edition, holvever, is not just a reprint of the former;
rurrch new matter has been put into it and the whole book has
lrt't n thoroughly revised and brought up-to-date. The scope of
tlrr book has also been suitably widened which will be evident
liorn its rechristening A Concise History of Sanshrit Literature.
I lrt'lieve it will satisfy its users much more than its predecessor.
In preparing this edition Dr Radha Govinda Basak, M.A.,.
llr llenoy Chandra Sen, M.A., P.R.S., and a former pupil of mine,
lrri l(ali Kurnar Dutta Shstrl, M.A., Kvya-Snkhyatlrtha have
lrrrrlcred me much help, especially by drawing my attention to
r,rrrc of the omissions that crept in the first edition of the book.
I ;rrn also much indebted to my colleagues Dr Govindagopal
l\lrrhherjee, M.A., SAkhyatirtha, Dr Sisir Kumar Mitra, M.4.,
l,l,.l)., and also to my former pupils Shri Kalidas Bhattacharyya,
Nl,,\., Shri Gopikamohon Bhattacharyya, M.A., and Shri Bimal
l(r'ishna Motilal, M.A. for rendering me invaluable assistance in
1rr','paring the present edition.
rrr uhich not only students
:..
196A
1960
G.
5, chintamani Das Lane.

Er e. 6. Ray at sri
calcutta and published by John Brown, oxford university press, calcutta
"",.,llYIlrT,#?11,
S"
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
CONTENTS
Tnr impetus to the writing of the present work came from my

students at Presidency Collge, C4lcutta. The paucity of suitabl
text-books on rhe subiect in-tended. for degree'and riost-sraduate
students of Indian universities was felt bv" mvself ii mv" colleEe
life. and in writing this book I have alwys 'borne in rirrd tfie
difficulties which our studenrs experience i tackline the subiect.
In the preparatio-n of the bok I have freely tonsulted'the

two monumental works of M. Winternitz and A. B. Keith. To
.hem, thereforg I am under a deep debt of gratitude. I must
also acknowledge my indebtedness fo all those"authorities whose

works have ben m'entioned in the 'References'.
thq pryss copy, my

former pupil, Professor
-Kvya-Purltlrtha,
^ In prepaling_Sarojend-ranath
Rhanja,- Slirya3str!
M.A.,
has rendered invaluable assistnce. Anothr pupil'of mine. Shri

Taraknath Ghosal, M.A., prepared the major'prt of the fndex.
My ex-colleagues, Professr -Upendranath "Ghsal, M.A., ph.D.,
and Professor Subodhchandra Sengupta, M.A., P.R.S., ph.D., had
the kindness, the former, to find ot-for me a few references, and
the latter, to read a considerable portion of the work while in the
p-ress. My teachers, Mahmahofadhyaya }laranchandra Shastri
Professor' Sadanana Bhaduri,' M:., ph-D.,-;;J^ p;"il;;;
Somnath Maitra, M.A., have helped me much by ofiering valuable
from time to time. I must also'acknowTedse rhe

so_ freely by my friend and colleague, prfessor
'
Sen, X{.A. Laitly,'f must mention the"deep
suggestions
advice given
T-araknaih
wlich was taken by my
interest
ousin, Pandit Ashokanath' Shastri,
in seeing the work through.

The occasion makes me remem6er, with deep ari reverent
gratitude, those of my reachers at whose feet I hd the orivileoe
of srudying
the subict-the late Professor Rakhaldas Bane.i&.
Nf.A.. f "B"nar.. ftina, University, ,rd -F;;l;;;; Nih"-".i
Chakravarty, Nf.A., late Senior Profetsor .t Sr"rf..ir,-pr-.;i;;i
Vedantatlrtha, M.A.,'P.R.S.,
College, Calcutta.
Pacrs
Introductory
History of the Study of Sanskrit in the West-Origin
of'Indian writirig-Vedic and Classical SanskrYt:
their relationshi5Prkrit-Was Sanskrit
lawary,
Calcutta
spoken language?
Chapter I : The Great Epics

Rmyapa: Story-Origin and Source-Character
jSprriors
influence of
24-39
the
Rmyala on"1"-"rti-The
Indian life and literature-Antiquity-Relation to Buddhism--Greek influenceAllegorical interpretation-Mythological interpretatlon
Malibhrata: General character and story-GltAge of Gr-t-Christian influence in Git-The

Hrivarh6a-Authorship-Three stages of the
Epic-Age-Literary and inscriptional evidence
of the two Epics is earlier?
-Which
Chapter II
: The Purnas
Introduction-Ag. and antiquity-Was there
40-46
an
original PurTa-Character and value-Name and
of Purnas-Classification of Pur4asThe Bhgavata Purpa-Devlmhtmya-Name

and number of Upapurnas
47-50
Chapter III : The Tantras
Meaning, contents and classification-Relation to
Vedic literature-Character-Antiquity-Homenumber
Works
Chapter
Chapter
1943
r-23
IV:
V:
...
Kvya in inscrip'tions
5l-53
Post-Epic Kvya
...:
Renaissance Theory of Max Mller-Girnr, Nsik,

Allahabad and Mandasor inscriptions-Conc{usions
54-57
vl
vrl
Chapter VI : Early tsuddhist r,r,orks in Sanskrit

Introduction-Works belonging to Mahyna and
Hinayna schools: (i; Pdedal; (ii) Phitsophical
(iii) Avadna
Pecrs
58-74
Introduction-Growth and development

epics-Lesser epic poems
of
5-8+
court-
: Drama
Origin of Sanskrit
Chapter VIII
85-118
tant dramas
Chapter IX : Lyric Poetry

tt9-125
Introduction-Growth and development-Lesser lyric
poems and anthologies
.
fntroduction-Growth
historical works
and
t26-129
Chapter XII: Camp literature

fntroduction-Important Camps
Chapter XIII
schools-Sectarian
tales
... 139-t40
schools---;Some
lmportant
fntroduction-Alankra school-Riti school-Rasa

school-Dhvani school-Works on Poetics and
Chapter XVil: Politics

fntroduction-Works on Politics
... 162-16+
Chapter XIX : Erotics

Introduction-Works on Erotics
XX: Medicine
History of medical literature-Earlier and
165
Chapter
t66-167
later
Chapter XXI : Astronomy, Mathematics and Astrology 168-17l

History of Astronomy-Works on AstronomvWbrks on Mathemtics-Works on Astrologj
Chapter XXII : Miscellaneous Sciences
t72-t7s
Archery-Sciences of elephants and horses-Architecture-Sciences oj - jewels, stealing, cooking,
music, dancing and painting
Chapter
rmDortant
Poetics and Dramaturgy
Dramaturgy
130-138
t4l-148
grammatical works
XIV:
Drose
Grammar
Introduction-Pqrini school-Other
Chapter
...
157-158
medical works
development-Minor
Chapter XI :. Prose Literature

'
Introduction-Romance-Fab1e-Lesser
Chapter XVI : Lexicography

Introduction-Major lexicons-Minor lexicons
Chapter XVII : Civil and Religious Law ...

... 159-16l
Growth and developmenr-Important legal works
drama-Characreristics-Classification-Growth and development-Less impor-
Chapter X : . Historical writings
Pacns
t56
Chapter XV : Metrics
Introduction-Works on Metrics
149-155
XXII:
Philosophy
t74-202
Orthodox sysrems: Nyya, Vaidesika, Srlkhva,

Yoga, Nlimrhs an Vednta-Hetlrodox systems: Buddhism, Jainism and MaterialismMiscellaneous works on philosophy
Index
... zo3--2zo
ABBREVIATION
ABORI
Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
A:{
Asfidhyayl
Har
Har;acarita
HOS
Ilarvard Oriental
Series
IA
Indian Antiquary
JRAS
Journal of the Royal

Asiatic Society
Kad
KddambarV.
(M.
R.
Kale, 2nd edition)
KL
Kztylahhra
INTRODUCTORY
KS
MB
Mbh
Nir
Rog
Mahabharata
Ram
Rmayat.ca
Kmastra
Mahdbhasya
Nirukta
RaghuaathSa
RV Rgueda
SBE Sacred
Books of
East, Oxford
SD
SV
V as
Sahityadarpana
Siupdlaaadha
V
asaaadatta
A. HISTORY
OF T}{E. STUDY OT-SANSKRIT
IN THtr
WEST
I'r u,as in the seventeenth century that the European people,

l)articularly missionaries and travellers, came to trro* of ihe
Indian languages. fn a.. 16.51 Abraham Roger published a
l)ortuguese translation of Bhartr-hari's poems. In a.o. 1699 the
.fesuit Father Johann Ernst rlanxleden came ro India and after
r:etting himself acquainted with the Sanskrit language wrote
the first Sanskrit grammar in a European language.- The book,
however, was not printed but was consulted 6y Fru paolino de
St Bartholomes who wrote two Sanskrit grammars besides a
number of importanr works. It was during the administration
,f warren Hastings that the work called viaadarnaaasetu was
t:ompiled. Under the title ,4 Code of Gentoo Law it was
;rublished in English in A.D. 1776. Nine years later, the
l)hagauadgitd was translated into English by Charles wilkins
rvho also rendered into English t[e Hiiopadeia and the
akuntal episode of the ]\,fahabhrata. It was, however, Sir
Williap Jones who did mosr to arouse the interesr of Europeans
in Indian literarure. In a.o. 1789 he published his English
t'anslation of Kalidasa's sakuntala. The-English translati of
Iialidsa's immortal drama was followed by u G.r-u, translarirn by Georg Forsrer,in a.o. 1791 which attracted the artention
ol' men like }lerder and Goethe. It was again through the
,'nthusiasm of. Jones that the Rtusam.hara of t<aUaaJu *u,
;rrrblished in the original texr in d.o. 1792. A third work of
.nes was the translation of tine Manusmrti, the most important
,f
l,'ral literature of ancienr India. The r,vork of Jons was
lirllowed up by Henry Thomas Colebrooke u,ho published
INTRODUCTORY
HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
ADigestof.Hind.uLauonContractsandsuccesslonsbased
He
on a composlrlon rn sanskrit by orthodox Indian scholars'
also edite a number of Sanskrii works
including
t]ne
An'tarahota,
Kiratarjuniya'
Astad.hyayl, the Hitopadea-studied and tlne
India was
in
sanskrit
who
Another Englishman
in a.o.
England
to
returning
Alexander Hmilton who, while
under
Paris
at
1802, was imprisoned with other Englishrnen
imhis
ord"r, of Napoleon Bonaparte. During- th-e leriod of
prisonment liamilton trained up .a bpd of European scholars
'*ho took ro the study of sanskrit with earne st zeal. This is
commonly referred to as th. 'Discov_ery_ of sanskrit' in the west.
one of Hamilton,s most distinguished students was the gleat
German scholar and poet Frierich Sch1ege1, _who- wrote that
epoch-making work n the Language and Wisdom of the
Ihdionr. ThIs work introduced for the first time the comparative and the historical method. It also contained translations
in German of Tnany Passages from the Rarnayana,-ty2Bl'151""dgtta, t}:e Manusmitind Jth.r early works. Friedrich Schlegelis
Broth", August With"l* von Sch1egel, a student of Professor A.
L. Ch6zy, fir" firrt French scholar in Sanskritt not only contributed Jrr.h to the study of Comparative Philology-but also
helped the study of sanskrit by-editinS texts.and writing
translations. OnL of Schlegel's students was Christian Lassen
who was deeply interested ln Indian culture' The science of
o*purr,ir"'ei.,ifoiojy was found'ed by Franz B,PP, a snrdent
of piofessor Ch6zy"nd contcmporriy of August Wilhelm.
Bopp ulr, rendered'great. service to the investigation.of Sanskrit
[tture by incorporating in his work Coniugations-system'
ffanslations from tile Raayo4a and t,ne Mahabharata' FIis
sanskrit Grammars consiclerably furthered the study of sanskrit
in Germany. The work of Bopp in the domain of comparative
philology rias developed in a-most comprehensive .manner.by
Wihel von Humbôldt whose interesi in the philosophical
the
ru'orks
of the Indians was of an abiding character. Another
highly interested in
lrrriian poetry. The Latin translations of the Upanisads in the
lrcginning of the nineteenth century inspired German philosophers. Schelling, Kant, Schiller, and Schopenhauer were
lrig'hly charmed to discover 'the production of the highest
Irrrman wisdom'. The actual investigation of Vedic literature
w;rs first undertaken by Friedrich Rosen in a.o. lB38 and was
srrbsequently continued by a band of illustrious students of
thc great French orientalist Eug6ne Burnouf, including Rudolph
Itoth and F. Max M1ler, who brought out his famous editio
ltrinceps of the Sgaeda with the commentary of Sayala in the
ycars lB49-75. One of Roth's distinguished students was II.
(llassmann who published a complete translation of the gueda,
'It was during this period that llorace }fayman Wilson who
( rrre to Calcutta represented the orthodox interpretation of the
tli1"ueda by translating it on the lines of Syalats commentary.
Sirnilar work was done by Alfred Ludwig, who is looked upon
;rs a forerunner of R. Pischel, and K. F. Geldner, thd joint
;rrrthors of Vedic Studies. The name of Theodor Aufrecht is
;rlso associated with Vedic investigations.
'lhe publication of the great ,Sl Petersburg Dictionary
(,\trnslerit-Wrterbuch) in 1852 is an important event in the hisloly of progressirre studies in Sanskrit in the West. The
rlictionary was compiled by Otto Bhtlingk and Rudolph Roth
;rrrrt published by the Academy of Fine Arts and Sciences, St
l)r'tclsburg. The History of Indian Literature which was publislrcd by Albrecht Weber in a.. 1852 and was edited for the
r,,'r'ond time in e.o. 1875, is another important work. The
r',lition of the Satapathabrahmana by the same author is
;rnollrer outstanding contribution. The Catalogus Catalogorunx
lrrrlrlished by Theodor Aufrecht in the years 1891, 1896, and
lr){}.}, forms a most comprehensive list of Sanskrit authors and
rroted German, Friedrich Rckert, was also
works and is a monumental work of its kind. Arthur Anthony

Macdonell's Vedic Gran'trnar and Vedic Mythology and the:
vedic Index by N{acdonell and Arthur Berriedale Keith, have,
all proved helpful works for the study of Sanskrit in Europe'
Maurice Bloomfield's Vedic Concordance is another Sreat
work which has been of immense help to vedic studies in the
West. William L)wight Whitney's Sanshrit Grammar is yet
another important triatise. Edward Byle Cowell, who was
Principal, Gver.tmettt Sanskrit College, Calcutta, gave-a drstinct
fillip io Sanskritic studies by his translations of the SarxacJaiianasamgraha and many'other important Sanskrit works.
Arthur V.nIs, Principal, Government Sanskrit Col1ege, Varanasi,'
also did a lot to help Sanskritic studies. Amongst European
scholars who lived in india and took interest in Sanskrit learning
and literatu're, mention may be made of J. f'. Fle-et,- Vincent
A. Smith, Sir Alexander Cunningham, Sir John H. Marshail,
Sir M. A. Stein, Sir George Grierson and J. Ferguson.
Among western Indologists who have done invaluable service
to the -cause of Sanskrit studies, the names of George
Bhler, J. Muir, Frank Kielhorn, E. Rer, H. Lders, Hermann
S"t urt, Sylvain L6vi, Edward WashblT
Jacobi,
-Errg"n b.
-ggqki"t'
Hultzsch, Aithur Coke Burnell, Monier M' Williams,
Thlodor Goldstticker, Richard Garbe, Paul Deussen, Julius
Eggeling, George Thibaut, Julius Jolly, Maurice Winternitz, F'
W.- fnr"rr, t. f). Barnett, T. Tscherbatsky, Sten Konow,
Va116e Poussin, Otto Strauss, C. R. Lanman and Giuseppe Tucci
are known to all lovers of Sanskrit.
TNTRoDUC'r'oRY
B.
ORIGIN OF INDIAN WRiTING
'l'nr
immemorial practice with students of Sanskrit Introducliterature has been to commit to memory ths v2lisus tion
strbjects of their study, and this .practice of oral tradition has preserved the ancient Vedic texts. This fact
lras led scholars to sulmise that writing was perchance
rrnknown in the earliest period of Indian civilization
;rnd that the later forms of the alphabet were not of
;rure Indian growth.
The earliest references to writing in Sanskrit litera- Evidence
lrrre are to be found in the Dharmastra of Vadis1lz, of Vedic
Stra
rvhich, as Dr Bhler thinks, was composed. ut'out and
*o'*t
rhe eighth century B.c. There ur", ho'*.u"r, ,o-.
rit holars who would like to assign a much later date
to the woik, namely, the fourth century B.c. There
n c obtain clear evidence of the widely "spread use of
,
ru,r'iting during the Vedic period, and in Ch. XVL l0,
l4-15, mention is made of written documents as 1ega1
cvidence. Further, the Astadhyayr ol Pnini contains
srrch compounds as lipikara and libikara which evi
rk'ntly mean 'writer' [III. ii. 21]. .The date of Pnini,
Irowever, is not fixed. Professor Goldstcker wants to
;rl;rce him in the eighth century n.c., while the general
lrr,ly of scholars hold that his age is the fourth
(('r)tury B.c. In addition to the few references set
l'rlth above, it may be said that the later Vedic works
r,1112jn some technical terms such as 'aksara', 'knda',
'lxrtala', 'grantha' and the like, r,vhich some scholars
rluote as evidence of the use of writing. But there
irrr' rthers who differ in their interpretations of these
I('t lIlS.
'l'he aforesaid references do not help us much
Evidence
of Brhmar.rical works
rrrsroRy oF cLASSTcAL SANSKRTT
LTTERATURE
in determining the genuine Indian growth of writing'

inasmuch ,, ,on" f the works in which they are
found can be safely dated earlier than the period of

inscriptions. In the same waft evidences in the"
Brhalical works such 4s the Epics, the Purnas"
the Kvyas and the like, are of little or no help'
Among ih"*, the Epics are by far the oldest, but it
is diffiu1t to prove that every vrord of their text goes
back to a high antiquity. One fact is, however, undeniable, naely thal the Epics contain some archaic
expressions, .rr.h as, 'likh', 'lekha', 'lekhaka', 'lekhana'"
but not 'lipi', which, as many scholars think, is after
all a foreign word. This may suggest that w-riting
was known in India in the EPic age.
Evidence
There are two other facti which also suggest the
of Indian
same thing. It is believed that the Aryans *"lt. tl
civiliza,, adrrand- state of civilization-there was a high
tion
development of trade and monetary transactions, and
that tey carried on minute researches in -grammar'
phonetics and lexicography. Do not the above facts
pr"rrrppor" the knJwldge 9t the art of writing
-""ig ancient Indiansi Nevertheless, one will
have Io adduce evidence, without which nothing can
be taken for granted. So we turn to the Buddhist
works.
Evidence
of Bud-
dhist
writings
There are quite a large number of . passages i

the Ceylon ese- Tipitaha, which bear witness to a
acquaintance with rvriting and to its extensrve use a
the' time when the Budhist canon was composed
'Lekha' and 'lekhaka' are mentioned in the Bhikhh

Pacittiya 2, and. in the Bhihkhunr. Pacittiy.a !9, li
In the former, writing has been highly praised'
-Ir
the Jtakas, constant ention is made of letters' T
fritakas know of proclamations. We are also told of

ir game named aksarika in rvhich the Buddhist monk
is lorbidden to particiPate. This game was in all prolxrbiiity one of guessing at letters. In the rules of
llinaya, it has been laid down that a criminal, whose
rlrme has been written up in the King's porch, must
rrot be received into the monastic order. In the same
rvork, writing has been mentioned as a lucrative professirn. Jataka No. 125 and the Mahauagga,I.49 bear
witness to the existence of elementary schools where
lhe manner of teaching was the same as in the indireferences
Hcnous schools of modern India. All these
in prewriting
prove the existence of the art of
lluddhistic days.
The earliest written record is the Piprw vase piprw
inscription which was discovered by Colonel Claxton vase.
l'eppe. This inscription is written in Brhmr charac- rnscrrptlon
lcr and is in a language which does not conform to
;rny of the standard Prakrits. Some of the casecndings tend towards Magadhr. No compound consonant has been written. They have been either
simplified or divided by epenthesis. No long vowel,
cxcepting two 'e's, have been used. The inscription
Ir:rs been differently interpreted. According to some
sr:holars the relics that were enshrined were the relics
,rl Buddha, while others maintain that the relics were
those of the Skyas, who were massacred by Virulaka,
son of Prasenajit, King of Kodala. In any case the
inscription belongs to the early part of the fifth
( cntury B.C.
Next in order of antiquity comes the Sohgaura
t opper-plate which, as Dr Smith thinks, may be
It
uTsToRY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
INTRODUCTORY
Sohgaura
Copper
plate
dated about half a century prior to A6oka.r The

characters of the document according to Dr Smith
are those of the Brhmr of the Maurya period and
his statements, according to Dr Bhler, are incontestable as everyone of them is traceable in the
Edicts. About the proper import of the inscription
none is sure. Dr Smith says that he cannot find out
any meaning from it. The value of the inscription
rests on the fact that it is an evidence for the assumption that in the third century B.c., the use of writing
was common in royal offices and that the knowledge
of written chaructrs was widely spread u*org t[e
people.
Inscriptions of
A6oka,
Nahapna
and Rudra-
drlan
The inscriptions of A6oka, are found almost all

over India and are written in two difierent scripts,
viz., .Brhmr and Kharostht. Two of these inscriptions-that of Shahbazgarhi and Mnsehr, are
written in the latter. The rest are written in Brhmr.
The language of early Indian inscriptions is not
Sanskrit, but vernacular, which is known as Prkrit.
In the inscriptions of Aoka, local varieties are to be
.found.
Those in the north-western part of India
incline more towards Paidct, than those found in the
eastern part. It is interesting to note that all the
Indian inscriptions from the earliest times down to
the second century A.D., are in Prkrit. The earliest
inscription in Sanskrit is the Nsik Cave No X
'inscription of Nahapna, which was written, in a1l
l The English translation cf Dr Bhler's version
below:
-is -given'The.orde"r of the great officials of Srr'astr (issued) from (their camp
at) Mnavasitikata l"These two stol'e-houses with three partitions
(rvhich are situated) even in famous Varhdagrma require the st-orage
f loads (bhraka) of Black Panicum, parched gra_in, cummin-seed and
Amba foi (times. of) urgent (need)' One should not take (anything
from the grain stor:ed)."-'*IA. Vol. xxV, p.
265.
lrrobability, in the year 41 of the Saka era, correspondi,rg to a.o. 119. But there are scholars who do not
like to call this inscription the earliest in Sanskrit,
;rnd in their opinion the well-known Jungadh
inscription of Rudradaman, dated e.o. 150, heads the
list of Sanskrit inscriptions. Sanskrit gradually en L'oached upon Prkrii in the field of epigraphy
Td
it was from the fifth centur) A;D., that Prkrit disrppeared from the field of inscriptions
^
As for the history of the two scripts, Brhmr and Kharosthi
Kharosthr, mentioned above, Dr Bhler thinks that
the latter was derived from the Aramaic or Phoenician
t haracter used by the clerks of the Persian Empire.
'l'he north-western parts of India came under the
Achremenian or Persian rule about the sixth century
u.c. And it is in those Parts of India that inscriptions
rrnd coins in Kharosthr character have been disr'overed. Dr Bhler has taken sufficient pains to
show how from some borrowed letters the full alphalret of the Sanskrit language came into being. There
irre some scholars who have gone so far as to suggest
;r meaning of the word Kharosthr. Thus it is held
tl-rat the ,rurn" Kharoslht has been derived frorn the
shape of letters which generally resemble the 1ip of
iu) ass. Professor L6vi thinks that the word is
rlcrived from the name of the inventor, Kharostha,
rrn inhabitant of Central Asia.
There are several theories regarding the origin Brhmi:
,rl' the Brhmr character. According to Ot Taylor Soû-thand
;urd others, the Brhmr character *u, bortored fiom ilfil.
:r Southern Arab tribe. This theorv has not gained 61;gi1
rrny popularity. The theory started by Dr Webet
,,,,d illustrated by Dr tshler is generally accepted.
IO
'
HISTORY oF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Dr Weber
was the first man to discover that some

of the old Indian letters are practically identical with
certain Assyrian letters and several letters in some
inscriptions of the ninth and the seventh centuries
8.c., found in Assyria. About one-third of the
twenty-three letters of the North Semitic alphabet of
that period is identical with the oldest forms of the
correiponding Indian letters. Another one-third is
somewhat similar, while the rest can with great difficulty be said to correspond to letters of the Indian
alphabet. Dr Bh1er took advantage of this theor;r
of Dr Weber, and he next proceeded to show that
as a result of the prolonged contact between Indian
merchants, mostly, Dravidians, and Babylonians in
the eighth and the seventh centuries 8.c., the former
availed themselves of the opportunity to bring the
Assyrian art of writing over to India, which later on
was enlarged to suit the requirements of the Indian
people. Nearly a thousand years later, this form of
writing came to be styled as Brhmr. It has been
said that originally the letters were written from right
to left, as a single coin has been discovered in a place
named Eran, on which the legend runs from right to
left. But as the Brhmins believed the right hand
direction to be sacred, they changed the direction and
began to write from left to right.
Pre-Semitic
According to Professor Rhys Davids, the Indian
origin
letters were developed neither from the Northern nor
from the Southern Semitic alphabet, but from the
pre-Semitic form current in the Euphrates valley.
But this theory is not accepted on the ground that
this supposed pre-Sernitic form of writing has yet to
be explored.
TNTRoDUCToRY
11
Sir Alexander Cunningham had wanted to derive Hierogly:

phic origin
cach letter from the indi"genous hieroglyphic, but his
theory was dtscardecl oi rhe ground that no such
hieroglyphic could te found in India' But the recent
at Mohen'io-Daro and Harappa. have
"*.uiir,
lrrought to light an oriinal Indian hieroglyphic.and
o f.rith., .*irrutiot f th" theory once started by
Sir A. Cunningham may be undertaker'
Until the diovery of'the Indus ValLey civilization' Conclusions
cxtant archaeologicai evidence relating- to. the use ,of,
the
writing in India iould not be carried far beyond
Murrry"u periocl. But the seals which have been re.ou.rJd flom Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, although
not yet deciphered, il.arly -show that some form of
.ritiirg mustiave been in xistence at least two milienniums" before the birth of Christ' Some attempts
have been mad.e to decipher the seals and trace their
origin from or affinities wiith forms of writing current,in
the'ancient world' According to one vier'v, the Indus
vailey inscriptions are composed of symbols' each
of #ni.h is n ideogt'am. Hto,tty tries to discover
similarities between ihe Hittite script and the Indus
ialley script. Diringer on the other hand is convinced
that 'no ^r..ipt .xlrted f rom which the derivation of the Indus script could be reasonably proved'
expresses the viw that the latter may ha1'e
originaied from a yet unknown script which was the
common ancestor'of the cuneiform and the early
Hunter and Langdon tegard the
lllamite writing.
"script
as the prototyPe of Brhmr but
Mohenjo-Daro
it is irpossible t exPect iny final or conclusive
He
speculatins baied on a series of

unknown factors or mere probabilities, especially when
rcsults
fiom
.12
HISToRY oF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT I,ITERATURE
the
sound-values of the signs in the Indus Valley

still remain unascertained. Ancient Indian tradition.s
recorded in a number of works, Brhmarlical, Jaina and
Buddhist, ascribe the invention of writing to Brahm.
A Chinese reference seems to indicate tliat the parricular writing meanr by this tadition was rhe Brahmi.
Thus the Indians in ancient times believed that their
lystem of writing was national in character. indigenous
in origin and of remore antiquiry. But if the name
Brhmr is to,be given to the s-ript used in the inscriptions of A6oka as well as the Pipraw Vase inscription and the Eran coin legend, that name cannot
be applied to the script used by the Indus
_consistently
Valley people, as no similarity ber.een the two has
yet been established.
Both on grounds of developed form of the Brhmi
:script as indicated in the Adokan edicts and its
:supposed oligin. from the North Semitic writing used
1n certarn inscriptions of the ninth and eighth centuries-s.c., Bhler proposes to place the beginning of the
Brhmr ar some date in the neighbourhood of 800 n.c.
'This date according to his line of argument
may be
the starting-point of the form of Brhmi which
passed through cerrain fundamental changes, modifications and enlargements to reach the stage as
.exhibited in the Adokan edicts and the orr. oi t*o
supposedly earlier inscriptions. But it can no longer
be. regarded as the date marking the beginning"of
writing in India in view of th discoveiies niade
in the Indus Valley. Nor, as Bhler himself admitted,
can his theory explain how without some kind

of writing !..i"S cunrenr among the Vedic people
the technicalities
and complexitiel of their liteiature,
INTRODUCTORY
13"
their phonetics, grammar, economic transactions,

numerical calculations and the like assumed such a
pronounced form with the help of memory alone unsupported by written symbols. But as no specimen of
r,vriting or any hint about its form which may have
been connected with the culture and civilization of the
Vedic people has been found, it is still impossible to
frame an acceptable hypothesis about the course of
evolution of writing in India preceding the advent of'
llrhmr in the form known to us and the nature of its
affiliation to the earlier script the existence of which is
not considered unlikely.
The foreign origin of Brhmr, though advocated
by many, has not been definitely proved. In fact
many eminent scholars maintain that writing in India
was of indigenous origin. No fina1 conclusion can be,
alrived at in.the matter until the Indus Valley script
has been correctly deciphered and fresh material discovered fil1ing in the long gap that separates the Indus
Vailey period from the Maurya period in the history of
nr-iting in India and aLso new light thrown on the
system of writing that may have been quite possibly
rrsed by the Vedic people. The genius of the Indian
people was responsible for an extraordinary develop*
rnent of regional scripts out of the original Brhml.
l,oca1 varieties which are not wanting in the A6okan
llrhmr used throughout his empire in the North and
the South, gathered a momentum in the succeeding
centuries, and the numerous regional or provincial
scripts which came into being and advanced towards
rrraturity can be traced to Brhml with scientific precision. Two early Jain Sutras, tt,e Samauayairga Sutra
;rrrd the Pannaaana Sutra firnish a list of eighteen
14
varieties of writing including Brhmr and Kharosthl,

Dmili (Dravidiai) and Javinaliya. The iast named
script is'to be identified with Yavanni .(i'e' the Gr.eek
script) mentioned by Panini. The Lalitaatara gives
u liti of sixty foui scripts which include Brhmr,
Kharosthr and foreigtt t.iipt, like Cinalipi, Hu4alipi
ancl regional scripti like Angalipi, V-angalipi, etc'
-scripts weie introduced into different counIndian
tries of Asia ; inscriptions and other valuable documents have h,een disovered in widely separated areas
in Asia written in Indian characters which also
became the basis of developments of national scripts in
some countries with whic^h India had been in active
communication for many centuries.in the Past'
INTRODUCTORY
t5
C. VEDIC AND
CLASSICAL SANSI(RIT:
THEIR RELATIONSHIP
INraN tradition knows Sanskrit as the language 6f Introduct'"'

the gods, which has been the dominant language of
India for a period covering over four thousand years.
Viewed from its rich heritage of literature, its fascinating charm of words, its flexitility of expression in
relation to thought, Sanskrit occupies a singular place
in the literature of the world.
The Sanskrit language is generally divided into Vedic and
*r, classical:
Vedic and Classicai in the" Vedic' languaqe
"Aryrr,
written the entire sacred literature of ti.
ffT::?;'
Indians. Within this Vedic language several stages and spirit
.may be carefully distinguished, and in course of its
transition from the one'to the other it gradually grew
modern tiil it ultimately merged in Classical Sanskrit.
ISut when we pass on from the Vedic lyrics to the lyrics
of Classical Sanskrit, we seem to enter a 'new world'.
Not only are the grammar, vocabulary, metre and
style different, but there is also a marked distinction
in respect of matter and spirit. Thus the Classical
Sanskrit period is marked by a change of religious outlook and social conditions. Vedic literature is almost
tntirely religious ; but Classical Sanskrit has a 'pro['ane' aspect as well which is not in any way inferior
to the religious aspect. The religion in the Epic
period has become different from what it was in the
Vedic age. The Vedic Nature-worship has been superscded by the cult of Brahm, Vislu and Siva, and it
is in the Epic period that we find for the first time the
incarnations of Vis,,ru who has come to be looked upon
;rs the Supreme Deity. New gods and goddesses
,
REFERENCES
D.: The Origin of the Bengali Script

Biihtei, G.: Indian PaleograPhY
The Origin of Brahmi Al|habet
itr" orrtg;r, ii the Kharosih' Atpt'obet (IA' vol' xxIV)
Indian Studies III.
A.: Tlte Coins of Ancienl lndia.
Cunningham, -on
the or}gin of'the tnctian Alphaber, JRAS' Vol' XVI
;;;; n: N.;'
Baneriee, R.
(New series)
Ilirinser. D.: The

Huntr, C.
Alhhabet
Script of Mohenio-Zlro, etc'
R.: The
Ldvi. S.: Indian Writine (tA. Vol. XXXII)

Kharostrl lVrit-ing (IA. Vo1. XXXV)
'Kharoitra and tie Kharoslri lU riting - .
.N{itra,
P.: N"*'L;gt t from Pre-hisi.oric India-(lA' VoI' XLVIII)
Oiha. C. H.: BhAlanva Pracina Lipimala
Pndev. R. R.: tndini Paleografhy, Part I
1,'R.:- ,4 Theor"tZ[ ini or;g;n of
;;;;;;;;
Sivamrti,
(rA. vol.
Tavlor. I.:
Thmas,
xxx$
the Deuanagri Atfhahtt
b.: Indian Epigraphy and South lndian'

Tlte AlFhabet
E.: Princp's .Essays, Vol.
IT
Scripts
L6
Difference
in form:
(i)accent
(ii)grammar
TNTRoDUCToRy
I{ISTORY OF CLSSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATUR!:
unknown to the Vedas have arisen, and Vedic gods

have either been forgotten or reduced to a subordinate
position. Indra is, indeed, the only god who _ still
maintains high status as the lord of heaven. Vedic
literature in its earlier phase was marked by a spirit ofrobust optimism ; but Classical Sanskrit literature has
a note of pessimism or,ving probably to the influence
of the doctrine of karman and transmigration of soulsThe naive simplicity of Vedic literature is strikingly
absent in Classical Sanskrit where the introduction of
the supernatural and the wonderful is full of exaggeration. So kings are described as visiting Indra in heaven
and a sage creating a new world by means of his grear
spiritual powers. The tribal organization of the state
has lessened much in importance in the Epic periodwhere we find the rise of many territorial kingdoms.
In respect of form also Classical Sanskrit differs
consideribly from Vedic. Thus the four Vedas and
the Brhmalas are marked with accents (udatta,
anudatta and s'oarita) which only can help us in finding
out the meaning of different rvords. Thus, for
instance, the word 'Indraatru' with one kind of accent
will mean 'Indra as enemy', and the same word with
a different kind of accent will imply 'enemy of Indra'But in Classical Sanskrit literature, accent has no part
to play.
Phonetically Vedic and Classical languages ate
identical, but grammatically they differ. The change
in grammar is not generally due to the introduction
of new formations or inflexions, but to the loss of
forms.l In respect of mood, the difference between
lCertain
in the-Vedic
grammatical forms which occur

-language
disappear in"the Classical. Thus in declension a number of forms has
17
Classical and Vedic Sanskrit is specially very great.

In the Vedas the present rense has besides its indicative
inflexion, a subjunctive (requisition), an optarive (wish)

and an imperative (command). The same three moods
1r. found, though with much less frequency, as
belonging to the perfect and they are also made from
the aorist (luh) and the future has no moods. In
Classical Sanskrit, rhe presenr rense adds to its indicatiye an optative and an imperative. But the subjunctive (let)is lost in Classical Sanskrit.' In the Vedic
period no less than fifteen forms of infinitive were
used2 of which only one (tum) srrvives in the Classical
period. Vedic Sanskrit differs from Classical Sanskrit
in respect of the use of prefixes (upasargas). Thus in
Classical Sanskrit lhe upasarga musr invariably precede
the root and should form a part of it. But ihe use
of upasarga.r was unrestricted^ in Vedic Sanskrit. It
was used before the root and after it and was also
sometimes separated from the root itself.3 Compounds of more than two words, which are rare in
the Vedas and the Brhmanas, are frequent in Classical Sanskrit.
The aforesaid changes in respect of forms were (iii) Vocamainly due to the efforts of grammarians yrfis bulary
cxercised considerable influence on the development
of the language. The vocabulary also underwent
many changes. It was largely extended by derivation,
:omposition and,compilation. Many old words that
lrcen dropped: (i) the nominative and accusative dual forms of
'-a' stems end.ing in a, e.g., narA,
\ii) rhe nominative plur.al form
.
of '-a'
stems en-ding irr -A1ah, e.g.,'ciczsah, (iii) rhe i;srrumenral
form of '-a' srems ending in--ebftih e.g., etiebhih.
lrlnral
L
adya jitno, iatdh iiaAti ;radah.
IIl. iv- 9
'',4sl.
'
3
a kysnena ri jas t:arlamAno.
18
TNTRoDUCToRY
could not be found
in Vedic literature came to be
added in Classical Sanskrit and manv new words were

borror,ved.
(iv)Metre Vedic language again differi from Classical with

regard to th; ,t" of metres. Beside the pfincipal
seven inetres of the Vedas (ayatrt, u;nih, anustubh,
brhatt, pah.hti, tristubh and iagatl), Classical Sanskrit
presents a limitless variety of metres.
REFER-ENCES
Ghate,
V. S.: Lectures on the figt:ecla

A Grammar of Sanshrit Language
Kielhorn, F,:
Macdoner, A.
A.:
iyl",J::r"il;tr;:rit
Literature
weber, A.: ,r" ,Y,1,*"0 !l'!X3!1ffrr,",,,u,"

Whitney, W. D.: A Sanshrit Grammar
Willianis, M.: A Practical Grammar of the Sanshrit I'anguage
Winternitz, M.: A History of lndian Literature, Yol' I
D.
PRAKRIT
Antiquity TrIn beginnings of the Prkrits go back to a period

of great antiquity. Even at the time when Verlic
hymns were composed, there existed a PoPular
language which difred from the literary dialect' In
the-Vedic hymns, there are several words which cannot be phonetically other than Prkrit. Buddha and
Mahaviia preache their doctrines in the sixth century
8.c., in the language f the people in order -that all
might understand ih.t . The language of- the Bud'
dhlst texts which were collected during the period
between 500 r.c. and 400 8.c., was Magadhi. The
extant Buddhist texts of Ceylon, Burma and Siam are
19
in
a form of popular language to which the name Pli

has been given. There is difference of opinion amongst
scholars regarding the place and origin of Pali. The

only inscription, the language of which is akin to Pali,
is the HatiGumpha inscription of Khravela, dated
the l60th year of the Maurya era.
Patafijali says that Sanskrit was a spoken language Relation of
but it was confined to the cultured section of the Sanskrit
people. The popular dialect of India was known by to Prkrit
the general name of Prkrit. From the distribution of
languages in Sanskrit drmas it appears that the masses
while speaking Prkrit, could understand Sanskrit. It
has been said in Bharata's Natyaiastra that Prakrit
and Sanskrit are different branches of one and the
same language. In the earliest known forms of Prkrit,
there are passages which can be easily transiated into
anskrit by the application of simple phonetic rules.
According to European scholars, Prkrit, which European
represents the Middle Indian period of the Indo-Aryan view
languages, may again be sub-divided into three stages:
(1) Old Prkrit or P1i, (2) Middle Prkrit, and (3) late
Prkrit or Apabhrarha. Thev would like to say that
if Prkrit had been a language derived from Sanskrit,
Prkrit would have taken the name Sarhskrta. More-
over, there are many words and forms in Prkrit

which cannot be traced in Classical Sanskrit. If,
however, by the word Sanskrit is included the language
of the Vedas and all dialects bf the old Indian period,
it will be correct to assume that Prkrit is derived
lrom Sanskrit. But the word Sanskrit is generally used
to refer ro rhe Palini-Patafljali language.
Indian grammarians, however, *orld say that the g11666s1
name Prkrit is derived from the word prakrti, which view
20
means 'the basic form', viz., Sanskrit. 'Further, in

Prkrit there are three classes of words, e'8", (4
tatsama-words which are identical in form and
meaning in both Sanskrit and Prkrit, e.g',- dea(t,'
harualal GI) tadbhaua-words that are derived from
Sanskrit by the application' of phonetic rules, e'g',
ajjautta l aryaputii, paricwmbia I paricumby.a, and_
(r) dnin-*ot, thai are of indigenous origin and
ih" hiuto.y of which cannot be accurately tra-ced, e'3,'
chollanti, cahga. A careful examination of Prkrit
vocabulary revieals the fact that the majority-of Prkrit
words be1ng to the second class ; words belonging to
the other clsses are comparatively small in number:
The derivatives are in moJt cases the result o{ phonetic
decay.
Varieties
of Prkrit
TNTRoDUC-roRY
The foilowing are the more important literary
Prkrits: Mahaiastrl, Saurasenr and Magadhi are the

dramatic Prkrits, while Ardha-Magadhi, JainaMahrstrr and Jaina-Sauraseni are the Prkrits of the
Jaina canon. The last is the Apabhrarhda.
Bhandarkar, R.
G.: ,;,,"I"'rlffl
Lectures (Lecture rII)
B.: A Short Introduction to Prahrit

Vararuci.: PrhftaprahAa
Woolner, A. C.: An Introduction to Prd.hrit.
Cowell, E.
, E. WAS SANSKRIT A SPOKEN LANGUAGE?

A srcrrox of European scholars believes that in spite
European
view
of the vast extent of Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit was
' never used in actual speech. It was a pureiy literary
2l
and artificial language and the language that was

spoken even in ancient times was Prkrit.
But there are evidences to show that to all intents Orthodox
and purposes, Sanskrit was a living language and view
that it was spoken by at last a large section of the
people. Etymologists and grammarians like Yaska
and Palini describe Ciassical Sanskrit as Bhasa, the
speech, as distinguished from Vedic Sanskrit,r and it
will not probably be incorrect to suggest that this
,description serves to draw out the special character
of Classical Sanskrit as a living speech. Moreover,
there are many stras in the ,AuadhyayZ of Palini
which are meaningiess unless they have any reference
,ro a living speech.2 Yska, Palini and even
Ktyyana have discussed the peculiarities in the
usages of Easterners and Northerners.s Local variations are also noticed by Katyayana, while Patafljali
has collected words occurring in particular districts.a
Patafijali again .tel1s us that the words of Sanskrit are
of ordinary life and describes an anecdote in which a
grmmarian converses with a charioteer and the
discussion is carried on in Sanskrit.s
From all that has been said above, it is clear that Extentof
Sanskrit was a living speeih in ancient India. 811 sanskrit as
"stili remains to h"e discussed i.
the question
ir:I*",[
o
-which
rvhether Sanskrit was the vernacular of all classes of
people in the society or of any particular section or
r.ciions. Patafijali. says that the language spoken in
the days of Palini could be mastered if it was heard
etc.
'Nir. l.iv. 5 & 7, II. ii. 6 & 7, Ast.III. ii. 108,.18,
20, 29.
,4s1. VIII. iv. 48, etc. Also Gat.zastras, Nos.
" Nir. II. ii. 8. ,4;{. IV. i. 157 & 160.
a Cf. Vd.rtti.ha, sarae deid.ntara, referred to in the Paspaiahni,ha,
5
MB. under ,4sr. II. iv. 56.
'
MB-
22
from the learned Brhmanas of the day (3lsza) who

could speak correct Sanskrit without any special
tuition.l-It is gathered from tlne Sundarahand.a of the
Ramyana thai the language spoken by the twice-born
qastes was Sanskrit.2 It is stated in the Kamastra
of Vtsyyana that men of tate should speak both in
Sanskrit and the vernacular of the province, and this
means that Sanskrit was not the spoken language of
each and every section of the people in the society.3
Hiuen Tsan, the Chinese traveller (seventh century
A.D.), tqlls s that the language in which official
debates were arranged, was Sanskrit and not any Provincial dialect. The Pafi.catantra informs us that the
medium of instruction for the young boys of the
ruling class was Sanskrit and not any vernacular.
Conclu- We may draw from this the conclusion that

sions Sanskrit was the vernacular of the educated people
but it was understood in still wider sections. Our
find supPort from the evidence of

where we observe that
literature
the dramatic
conclusions may
Brhmanas, kings and ministers speak Sanskrit while

women and all the common people use Prkrit, excePt
that nuns and courteturm o.crionally converse in
Sanskrit. Uneducated Brhmanas are introduced
speaking popular dialects. But it is highly significnt tht dialogues between Sanskrit-speaking and
Prkrit-speaking persons are Yery frequent and this
suggests that in real life Sanskrit was understood by
those who would not speak it themselves. This statement may be further corroborated by the fact thar
r
2
TNTRoDUCToRY
MB. under ,4sr. VI. iii.

Rdm. Y. xxx. 18.
'gKS.
ir'.
20.
109.
23
common people would gather to hear the recital of

the populr Epics in the palaces of kings andin
temples ; they wouid not attend such functions unless
th"l, .oilId .,nderrtand the content of the recital.
REFERENCES
Bhandarkar, R. G.: tlilson Philological Lectures (Lecture VII)

Keith, A. B.: A History of Sanskrit Literalure
of Sanskrit Literature
Macdonell, A. A.: A History
"of'
Pqryini and Sanskrit as a Spohen
Pathak, . g., The Age
Language (AtsORI. Vol. XI)
Rapson, E.
j.: JRAS.
1904
l'HE GREAT EPrcs
CHAPTER
THE GREAT. EPICS
A.
Story
RAMAYANA
Tnr Indian tradition rnakes Valmtki, the author of

the Ramayana, tlne first poet (adikaai) who is reported
to have been deeply moved by the piteous wailings

of the female curlew when her husband was killed
by the dart of a forester. Valmlki's feelings found
an expression through the medium of metre,r and at
the tridding of the divine sage Nrada who brought
messages from Brahm he composed the immortal
Rama-Epic which tells the story of Prince Rma, the
dutiful and devoted son of King Daaratha of
Ayodhy, banished from his kingdom for fourteen
years through the jealousy of his step-mother Kaikeyi
who secured possession of the throne for her own
son Bharata. So Rma and SIt, his beloved wife,

accompanied by the third prince Laksmala went to
the forest. There the adventures of the banished
prince, Srt's abduction by Rvana, King of Lank,
the help given to Rma by Hanumat, a chief of the
monkeys, the destruction of Rvala and his part\,
the fire-odeal of Srta to prove her chastity-these and
many other incidents have been described in all the
glowing colours of poetry.
From a perusal of the Ramyar.ta itself we come to
0rigin and
source
know that the story of the Epic was recited by proI Rm.
L ii.
15.
25
{essional minstrels. The story was handed down by

oral transmission from Valmiki to the twin brothers,
Kuda and Lava, r,vho sang it in the royal court of
Rma. The above facts have led scholars to surmise
that the exploits of the great heroes of the Iksvku race
inspired the bards of Ayodhy to compose narrative
ballads. Such were utilized by Valmiki who turned
them into a full-fledged Epic. In this connexion, it
nray be remembered that Epics and Purnas are
derived from a common ancient source which may
be traced in the Vedas. The famous dialogue hymns
of the Rgveda are but ancient ballads consisting of
some narrative and some dramatic elements. These
are believed to be the sources of epic poetry as well
as dramas. It is opined again that the Epics owe

their origin to the 'Songs in praise of men' known as
tiatha 1\arasamsr.
'the Rn'rayana which is essentialiy a Poetic Cre- Character
tion has influenced the thought and poetry of later
centuries in course of which new matters were added
to the original composition. The work, in its present
form and extent, comprises seven books and contains
24,0A0 verses approximately. But it must be remembered that the text of the Epic has been preserved in
three recensions, the West Indian, the Bengal and
the Bomba), and curiously enough each recension
has almost one third of the verses occurring in neither
of the other two. Of the three, the Bombay recension
is believed to have preserved the oldest form of the
Epic, for here we find a large numtier of archaic
cxpressions which are rare in the Bengal and the West
Indian recensions. According to Professor Jacobi,
the Rma-Epic was first coposed in the Koa1a
26
Spurious
element
HISToRY oF CTASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
country on the basis of the ballad poetry recited by,

the rhapsodists. In course of time there naturally
arose difierence in the tradition of the recitations
made by professional story-tellers, and this difference
adequately explains the variations in the three recensions when they had been assuming their definite
forms in the different parts of the 1and. But it must
be borne in mind that inspite of the variations in the
three recensions it is not difficult to detect the spurious
and recognize the nucleus. As Jacobi rightly puts it:
As on many of our old venerabie cathedrals every
coming generation 'has added something new and
repaired something old, without the original construction being effaced, in spite of all' the added little
chapels and turrets, so also many generations of singers
have been at work at the Ramyana; but the old
nucleus, around which so much has grown, is to the
searching eye of the student, not difficult to recognize,
if not in every detail, yet in its principal features.l
Internal evidence proves almost co4clusively that
the whole of the Ramayana as it is found today was
not written at one time. It is said that of the seven
books in the Ramyana, the last one and portions of
the first are interpolations. In the first place, there
are numerous passages in the genuine books which
either make no reference to the incidents in the first
book or contain statements which contradict those to
be found in the first book. Secondly, in the first and
third cantos of the first book we find two tables of
contents, the first of which does not mention the first
and the seventh books. Thirdly, the style and
'a
Das Rmyarya, p. 60,
TrrE GREAT
EPICS
27
language of the first book do not bear comparison with

that of the five genuine books (II-VD. Fourthly,
the frequent interruption' of the narrative in the first
and the seventh books and the complete absence of
any such interruption in the other five books cannot
but suggest that the two books were composed by
subsequent poets of less eminence and talent than
the author of the genuine books. Lastly, the character
of the hero as drawn in the first and the seventh
books difiers from what we find in the remaining
books. Thus in those two books Rama is not a mortal
hero which he is in the other five books, but a divine
being worthy of reverence to the nation.
The Ramayana is a highly popular epic which has The
Indian gcople
become the property of. the
.entire.
iil:"*
hul if
it is not an exaggeration if it is said that -it i"d
rryno"
influenced more than any other poem the thought and 6l Inciian
poetry of a nation for thousands of years. People in life and
literature
iff"rrrt walks of iife are all quite iamiliar wi ,6"
characters and stories of the great EPic. In the eyes
of Indians Rma is the ideal prince, the embodiment
of all conceiva,ble virtue and Srta the ideal of conjugal
love and fidelity, the highest yirtue of woman.
Popular sayings and proverbs bear unmistakable testimony to the acquaintance of the Indian people with
the stories of the Epic. Preachers belonging to
different sects draw upon the story of the trpic at the
time of religious discourses meant for the mass.
Beginning with Advaghosa who composed tt-.e Buddhacarita on the model of the Ramyana and coming
down to such later writers as Bhatti and Bhavabhuti
we are amazed to observe the extent of influence of
the Epic on them and their poetical creation. Even
28
lHE
HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT- LITERATURE
the folklores and vernacular literature of the various

provinces have been deeply influenced by the story of
the Ramayana. And it would not be wrong to say
that even upto present times the life and literature in
India are considerably moved by the great Epic. The
conception of Rmarjya (Kindom of Rma) owes its
origin to the Rantayana
Antiquity
It has been already observed that the original work
of Valmiki assumed different forms as with years
rhapsodists introduced into it newer elements. It is,
therefore, very difficult, if not absolutely impossible,
to fix any specified age for the whole pom. Dr
Winternitz says that the transformation of Rma
from a man to the Universal God through a semidivine national hero, 'cannot but take a sufficient
length of time. It should be noted, however, that not
only the Rma-legend but the Ramayana of Vahniki
also was known to the Mahabharata which contains
the Ramophhyana in the Vanaparaan, of course, in
a condensed form. On the other hand, the poet or
the poets of the Rmayana nowhere refer to the
Bhrata story. These facts have 1ed scholars like
Professor Jacobi to presume a very early existence of
the Rrna-Epicl though it still remains a disputed
point whether it was earlier than the original story of
the Mahbharata, the passage in the Vanaparuan con'
taining the reference to the Ran'rayana, being absent
in that very early form of the Bhrata Epic. Dr
Winternitz believes that 'if t]ne Mahbharata had on
I Scholars
like Jacobi,
Schlegel.
M. Williams, Jolly and others point
out that tlae Ram.ayana is earlier than the MahdbhZrata, because

the burning of widdws does not occur in it, but it is mentioned in
t}:,e Mahabharata.
GREAT
EPrcs
29
the whole its present form, in the fourth century A.D.,

t}ae Ramayana rnsl. have received its final form at
least a century or two earliet".
From a study of lataka literature it would appear Relation to
that the stories of some of the Jatakas naturallY Buddhisrr
remind us of the story of the Rdmayana though it
must be admitted that rve seldom observe any 'literal
agreement' between the two. To cite an instance,
the Daaratha-jamka relates the story of the Ramayana
in a different way, where Rma and Slta are described
as brother and sister. But it is highly significant that
while the Jatakas give us innumerable stories of the
demon-world and the animals, they never mention
the names of RvaTa and Ffanumat and the monkeys.
It is not, therefore, improbable that prior to the
fourtlr or the third centuries s.c. when the Buddhist
Tipitc:ka is believed to have come into existence, the
Ramayana in its Epic form was not available though
ballads dealing with Rama were known t-o exist.
Traces of Buddhism cannot be found in the Ramayana
and the solitary instance where the Budd]ra is mentioned is believed to be an interpolation.l Dr Weber,
however, suggests that the Ramyana is based on an
ancient Buddhist legend of Prince Rma. He thinks
that the hero of the Ramayanq. is essentially a sage
in spirii and not merely a hero of war and that in
Rma we observe the glorification of the ideal of
Buddhist equanimity. Dr Winternitz also approves
of the idea of explaining the extreme mildness and
gentleness of Rma by 'Buddhistic undetcutrents'.
But we must say that by thinking in this

r
Lassen on Weber's Rd.mayat.ta (IA. Vot. 'III)
way
30
HISToRY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Weber has ignored the fact that a poet like

Valmiki could easily draw his inspiration from his
own heritage. Our conclusion, therefore, is that
there was no direct influence of Buddhism on the
Dr
Ramayana.
Greek
influence
Ailegorical
lnterpretation of the
Epic
Mythological inter-
pretation
It is certain that there is no'Greek influence on the

Ramayana as the genuine Ramayana betrays no
acquaintance with the Greeks. Dr Weber, however,
thinks that the Ramayana is based on the Greek
legend of Helen and the Trojan war. But an examination of the contents of the poem shows that
the expression yaaana occurs twice in the passages
of the Ramayana which are evidently interpolations.
Professor Lassen was the first scholar to give an
allegorical interpretation of r.he Ramyana. In his
opinion the Epic represented the first attempt of the
Aryans to conquer Southern India. According to
Dr Weber it was meant to account for the spread of
Aryan civilization to South India and Ceylon.
Professor Jacobi gives us a mythological interpretation and says that there is no allegory in the Epic.
Thus he points out that in the gaeda, Stt appears
as the field-furrow and invoked as the goddess of
agriculture. In some of the Grhyastras Slt is the
genuine daughter of the piough-field and is a wife of
Parjanya or Indra. In the Ramayana also Srt is
represented as emerging from the plough-field of
Janaka. Rma can be identified with Indra and
Ilanumat with the Maruts, the associates of Indra, in
his battle with demons. But we would only add that
to read allegory or mythology in a first rate work of
art is without any justification.
THE GREAT
EPICS
REFERENCES
Davids, R.: Buddhist India

Hopkins, E. W.: The Great Epics of India
-|acobi, H.: Das Rimd1ana
Macdonell, A. A.: A History of Sanshrit Literature
Smith, V. A.: Oxford History of India
Weber, A.: On the Rfimyat.ta (IA. Vol. II!
The History of Indian Literature

Williams, W.: Indian lisdom
Winternitz, M.: A History of Indian Literature, lttol.
3l
The famous Bhagaita,dgrta is a chapter of
B.
General
character
and story
MAHABHARATA
Dn
WrNrBnxrrz describes the Mahabharata as a

whole literature and does nqt look upon it as one
poetic production which dne Rmayana essentially is.
The nucleus of the Mahabharan is tlne great war of
eighteen days fought between the Kauravas, the
hundred sons of Dhrtarstra and the Pndavas, the
five sons of Pandu. The poet narrates all the
circumstances leading up to the war. In this great
Kuruksetra battle were involved almost all the kings
of India joining either of the two parties. The result
of this war was the total annihilation of the Kauravas
and their part|, and Yudhisthira, the head of the
Pndavas, became the sovereign monarch of Hastinpura. But with the progress of years new matters and
episodes, relating to the various aspects of human life,.
social, bconomic, political, moral and religious as
also fragments of other heroic legends and legends
containing reference to famous kings, came to be
added to the aforesaid nucleus and this phenomenon
probably continued for centuries dll in the early part
of the Christian era the Epic gathered its Present
shape which is said to contain a hundred thousand
r,erses. It is, therefore, that the Mahabharatu has
been described not only as a heroic poem, but also
as a 'repertory of the whole of the o1d bard poetry'.
The Epic in its present form is divided into eighteen
booksr with a supplement called the Hariaarhia.
1
The eighteen books which are known as Partdn are the following:
di, SabitA, Vana, Vir(a, Udyoga, Bhiqma, Drolta, Karrya,
Salya,
the Grta
Bhlsruaparaan and contains eighteen sections. The
Gita is a simplification in verse of the general doctrines in Hindu philosophy and is a book specially
meant for trhe dwellers of the society rather than for
one who has renounced it. The boot is no doubt one
of the finest fruits of Indian philosophy and
has
gained world-wide recognition in the hands of philosophers. The theme of this book is the advice, given
by KrsT'a tor consoling depressed Arjuna, mainly
dwelling on the doctrines of karman, jfrana and
bhakti.
The Ctn has been widely read and admired lot An" o[
many centuries past, ever since AIbernI spoke highly ci'ta
of it. According to Winternitz it is the sacred book
of the Bhgavatas, a Vaisnava sect which as early as
the beginning of the second century s.c. had found
adherence even among the Greeks in Gandhara.
Indian scholars like Telang and Bhandarkar hold that
tine Ga was composed not later than the fourth
century B.c. Its language, style and metre prove
that the poem is one of the earliest parts of the
Mahabharata.
There is a fantastic theory of Christian influence on Christian
r.he Gxfi attempted by F. Lorinser. It is held that the influence
author of the^ Grta'not only knew and frequendy on Git
utilized the Scripture of the New Testament, but also
wove into his system the Christian ideas and views in
general. This view has been discarded on the ground
Sauftike, Strl, nti, Anu!sana, h-taruedhiha, lramaadsiha,
h a ni k a and Suo r g ro h an k a.
sa y a, It[a h a p ra
It is not de{initely known whether this division into eighteen books
is purely traditional, there being a somewhat difierent form of division as surmised from the writings of Albernl
Mai
sI
34
that the doctrine of bhakti in Indian literature
Harivarhda
Authorship
T'IIE GREAT
is
found earlier than the Christian era and that 't]ne Gtta
was composed at least two hundred years before the
birth of Christ.
The Harivatua is regarded as a suPplement or
appendix (hhila) to the Mahabharatu b:ut the connexion b.t*een the two is purely external and is limited
essentially to the fact t6at the same Vaiamp1'a1a i1
the speaker in both. Tlne Hariaarh.Sa wlnidn is a work of
16,3'i4 verses does not appear to have beeh composed
by a single author. It is, in fact, a jumbled mass of
texts. Itionsists of three sections, namely, Hariaamlaparuan containing geneology of Hari, Visnupar.uan
ealing almost exilusively with Krsla and Bhaaisya'
a loose collection of Purpa texts.
paraan,
"
In spite of all the diverse elements of which the
Mahabharala consists, the poem is regarded by the
Indians as a unified work complete in itself. The
author is the sage Krsfa Dvaipyana, also called
Vysa. , The story runs that the sage imparted the
work to his pupil Vaidampyana who recited the
whole poem irthe intervals of the great snake-sacrifice
of King Janamejaya. On the occasion it was heard
by Sut Ugradravas, son of sage T'omaharsala. The
pi"r.rrt text of the Mahabharata is r'vhat Suta lJgra.(rurru, narrated in the assembly of sages at the tv;elveyearly sacrifice of Saunaka in the forest of Nimisa.
Thus Ugradravas is the reciter of the outline story
u,hile in th" po.* itself Vaiampyana is the speaker.
Within the narrative of Vai6ampyana numerous
inserted stories are Put in the mouth of different
persons and it must be remembered that such inseriion of stories within stories is a very common device
in Indian literature. A
EPICS
carelul study of the
35
above
[acts will suggesr the gradual growth oi the Epic from

a smaller poem to its present extent and thus convince
us of the truth of rhe conrention that the work is not
from the pen of a single author or even a careful

compiler. It is maintained by Winternitz that 'un-
poetical theologicians and commentators and clumsy

copyists have succeeded in conglomerating into a
heterogenous mass parts which are really incompatible
and r,vhich date from different cenruries'. But the
very fact that the hlahabharata represents a whole
literature and should not be looked upon as a single
unified poetic production has made it a valuable
record enabling us to gain 'an insight into the deepest
depths of the soul of the Indian people'.
It is extremely difficult for us to separate at this Three
,distant date the chaff from the rea1. llowever. in stages of
the {irst book of the'Mahabharata there is , ,ru,"il"r., theEpic
that at one time the Epic contained 24,000 verses
while in another conrexr we find that it consisted of
8,800 verses. These statements may dêfinite1y lead
one to conclude that the Epic had undergone three
principal stages of developrnent before it assumed its
present form.
trt is impossible to give in one line the exact date Age
of the Mahabharata. To determine the date of the
Mqhabharaia we should determine the date of every
part of this Epic. In the Vedas there is no mention
of the incident of the great Kurukserra battle. In
the Brhmanas, however, the holy Kuru-field is described as a place of pilgrimage where gods and
mortals celebrated lrig sacrificial feasrs. We also
find the names of Jaiamejaya and Bharata in the
36
Brhmanas. So also the name of Panksit as a ruler

of Kuru-land is found in the Atharuaueda. We find
frequent mention of the Kurus and the Pficlas in
the Yajuraeda. The Kathakasamhita mentions the
name of Dhrtarstra, son of Vicitravrrya. In the
Sankhyayana-irautastra we find the mention of a
war in Kuru-land which was fatal for the Kauravas.
But the names of the Pldavas do not occur therein.
Tlne Grhyastra of Avalyana gives the names of
Bhrata and Mahabharata in a list of teachers and
books. Pa+ini gives us the derivation of the words
Yudhisthira, Bhlma and Vidura and the accent of
the compotnd l\.fahabharata. Patafijali is the first to
make definite allusions to the story of the battle
between the Kauravas and the Pndavas. Although
the Buddhist Tipi,taka cloes not mention the name of
tance with it.
Moreover, it is proved by literary and inscriptional
andinscrip- evidence that already about e.n. 500, the Mahabhdrata
tional
:'::,:- was no rlonger an actual Epic but a sacred book and
a religious discourse. It was on the whole essentially
different from the trpic as it is found today,
Kumrilabhatta quotes passages from the Maha, bharata and regards it as a Smrti work. Both
Subandhu and Bla knew it as a great work of artl
and Bna alludes to a recital of the Mahbharata.z
It must be admitted on all hands that though an Epic
Mahabharata did not exist in the time of the Vedas,
single myths, legends and poems included in the
Makabharatu reach back to the Vedic period. The
Literary
1VAs. p. 37 &. Har. p. 2.
'zKad.
p.
104.
THE GREAT
EPICS
37
Mahabharatu lnas also drawn many moral narratives

and stories of saints from its contemporary 'asceticpoetry'. An trpic Mahabharata, however, did not
exist in the fourth century n.c., and the transforma'
tion of the trpic Mahabharatu into our present compilation probably took place between the fourth
century s.c. and the fourth century a.o. In the fourth
aentury A.D., the work was available in its present
xtent, contents and character, though small alterations and additions might have continued even in
later centuries.
To the strictly orthodox Indian mind, tk,e Ran+a-TwoEpics:
yana appears to have been composed earlier than the which is
Mahabharata. Indians believe ihat bf the two incar- earlier?
nations of the Lord, Rma and Krsla, the formet
was born earlier. Western critics do not attach any
importance to this belief, for it is argued by them
that the hero of the genuine portion of the Ramd,yana
which is older, does not appear as an incarnation but
as an ordinary mortal hero.l Professor Jacobi also
thinks that of the two poems, thc Ramyana is tlne
earlier production; and he bases his theory on the
supposition-that it is the influence of the Ramd.yana
which has moulded the Mahabharatu into a poetic
form.2
That the Ramayana is earlier than dne Mahabhrata may be proved on the strength of the following points. The Vanalamsan of the Mahabharata
contains references to the Rma story while no such
1
There are a few passage in the genuine books, e.g.,. the one. in
Bk. VI. where Srt eiters-into the pyre, wherein Rm is described
as a clivine being. Critics feel no hitation in calling such passages
i n Lerpo'la tions.
'ccording to Mr Hopkins, the P'd,lr't|rand as an art-product is
later than the Mahbhdrata. (Cambridge Histor!, I. p. 251)
38
HrsroRy oF cLASSrco"
"ot"**rr
LTTERATURE
reference to the lVlahabharatan storv is to be found in

the Ramayana. Again, the hlaiabharata contains
reference to the burning of widows as evinced in the
story of Mdn's satidaha. But nothing akin to it is

found in the Ramyana. From the references of
Megasthenes we come to knw that the practice of
burning of widows was in vogue in the third century
B,c. In the Vedic period such a sysrem was unknown
in this country. Further, Pataliputra is mentioned
as a city in the Mahabharata which according to
h{egasthenes was founded by Kaladoka in the fourth
century 8.c.. But it is interestin.to note that rhis
rmportant city is not mentioned in tt-.e Ramayana
though many cities of lesser importance and some of
them again very close to Pataliputra have been alluded
to. Furthermore, the territories occupied by the
Aryans in the age of the Ramayana appear to be
much more limited than the Aryan-occupied territories in the Mahabharata. But Winternitz does not
attach any real importance to this theory and criticizes it by saying that the Mahabharata) eyerr in its
present form, retains several characteristics of older
poetry while the poem of Valmiki reveals such peculiarities as would place him nearer to rhe age of
Court-epics. Thus it is asserted by Winternitz that
the Ramyana appeats to be an ornate poem having
served as the patrern to which. later Indian poets
admiringly aspired; What Winternitz means by
ornate poetry is that kind of poeric composition in
which greater importance is attached to the form
than to the matter and contents of the poem and in
which literary embellishmenrs are profusely used even
to excess. The Ramayana is the first literary lvork in
THE GREAT
EPICS
39
which the aforesaid peculiarities of ornate poetry are

found. These peculiarities, however, are not Present
in the Mahabharata which is, ther-efore, presumed to
be the earlier composition. Again, it has been pointed
out that such expressions like 'Bhrsma spake,'
'Safijaya spake' which the poet of the Mah,abhararu,
uses to introduce a character, are reminiscent of
ancient ballad poetry.l But in the Rmayana tlne
speeches are introduced in verses and therefore in a
rnore polished form. The theory of Professor Jacobi
may be further contested on the ground that from a
perusal of the two Epics, the reader will unmistakably
arry the impression that while tine Mahabharata
describes a more war-like age, the Ramayana depicts
a comparatively refined civilization.
REFERENCES
Bhandarkar, R. G.: On the Mahdbhsrata (IA. Vol. I)

Goldstcker, T.: The MahbhPrata
Hopkins, E. W.: The Great Epics of India
A. A.: A History of Sanskrit Literature

SBE. Vol. VIII
Vaidy, C. Y.: Mahdbharata, a critical slurly
Webr, A.: The .History of lndian Literalure
Williams, M.: Indian Wisdom
Winternitz, M.: .4 History of lndian Literlzture, Yol. I
Mf,cdonell,
Telang,
K. T.:
l The mixture of prose with noetrv which we notice in the MahZ'

bhdrata is a fact that proves ir" airiouitv. This vierv of Professor
Oldenberg is not accepted by Dr Winiernitz.
that the Purnas mentioned in these places do not
CI]APTER II
THE PURAJAS
Tuu origin of the Purnas must'be traced to that time
of religious revolution when Buddhism was gaining
ground as a formidable foe of Brahmalic cukure.
r.ut d.evotees of Brhmalic religion *"r" anxious
for the preservation of the oid relicJ of Hindu cuhure,
and Vysa, the great compiler, the greatest man of
'his time, was born to meet the demand of the age.
The most important point to be remembered in this
rconnexion, is that the entire Vedic culrure lies at the
background of the age of Buddhism and the Purnas.
Ag.
ft was at one time believed by European scholars
that not one of the eighteen Purnas is earlier than
the eleventh century a.o. But this belief has been
discarded on the discovery of a manuscript of the
Skandapurana in Nepal written in the sixth century
A.D. Further, Baf abhatta in his Harsacarita mentions
that he once attended a recitation of tine Vayupurana.
Kumrila (a.n. 750) regards the Purnas as the sources
of law. Sankara (ninth cenrury a.o.) and Ramanuja
(eleventh century a.o.) refer to the Purnas as sacred
texts for their dependence on the Vedas. The famous
traveller Albcruni (a.o. 1030) also gives us a list of
the eighteen Purnas.
Antiquity
The word Purna means 'old narrative'. In the
Atharaatseda (xi. 7.24), the Brhma\as (Satapatha and
Gopatha), the Upanisads (e.g., Brhadaranyaka, li. 4.
l0) and the Buddhist texts, the word is found to be
used in connexion with Itihasa. Some scholars hold
fntroduction
refer to the works we have before us. But the refernces found in the Dharmastras of Gautama and
Apastamba (works belonging in all probability to the
fifth or the fourth century n.c.) suggest that there
were at that early period works resembling our
Purlas. The close relationship between the Maha,bharata and the Purnas is another point in support
of the antiquity of the la:ter. The Mahabharata
mrhich calls itself a Purna, has the general character
of the latter, and it is not highly
improbable that
some integral parts of the Purnas are older than the

present redaction of the Mahabharata. The Lalita-
aistara not only calls itself a Purqa but has also

puch in common with the Furnas. The Vayupurarya
is quoted litera1ly by the HariuamSa. The genealogical survey of all the Purnas reveals the fact that they
generally stop with the accounts of the Andhra
Bhrtya and Gupta kings and that later kings like
Harsa are not mentioned. So it may be suggested
that the Purnas were written during the rule of the
Gupta kings. On the other hand, the striking resem:
"blance between the Buddhist Mahayana texts of the
first century A.D. and the Purnas, suggests the fact
that the latter were written early in the beginnings
of the Christian era. The characteristics of the
Purr,ras are also found in books like the Saddharmapundarr.ha and the Mahauastu. Dr Winternitz has,
however, concluded that the earlier Purnas must
have come into being before the seventh century A.D.
But it may be pointed out that the worship of Siva
and Vislu referred to in quite a good number of
Purnas reach back to the pre-Christian era, if not the
42
trVas
there
one
original
Purna?
HISToRY oF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
pre-Buddhist age. The Purlas are by no means

'quite modern'.
It is quite interesting to note that some of the
important Purnas, e.g., the Vayu, dne Brahmor.rdo,
the Visnu and others, speak .of one original Purna.
sarirhita which was compiled by Vysa and imparted
by him to his disciple, Lomaharsana, rhe Sra. The
theory of the existence of one original Purna which
,was supported
bv such scholars as A.
A. Blan and F. E. Pargiter,
Character
T. Jackson,
appears to point ro the
N,I.
earliest Vedic age when the Vedic Indians \,yere still

undivided and consequentiy the Paurr.:ic heritage
was the same. As time went on and the population
increased, the Vedic Indians could no longer remain
undivided and with their division into groups and
their movement inro different territories scriptural,
cultural, traditional and ritualistic unity could not be
preserved. Ilence in course of years the same PaurTic
heritage was remodelled which ultimately resulted in
the emergence of different PurTas. With the progress of time there were changes in ideas and beliefs,
in the modes of living and thought as also in the
enyironments and this explains *hy the PurlaSarhhita \\ias recast from time to time. It is, therefore, understandable that the Purnas do not possess
a stable character.
Extreme paucity of information leaves us in
absolute darkness as to the character and contents of
the ancient Paurrlic rvorks, none of which, it is presumed, has come down to us in its original form"
The noted Sanskrit lexicographer, Amarasirhha, gives
us a definition of Purnas which has been repeated
in sorne of the extant Paurnic texts. According to
,*":1
Amarasirhha, every;:i" ,i)lio 0,,.,,, o*

(i) s ar ga-creation, (it) pr atis ar ga-the periodical annihilation and renewal of the world, (tri') aama-genealogy of gods and sages, (iv) manuantara-the Manuperiods of time i.e., the great periods each of which
has a Manu (primal ancestor of the human race) as
its ruler, and (v) aafitanucarita-the history of the
dynasties the origin of r,vhich is traced ro the Sun and
the X4oon. But all these fi.lre characteristics are not
present in every Purna, and though in some they are
partially present, we notice a wide diversity of topics
in them. Thus lve find many chapters dealing with
the duties of the four castes and of the four |ramas,
sections on Brhmalical rites, on particular ceremonies and feasts and frequently also chapters on
Sankhya and Yoga philosophy. But rhe most striking
peculiarity of ai1 the Purnas is their sectarian
character as they are dedicated to the cult of some
deity who is treated as the principal God in the book.
So we come across a Purna dedicated to Vislu,
another to Siva and so on.
Unique is the importance of the Purnas from the Value.
standpoint of history and religion. The genealogical
survey of the Purnas is immensely helpful for the
study of political history in ancient India, and yet it
is a task for the scholar to glean germs of Indian
history, hidden in the Furnas. Dr Smith says that
the Visnupurana gives us invaluable informations
about the Maurya dynasty. The Matsyapurana is
most dependable in so far as the Andhra dynasty is
concerned, while the Vayupurana gives us detailed
descriptions about the reign of Candragupta I. As
the object of the Purnas was to popularize the more
4+
rss punNas
difficult and highly philosophical preaching of the

Vedas through the medium of historical facts and
tales, we naturally find in them Hinduism in a ful1y
developed form. So the student of religion cannot
pass it by. The Purr,ras are not also wanting in
literary merit, and they abound'in numerous
which speak of the highiy artistic taient
passages
of
their
makers.
Name and
number
The Purnas or the Mah-purnas, as we have

them todaf , are eighteen in number, and there are
also minor Pur4as (Upa-purlas) which a1l again
number eighteen. The eighteen Maha-purqas are
(l) Brahma, (2) Padma, (3) Visnu, (4) Siaa, (5)
Bhagauata, (6) Naradryo, (7) Mrh.andeyo, (B) Agni,
(9) Bhaaisya or Bhaaisyat, (10) Brahmaaaiuarta, (11)
Linga, (12) Varaha, (13) Skanda, (14) Vamana, (15)
Krma, (16) Matsya, (17) Garuda and (18) Brahmar.rda.
The above-mentioned eighteen Purnas are classified
from the standpoint of the three cosmic qualities
(guryo), viz., sattaa, rajas and tamas. Th. Purr.ras
generally exalting Vis,,ru are called sattaika, those
exalting Brahm are called rdjasa, while those exalting
Siva are called tamasa. The Purlas so classified are
'.
Classifica-
tion of
Purnas
as follows
(o) Sattvika Purnas : Visnu, Bhugaaata, I'l'ara'

dlya, Garuda, Padma and Varaha.
(b) Rajasa Purnas: Brahma, Brahmanda,
Brahmauaiaarta, IVlarh,andeya, Bhaui.sya
and Vamona.
(c) Tmasa Pur4as: Siaa, Linga, Skanda, Agni,
Matsya and Krma.
45
The Bhagavata Purrla is unquestionably the most The

famous work of Fur?a literature. Innumerabls Bhgavata
rnanuscripts and prints of the text itself as well u. of P"lu
many cornmentaries thereon in addition to the many
tlanslations into Indian ianguages bear eloquent
testimony to rhe popularity and reputation of the
work. It is regarded by the adherents of the Vaislava
cult as the 'fifth Veda'. Its artistic excellence is widely
admired and it is believed by Indians that real scholarship is tested by one's proficiency in this Purna.
The Purla which bears the stamp of a unified
composition consists of 18,000 stanzas divided into
twelve books (sbandhas). l-he tenth book concerns
itself with an account of the various activities of
Lord KrsTa including the exquisire love-scenes with
the milk-maids. It is quite interesting to note here
that the name Radha, so popular among the Vaisrlavas
of Bengal in particular, does nor appear in the Bhagavata Purna.
According to Pargiter the PurTa was writren sometime in the ninth century A.D.
The DeaVmahatmya which is popularly known as Devrthe 'CaryQr' or the 'saptaiati', is a section of the mhtmya
MarkaryQeyapurana. According to Dr Winternitz, its
date is not later than the sixth century A.D. The
book which contains thirteen chapters and seven
hundred mantras, is a glorification of the Primal
Energy (dya Sahti) who descends amongsr all
created beings from time ro time to rid the worlds of
their pestilence and killed in the past rhe demons
Madhu-Kaitabha, Mahissura, Sumbha and Nidumbha
others. The book is recited in many
-among
religious functions of the Hindus.
46
Name
&
llTbtt
;J".
of
The eighteen Upa-purlas r,vhich have been told

by diflerent sages are :
{) Sanatkrinoro, (2) Narasimha, (3) Veyu, (+) Siaadharma, (5) carya, (6) Narada, (7) the two Nandikeiaaras, (B) Uianas, (9) Kapila, (10) Vo.runa, (ll)
Samba, (121 Kaliha, (i3) Mahe'|uara, (14) Kalbi, (15)
Devt, (16) Paraiara, (17) Maruci and (18) Bhashara or
S rya.l
REFERENCES
Bhandarkar, R. G.: ,4 Peep into the Early History of lndia (JBRAS,

VoI. XX, 1900)
Pargiter, F. E.: ERE., Vol. X, 1918

Rapson, E. J.: Cambridge History, Yol. I
Wilson, H, H.: .Essa)s on Sanskrit Literature
'Winternitz,
M.: ,4 History of Indian Literature, Yot. I
CHAPTER
III
THE TANTRAS
THn expression Tantra which is a generic name for 1,4gnnir*,
works belonging to 'Agama', 'Tantra' and 'samhit', contents
refers to theological tratises discussing the codes of :l1ilt.in""ot
discipline and riorship among differen? sects of ,.li.gion along with their metaphysical and mystical
points of view. A complete Tanrra generally consisrs
of four parts, the themes treated of being (i) knowledge (jana), (ii) meditation (yoga), (iii) action (kriya)
and (iv) conducr (carya). Though it is not possible
to draw any special line of demarcation among
Agama, Tantra .and Sarhhit, still it is usual to refer
to the sacred books of the Saivas by the expression
Agama,l while Tantra stands for the sacred iiterature
of the Saktas and Sarhhit for that of the Vais?avas.
The Sakta-Tantras are mainly monistic in characrer,
the Vaislava-Tanrras generally advocate dualism, or qualified monism. The Saiva-Tantras are
divided into three schools of monism, qualified
monism and dualism. It is descrii,-ed that under
instruction fro,n iva, the sage Durvsas divided a1l
the Saiva-Tantras into three classes and charged his
three mind-born sons, Tryambaka, Amardaka and
Sr-rntha with the mission of spreading the knowledge
of the Agamas he taught rh. It ?u, Tryambaf,a
who propagated monism.
r,vhile
The above list of Upa-purnas given by R.aghunandana is taken
from the Sabdahalpadruma. Hemdri gives a different list.
1A distinction is made between Agama and Nigama-in the former,

Prvatr asks questions like a disciple-while siva answers
tirem like a precepror ; in the latter the reveise is the case.
goddess_
48
Relation to
Vedic
literature
HISTORY oF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE.
The Tantras came to replace the Vedas when in

later times it was found that performance of a sacrifice
according to Vedic rites was practically impossible
owing to their rigid orthodoxy. Thus the Tantras
prescribe easier and less complicated methods which
would suit not only the higher classes but also the
Sdras and the feminine folk of the society who had
no access to Vedic ceremonies. It would, therefore"
not be wise to think that Tantric literature is oppgsed
to Vedic literature, and this point would be made
abundantly clear when it is found that the rigidly

orthodox Vedic scholars write original works and
commentaries on Tantras.
Character
The Tantras have been classified into Vedic and
non-Vedic in so far as the authority of the Vedas is
recognized or denied in them. The Saiva, Sakta and
Vaislava Tantras are regarded as Vedic while the,
Buddhist and Jain Tantras are regarded as nonVedic. In some of the Tantras there is full-throated
i,ilification of the Vedas. Some affinity of the Tanrras
with the Purnas is discernible in so far as the contents are concerned.
The earliest manuscripts of Tantras date from the
Antiquity
seventh to the ninth century a.o., and it is probable
that the literature dates back to the fifth or the sixth
century a.o., if not earlier. We do not find any
reference to a Tantra in dne Mahqbharata. The
Chinese pilgrims also do nor mention it. It ir"
indeed, certain that Tantric doctrine peneffated into,
Buddhisrn in the seventh and eighth centuries a.o.
The worship oI Durg may be traced back even to
the Vedic period.
IIome
The home of Agamic literature seems to be
THE
TANTRAS
49
Kshmir, while that of Tantric lirerarure is Bengal.

Sarirhita literature, as it is known, originated'in
different parts of India, in Bengal, Southlndia and
the Siamese countrv.
Am.ong works b6longing to Agamic lirerature rhe Works on
mgs!
Agama
Pportant are the following:M
ii a y a, S u ac c han d a, V ij frana b h air aa a, (J c c h u_
?l.i?uv
smabhairaua, na.ndabhairatsa, Mrgenclra, i,[atanga,
Ne
!ry, N ai 3v a a, Sa ay a m b hua a and." Ru d.r ay a rm al a.'
Closely associated with Agamic literatur. i, prutyr_
.Works on
bhijfi literature which
999upies an importarrt pri.. i;;,y"in the history of Indian nfrllosoptry. The pratyuUllrra bhijflschool is based on the Monistic Saiva Tantras. " A
good account of the teachers of this school is to be
found in the closing chapter of the Siaadrsti of Som_
s
nandantha, rhe great-grnd-reacher of Abinavagupra
and nineteenth
descendant of Tryambaka," ih"

founder of the Advaita Saiva school. Somnandantha
belonged ro rhe ninth century a.o. (a.o. 850_900). His
p.ypil, U-tpaia (a.o. 900-950) wrote tine fratya::1.ill
bhijnakarileas. The most o,rtrturrirrg writer of ih.
school was rhe grear Abhinavagupta (o.o. 993_1015)
whose magnum opus was the Tiniraloia. Abhinava
was a most prolific writer and some of his other
rmporrant works are the MalinVuijayottaraaarttika,
PratyabhijauimariinV, Tantralol?a, Tantrasara and
Paramarthasara. Another important work of this
t..h?:l.is the Protyabhijnahrctaya of Ksemarja, pupil
of Abhinavagupra.
Among works belorrging to Sarhhita literature the y,r61p.
most imporrant is the hirbudhnyasafiihita which so.iriritao1
was composed in Kashmir in the hfth ..rrtrry A.D.
fSuarasari,thita, Pauskarasarhhin, poro*orokhitA,
+
50
'Works on
Tantra
Sattaatasamhita, Brhad,brahmasamkitA and land'

mrtasarasanhita are other weli-known works of this
branch of Sanskrit literature.
Among works belonging to Tantra literature, mention may be made of the following: Mahaniruana, Kularnaaa, Kulacdamani, Prapafr''
casara (ascribed to the phiiosopher Sankara), T.antraraja, K'alnailasa, ! anarnaua, Saradaillaha, V ariaasya,ihoryo (of Bhaskara), Tantrasd'ra (of Krslnanda)
and Pranatosirli..
REFERENCES
A.: Tantrih Texts

Charterii, [. C.: Kashmir Shaiuisnt
wi"i.iiiirl M.: A History of Indian Literaturc., Yol' I
P;;;;;-f.' C.',' ain;i"inglptoz An Historicat and Phitosophicat
Avalon,
Stud Y.
CHAPTER IV
POST-EPIC KAVYA
bharata, are undoubtedly the pi".or.o., o{ Sanskrit
Kavya lirerature and it is futile ro trace back the
origin of the latter to the distant Vedic hy*r. ,rrd
discover. its prbtotype in the Nrdarhsl and
Dnastuti
panegyncs, in the
in
the
magni!y-.rr,
ficent description-s offiTl?d,
Vedic god, ,rrj goddesses oro in
the legends and g"o-*i. sranzas ocurring
in the
Brhma?as.
Some scholars have suggested"that the
Ppi.r or rhe Kavyas -were origiruliy" .omposed in
Pr.krit and subsequenrly rend.rd inio Sankrit
and
ther_suggestion is based on the fact that all inscrip_
tionai writing. i1th.e period preceding the Christijn
e1'a was done in Prakrii. But-it ha, nt
been possible
for these scholars to furnish any reTiable evidince in
lrpport of the existence of ctua1 prakrit wbrks

during the period. And even if it be assumed for
the
sake of argument that prkrit works were in exisrence
at that time, the co-existence of a Sanskrit literature
in sorne form can never be denied. Further, it is
extremely difficult to prove that the Sanskrit litera_
ture was derived from the prkrit lirerature, if indeed
the latter preceded, ir. It rnay be quite possible
rfat
secular literature in prkrit, rch ,,
â-popular
the folk-tale,
existed, but we have every reason to
llelieve that there existed a more aristocraiic literature
in Sanskrit which might nor have been in the Bhasa of
Pos'r-Eprc
52
it
and current among

Plini but
the rhapsodes and theii patrons' and of this literature
the two Great Epics are-the most outstanding.t"ott:
ments. The tw Epics ^possess such linguistic and
of
was certainly close to
literary peculiaritie. ,t preclude the theory

Prakrii riginals and may be ^traced' in unasPects of Vedic language
broken tradiiion to certain
can be assumed that the

Epics weld originally written in Sanskrit' the
*'igirrolity of Clsicai Sanskrit literature is assured
or!" fo, 11, fot from the Epics a direct development
leads to the Kvya. As we have said before' the
Ramyana is the'first Kvya for it is impossible to'
J.ny io Valmiki the comdand of literary art' - It is
*orihy of notice here that though the Ramayarya
attests the development of the Kvya style, the 9t\er
Epic affords no vidence comPlrable to that of the
ia*ayono, in spite of the fact-that it has afforded to
Iut", 'po.t. ,rrd dramatists almost inexhaustible
material for their labours.
Direct and reliable evidence of the production of
secular Sanskrit literature in its various phases is
furnished by the testimony of Patafijali's Mahabhasya. Besides mentioning a Var.qruca Kauya now
lo.t'io us, Patafijali refers to poetic license and-aPPears
to know -ruriou, forms of Kvya literature' Thus he
knows the Bhratan epic, refers to professional reciters
(Cranthikas) and *.ritiorx us many as three akhyyiia*, Vasaiatlatta, Sumanottara and Bhaimaratht"
There iq aiso a reference to two other works' the
Katnsaaaclha atd' tne Yaliaadha, probably dramatic
compositions. And what is more interesting is that
the'Mahabhasya Preserves a few quotations, mostly
and literature. And
if it
rvye
53
metrical yet fragmentary. in which one can find

eulogistic, erotic or gnomic themes in the approved
(3rrya-style. The allusions to such proverbial tales as
that of the goat and the razor, of the crow and the
palm fruit and the like are suggestive of the exisrence
o{ the material which in later times gave rise to
beast-fab1es.
The evidence of Patafljali is corroborated by

Pingala, author of the Chandassutra wlnidn though
essentially a Vedanga is mainly confined ro the
exposition of secular prosody. The author is sometimes identified with Pataffjali but the aspect of
his work suggests considerable age. Many of the
metres described in the book are certainly not derived
from the Kavya literature which has come down to
us. They suggest a period of transition in which the
authors of the erotic lyric were trying experiments in
metrical effect. It is quite interesting to note that
the names of the metres can be explained as epithets
of the beloved. It needs. to be said here that despite
the facts stated above we have no definite knowiedge
of the growth and development of Kavya during the
second century s.c. and the first century a.o. as it is
not possible for us to assign any of rhe extant Kvyas
to this period. . What we can say with confidence is
that the facts stated above warrant us in drawing the
conclusion that a strong school of lyric poerry existed
about the Christian era and probably much earlier.
r<Avve rN
TNSCRTPTToNS
55
study and development of Sanskrit Kavya was never

impeded.
CHAPTER V
KAVYA IN INSCRIPTIONS
Renaissance
theory
Eenlv in the beginnings of' Sanskritic studies in

Europe, Professor Max M1ler propounded the theory
of the 'Renaissance of Sanskrit literature', which
remained highly popular for a considerable length of
time. 'Ihis theor), set forth with much profundity,
sought to establish that Brhmalic culture passed
through its dark age at the time when India was

continuously facing foreign invasions. The earliest
revival of this culture is to be found in the reign of
the Guptas which is a golden page in the annals of
Indian culture. In spite of all its ingenuity the
theory has been generally discarded by the epigraphical and literary researches of Bhler, Kielhorn and
Fleet. Bhler's detailed examination of the evidence
borne out by the early inscriptions ranging from the
second to the fifth century A.D. not only proved the
existence during these centuries of a highly elaborate
body of Sanskrit prose and verse in the Kavya style
but it also raised -the presumption that most of the
Pradasti writers were acquainted with some theory of
polti.c art.IfMax Nfller_suggested a decline of literary
activity on account of the ir.rvasions of the Sakas, it
is now authoritatively gathered that the Western
Ksatrapas or Satraps of Saka origin were not great
destrovers, on the contrary they patronized Indian art
and religion and Sanskrit as the epigraphical language
as early as ,r.o. 150. It is defrnitely known that the
inscription oI Rudradman at Girnr Girnr

e.n.
dated
J50, is written in prose in the fuli-fledged inscription
Kavya style in strict conformity with the rules of
grammar. Though traces of epic licence can be
found in the inscription, still the writer is a gifted
master in the use of figures of speech. As an example
of alliteration may be cited the phrase 'abhya'
stanamno Rudradamno'. Though there are long
compounds still the clearness and the lucidity of the
style is nowhere forsaken. What is more significant
is that the author is conversant with the science of
poetics and discusses the merits attributed by Dandin
to the Vaidarbha styie.
Still another inscription which is derivable from a i{asik
record of Siri Pulumyi at Nasik is written in Prkrit inscription
prose. The date of this inscription is not far removed
from the former. The author who is undoubtedly
familiar with Sanskrit, uses enormous sentences with
long compounds. Alliterations and even mannerisms
of later Kavyas are found in this inscription.
Yet another inscription, the famous Allahabad Stone Atlahabad
Pillar inscription, containing Harisena's panegyric sf inscription
Samudragupta, presents many points of close touch
with the Kvya literature and proves that court-poetry
was assiduously cultivated in the fourth century A.D.
The panegyric. consisting of^nine yerses and a.long
prose passage is a kind of Camp. Harisela introduces too often a change of metre in his verses, which
are very simple and free from long compounds. So
I'ar as the prose passage is concerned simple words
are not used and there are very long compounds,
i-h,l, the
56
The contrast is not accidental but

inasmuch as works on poetics are
intentional
unanimous
that th essence of good prose consists in the length
of compounds. Ilarisena undoubtedly follows the
Vaidarbha style. IIe uses the simplest pattern of
alliteration in the prose comppsition only, and that
not many times. He uses figures of sense no
doubt but he does not direct his attention so much
to the use of poetic embellishments as to the fine
execution of the pictures of the several situations
described and to the selection of suitable words and
their arrangement. In Harise"l,a's poetic imagery one
comes across many a conception which is very familiar
in the Kavya literature. Thus the favourite allegory of
the eternal discord between the Goddess of Learning
and the Goddess of Wealth is an instance in point.
The prose portion of the panegyric reveals the poet's
effort at surpassing his rivals in the art of composition
of Pradastis. In sholt, Harisela's panegyric entitles
him to be ranked with Kalidsa and Dandin.
Vatsabhatti's wholly metrical panegyric in forty four
Mandasor
inscription stanzas about the Sun-temple at Mandasor is another
instance to show that Kvya literature was zealously
cultivated in India in the fifth century A.D. A study
of the panegyric reveals the fact that the poet has
conformed to the rules of Sanskrit poetics and metre.
The eagerness with which the author takes advantage
of every little circumstances to bring in poetic details
and descriptions cannot but suggest that he tries his
best to make his composition resemble a Mahakavya.
The science of rhetoric prescribes that a Mahakavya
should contain descriptions of cities, mountains,
oceans, seasons and the like. The description of the
I<AVYA IN INSCRIPTIONS
57
citv of Daapura in nine glorious verses and of the

two seasons of winter and spring each in two verses,
should be read in this connexion. And an examinaProYe the degree of
trouble the poet has taken to comPose the verses. Vatsa-
tion of the metres and style would
bhatti's diction bears the stamp of the poets of the

Gauda school. FIe uses long compounds and allows
a mixtrire of soft and hard-sounding syllables in the
same line. It is suggested that there are sufficient
traces to prove that the poet tries to imitate Kalidasa,
though it is admitted that the performance is
mediocre on1y. Vatsabhatti is not an original genius
but seeks with great care to compile a medley of the
classical modes of expression. Nevertheless it is
undeniable that the panegyric in form as well as in
sense strictly belongs to the domain of Sanskrit artificia1 compositions. And it will not be wrong to
conclude that in his time there existed a large number
of Kavyas which inspired his writing.
It may, therefore, be concluded that the works of ConcluAdvaghosa, the great Buddhist poet, are not ,1r. sions
earliest specimens of Sanskrit Kvya. There had been
a continued growth and development of Kavya literature since the beginning of the Christian era. It may
be that earlier Kvyas are now unfortunately lost to us,
rr authors like Kalidasa have completely eclipsed the
ulory of their predecessors. Thus of the three
lramatists referred to by Kalidasa, the dramas of
,nly one are now known to us.
REFERENCES
l(r'itlr, A. B.: A Histary of Sanshrit Literature

l\lrrdonell, A. A.: A History of Sanshrit Literature
Nliillcr, Max: A History of Ancient Sanshrit Literature
lliilrlcr, G.: Indian Inscriptions and the Kauya (IA., Vol. XLII).
EARLY BUDDHIST WORKS
CHAPTER VI
EARLY BUDDHIST WORKS IN SANSKRIT

THn paucity of authentic lanmarks in the domain of
early-Indian history is a stupendous stumbling block
in the gateway to the study of the history of Sanskrit
literatuie. A colossal darkness that envelops the
period of Sanskrit literature iu the beginnings of the
Christian era, makes it extremely difficulq if not
hopelessly impossible, to ascertain the age in which
a particular writer lived and wrote. The chronology of Indian literature is shrouded in such
painful obscurity that oriental scholars were 19rg
ignorant of the vast literature produced in Sanskrit
by Buddhist writers.
The thought of the Mahayana school of Buddhisrn
Buddhist
Sanskrit
was expressed in a language which was not Pali, the
literature
rich and extensive religious literature
includes
"*truoidirrurily
Burma,
but which was Partly Sanskrit
and
of
Ceylon
Mahyna
and Hrna- and partly a dialect to which Professor Senart has
yna works
given the designation Mid-Sanskrit, but which Professor
Pischel prefers to call the Gath dialect.' This literature
of the Mahayana school is called Buddhist Sanskrit
literature. But it should be mentioned in this con'
nexion that Buddhist Sanskrit literature is not synonymous with the rich literature of the Mahvna
school alone, but it has a still wider scope including
as it does the literature of the Hrnayna school as
we1l, inasmuch as the Sarvstivdins, a sect of the
Hrnayna school, possess a canon and a fairly va
Introduc-
tion
IN SANSKRIT
59
literature in Sanskrit. The Sanskrit canon, however,

is not availabie in its entirety, but its exisrence is
proved on the evidence of the several quotations from
it in such works as the Mahaaastu, the Diayaaadana
and the Lalitauistara. This Sanskrit canon shows
close affinity to the F1i canon, and it is suggested
that - both of them are but translations of some
original. canon in Magadhl, which is lost to us.
The most important work of the Hrnayna school Mah_
is the Mahaaastu, the book of the Great Events. vastu:
This Mahaaastu, a book belonging to the school o1 its date
-the Lokottaravdins, a sub-division of the Mahasanghikas, bears after the introduction the following
title: ryamahasahghikanam Lokottaraaadinaru
madhyadeiikanan pa{hena uinayaltitahasya mahaaastu adi. This may furnish us with a clue to determine the date of its composition. In order to ascertain this it has to be found out when the Lokottaravdin
sect of the Mahsnghikas sprang up. In this connexion, it would be necessary to fix the date of
Buddha's death. Scholars are divided in their opinions
as to the exact year when Buddha died. Professors
Max Ml1er and Cunningham make it 477 s.c., while
Mr Gopala Aiy,er would fix it at 483 n.c. But more
probable is Dr Smith's theory according to which
Buddha died in 487 s.c. It is said that A6oka was
crowned in 269 n.c., and that this coronation took
lrlace some two hundred and eighteen years after the
death of Buddha. But, if the account of the Southern
Iluddhists is to be believed, this year was either 544 or
.543 s.c. Now the opening lines of the fifth chapter
ol. the Mahaaalsa will throw light on the age when
60
HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SNSKRIT LITERATURE
the Mahsnghikas came into being.r There it
EARLY BUD]]HIST WORKS IN SANSKRIT
is
that during the first century after the death of

Budciha, there was but one schism among the Theras.
After this period, other schisms took place among
the preceptors. From all those sinful priests, in
number ten thousand, who had been degraded
by the Theras (who had held the second convocation) originated the schism among the preceptors called the Mahsnghika heresy. It is recorded
in this connexion that as many as eighteen schisms
arose, all of them in the course of a couple of
centuries after the death of Buddha. But the diffi-
,stated
Mahvastu:
its charac-
ter
culty is that there is no mention of the Lokottaravdin

in t'he Mahauarhsa. In the appendix of the translation of dne Mahavantsa, it has been said that the
Lokottaravdins do not appear in the tradition of the
Southern Buddhists. They are mentioned immediately
beside the Gokulikas. In Rock hill l82, the Lokottaravdins are to be found just in the place where the
Gokulikas are expected. Moreover, in two other contexts, the Gokulikas and not the Lokottaravdins are
mentioned. Thus it is better to identify the two and
in that case, the Lokottaravdins seem to have sprung
up at least in the third century B.c. That being so,
the Mahauastlr, which has t,een described as the
first work of their sect, could not have been written
later than that period.
But a fresh difficulty makes its appearance. The
Mahaaastu is not a composite whole. Different parts
of it have been composed at different periods and
I Eko 'va theravdo so divassasate ahu
I aflflcariyavd tu tato
orarh ajylsurh | | Tehi sairgrtikrehi therehi dutiyehi te I niggahit
ppabhikkh sabbe dasasahassik | | Akarhs'criyavdarh Mahsafighikanmakam I
I
61
this 'accounts for the unmethodical arrangement of

facts and ideas in the work. Besides, dne Mahaaastu
is not a piece of artistic literature. It has rightly been
called 'a labyrinth in which -" can only with an
effort, discover the thread of a coherent account of
the life of Budd,ha.' The contents are not properly
arranged and the reader comes across the repetition
of th same story, over and over again. But the
importance of the work lies in the fact that it has

pr"rr"d numerous traditions of respectable antiquity
nd versions of texts occurring in the Pali canon.
The Mahaaostu has yet another claim to importance, for in it the reader discovers a storehouse of
stories. It is a fact that nearly half of the book is
devoted to Jatakas and stories of like nature. Most
of the narratives remind us of the stories of Purqas
and the history of Brahmadatta may be cited as an
instance. To conclude,. the Mahavastlt,, though a
work of the Hinayna school, betrays some affinity
to Mahayanism. For it mentions a nttmher of Buddhas and describes Buddha's self-begottenness. Such
ideas are undoubtedly associated with the Mahyna
school of thought.
The literatuie of the Mahyna school of Bud- Lalitavisits
dhism is extremely rich. Though originally a work tara:
character'
of the Sarvstivdin school attached to the Fhnayna,
the Lalitavistara is believed to be one of the most
sacred Mahayana texts, inasmuch as it is regarded
as a Vaipuiyastra. That the work contains the
Maha-yanistic faith may easily be inferred from the
u.ry iitl" of the work which means 'the exhaustive
narrative of the sport of the Buddha.' A critical
study of the work reYeals, howevet, that it is but a
62
'redaction of an older Hlnayna text expanded'and

embellished in the sense oi rhe Mahy;na, a bioSlaphy of the Buddha, represenring the Sarvstivdin
school.' It is also a fact that the pi"r.rrt Lalitaaistara
is not the work of a single author ; it is rarher ,an
anonymous compilation in which both the old and
the young fragments have found their places., Such
being the, case, it is hardly proper to regard the work
i: ." g"9d ancienr source for the knowledge of Buddhism. The reader finds in it the gradual d&elopment
oJ the
legend in its earliest beginning.. fr"r..,
Pu-ddh1
there is hardly any significance in the staiement of
Professor Va1l6e Poussin when he savs that ,rhe
Lalitauistara represents the popular Budhism., The
book, however, is of great imprtance from the standpoint
literary history, inaimuch as it has supplied
.of
materials for Advaghosa's monumenral epii ^ the
Date of
Lalitavis-
tata:
Kern's
view
Buddhacarita.
To determine the date of composition of the work
it would be necessary- to bear in ^mind that the work
is a Vaipulyastra. In the Vaipulyastras we find
sections in a redaction of prose Toliowed by one in
verse, the latter being in substance, only a iepetition
of the former. The idiom of the prose portions is a
kind of Sanskrit ; thar of the ,r"rr.i, Gathas, a veiled
Prakrit somewhat clumsily Sanskritized as much as
the exigencies of the metre have permitted. professor
Kern thinks that the prose passages are undoubtedly
translations of a Prkrit txt into Sanskrit. Th;

questio,n, therefore, arises: why and when has the
original idiom been replaced'by Sanskrit? It is
known that in India it hlas been ih. .omrron fate of
al1 Prkrits thar they have become obsolete whilst
EARLY BUDDHIST 'WORKS IN SANSKRIT
63
the study and practice of Sanskrit have been kept up

all over the cuntr), as the common language of
science and literature, and also as a bond between
Aryans and Dravidians' Now it may be enquired
whbn Sanskrit could have regained its ascendancy.
Professor Kern suggests that it was in all probability
-ifter the council in the reign of
shortly before or
Kaniska, the great Indo-Scythian king.
Mr G. K. Nariman, in his Literary History of Nariman's
Sanskrit Buddhism, says that it is wrong to think that 111and
the Lalitauistara *u. irurrrlrted into ihin.r" in the :,"^1*"t'ott
f,rst Christian era. Moreover, he d,oubts that the
Chinese biography of Buddha, called the Phuyauking, publislied- in a.o. 300, is the second translation
of ouf present text of the Lalitaaistara. C)n the other
hand, . .uy, that a precise rendering of the Sanskrit
text was completed irr Tibetan and it was produced as
late as the fifih century A.D. It is, however, worthy of
notice that Professor Kern has taken sufficient pains
to prove that there is much that is of respectable. antiquity in the work. Taking this factor into considerat-ion- the Lalitaaistara may be assigned to some time
before the Christiafi era.
The most outstanding Buddhist writer in Sanskrit 65uris Advaghosa. Round his date hangs a veil of mystery. ghoqa: his
Dr Smi"th writes in his History of Indiu: 'In litera- date
ture, the memory of Kaniska is associated with the
names of the eminent Buddhist writers Nagarjuna,
Advaghosa and Vasumitra. Advaghosa is described
as hiving been a poet, musician, scholar, religious
.,o.rtror"riialist, and zealous Buddhist monk, orthodox
in creed, and a strict observer of discipline.' Judged
l'rom all evidences it may be concluded that Kaniska
6+
HISTORY OF CI,ASSIC,A.L SANSKRIT LITERATURE
flourished in e.n. 78. IIence Avaghosa who adorned

his court, flourished in the first century of the Christian
era.l
1
fn the chronological group generally accepted by numismatics,
the Kaniska group succeeds the Kadphises grouP. But even this
view has not the unanimous support of scholars. If, as some scholars
hold, the group of kings comprlsing Kaniska, Vsiska, Huviska and
Vsudeva precded Kadphises I, the coins of the two princes last
named should be foun together, as they are not, and those of
Khadphises II and Kaniska should not be associated, as they are.
Chief- supporters of the view stated above are Drs Fleet, Frank and
Mr Kenndv. Dr Frank lavs stress on the fact that Chinese historians as alrart from Buddhist authors make no mention of Kaniska,
But he himself answers the question when he holds that with the
year A.D. 125, the source was dried up from which the chronicler
could draw information regarding the peoples of Turkesthan.
Dr Fleet connects Kaniska's accession to the throne with the traditional Vikrama Sarhvat, beginning with the year 57 n.c. This view
has been ablv controverted bv Dr Thomas and discoveries of
Professor Marsirall totally belie iis truth. Inscriptions, coins and the'
records of Hiuen Tsang point out that Kaniska's dominion included
Gandhra. According to Chinese evidence, Kipin or Kpida-Gandhra
was not under the Kusna kings in the second half of the first
century n.c. Professors Marshall, Sten Konow, Smith and othr scholars
think that Kaniska's rule begins about e.n. 125. The evidence of Sue'
Vihr inscriptions proves that Kaniska's empire extended as far as
the Lower Indus valley; but the Jungadh inscription of Rudradman
tells us that the dominions of the Emperor included Sindhu and
Sauvrra. It is known that Rudradman lived from e.o. 130 to ,r..p..
i50. Under the circumstances, it is almost impossible to reconcile
the suzerainty of the Kus{ra King with the independence of thio
powerful satrap (cf. Suayamadhigatarh mahahstrapenama). Fronr
Kaniska's dates 3-73, Vsiska's dates 24-28, Huviska's dates 31-60;
and Vsudeva's dates 74-98 it is almost evident that Kaniska was
the oliginator of an era. But according to our evidence, no new era
began about the beginning of the second century e.o. Dr R.

C. N4azumdar is of opinion that the era started by Kaniska was thq
Kalachuri era of a.o. 248-49. But Professor Jouveau Dubreuil contencls that it is not likely that Vsuder,a's reign terminatd after 100
years from Kaniska's date of accession ; for Mathur where Vsudeva
reigned, came under the Ngas about A.D. 350. It may be further
mentioned that for the reason stated above we can hardly accept
the theory of Sir R. G. Bhandarkar who accepts t.o.278, as the date
of Kaniska's accession. According to
Professors Fergrrson, C)ldenberg,
Thomas, R. D. Banerjee, Rapson and others, Kaniska started the Saka

era commencing from A.D. 78. Professor Dubreuil cloes not
accept the view on the following grounds. !-irst,
if the view that
Kujula-kara-Kadphises and llermaois reigned aborit e.n, 50 and that

Kaniska founded the era in e.o. 78 is accepted, there remains only
twenty-eight years for the end of the reign'of kadphises I and th
entire reign of I(adphises II. But Kadphises II succeeded an octoge-
65
But very little is known of Advaghosa's personal personal

history except what is available to us from legends 31d history
what can be gathered from his works themselves. It
appears from the colophons to his works that he was a
Buddhist monk of Sketa and his mother's name was
Suvan]ksr.
The masterpiece of A6vaghosa is his Buddhacarita,
gu1trau_
the life-history of Buddha. From the account of carita

I-tsing it appears that the Buddhacarita widn which he
of tWenty-eight cantos. The
Tibetan traRslation, too, contains the same number of
cantos. But unluckily the Sanskrit rexr comprises
seventeen cantos only, of which, again, the iast four
are of dubious origin. It is said that one Amrtnanda
of the ninth century e.. added those four cantos.
Even the manuscript discovered by MM Haraprasda
Sstrin, goes as far as the middle of the fourteenth
was acquainted, consisted
canto.
it is not impossible that his reign was one of short duration. Professor Marshall says that Professor Dubreuil has discovered
at Taxila. a document whic can be placed in a.n. 79 and th-e king
it mentions was certainly not Kaniska.
But Professor H. C. Ray
'Devaputra
Chaudhuri has shown tht the title
was applicable to th
Kaniska group and nor to the earlier roup. The- bmission of a
person_al name does not prove that the first Kusla king was meant.
Secondly, Professor Dubreuil says that Professor Sten Konow has
nerian and
shown that Tibetan and Chinese documents prove that Kaniska lived
in the second century a.D. But it is not improbable that this Kaniska
is the Kaniska of the Ara inscription of the year 4l which, if referred
to the Saka era, would give a date that would fall in the second century
A.D. Po-t'iao may be one of the successors of Vsudeva I. pr-ofessors Banerjee and Smith recognize the existence of more than one
Vsudeva., Finaliy,.Professor Konow has shown that inscriptions of
the Kaniska era and. the aka era are not dated in the same manner.
The learned scholar shows that the inscriptions of Kaniska are dated in
different fashions. In the Kharosthr ins-riptions, Kaniska follows the
methocl of his aka-Pallava predecessors. On the other hand, in the
llrhmi inscriptions he follows the ancient Indian method. Is it then
impossible that he adopted a third method to suit the local condi_
tions in Western India?
66
A iritical
apprqciat10n
HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERAT.URE
The Buddhacarita is really a work of art. Unlike the

Mahauastu and the Lalitaaistara, it is a systematic treatment of the subject matter. The reader seldom comes
across a confused or incoherent description. The poet
is very cautious about the use of figures of ,speech, and
abstinence from a super-abundant employment of
figures of speech has lent special charm to the.Poem.
Besides, th presentment of the miraculous in the
Buddha legen has been done with equal moderationThus, in short, the poem is an artistic creation. An
account of the assemblrge of fair and young ladies
watching from gabled windows of high mansions the
exit of ih" toyul prince from the capital, is followed
by a vivid descripiion of how he came in contact with
the hateful speciacle of seniiity. As the ladies came
to know thai the prince was going out of the city,
they rushed to the-window, careless of girdles.falling
off irom their bodies and the poet describes their faces
as so many fu11-blown lotuses with which the palace
was decorated. The poet shows very artistic craftsmanship when he depicts how the prince overcame
the lures of sweet ladies when they attempted to win
him away from his firm resolve to deny the privileges
of this world. And the description of the famous
scene in which the prince, gazing on the undecked
bodies of fair *omen, locked in the sweet embrace of
sleep, resolved to abandon the palace, is yet P9r!:.
instnce of rare Poetic excellence. No less artistically
pathetic is the siene in which the prince takes leave
t irl. charioteer after a conversation with him which
reveals his spirit of absolute disinterestedness towards
worldly happiness. The poet is also gifted with.the
power of description and no one can forget the spirited
EARLY BUDDHIST woRKS
IN SANSKRIT
67
'
picture of the contest of Buddha against Mra and
his monstrous hosts, Evidences are also discernible :
'in the poem to show that the poet was familiar with
the doctrine of statecraft.
Advaghosa is the author of another epic, rhe Saundara.
Saundarananda, which has been discovered and edited nanda

by MM Haraprasda Ssrrin. This work in eighteen
cantos also turns upon the history of Buddha's life,
but the central theme is the history of the reciprocal
love of Sundarl and Nanda, the half-brother of

Buddha, who is initiated into the order against his
will by the latrer.
The third work of the poet is a lyrical poem of Ga+disto-
twenty-nine stanzas, the Gandtstotragtha, recons-tragth

tructed in the Sanskrir original from the Chinese by
A. von Stal-Holstein. It is in praise of the Galdl,
the Buddhist monastery gong, consisting of a long
symmetrical piece of wood, and of the religious
rnessage which its sound is supposed to carry when
,beaten with a short wooden club.
Another work of the poet is the Smralahkara,r Srrlafrwhich undoubtedly is a later production rhan ths kra
Buddhacarita, inasmuch as it quotes the latter.
It is to be regretted that the Sanskrit original
is not yet available ; what we have is only the Chinese
translation of the work. -t'his Satralankara is a collection of pious legends after the model of Jatakas and
Avadnas. This work. however, has furnished us with
a clue to the existence of dramatic literature even at
the time of Advaghosa. In the piece relating to Mra
we have the recapituiation of a drama.
1Dr Winternitz is of opinion that this work was written by
of Advaghosa, ThE work beais
the title KalpanamaryQitiha or KalpanpldhhfiihA.
Kumralta, a junior contemporary
68
Sriputraprakaraqa
MahynaSraddhotpdastra
Va;rasucl
T'here is positive evidence to show that Advaghoqa

was a dramtist as well and in this connexion reference may be made to the momentous discovery- of
the conciuding portion of a nine-act drama entitled
the Sari?utrapiakarana which treats of the conversion
of Sariputra urd hit friend Maudgalyyana. Among the
valuable manuscript treasures in palm-leaf recovered
from Turfan ther is a fragmentary manuscript in

which Professor Lders found this drama which bore
the name of Advaghosa as its author.
One more work attributed to the Poet is the
Mahayanairaddhotpadastra, a philosophical treatise
on th; basis of th Mahyna doctrine.r Herein, as
Professor L6vi remarks that the author shows himself
of
,as a profound metaphysician, as an intrepid--reviver
Buddhism'
a docirine which was intended to regenerate
It is believed that the author came of a Brhmana
family and that he was later initiated into the doctrine
of Buddhism. At first he joined the Sarvstivdin
school, and then prepared for the Mahayana. It was
at one time believethat Advaghosa was a pioneer in
the fie1cl of Mahayanism. It would, however, be wiser
to suppose that h was not the first to write a treatise
on the subject, but was a strong exponent of it. For
it is an undeniable fact that the Mahyna school grew
and developed long before Advaghosa.
Another work attributed to Advaghosa, is the
Vajrasucr,. Here the author takes up the Brhmanic
standpoint and disputes the authority of sacred texts
and tire claims of caste, and advocates the doctrine of
'According to Dr Winternitz this work
to
EARLY BUDDHIST woRKS
Advaghoga.
has been rvrongly ascribed
IN SANSKRIT
69
equality. In the Chinese Tipiraha Catalogue the work

has been ascribed to Dharmaklrti.t
Mtrcet is the mysticai name of a Buddhist- Mtrcet:
Sanskrit poet who, according to the Tibetan historian his works
Trntha, is none other than Advaghosa. According
to I-tsing, Mtrcet is the author of the Catulatakastotra and the Satapaficaiatikanamastotra, two poems
in four hundred
and one hundred and fifty verses

respectively. Fragments of the Sanskrit original of
the former have been discovered in Central Asia.
The poems show some artistic excellence. Another
work attributed to him is the Maharaja-Kanihalekha.z
Aryacandra belonging probably to the same period Arvacanas that of Mtrcet, is known as the author of the $1a:
Mairreyaayakaiana or rhe Maitreyasamiti wihicin in m:il?r\-,
the'form of a dialogue between Gotama Buddha and '
Sariputra. The work, translated into various languages, seems to have been very popular.
Very well-known is the name of the poet Arya6ra, 61y2661a;
the author of the popular Jatakamala, written after the Jatuhamodel of the Stul;nhara. Among the frescoe s in dne *dld
caves of Ajanta, th'ere are scenes from the latakamala
with inscribed strophes from Arya6ra. The inscriptions belong to the sixth century A.D. ; but as another
work of the poet was translated into Chinese in
e.. 434, he must have lived in the fourth century A.D.
The Buddhist Sanskrit literature belonging purely Saddharto the Mahayana school has preserved a numbsr' 6f mapulda.books
ca1led'the Mahaynasiras which are mainly tftu'
I
Vide Bunyiu Nanjio, Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the
uddhist Tipitaha, No.
1303.
'F. W. Thomas: Mtfcefi and the
Vol. XXXII).
Mahdrd.ja---Kanihalehha
(I. A.
7A
HISTORY Or' CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
devoted to the glorification of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. The moit important of them is the Saddharmapundarr.ka written in the manner of the Purnas.
Th book which is a glorification of Buddha Sakyamuni, contains elements of quite different periods ; for
it is believed that Sanskrit prode and Gathas in mixed
Sanskrit could not have developed at the same time"
The book was translated into Chinese between t.o.225
and a.n. 316. The original, therefore, mIISt have been
composed not later than the second centu-ry _A.D"
Som scholars, however, like to give it an early dateBut even Professor Kern has not been able to find out
passages which may show any ancient thgught.
Kralda- Another work is the Karandauyha preserved in two
v1ha,
versions and betraying a theistic tendency. It contains
a glorification of the Bodhisattva Avalokite6vara. It
wai translted into Chinese as early as a.p. 270' The
Sukhvatrvyha Sukhaaattayha in which is glorified the Buddha
and
Amitabha, is one more important book in which the
AJrqobhya'
reader finds a longing for spiritual liberation. The
vyha
Aksobhyaayha which was translated into Chinese
between e.o. 385 and a.o. 433, contains an account of
the Buddha Aksobhya.
The philosophical writings of Buddhist Poets consPhilosophical literatitute no m.ean contribution to early Sanskrit literature
ture. Among philosophical works belonging to the
earliest Mahayanastras mention should be made of
the Prajaparamitas which occupy a unique place from
the point of view of the history of .religion. The
Chinese translation o[ a Prainaparamita was made as
9ar1y as r.o.179. Other philosophical Mahayanastras
are the Buddhquatamsah,a, the Gandaayuha, the
DaSabhmaka, the Ratnakta, the Rastrapdla, the
EARLY BUDDHIST WORKS
'Lahhavatara,
IN.SANSKRIT
the Samad.hiraja and the
7I
Suaanra-
prabhasa.
The Madhyamikalzrih.a w}lidn is a systematic philo- Ngrsophical work of the class with which we are familiar juna: his
in'the Brhmanic philosophical literature was written *otk'
in a metrical form in four hundred
verses by
Nagarjuna whose name is associated with the Kusna
King Kaniska.r Nagarjuna is also known as the author
of the Akutobhaya, a cortlmentary on his own work,
which is preserved in a Tibetan translation. The
Yuhtisastika, the Snyatasaptati, ttre Pratttyasamutpa d ah| day a, the M ahay anaaimiaka, tlne V igr ahau y aaartanr, the Ehatlokaiastra, the Prajadanda and a
few commentaries are his other works. There is
another work the Dharn'tasam.graha, which passes as
his composition. '[he Suhrllekha is also ascribed to
Nagarjuna but it contains no Mdhyamika doctrine.
In the Chinese translations
(e.o. 40a) of the biographies of Advaghosa and Nagarjuna, there occurs

t-h.'ru*. of one yud.vu. His"Catu|ataka is a work
on the Madhyamik.ry.t"*- and.is a- polemic directed
against the Brhmar,ric ritual. His other works are the
Daadaianikayaiastra and the Cittaaiuddhipraharan4.
Maitreyantfia, the real founder oI the'Yogacra
school, is the author of the Abhisamayalankaraharih,as,
translated into Chinese probably in the fourth century
A.D. Aiya Asanga, the famous student of Maitreyantha, wrote ttre Yogacarabhmiasrra besides a few
works all preserved in Chinese translations. Vasubandhu Asnga, a strong adherent of the Sarvstivdin
1
Some think
century A.D.
that Ngrjuna livecl at the close of the
second
Aryadeva,
Maitreya-
-t1lu,
fr]i*"
and
Vasuhan-
l1lo"r,
grrir'-
works
school, whom Professor Takakusu places between a.o.

420 and a,o. 500 and to whom Professor Wogihara
assigns a date between A.D. 390 and e.n. 470, wrote the
Abhidharmakosa ahd the Paramrthasaptati to combat
the Sankhya philosophy. In his latei life, when he
is believed to have been conveited to Mahyna, he
wrote r}ae V ijaptimatratasiddhi..
Dinnga is the chief of the early philosophers who
made a valuable contribution through his masterpieces,
the Pramanasarnuccaya and the l{yayapraaeia. He
lived probably in the fifth century A.D. To the same
century probably belonged Sthiramati and Dharmapla
who wrote valuable commentaries on the Mdhyamika
system.l
The vast field of Avadna literature presents a good
and sufficient example of Sanskrit writing by Buddhist
poets. The word 'avdana' signifies a'great religious
or moral achievement as well as the history of a great
achievement'. Such a great act may consist in the
sacrifi.ce of one's own life or the founding of an institution for the supply of incense, flowers, gold and
jewels to, or the building of, sanctuaries. Avadna
stories are designed to inculcate that dark (ignoble)
deeds bear dark (ignoble) fruits while white (noble)
acts beget white (noble) fruits. Thus they are also
tales of 'karman'.
in the Tibetan translation, bears

close affinity to the former. Yet another collection of
;stories in Tibetan (translated, of course, from origina1 Sanskrit) is known as 'Dsanglun'.
72
Dinnga:
his works
Avadna
literature
,A.varIna-
ataka and
Karma6a-
taka
Ttrc AaadanaSataka heads the list of works on

Avadna literature. It consists of ten decades each
having a theme of its own. Another work, the KarmaI Later philosophical works, belonging to definitely identified sclools
of Buddhism, e.g., the works of Ya6omitra. Candrakirti, Sntideva,

Dharmaklrti, Dharmottara and others, will be treated in detail in a
subsequent chapter on Philosophy
73
Sataka, preserved only
A well-known collection of Avadna literature is the DivyvaDiuyaaadana. The book belongs broadly to the I llna- dna
yna school ; but traces of Mahayanistic influence
may yet be discovered in it. The collection is composed of many materials and consequently there is no
uniformity of language. But the language is lucid,
and true poetry is not wanting. The book has great
importance from the standpoint of Indian sociology.
As regards the time of redaction, it may be said that
as Adoka's successors down to Pusyamitra are mentioncd and the word 'drnra' is frequently used, a date
prior to the second century A.D., can hardly be assigned
to it.
Mention may be made of the ASokaaadana,
tine A6okva-
,cycle
of stories having for its central theme the history

of A6oka. Historically, these stories have little'value.
'The work was translated into Chinese as early as the
third century A.D. A passing reference may be ,made
to the KalpadruntauadanamalA, the Ratnaaadanamala
and the DuaaifuSatyaaadana, the materials of which
are drawn from the AaadanaSataha. Three more
works, the Bhadrakalpauadana, the Vrataaadqnamala and the Vicitrakarnikaaadana are known to us
in manuscripts on1y.
A most extensive work on Avadna literature is the
Aaadanakalpalata of Ksemendra of the eleventh century A.D. The work has been written in the style of
ornate Court-epics.
dna, Kal-
padrumvadna-
ml,
Ratnvadnam1,
Dvvirhatyavadana
and minor
avadnas
Avadna-
kalpalat
74
HISToRY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE

REFERENCES
Keith, A. B.: A History of Sanshrit Literature

Kern, H.: Manual of Buddhism
Nariman, G. K.: Literary History of Sanshrit Buddhism
Raychaudhuri, H. C.: Political History of Ancient lndia
Smith, V. A.: Oxford History of India .
Winternitz, M.: A History of lndian Literature. YoI. Il
CHAPTER VTI
CCURT-EPICS
A.
]NTRODUCTION
Aurrronrrarrvr writers on Sanskrit rhetoric have Characteresgiven an exhaustive list of the characteristics of epic rs:
sential
[o.*, in Classical Sanskrit. These characterisr'i..
may be divided under two heads-essential or important and non-essential or formal. Of them the
essential characteristics are based on the concePtion
of the three constituents of poetry, viz., the plot
(uastu), the hero (netr) and the sentiment (rasa).r
First, the plot of an epic must have a historical basis
and should not be fictitious. Secondly, the hero must
be an accomplished person of high lineage and should
be of the type technically called Dhtrodatta. Delineation of various sentiments and emotions is the third
important characteristic.
The non_essential characteristics which are formal Characrerand apply only to technique, are many in number. 'j::tt
non-essenTh.y iand (i) that the'epic should 'b.gi, with a
benediction, slutation or statement of facts, (ii) that
'Generally the sentiments are eight in number, viz., Srhgdra
(erotic), hasya (comic), haru4a (pathetic), raudra (furious), uTra
(heroic), bhaytnaka
(terrible), btbhatsa (disgustful) and adbhuta
'
(marvellous).
It is held by some that anta (quietistic) was added
later on by Abhinavagupta, the eiudite commehtator on Bhrata's

Natyaiastra. This was perhaps added to represnt the spirit of
mahaprasthana in the MahQbharata. It is even argued that Bharata
has enumerated the eight sentiments for the drama only, and not
for rhe
epic.
.76
COURT-EPICS
chapters or sections should bear the appellation

'sarga', (iii) that the number of cantos should not
exceed thirty and should not be less than eight,
(iv) that the number of verses in each canto should
not generally be less than thirty and should not
exceed two hundred, (v) that there should be descriptions of sunrise and sunset, pools and gardens, amorous
sports and pleasure-trips and the 1ike, (vi) that the
development of the piot should be natural and the
five junctures of the plot (sandhi) should be wellarranged, and (vii) that the last two or three stanzas
of each canto should be composed in a different
metre o[ metres.l
gupta I (e.o. 415-a.o. 455) and that he lived to see the,

reign of Skandagupta (a.o. 455-a.o. 480).1
B. GROWTI{ AND DEVELOPMENT
The name of Advaghosa has come down to us as

one of the earliest known epic poets. An account
of his two great epics the Buddhacarita and the
Saundarananda lnas already been given in a preceding
chapter.
Klidsa:
his age
1
The date of Klidsa is one of the most perplexing questions in
the history of Sanskrit literature and the opinions of scholars, however ingeniously conceived, fail to give us definiteness and certainty.
It is a fact to be regretted that India has not preserved the history
of her greatest poet and dramatist. Tradition has been busy in
weaving round the name of KIidsa many flctitious stories and it
is almost impossible ro separate at such a distant date the historical
fact from its rich colouring of fables. The traditional theory makes,
K1idsa a contemporary of the Vikrama Sarhvat, the initial year
of which is 57 n.c. Among the chief supporters of this theory are
the late Sir William Jones, Dr Peterson, Principal S. Roy, and

Mr I. R. Blasubrahmanyam. Frincipal Roy has argued that 'the
BhIt medallion found near Allahabad by Dr Marshall in 1909-10,
pictures a scene which loohs exactly like the opening scene of the
Sahuntala. The medaliion belongs t the unga period 185-73 s.c.
Moteover, the diction and style of KIidsa definitelv establishes him,

u. n p.."."..or of Avaghoia who has made .rr" df th" description
of Aja's entry to the capital found in the Raghuaarh.(a, and has
borrowed Klidsa's words and style. But archppologists are of'
in the Allahabad Bhit medallion cannot be definitely proved to be identical with the scene in the
Sdhuntala. Professor Cowell in his edition of t}a.e Buddhacarita
remarks that it is Klidsa who imitates Advaghosa and not vice
versa. Mr Blasubrahmanvam has based his theorv on the internal
opinion that the scene found
OF
COURT-EPICS
.Advaghosa
77',
The prince of epic poets is Kalidasa. But it is

difficult, if not impossible, to identify the age in
which he flourished. The most popular theory of
the day states that the poet flourished during the reign
of Chandragupta II (a.n. 380-e.n. 415), that his powers
were at their highest during the reign of Kumra1
trt is easy to find that these characteristics are not always present
in every epic. The Haraaijaya in fifty cantos, some cantos of the
Naisadittyicarltra containinp;"drore than' two hundred verses and the
first canto of t}.e Bhatlikduya having only twenty-seven verses, are
examples to the point.
evidences found in Klidsa1s dramas. Thus the epilo{ue of tine Malauikagnimitra supports the view that Klidsa lived in the reign of Agni-
rnitra, the son of Pusyamitra, of the first century B.c. The system,
of law, specially that of inheritance, as found in dne Sahuntala, points
to the fact that the poet must have lived before the beginning of
the Christian era. Moreover, there was one Vikramditya in Ujjayinr
in the first century n.c., and Klidsa's works indirectly allude to
hirn, as the poet lived in his court.
Dr Peterson has no particular argument to take his stand upon.
He simply writes, 'Klidsa stands near the beginning of the
if indeed he does not overtop it.' Sir William Jones

in his introduction to t}ae Sakuntala adiances no argument but
accepts the r.c. rheorl.
Another theory places Klidsa in the sixth century A.D. The
late MNII Haraprasda Sstrin, one of the supporters of this theory,
has pointed out that the defeat of Hlas by Raghu in course of his
worid-conquest, refers to the conquest of lInas bv Skandagupta
(a.. 455-a.n. 480). And the terms Dinnga and Nicula, occurring
in the Meghadta, refer to the great teachers who lived befor
Klidsa. Professor Max Mller, another adherent of this doctrine,
has based his theory on the suggestions of Professor Fergusson who
points out that the era of the lVllavas was put back to 56 r.c., and
Yadodharmadeva Visnuvardhana Vikramditya who conquered the
IIlas in a.o. 544, cinmemorated his victory'by starting tie Mlava
era. But in doing so, he deliberately antedated it by 600 years.
Christian era
78
Kumrasambhava
COURT-EPICS
The Kumarasambhavd of Klidsa is an epic in

seventeen cantos of which the first eight are believed
to be genuine. Mallintha writes his commentary on
the first eight cantos a1one. There is also difference
of opinion regarding the propriety of the theme of
the later .urlo.. The themb of the epic is the
marriage of Lord Siva and Um, daughter of the
Himalyas, and the birth of Karttikeya who van'
quished Traka, the demon. Scholars are of opinion
tlat the work is one of the first compositions of the
poet. But it should be borne in mind that the
kumArasanlbhaaa appeals to modern taste more than
the Meghadta because of its rich variety, the
brilliance of its fancy and the greater warmth of its
feeling. The poem varies from the loveliness of the
,"rrrul season nd the delights of married love to the
grim tragedy of the death of the beloved. The theme
il indeed a daring one inasmuch as it seeks to ex'
press the love of the highest deities. The appear'
nce of the young hermit in Um's hermitage and
.Fergusson's
theory (known as the Korur theory), however. has
been
bv Dr Fleet who pointed out by his resealches thar there

*r't no Vilramditva who -achieved a victory over the Hnas in
expioded
a.. 544, ancl furtheimore, that there was in existence an era known
as the Mlava era long before a.o" 544. Thus the theory of Professor
value. In this connexion,
Max Mller is without any
- historical
be made of his once popular and now discarded
mention mav
'Theory
of Classical Sanskrit Literature', which states
'Renaissance
'that
there was a revival of Sanskrit learning and literature in
the wake of the Gupta civilization and culture and that Klldsa
was the besr flower o[ this age.
It is,
however, generally believed
that KIidsa flourished in
the
reign of Chandragirpta II'of the Imperial Gupta dynasty (.c,.o. 380a.o. 515t. But it hs been argtted I hat his best works were writlen
during the reign of Kumragupra I (4.o.415-,r.o' 455). But some
would- like to suggest that the poet iived to see the reign of Skanda'
supta (A:D. 455-A.-D. 480). It hould be noted, however, that both

r'ndrrlupu and Skandgupta held the title ot 'Vikramdirya', while
Kumrgpta had the title of 'Mahendr'ditya'.
his
depreciation of iva followed

.zrngry rebuke from IJm leading
by a strong
79
and
ro the discovery
of the identity of the hermit is a fine specimen of
.charming fancy and gentle humour. Kalidasa's poetic
powers are best revealed in his delineation of Siva's
temptation in canto iii and the touchingly pathetic
picture of the lamenr of R.ati for her dead husband in
canto iv. It has been suggesred rhar the model of
this poem is the Rmayana. There is indeed a very
beautiful description of the spring in the Kiskindhy
forest which may have influenced Kalidasa to draw
the wonderful picture of spring's advenr and the
revival of life of the wor1d. There is also a close
parallel to Rati's lamentations. When Valin is

killed Tra addresses him with words equally sincere
and bearing the stamp of classical style.
.The Raghuaanra, which is undoubtedly a produc- Raghu_
tion of a mature hand, deals with the life-hiitory of ,,ursa
the kings of the Iksvku family in general an of
Rma in particular.- Th-"
is composed in
nineteen cantos, is the tale "p-rg_yhich
of Valmiki retold with the
mastery of a finished poet. It is said that the work
fulfils to a considerable exrenr the conditions of
S,anskrit epic poetry. It has been rightly said that
the Raghuaama has given full scope ro the poer's
extraordinarily artistic imagination. It is true that
out of its nineteen cantos there is none that does not
succeed in presenting some pleasing picture. Throughout the long poem the poet ,has maintained a talrly
uniform excellence of style and expression. Kalidasa
seems to be at his best when he prepares his reader
through Rma's passionate clingin to the melancholy
but sweet mernories of the past for the grim tragedy
couRT-EPrcs
BO HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
8l
Bhiavi:
Kirtrjuniya
Bhatti:
Rvana-
vadha
in Srt's banishment. The picture of the later history

of Rma which is more heroic in its siient suffering
than the earlier has received unequivocal admiration
from discerning critics.
It is not difficult to surmise the date of Bhravi as
his name is mentioned along'with Kalidsa in the
famous Aihole inscription of Pulake6in II, dated a.o.
634. Bharavi has to his credit only one epic, viz., the
Kiratarjuntya wlnidn is based on the Mahabharata.
The poem describes how Arjuna obtained the P6upata
*.upo., from Siva. The work in nineteen cantos is'
writien in an ornate style, though full of profundity
(arthagauraua) with occasional jingling of
of thought
-Though
Bharavi is not as great as Klidsa,
words.
His poetry is more sedate'
mediocre.
yet he is nevei
more weighted with learning and technique but he -is
seldom fintastic. Bhravi excels in descriptions-in
the observation and record of the beauties of nature
and of maidens. His poetry lacks the lyrical touch
but his expressions give a pleasing surprise as they are
invariably- characterized by the qualities of brevity
and propriety.
Nwhtre in the literature of the world can be found
a single instance where poetry has been written with
the sole object of illustrating the rules and principles
of grammai. 'Ihe Bhattikaaya or Raaanaxailha which
is written in twenty-two cantos, is divided into four
sections, viz., Prahtrnakanda, PrasannakAnda, Alah,harah,anda and Tihantakanda. The poem is an epic
depicting the life-history of Rma from h-is birth -up
to the time of Rvana's death. The author of this
epic, Bhatti, must be distinguished from the great
giammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari, popularly known
llari.
lived in
The author writes in his own work that he

Valabhr under one Sndharasena. History
gives us four Dharasenas, the last of whom died in
A.D. 651 . It iu, therefore, probable that Bhatti
flourished in the latter half of the sixth and the first
quarter of the seventh century A.D. It may be mentioned in this connexion that Bhatti lived before
as
Bhmaha, the great rhetorician who decries the poetic

excellence of the Rauanaaadha.t Though the work
is a grammatical poem, still in more places than one
the poet has given ample proof of his artistic talents.
The second, eleventh and twelfth cantos of the poem
may be cited as instances.
Kumradsa, said to be the King of Ceylon from 1ir*5rua.. 517 to A.D. 526, is mentioned as a poet of remark- dsa:
talent by. Rja6ekhara.- Il_ i:.- maintained[}XX:
Dr Keith that the poet knew tlne Kailzaurtti (t.o. 650), "*'*'
and was known to Vmana (a.o. 800). The theme of
his poem, tlne lanahtharana, in twenty-five cantos, is
taken from the Rmyana, as the title indicates. The
poet follows in the footsteps of Kalidasa. Though
he does not display imagination of a high order, he
may still be called a vigorous descriptive poet. He
is fond of alliteration, but careful enough not to caffy
it to the point of affectation.
Anandavardhana, the great rhetorician of the Mgha:
ninth century a.o., mentions Magha who must hzvs Siru,plaflourished in'the eighth .".r,rrry .ir. IIe was the so.l "dhu
of Dattakasarvdraya and mentions Jinendrabuddhi,
the author of th famous grr**uii.al work, the
Nyasa, whose date is believed to be a.o. 700.2 Mgha's
glll
1
2
ll
Kl. rl. 20
o. . 112
6
82
is a work in twenty cantos based on a

legend of the Mahabharata. His style is extremely
ornate, and he often sacrifices sense for jugglery in
words. He imitates Bhravi, but his style is without
the dignity of the latter. But it must be admitted
on all hands that he commands much luxuriance of
expression and thought. His admirers often refer to
his rare gift of poetic fancy which has earned for
him the appellation, 'Ghant-Mgha'. A hill toweri
ing between sunset and moon-rise is compared to an
elephant on whose two sides trvo be1ls are hung.
The fascinating story of Nala and Damayantl in
the Mahabharata forms the central theme of Snharsa's masterpiece the Ilaisadhacarita or Naisadhtyacarita which was written in the latter half of the
twelfth century A.D. The work is written in twentytlyo cantos. The poet is a scholar of repute in the
different systems of Indian philosophy and possesses
a unique command over grammar, rhetoric and lexicon. Though he does not show that power of poetical
suggestion which distinguishes the writings of great
trndian poets like Kalidsa, his power of expression
is singularly captivating. What strikes us as his
defect is that he has an especial liking for exaggerated
statements in the form of poetic conceit. The importance of the Naisadhacarita daes not lie in its
poetic character-the poern is a repository of traditional learning and the reader is expected to be
equipped with such learning in order that he may
fu1ly appreciate its value. The modern reader often
lacks this equipment and this accounts for his lack
of interest in the poem.
couRT-Eprcs
Si.Supalaaadha
Srfarsa:
Naisadha-
carita
C.
83
LESSER EPIC POEMS
plini_it is not known

whetirer they are two differer]t works or different names of the
same book-not free from grammatical s11e1s_1hg authorship is
much disputed.
{/raruca-katy4: mentioned by patafljali but lost to us.
Padyacdamaqi: ascribed to Buddhaghosa (not lter than the fifth
a-.)-a_ poem in ten cantos describing the life of the
:""lyly
.lJuddha.up ro-rhe defear ol Mra differing in iome details from
the versions of the Lalitauistara and. t]r,e Euddhacarita.
Ku"nteiuaradaurya: ascribed to^ KIid-sa by Ksemendra-describing
Jdmba.uafioijaya and Patla-aijaya: ascribed. to
an embassy ro the court of Kuntala.

Hayag_nuauadfta: a lost work by Bhartrmentha who flourished under
the sixth ceniury a.o.
* - Mtrgupta of
Prd":(!::1!!.:
by"Ravig9r.ra of the- seventh century a.o._containing
glorrhcation of Rsabha, lhe first Trrthairkara.

Raxanarjuniya or, rjunaraaat.tlya: by Bhaumaka_written in twentvsevn cantos in the fashion of Bhtti-based on the strife betweJn
Krtavirya and ]tyana,
n*r::,!.i1p;:!y::, Pv Jinsena of the eighrh cen-rury ,r.n.-in sixty-six
cairios----descrrlrrng the srory o[ the Mahabharata in a
Jinistic
set tlng.
K"P{li,?:!pr!Xi, t"t ivasvmin, a Kshmirian tsuddhist, during

1ne reign ol Avantivarman of rhe ninrh centurv a.o. _written iX
rwenly .cantos -based on a rale in tlrc AaadanairukaHara.ui jaya: by Ratnkara, a Kashmirian of the ninrh centurv A.D._
l]ased on the.slaling o[ rhe demon Andhaka by siva_wrirren in

nrty canros- jnfluenced bv Bna and Mgha.
'
.Righ.ataprldaalya^:
_by Karirje who flcuiished under Kdamba
Iramadeva ol Jayanrapurr(rwelfrh century,r.o..1 giving us in
lhrrreen canros the two stories oI the Rniyar.,o'aid, tii ntol,abharata simultaneously through tlouble entettre.
t\Iahpura.na: by Jinasena'and Guabhadra of the
ninth centurv A.D._
contalnrng two parts, t}re dipurana and the Uttarapurn,
I'iiriuabhya-daya: by Jinasena of the ninth century e.o. who has incor_
porared the entire Llcghadta while relating'tn" .torly ;i p;;6r"natha.
liirlntnharlkathasra: by Abhinanda, son of rhe loeician Tavanta_

Dhalta ot rhe lenrh cenlury A.D. clescribing in ei ht ca"nts the
stoly o[ Bana's l{adambarl,
I rti ttllturncarita: writien in four rantos by Vdiria in the first ouarrcr of the elevenrh cenrrrry A.D. des'cribins if," i"o""a i d;.,
Y:r(odhara. Anorher work f rhe same ,,.-E *ii,,"n'y vr"ir.vr:
r':rnilra
of unknown date.
H*1yrdl.l ol-.rhe renth cenrury e.o.-conraining an
r lroy ol rhe ltstrakta Kiug Krspa lll_writtcn
afrer the iwle
ol lllrerri.
,r,,,,.:.,.'.,i.::!-r:,bL
l,i.rtutrtrnrita'' by Abhit r.rda, son of satnanda of unknown

date.
tittnttt.\'tutttnto1a.ri ancl BltriratamaijarT: by polymalh
Ksemendta oI
l(;islrrnir
'
lrrt
of the eleventh centurv n.r-'
tt'ilt.:tr: l;y Lolimbarja of ttre teventtr century e.o._describing

rlrc Krsnri legend in hu. car(os.
84
hanthacarita: by Mankha-a Kshmirian and a ^pupil of Ruyyaka

oi' the twelfth centurY 6.p.-1v1i11gn in twenty-five cantos-based
on the tale of rhe dstrucrion o[ the demon Tripura by SivanossessinE some historical intcresr as an assembly of learned
inen. thiity in number, held under the, patronage of the poet's
brotirer Al;rkara, a minister of Jayasirhh of Kshmir ('r'o' ]12]
*e.o. 1150) is mentioned-written in a highly ornate style which
lacks luciditv.
St;trujayamdhatlmya: by Dhanedvara of the twelfth century A'D'wiitien in fouiteen cntos containing a glorification of the acred
mountain atrufrjaya'
by t{emacandra of A.D. 1088-1172-a
Trisastialahprrusacrita,
'
vry imp'ortant work, its' seventh book being. called the. lainaRakltyaiad, the tenth entitled tt'e Mahattiracarlla, containing..the
life-st6ry of M.hortu, and its -appendix-section, the Parilista'
parxan,'being a rnine of fairy tales and stories.
Dhaimaiarmabhfudaya: by Hariandra of unknown date-written in
twentv-one cantos dvoting the life of Dharmantha, the
fifteenth Tirthankara.
Neminirartnn.: by Vgbhata of the twelfth century e.n. written in
fifteen' cantoi-deling'with Nemintha's life.
Bd.Iabhrata: by Amaracandra of the thirteenth century A.D.-narrating the story of dne Mahlibhrata in,the order of -the pdrlans' Alrgauatlcarilra: by Devaprabhasri ol. the
P4daiacaritra'and.
'ihirteenth
cenlury A.D-.- the former is in eighreen cantos and the
latter is based on the Udayana legend.
Prfuanthacarita; by Bhvadevasri
Sahydaynanda: by'Krslnanda of
of the thirteenth century A'D'

the fourteenth century A'D.-
nairating the Nalalegend in fifteen cantos.

Natabhvudaia: by Vminabhatta na of the fourteenth cenlury
a.o.-deling wirh rhe story of Nala in eight canros.
Hariz.nthia: bliSakalakrrti an his pupil Jindsa of the fifteenth
century
A.D,
Rasikajaia: by Rmacandra of the sixteenth century a.n.-de-scribing" the tw sentiments of love and asceticism tlr.ro.ug}r double
entendre.
of the sixteenth century a.o.-also

by Haradattasri of unknown date-describing
Rdghatanaisadhiya:
"
the tales of Rma and Nala through double entendre,
Rdghaaapandaa|yayddaalya: by Cidambara, pror96 of, VeikataÎ .o[
" Vijayanagar
the
la.o. iSSO-r..o. I6l4) desiribing the tales oftreble
Paryrlaaapurana: by Subhacandra
called the laina-Alahabhdrata.
ntniay""7", tln; Mahabharatt ar,d'dne Bhdga{wta through

punnrnS.
REFERENCES

Macdonell, A. A.: A History of Sansftrit Literature
Winternitz, M: A Llistory of Indian Literature, Vol. II
Dasgupta, S. N. and De, S.K.: History of Sanskrit Literature, Yol. I
Krishnamachariar,
M.: Classical Sanshrit Literature
CHAPTER
VIII
DRAMA
A.
ORIGIhT OF SANSKRIT DRAMA
Tne origin of Sanskrit drama is a most interesting Orthodox

study in the history of Sanskrit literature and diver- vrew
gent views are found amongst scholars which can
hardly be reconciled. It is an undeniable fact that
Bharata's lr/atyaiastra is the earliest known book on
Sanskrit dramaturgy. The third century A.D. is the
generally accepted date of the N1yaid.stra, and some
,scholars hold that the book is a compilation on the
basis of an original work of the Stra-type. According to a legend found in this book, Brahm created
,drama by taking passages for recitation from the
Bgaeda, songs from dne Samaaeda, ges)res from the
Yajurveda and emotions from the Athansaueda.

Thus a drama is known s the fifth Veda. From
"iva and Prvatr, Taldava and Lsya dances were
obtained and Visr,ru gave the Rrti.. The sarne book
also informs us that the dramas were enacted during
tl-re Indradhvaja festival where the sons and disciples
ol. the same Bharata together with Gandharvas and
Apsarases took paft in the play. The first two plays
('n:rcted were the Amrtamanthana and the Tripurl,daha both written by Brahm himself.
'l'here was a time when the theory of the Greek
oligin of Indian drama found its adherents amongst
86
Theory of
Greek
origin
scholars.r The chief exponent was Professor Windisch

(1882) who found many striking similarities between
Greek and Sanskrit plays and based his theory on
the ground that Indians were in touch with Greeks
for ; considerable period after the invasion of
Alexander and that none of' the extant Sanskrit
plays belongs to a pre-Christian date. Thus to him
ih. v"ry classification into acts, the prologues and the
epiiogues, the way in which the actors make their
entrance and exit, the terrn yaaanika, the theme
and its manipuiation, the variety of stage-directions,
the typical characters like the Vidsaka, Fratinyaka,
etc.,-all srrell of Greek origin. This theory was
further corloborated by the discovery in the Sitabenga

cave, of an Indian version of a Greek theatre.z But
this theory has been rejected as the points of contrast
are far too rnany. The absence of the three unities of
time, space and action in a Sanskrit drama brings it
nearer to anF.lizabethan drama than to a Greek drama
where the three unities are essential. The difference
in time between two acts in a Sanskrit drama ma;r
be several years (e.g., the (Jttararamacarita of Bhavabhuti where twelve years intervene between the incidents of the first two acts). Moreover, it is only in a
particular act of a Sanskrit drama that the actions
which happen in a single place are usually represented.
Thus while the sixth act of tlne Sahuntala represents
the scene at King Dusyanta's palace, the seventh act
shows the scene at sage Marrca's hermitage on the toP
of the Himlayas and the first part of it represents the
1
The suggestion came from Professor Weber, but Professor Pischel
vehemenrlv repudiated it.
DRAMA
king's aerial journey. As for the term yaaanika, rnost

scholars think that it is of later introduction and it
refers to Persian tapestries and not ro anyrhing Greek.
On the other hand, there are some scholars who Origin of
want to determine the origin of Sanskrit dramas in the Sanskrit
same manner in which 'Western scholars seek to drama ,
connected
explain the origin of European plays. So it has been with
argued that as the first Sanskrit play is stated to have vernal
been produced at the Indradhvaja festival (which has festivities
a parallel in the May,pole dance in Europe), the origin
of Sanskrit dramas is to be connected with the festivities of the spring after the passing away of the
winter. But this theory is rejected as N{M Haraprasda
Sstrin has pointed out that the aforesaid Indradhvaja
festival comes off at the end of the rains.
Professor Ridgeway has connected the origin of Ridgeway's
Indian drama with the worshipping of dead ancestors. theory
But the theory is inapplicable to the case of Indian
Aryans whose ritual of the disposing of the dead has
the minimum ostentation.
The Krsrla-worship is thought by some scholars to I(19Ta-cult
be the origin of Sanskrit plays. Thus the role which orr81n
the Saurasenr Prkrit plays in a Sanskrit drama is
easily explained. But this theory involves anachronism,
as it remains to be proved that Krspa dramas are the
carliest Sanskrit drmas.1
Professor Pischel has set forth the theory that Pischel's
Sanskrit drama in its origin was a puppet-play. The theory
slage-manager in a Sanskrit drama is called Stradhra
(thc holder of the string) and his assistant Sthapaka is
lo e nter immediately after the stage-manager and is
'On thL aritiquitics of Ramgarh Hill, District of Sarguj IA-
Vol. II.
rll nr:ry be provecl in the same way that the theories of the Vislurrlt, Sir':r-cult and Rma-cult origin of Indian drama cannot be accepted.
88
DRAi\{A
expected to place in proper position, the plot, the hero

or the germ of the play. The 'puppets also are frequently mentioned in Sanskrit literature; thev-could
6e made to dance or move about and they could even
be made to talk. Such a talking Puppet, impersonating
' Srt, is found in one of Rajdekhara's plavs. The
episode of the Shadow-Srt in Bhavabhti's Uttara'
,arnororito is reminiscent of the o1d shadow-play in
ancient India. But this theory cannot furnish sufficient
explanation of many points about Sanskrit drama such
utih" mixture of proie and verse, as also the varieties
of language and the like.l
Anoihei theory on this subject states that the origin
orisin to
;?;; to of Sanskrit drama should be sought in the Sarhvda'
l!:,Y,"dit hymns of the gueda. These ballad hymns which are
Pe,oct tarly twenty in number, are markedly dramatic in

spirit.2 These Sarhvda hymns have no specific
ritualistic applications and they seem to have
been recited between the intervals of long sacrificial

sessions (priplava) for the satisfaction of the Patl'ons
of sacrifices. But whether the hymns were treated as
ballads (as Professors Pischel and Geldner thought) ;
or as regular ritualistic dramas with actual stage-directions and action including singing and dancing (as
held by Professor von Schroeder); or, final1y as narrative stories with an admixture of prose to connect the
poems into one whole, with a preponderance of. dialogue (as maintained by Professor Oldenberg)-is still
keenly disputed amongst scholars.3
I Ptofessor Hillebrandt has argued that Professor Pischel's theory^
cannot be accepted as the puppit-play assumes the pre-existence of
the drama'
2RV.l. 165, 170 and i79, III.

5l-53. 86' 95 and 108' etc.
28,
3
Professor
33,
IV.
18,
VII.
33,
Hertel has found a full drama in tt.e
VIII.
100,
X'
Suparryddh5'aya'
11,
89
It
has been universally found that the Srowth of Concludrama is intimately connected with royal patronage. slon
And India is no exception. Bearing in our mind the
xistence of the ritulistic drama which marks the
early beginnings of Indian plays we can boldly assert
thai Sanikrit drama is a product of the Indian mind
rvhich viewed life in a1i iis various aspects and passed
through many stages of development, being influenced
by Jainism and Buddhism in its allegorical sphere or
by any other foreign factor and yet m-aintaining its
own peculiarity. No one theory, therefore, can adeqrrt.ly explain all its features and acc_ordingly one
refiain from making a choice of .any one of
"hould
them.
B.
CHARACTERTSTICS OF SANSKRIT DRAMA
According to Indian thinkers, the best of poets is a prs466idramatist. Sanskrit drama evolved in all its asPects nance of
in a particularly Indian atmosphere. Sanskrit drama- sentlment
tists with their inherent aesthetic sense Save more
importance to the portrayal of sentiment _than to
chru.ter or plot. Sanskrit dramas were, therefor,
very idealistiC and romantic in their character. The
,breath of poetry and romance vivified the Sanskrit
,rlrama and its higher and more Poetic naturalness was
attractive in revealing the beauty and the depth of
human character. The predominance of sentiment
in Sanskrit dramas has been responsible for the creatirn of typical characters rather than individualized
ligrrres. It is said that the characters are often conventional and not original. But though in the hands of
90
DRAMA
HrsroRy oF cLASSTcAL sANSKRTT Lr'r'rrRA'r-urru
lesser dramatists idealistic crearion overshadowed

ction and characterization, still the best Sanskrit
dramatists have been abie to create outstanding
characters which are not fantastic creations. Thus
Cr'udatta in the Mrcchalaatika and Dusyanta in the
Abhijana Sahuntalanc are nor inere typical characters.
Similarly the Sakra and the Vlta in Sdraka's drama
are finely characterized" Though the best of Sanskrit
dramas glow with occasional touches of realism, still
the fact cannot be denied that the poetic value has
never been sacrificed for direct delineation of action or
character. Judged by modern standards most of the
Sanskrit dramas would, however, be regarded as dramasome authors the sense of the dramatic
seems to have been hopelessly lost in their ever-increasing effort at depicting the sentimental and the poeric,
and it is a fact that the choice of lyric or epic subjects
which are scarcely capable of dramatic rreatment isl
responsible for the lack of dramatic quality in the plays
of, some of the weli-known dramatists. Nevertheless we
cannot say that Sanskrit dramatists were totally indifferent to the action of a drama, and it has been said
clearly that drama must have five critical junctures of
plot (sandhi), viz., mukha (opening ar protasis), pratimukha (progression or epitasisi), garbha (development
or catastasis), aimaria (pause or peripeteia) arrd niruahana (conclusion or catastrophe). Further, Sanskrit
dramaturgists have laid it down as a rule that there
should be perfect fusion of sentiment and theme or plot
in a drama. Over delineation of sentiment at rhe cosr
of gradual ancl systematic development of plot and too
much elaboration of details in the plot hampering the
flow of sentiment must be carefully avoided. It was
tic poems. In
9L
the usual convention with Sanskrit poets to select the

erotic, the heroic or the quietistic as the principal
sentiment in a ntaka (the type of major dramas)
which is assisted ty every other sentiment according
to propriety. It needs to be added here that in the
opinion of some thinkers, the aforesaid conYention
should not command any respect and any one of the
nine sentirnents may be the predominant sentitnent
in a ntaka.
charge is often levelled by critics that Sanskrit Absence of

tragedy
drama is marked by an absence of tragedy ; but it may
be answered by saying that what is known as aipralambha-Srngara (1,ove-in-separation) more than compensates for the comparatively rare 'pathetic' which
is the prominent sentiment in only one class of minor
dramas. But it is a fact that Sanskrit dramas have
never a tragic catastrophe, and the reason is to be
found in the conception that it mars the sentiment.
llence the representation of death, murder, war, revolution and anything indecorous which is a hiatus in
aesthetic pleasure, has been prohibited on the stage.
The Sanskrit drama generally keeps to the high road
of life and believes that grim realistn cannol exalt the
mind, rather it tends to disturb the romantic atmosphere. It has, therefore, subordinated tragedy to finer
sentiments and tragedy as such has remained comparatively undeveioped. And there is truth in the
statement that the imposition of the condition of happy
union in the Sanskrit drama has in some cases
tended to weaken the value of tragedy in it.
As the main inteiest in Sanskrit dramas lies in the
creation of the sentiment, it is convenient for a dramatist to take a plot with a popular theme. The hero of
92
Morality
and drama
the drama (ntaka) must be an accomplished person

of high lineage belonging to the dhzrodatta type. He
must be a hero either of the earth or of heaven, and
sometimes we even find in a Sanskrit drama gods side
by side with mortal men, and thus ample scope is
given to the dramatist's imagination to create the
appropriate romantic atmosphere.
Like every other branch of Indian literature, the
Sanskrit drama has a religious basis and nothing
violating the moral and religious code has been represented
Satire and
farce
It
in Sanskrit
dramas.
should be mentioned
in this
connexion that
Sanskrit dramatic literature is not poor in farcical compositions. The discovery of the four one-act monologue plays under the title of Caturbhanit lnas brought
to light the talent of Sanskrit dramatists in the domain
of humorous and farcical writing. The .four plays
which are of the same type present variet), satire,
comic-relief and free colloquial style. The plot of such
plays is slight but within its limited scope there is
much of variety. The satirical and comic pictures of
various classes of people-the sky-gazing poet, the
penniless impotent, the dried-up mistress, the mendicant consoling a coLrrtezarl with the words of the
Buddha, the grammarian with his affectations, the
hypocritical Bucldhist-are indeed enjoyable. The
Vita, the central character in such plays, whose origin
may be traced back to the earlier dramas such as Caru=
discovered and published in 1922 are the Ubhaya'The four plays
'PddmaprQbhrtaha,
the Dhrtat)ilasahladd and the
sdrika, the
Pddataditaha respectively ascribed to Vararuci, udraka, Idr,aradatta

and ymilaka. The plays exhibit common characteristics and it is
plesunied that consideiable time intervened between these plays and
the later sp:cimens of the bhlas. It is quitc like1y that these
bhrlas belonged to the age of the Classical dramatists.
DRAMA
93
datta and Mycchakatika, enjoys an important status of

his own. It is true that in the later bhar,",as he has lost
much of his glamour and appears as a gallant in the
worst sense of the term. The later bhalas are merely
literary exercises lacking in variety and the natural
human and polite banter which characterize the earlier
bhalas are absent in them. Besides the bhlas there
is another species of farcical literature in Sanskrit
which is closely related to them. It is the prahasanas
which like the bhalas are undoubtedly artistic productions. The difierence between the prahasana and the
bhala is that whereas there is greater scoPe for
comedy and satire in the former, there is a preponderance of the erotic sentiment in the latter.
C.
It
CLASSIT'ICATION OF SANSKRIT DRAMAS
must be said at the outset that the Sanskrit syno- Rpaka &
nym for drama is rpaka and not ntaka, the latter Uparpaka
being a variety of the former which has a more
comprehensive import. Writers on Sanskrit dramaturgy have classified Sanskrit dramas into two types:
(1) the major (rpaka) and (2) the minor (uparupaka).
The varieties of each type differ according to different
authorities. The following is the list given by Vi6varrtha in his Sahityadarpana of the varieties of the
rwo types of Sanskiit dr-ur :
l. The major type: (i) ntaka (e.g., Abhii.anaia'
Itttlntala of Kalidasa), (ii) prakarana (..9., Malatt'
trtldhaaa of Bhavabhuti), (iii) bhala (e.g., Karpura'
trrri,ta of Vatsarja), (iv) vyyoga (e.g., Madltyama'i'\tnyoga of Bhasa), (v) samavakara (e.g', Samudrama-
94
thana of Vatsarja), (vi) dima (e.g., Tripuradaha ot

Vatsarja), (vii) rhmrga (".g., Rubminr.harana of
Vatsarja), (viii) anka or Utsrstiknka (e.g", SarnListhayayatl, (ix) vithi (e.g., Malaaika) and. (x) prahasana
de.g' M at taailas a of Mahendravikramavarman).
2. The minor type: (i) natik (e.g., Ratnualr of rtHarsa), (ii) trotaka (e.g., Vikramaruasrya of Kalidasa),
(iii) gosthi (e.g., Raiuatamadanib.a), (iu) sattaka (e.9.,
Karp{rr amaj art. o,f Rajadekharu), (u) ntyarsaka (e.9.,
Vi,lasaaati), (vi) prasthna (e.g., Srngaratilaha), (vii)
ullapya (e.g., Deatmahadeva), (viii) kavya (e.g., Yda'z;odaya), (ix) prenkhana (e.g., Valiaadha), (x) rsaka
(".g., Menakahita), ("i) sarirlpaka (".g., Mayaka-
palika), (xii) drlgadita (".9., Kridarasatala), (xiii)

ilpaka (e.9' Kanahaaattmadhaaa), (xiv) vilasika (no
work mentioned in Sd.), (xv) durmallika (e9., Bindun'rati), (xvi) prakarar,-,ika (no work mentioned in Sd.),
(xvii) ha11i6a (e.9., Keliraiaatah.a) and (xviii) bhlik
{e.g., Kamadatta).1
D.
lntroducItion
DRAMA
actors. The Mahabhasya, beside its reference to the

drarnas, Kamsauadha and Bali.bandha. speaks of the
painting of acrors and of the three kins of artists.
In the Raruayana rrye find the mention of ntaka and
the Mahabharata refers to a wooden feminine figurel
In the Hariuamia, horvever, we find unrnistaliable
reference to a full-fledged drama acted by I(rsla's
,descendants. But Dr Keith looks upon a1l-these evi,dences as mere references to punto-imes and not to
pure dramas. Ffe, however, admits that the dramas
of Advaghosa and Bhsa, the first extant dramas, are
not-the earliest specimens of Indian p1ays, inasmuch
as they show rnuch polish and exquisite'finish.2 The
,earliest extant Sanskrit drama according to European
:scholars is the Sariputraprakarana of A6vaghouu *hi.h
lvas discovered sometime ago in Turfan in Central
Asia.
has in recent years been a most Bhsa:
- The Bhsa-problem
interesting
topic for discussion in the history ef age and,
Sanskrit drama.3 It has dra'rvn the attention of any authorship
.
'Mbh. lll. xxx,
AND DEVELOP]\,{ENT OF
SANSKRIT DRAMA
GR.OWTH
The Indian drama can be traced to the fifth or the

fourth century n.c. Palini refers to dramatic aphorismsz
and the ArthaSastra of Kautilya, which is a work.of
the fourth century n.c., contains reference to the term
Kur.laua, rvhich may have an allusion to the twin
sons of Rma or to the proverbially bad character of
1
The rvorks, against which authors are mentioned, have now. been
published and are ail available. The other works are only mentioned
by the author of dne Sahityadarpar,ta and are not actually known to
exist at present.
2
Ast lY. iii. 110.
95
23.
6vaghoga has followed the rules of Sanskrit dramaturgy

the
higher characters us Sanskrit, while others speak Frkrit. "' ;
discorery
of
. 'Ti,"
-the -Trivandrum plals is most imporfant event
.
irr the domain of Indology comparbi onlv to rhe'dis<.overv of

l(.;rutilya's Aythaiastr,a,..Th comm-unity of techniqu.c, languagc, ityle,
i,l(;rs. treatment and identiry of narns of dramtrs persona, Drose
:rrrrl metrical passags and scenes ar.e so remarkable tiiat the coirchrrion of their common artthorship j.q inevitable. Consicliering the
rrrl)crior,and manifold merits of the plays in question it may bE said
tlr;rt if the author of these plays is nbt"Bhsa,'he may with6ut doubt
lrr. given a position as high s that which the real'Bhsa used to
r,('( ul)y,
llcltrences
to Bhsa or quotations from his works
l;rtr,r literature. l\4M G. Ssiri, the fortunate-.ou....are founcl in

of the olavs
.r:r 1il;q11 them to lJlrsa ancl artempted r. ,iiigr-,
,"iy ri''rL iJ
rlr. cclebrated dramatist on the
-str'engtii-of-irr-ri.*iirg-,.gilt.i
(i) 'l'he close resemblance of the
tnlri""" piru."i" one another in
l,rrr;1rr;rgc. and. mode of expression.
iiii-J p'.r.sre jn each otav
rillrrs wtrh lhe entrance o[ the Stradhia,
a peculiarity a"cribe t
DRAMA
scholars widely differing
in their opinions on the

of the plays of Bhasa'
authorihip
and
authenticity
9l"dt, goes to MM Ganapari Sstrin who first published the thirteen plays of Bhsa in l9l\. Buf for
Rhsa bv Bnabhatla. (iii) The naming of the Prologue as Srhpan

(:lasslcal
insteacl f Prastvn- remarkable deperlure from the
;;;r.. (iv) The opening rerses of some. oI the plays (e'g' Pralima'
Bhasites are confused on this point. Rightlv does Keith remark:

The attribution of Trivandrum^dramas t Sktibhadra.evintes the
same curious lack of discrimination which ascribes to Dandin the
96
an
i"r"ati"aat'ta, irc'1 ltring rogether the principal characters
oeculiarity o[ the plays. '(v) The omission o'l the nam
',r.--o,
dtamai ,rr" *.ir.'rnd the uthor in^rh Sthpan proving. rhat the
lived in an age before the convention of mentionrng. the- name
tist"afr.
."tfr". it h'1, *otk came in vogue' (vi) The Bharatavkya. in
"f irr" i"*rs ends with the
same
pryer-a
pre-classical ,peculiarity'
(riil The olavs rereal a poetic elegance which is comparable unly to

Vtmiki' and Vysa. (viii1 Klidasa's re[erence to
ifr"' t"tiLi,-,e.'of
-'i.
.-rggestire oI his hoary anriquiry' (ix) The, violation in
ila.r
turr., .r."r i the rules of the xtant Nalyaiastra leads us to Prework on drama*J nfrr, he followed in all probability nother
tursv differ.nt from the present Ntyajslra' (x) The evidence oltnn'si;ue" emploved by Bhsa uould suggest that he was anterior 10
u,1.t Parafrjali Bhiat Ianguage makes us think
iiar'ini,'kr,"yin,
'tre
lived 'in an age when Sanskrit was. a spoken language'-..bu.t
tnat
S.".f.iit i.t..d to be a"spoken language during the time- of Patafrjalii"ij Canrr.y, probably qotes froni thie Pratiinayaugandharayarya ancl
"11
is, lherelore, posterior to
Bhsa.
The ante-86sites put forward the followingâs. counter-arguments:

(i) As the title of the plays and thc name of their author are not
mentionecl
in the ProlgJe they are adaptations' (ii) As to the
reference to the entrancef rhe Stradhra. it is pointed out that the

.u-" i. a peculiarity of South India,n manuscriptg...rn-genelal and
not a chara'cteristic bf the thriteen plays alone. (iii) The dramatic
iechnique has been shared by all Sorh'Indian plays and is.,not the
,.,lonoolv o[ the plays of Bhsa. (iv) The deviations lrom Bharata's
Natyiaitra do ntit point to the pr-Classical age of Bhsa's dramas
have been usirally introducd in the later plays with a view to

-tjiev
securi'ng a more arresting stage-eflecl. (v) Regarding the.linguistic
cround! it is pointed oul"that ioo much importnce cannot be placed
3n this rrgr-'"nt as similar grammatical anonlalies occur also in the'
Eoic-lesenarv literalure and-in very late texls. Furrher rhe Prkrta
,ichaiss ari the characteristics o[ the Malayalam mss. And rhe
Prklit of the dramas is a factor depending more on the provenance

and age of the mss. than on the prov'enance-and age of the- dramati.st'
(vi) The verses ciled in Iarer ilorks are ncver associaterl with the
name of Bhsa. (vii) Some verses found in different anthologi-e-s are
not found in the trivandrum plays. (viii) The possibilitiy of Kerala
inflrrencehasbeenadvancedaSthefina1argument.
MM K. Sstri and others have tried to ttribute the authoiship
of the Trivandrum dramas to Saktibhadra on the sength of the fact
Pratima a:nd Abhi;eha were fourrd
that the mss. of careyacdamaryi,
combined together in one ms of Malabar. On the basis of this
curious comb'ination as also structural and verbal similarities, it was.
of akti-'
alrempted to attributc some of the plays to the authorship
-the
Antibhad; but it may be pointed oirt'that the views of
97
Aaanttsundarzhathct, credits BTa rvith t]ne pArvatipatinal,a arrj *ourO

rob Klidsa ol the Rtusarhhtia.
.An.ettempt has ben made ro estabiish the iclentity of
Sdraka
with Bhsa and to ascribe that some of the dramas, ilrcchahatika,

Balacarita, Aaimaraha and Vatsar,ajacarita to Sdraka. trn'the opi;io;
of some scholars C,arudatta is a stge-abridgment of ttre MrcchaLatika
but it has been found thar rhe iwo draas d.o nor being to 'the
same age and are not wrirtn by the same author. Tine l\[rchahatiha
is a later, revised and enlarged-version of the Carudatta.
The genealogy of Raghu'idynasry as found in rhe pratimd follows
the same order as described in KLidsa,s Raghuuathia and does not
tally wirh rhe order given in ta" iiivo.'" if,i. facr has led rhe
Pishraotis to conclude that Bhsa wa indetrted to Klidsa. ln
reply ,to _this, argument
pointed ;;t-iil"
ir i. q"ir."prfrrUi.
__
that both Bhsa and l_t
KIidia have drawn this gealoy frorn
common sources such as, the Yi;nupurna, trle pa-dma.pur-Ana and,
the Hariztarhia.
Dr Raja has referred ro Kerzla influence in the Trivandrum nlavsHe has picked up rhree words o[ Kerala orisin in rt-re Cu'aii"Ilr Thomas and H. Sastri conlroverr his viewi Kuppuswami Sairii
finds a reference to the ,sambandha, marriages of i.ialabar on th;
strtgth of the word 'sambandha'. This vie# has been .ort.oi'"r
!y Il. Kavi. K. R. Pishraoti bases his arguments on some minor
details and comes to the conclusion that the" plays are from Kerala.
Ilut the details can be found aII over India aird .. .rot confined to
Kerala alone. The absence of Srt in the coronatio", ret r"i. io
Statue houses and the manner of worshipping the statutes exhibit
;r local colouring in rhe opinion of pjshrri,"but C. Sastri.s r.eolv
.n this, point appears to b quite satisfactory. It has been ;r;;;
:rriarn that rhe Trivandrum plays- form a prt of repertoire of" the
(Jikyrs,_the traditional actois bf Kerala- 'It has
bn shown thai
thc^p_eculiar praclice of the Ckyrs is that they never act a drama
in [ull but selected scenes only.'that for e-ery'r.r thev stase thev
lr:rvc the set introduftion. The'pishrao,i.-*iriri"-ih;;';'h""flI";,,.,.
,l:,!lr{. are later.addirions while the main ....r"" huu. pr;;;i;;
:il
ttirL,,()rlginal p.lays, abridged or modelled in parrs, to suit the dxigencies
irl locai lhearres' rn their opinion rnuch of rhe rerative unitorrfiitv ot
rtvlt', dramatic method and formal lechnique
-ry nrr"-fr''ti.
ot loca[
It is by ro means'cc.rain'rf-,rt
rn"r"-pfryl
.ediring.
:,-:rrlll)e procluction
irt('.t
of one writer, they are a heterogeneous g1611Dl.1hg
ot
a
crass
of writers rvho beronged to one lchool a"nd ri,orked
l)rrrrrcr'
rtrrrlt.r its convention. Against this - argument it can
said
tlr;rr lhc. srage-reform in Ka]a is not eaflier ttnn rl.,le grhbe
centurv
wl)rle the exislence of the Surpr?aattsausdaila and other otrvi

presenr form mur.h before
period ii a"nriuho rl ts only possible thar theihat
'r.tor*
Kerala dramatists nnd ".""irl
^.r,.rlrcir.
lrr
98
his editorship, the plays of Bhsa would have remained mere fictitious names. Bhsa is mentioned
by Kalidasa, Bana, Raja6ekhara and others. MM G.
Sstrin, the editor, fixed the third century B.c. or
earlier as the date for Bhasa ; but European scholars
would not agree on the evidence of Prkrit. Th,ey
would like to place the author of these plays in the
third century A.D.
Apprecia-
tion
Bhsa's myriad-mindedness is weil reflected in the

number of his plays and the variety of their themes.
The style of Bhasa is simple, at the same time forcefu1, and conforms to what is known as the Vaidarbha
sty1e. The initial characteristic of the dramas of
Bhasa is action which has never been sacrificed for
poetry and poetic charm. In fact, the plays of Bhsa
are really of dramatic value and have qualities of a
very high order. On the other hand, there are

scholars who hold that the dramas in their Present
by the manifold devices and technique of these old plays

.oii"d th"s. oeculiarities and embodied them in their own manualsTtiough the'Pishraotis assert that Ckyrs are Sanskrit scholars,
Profeisor O. Stein raises doubt how far they were literary men
classical dramas by shortening them and workcapable of recasting
in thenr up into -stage-plavs. Ir has lso been iuggesled that the
plys ate n'ot the ogiirat'compositions of the Ckyrs buf laler
onipilations or adaptaiions. Dr Barnett holds that the plays were
impressed.
wored over by the ourt-poets of the Pndya kings while othrs take
them to be frbm the Patlava kings. The compilation or adaptation
theory has been set aside by Winternitz.
Scliolars are divided into two groups, one accepting and another
refusing to accept the dibco\erv:
Abhiankar, .{. tsanerjee-Sastii, S. K. lelvalkar, E. H. Dhru-v-a, J.
C. Ghaiak, H. Jacobi, K. P. Jayaswal, J. Jolly, M. R' KaIe, A. B Keith,
S. Konow, F. Lacote, V, Lesny, M. Lindanam, A. M' Murwarth, G.

Mcrgenstierne, S. M. Parajpe, W. Printz, A. l). Pusalker,_L.,_S-a1yP,
[,{M-H. Sastri, H. Sastri, V-S. Sukthankar, F. W. Thomas, H. Weller,

M. Winternitz and others belong to the first group, while L. D.
Barntt, J. Charpentier, C. R. Devdhara, P. V. Kane, R. Kavi, A. K.
Pishraotii K. R: Pishraoti, C. K. Raja, MM. R. Sarma, Hirananda
Sastri, NIIM K. Sastri, S. Levi, A. C. Woolner belong to the second
group.
DRAMA
99
forms are not the composition of one and the same

poet, but they are the composite product of the
plagiarism of many scriLres. Some scholars have even
gone so far as to surmise the existence of a genuine
Bhasa of whose works the extant plays are mere
abridgements by the traditional players of Southern
India (especially I(erala).
The thirteen plays of Bhsa may be arranged under Classificathree heads according to the sources from which the tion of
plots have been takenr--(u) plots taken from the lhasa's
ka*ayono, (b) plots taken frm the Mahabharato,o'u*u'
the Harhtacia and the Purnas, and (c) plots taken
probably from the Brhatlzatha of Gundhya and other
popular sources.
The PratimA (ntaka) which is the mosr popular of Rmya4athe Rmayana-plays, is written in seven acts. The plays
story starts from the death of King Da6aratha and
ends with Rma's return to Ayodhy from Lank.
The second play, based on the Ramayana. is the
Abhiseka (ntaka) in six acts. It takes up the story
of the epic at the point of the siaying of Valin and
,consecration of Sugnva and ends with the ordeal of
Slta and the consecrarion of Rma. It may be that
rhe drama is so named because it starts and ends
with a consecration. Compared with the Pratima its
<lramatic value appears to be somewhat inferior. It
is said that the play contains a series of situations
only but one misses a sequence of incidents gradually
<
lcveloperl.
The Madkyama-ayyoga deserves mention first 14u1ra5L6iurrongst t.he Mahabharata-plays. This drama (v,va- rata-plays
yoga) in one act amply tesrifies to rhe skill of the
<lrirmatist in characterization. The play is based on
101
1OO HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
the tale of Hidimb's love for Bhlma, for which there

is no hint in the epic. It is said that the possibilities
of the theme have not been fully developed' The
Dtaghatotkaca is also a drama (vyyoga) in one act
which describes Ghatotkaca appearing before the
Kauravas immediately after the death of Abhimanyu,
with the news that Arjuna is preparing for their
punishrnent. There is not much of action in the play
which presents a somewhat sketchy scene. The
Karnabhara (vyyoga) also contains one act, the story
being how the armour and ear-rings of KarTa are
stolen by Indra. Though the dramatic value of the
work is not universally acknowledged still the characterization of the hero appeals to our imagination. It
has been rightly said that tlne Karnabhara is 'not
only a one-act play but really a one-character play'.
The story of rubhahga (probably of the anka typ.),
in one act depicts the fight between Bhlma and
Duryodhana ending in the breaking of the latter's
thigh. The play reveals in an abundant measure the
dramatic power of the writer and the scene which
introduces the blind king and his consort and depicts'
the young son attempting to climb. on his father's
broken thigh produces the maximum Pathos. The
Diutaahya is also a drama (vyyoga) in one act
where KIq+u appears as an ambassador to bring
about reconciliaiion between the contending parties,
the Kauravas and the Paldavas, and is ill-treated by
Duryodhana who tries to entraP hirrrt without succesTtc Pafi.caratra is a play (samavakra) in three actsThere the story is h.ow Drona undertakes a sacrifice
for Duryodhana and seeks as fee the grant of half
the kin$dom to the Paldavas and Duryodhana pro.
mises on the condition that the Pfdavas who are

living incognito, shall be found out within five nights.
'Ihe story-value of the drama is not striking-rather
it is definitely inferior to that of the original. But it
,must be admitted that the drama possesses remarkable interest and that there are effective dramatic
scenes. The Balacarita is a drama (ntaka) in five
acts depicting various loosely-joined incidents in the
early life of Krsla up to the death of Karirsa. Its
plot seems to be derived from the Hariztama and the
Purnas describing Krsla's life. Critics have found
fault with the amount of killing in the drama. It is
a fact that there is a good deal of killing in almost
all the epic dramas but the Balacarita seems to have
surpassed them all in this respect. The drama, however, depicts a series of exciting incidents which are
very attractive.
Indian critics claim that Saapnaud,saaadatla is the Brhatbest of Bhsa's dramas where the poet has displayed kathplays
his skiil of characterization and a fine manipulation
of the plot which has made the drama interesting up
to the last. The play (ntaka) contains six acts. Its
theme is the marriage between Vatsarja {Jdayana
;rnd Padmvatr, the sister of King Dar6aka, which
was effected by Yaugandharyana, Udayana's ministcr, to serve a political purpose. To gain the end in
view, Yaugandharayana spread the rumour. that
Vasavadatt,'the former queen of Udayana, had been
lrrrrnt in a conflagration ; but he actually kept her as
ir hostage to Padmvatl. The plot of the drama has
lx:cn effectively devised. The inotif of the drama in
r\r:t V has been finely conceived. The characters o{
rlrc two heroines, Vsavadatt and Padmvatl have
DRAMA
IOZ HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
been ably differentiated and the psychoiogical study

of the feelings of the former is wonderful indeed. 'It
is a drama of fine sentiments and is entirely free frorn
the intrusion of melodrama.' The Pratiiayaugandharayana (ntaka) in four acts is the prelude to
Svapnaaasavadatta rvhich depicts Yaugandharayana
coming to Ujjayini and causing Vsavadatt to escape
with lJdayana who was taken captive bry Pradyota
Mahsena while the former was out hunting. It is
really a drama of political intrigue but achieves a more
diversified interest than the Mudrarh,sasa by interweaving a most colourful romance. The drama, which
is characterizedby simplicity and rapidiry of action, is
a skilful composition as the main interest of political
strategy is enhanced by the erotic sub-plot the principal characters of which have not been allowed to
pp.rr. The portrayai of Yaugandharya\a is perfect
and the manner of treatment of some of the episodes
bears the stamp of a careful dramatist. Tlne Carudatta
is an incomplete drama (prakarana) in four acts on
which Sudraka seems to have based lnis Mrcchahatiha.
The therne is the love-story of Brhma{ra Crudatta
and courtezan Yasantasen. The material for this
drama was taken from popular stories. Tlne Aaimaraha is a pTay (ntaka) in six acts, having for its theme
the union of Princess Kurangr with Prince VisTusena
alias Avimaraka. The drama is interesting for its refreshing theme but is not entirely free from a senti*
mental and melodramatic atmosphere in which the
hero seeks suicide twice and the heroine once. The dialogue of the hero with the nurse and the episode of
the jester and the maid are quite enjoyable. The plo
of all the four dramas are said to have been taken
103
the Brhatkatha, and they can be traced to the Kathasaritsagara.
The date and authorship of the Mrcchakatika (pra- sudruku:

karalra) in ten acts is still a disputed point in the age and
history of Sanskrit literature.' Accordirrg to ,o*" authorship
scholars, the drama was written by the poet DaTdin
who quotes a verse of the Mrcchakatika in his Kaayadaria3 But the discovery of the thirteen dramas of
Bhasa shows that the verse is found in the Carudatta
and the Balacarita also, and it is highly probable that
the drama was written just after the Carudatta, fiear
about the first century A.D. It is a point to be noted
that though Kalidasa mentions Bhsa, Saumilla and
Kaviputra, he does not say a word about Sudraka.
In the prologue of the Mrcchakatiha t};,e royal author
has been described as master of various Sstras. He
perlormed a horse-sacrifice and in the one hundred
and tenth year of his life entered into fire having
made over the kingdom to his son. From this it is
evident that either this portion of the text is an interpolation or that the real author was some one e1se.
The name of King Sudraka is found in the RajataranginV, the Kathasaritsagara and t}-e Sbanda-'purana. In
some of the manuscripts, Sudraka has been described
as a minister of Slivhana who subsequently became
the ruler of Pratisthna. Accordin to Professor
Konow, Sudraka is to be identified with the Abhtra
prince, Sivadatta. According to Dr Fleet, Sdraka's
'Vmana is the earliest known writer to quole from the drama of
ilrllaka.
I l)rofessor Pischel
first ascribes this play to Bhsa and next to

l);urrlin. According to the orthodox tradition, Daldin is the author
ol lfrrce works, the other two being, the Kaxyadaria and t}re Daial,tttttntcarita,
IO4
Klidsa
son fdvarasena defeated, the Andhras and established

the CedI era of t..248-49. The play which is universally acclaimed as unrivalled among similar works in
Sanskrit both for its execution as well as design, is a
prakarana in ten acts having the love-story of Crudatta and Vasantasen for its central therne. It is
a social drama with magnificient rouches of realism.
Here we have a refreshing plot of every-day life and
find ourselves coming down from the heights of
refined poetry and sentiment which characterize the
writings of Kalidasa and Bhavabhati to 'rhe firm rock
of grim reality'. Flere we move about in the company of thieves and gamblers, rogues and idlers,
courtezans and their associates, poiice constables and
mendicants. The characterization is of a high
standard. The drama is written in a simple yer
dignified style and the dramatist knows the art of
employing humour in all its aspects.
IJse of obscure words, extensive employment of
Prkrits, violation of the dramatic rules laid down by
Bharata in his llatyaiastra, the flourishing state of
Buddhism as depicted and the attitude of rolerance
towards it, the reference to the promulgators of the
science of theft, the custom of self-immolation, all
these and other facts are evidence of the play's comparative antiquity.t
' Kalidasa is'acclaimed as the best of Indian
dramatists, whorn Goethe has praised in the most fascinating
l Wilford assigns a date between first and third centurl, s.c. while
J. C. Ghatak plces him in the third century B.c. on the srrengrh of
astronomical data. According to Fergusson his date is 3l s.c. while
Prinsep makes it 2l s.c. lVL Williams places him in the first cenrury
a.o. while Lassen thinks that his age is a.o. 150. According to Wilson
he belonged to e.o. 190 while Macdnell, Pischel and Maheidale would.
place him as late as the sixth century a.D.
105
terms.
Superb characterization, study of human

nature and wonderful mastery over the Sanskrit
language have placed him in the forefront of Indian
dramatists. Kalidasa is not verbose like larer Sanskrit
dramatists, economy being the most remarkable
feature of his technique. Though Kalidasa is preeminently a poet of iove, he can-rise occasionallli to
a tragic elevation. Every character of Kalidsa's
dramas has a core of personality which is sharply
individualized. Though it is said that the druul
of Kalidasa lack action to some extent, yer rhey have
a moral puritv and a peculiar charm unsurpassed by
ny other Indian dramatist.
The Ma.laaika^gtimi-tra (nXaka), undoubtedly anMtavikg_
,eariier writing of the dramatisr, is written in five 261s. nimitra
l
It describes the love-story o{ Malavika and Agnimitra,

SilS ,rf Vidis and founder of the Sunga dynurty.
This drama, unlike the two others, is characterized by

.quick action. The jester is a veritabie rogue and is
far more intelligent than the jester in the Salzuntala.
The female characters and the dancing masters are
all creations of genuine and great merit.
The second drama, the Vihramorua.fiya shows a Vikramorremarkable advance ,pon the former in the *urri uuS:ryu
pulation of the plot, characterization and language,
and there are scholars who think that it is the last of
the three dramatic compositions of the poet. The
tnaterials for this drama, preserved in two recensions,
rrorthern and southern, have been taken from a
Sitrhvda-hymn (X. 95) of the Rgaeda. This drama
(trotaka) which is written in five acrs, has for its
tlrcme the union of the earthly King Purravas and
tlrc celestial nymph Urva6r. The fourth act of this
106
Skuntala
DRAMA
drama which is a soliloquy of the love-stricken and

frenzied Purravas, is a novel conception of the
dramatist. Though the scene is hardly dramatic and
lacks action still it scales a lyric height in course of
the description of the tumultuous ardour of undisci'
'
plined paision.
T}ae Abhijfr.anaalauntala or Sah.untala is the production of Kalidasa's maturer hand, which has gained
world-wide recognition and the play has been translated into many European languages. The drama
(ntaka) which is in seven acts, describes the union
of Dusyanta and Sakuntal cuiminating in the birth
of Bharata or Sarvadamana which is'the final result
in the drama. According to the dramatist '1ove to be
in divine form needs to be in three' i.e., conjugal love,
reaches its perfection with the birth of a child. The
plot of this drama has been taken from the Mahabharata, but the dramatist has introduced many
noble innovations. One important innovation iq the
curse of Durvsas, a highly irritable sage to whorn
Sakuntala faiis to extend rites of hospitality. The
story of the drama hinges on this supernatural eventThe curse produces a chastening influence on both
the hero and the heroine whose love which was more
of the flesh in the beginning turned out to be spiritual
in the end. The character of the foster-father of the
heroine, Kanva, is also another innovation. Kanva
does not appear as an austere ascetic ,rrir,t"r"rt"d in
the affairs of the wor1d. He is fuIl of the milk of
human kindness-he is not only sympathetic towards
his loving daughter and forgives her but he is also
anxious on her account. He loves his daughter and
appreciates her ways of 1ife. It is, therefore, that he
107
has not taught her the duties of ascetic life but has
allowed her to grow independently in the company
of her loving friends, Anasy and Priyarhvada. Not
only the woodland, the flowing Malinl, the antelope
and the jessamine creeper formed the background of
the growth and development of the heroine but it was
the loving and large-hearted father, the sage, who
contributed much towards the fruition of her career
as the consort of an admiring husband. The story
is also to be found, in the Padma-purana and the Pali
Jataka collections. There are four different recensions
of this drama, viz., Bengal, North-western, Kshmi-
rian and South Indian. According to Professor

Pischel, the Bengal recension fully represents the
original.
Three dramas are ascribed to Flarsa, King of Harsa

Kanyakubja, who reigned from a.o. 606 to r.o. 647.1
FIe was the reputed patron of Balabhatta who has
glorified him in his Harsacarita. Harga comes after
Kalidasa and has been able to improve upon the
pattern supplied by his predecessor. It is a fact that
he has 'succeeded in establishing the comedy of
court-intrigue as a distinct type in Sanskrit drama'.
There is an unmistakable trace of delicate workmanship in a1l his dramas and though he does not possess
a transcendent genius his writings are noted for grace
and perspicuity. Though a contemporary of Bfa
his style is simple and his prose is never ornate.
The Ratnaaalt wt-:ictr is Harsa's masterpiece, is a Ratnvalr
<lrama (natika) in four acts which deals with the story
'It is believed by some scholars that the author of these plays was
llrina and not }Iarga. Thus Professor Weber attributes RatuAtali to
llanabhatta while Professors Konow, Winternitz, L6vi and others accept

I lrrrsa's autholship.
DRAMA
IOB HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
of the union of King
Priyadar-
{ik
Ngnanda
Udayana and Ratnvah,

daughter of the King of Ceylon. Later dramaturgists
seem to regard it as a standard Sanskrit drama.
The Priyadariha is also a drama (ntik) in four
acts having for its theme the union of Udayana and
Priyadardika, daughter of King Drdhavarman. In
both these dramas we have not only a similarity of
subject-matter and form but also a reminiscence of
Klidsa's Malaxikagnimitra. The only original
feature of the Priyadarik is the effective introduction of a play within a play which is technically
called garbhanlea, as an integral part of the action.
The ltlAgAnanda is a drama (nataka) in five acts
which describes the self-sacrifice of Jlmutavhana,

Prince of Vidydharas. Besides the main theme
there is an interesting sub-plot in the drama in which
the hero's love for Malayavatr has been depicted. But

this sub-plot has not been made essential to the
development of the principal story. In a sense the
two are not well co-ordinated. It is not Malayavatr's
love which prompts the hero to perform the great act
of sacrifice. But the ideal of self-sacrificing magnanimity is in itself an ennobling theme which cannot but
catch the imagination of a discerning critic.
Mahendravikrama flourished in the first quarter of
14ahendravikrama: the seventh century A.D. }{is Mattaailasa is a farce
Matta(prahasana) in one act which describes the moral
lilsa
degradations of the dramatist's contemporary society,
The play shows the same technique of stage-craft and
other peculiarities as the plays of Bhsa, except that
the author is mentioned in the Prologue.
Bhavabhti is the next great name after Kalidasa
Rhavabhti
rvho is mentioned by Kalhala in his Rajatarahgiru as
109
a poet in the courr of Yadovarman, King of Knvakubja whose probable date is r.a. 736.. Vkpati also
refers to Bhavabhti in tris Gawdaualro. As is evident
from the protrogue of the Mlatimadhaua, Bhavabhuti
could not enjoy any popularity in his life-time.
Nevertheless, Bhavabhti displays a masterly skill
in characterizatirn, and his language is forceful.
Though he is pre-eminently a poer of the patheric
sentiment, he has excelled his great predecessor in
the delineation of the heroic and the wonderful.
Bhavabhuti is a follower of the Gauda style, while
Kalidasa is an advocate of the Vaidarbha. Bhavabhuti amplifies his theme, while Kalidsa suggests it.
Three dramas are ascribed to BhavabhUti of which Mahvirarhe MahaaVracarita is the earliest. The drarna (ntaka)
is written in seven acts, depicting the heroic achievements of Rma's early life. The plot is based on the
Ramayana, but the dramatist has introduced several
significant innovations. Though the characterization
is not aiways very happy and perfecr, srill the play
betrays a clear conception of dramatic technique nd
carita
workmanship.
The Malatimadhaaa is a prakarana in ren

which deals with the love-srory of Malatl
acts Mlati-
and mdhava
Madhava. But thele is a by-p1ot as well which concerns itself with the love of Makaranda and Madavantik. It is the genius of the dramatist which'has
shilfully. blended rogerher these rwo parallel love
stories. In spite of the length of the drama the
rlramatist has been successfl in sustaining the interest
ol his audience by a careful interplay of the two
1xrral1e1 but contrasted plots. It has been maintained
lry critics that the play iacks restraint and a tendency
10 HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
to over-ernphasize and an inability to stoP at ihe right

moment sometimes characterize his composition.
There is an exuberance of descriptive and emotional
stanzas as also elaborate Prose Passages. It is, however, admitted that the drama Possesses a unique
interest in the sense that it 'furnishes an attractive
description of certain aspects of ordinary middie-class
life.
The (Jttararamacarita is regarded as the best proIJttararmacarita duct of Bhavabhti's virile pen, where the dramatist
has shown his wonderful skill in delineating genuine
pathos and describing the sublime and aw{u1 -u:P-".!t
f ortrr.. The plot of this drama ("at15:), YT:h is
wrltten 1n seyen acts, covers the later life of Rma,
beginning from the banishment of Slta and ending
-their
hrppy re-union. The drama 'idealizes conin
jugal love and affection through the chastening
of sorrow'. The third act, known as

tlrie Ch,aya-ahh,a, the best in the drama, brings the
influence
hero and the heroine nearer each other and thus

prepares the ground for the reunion in the final
irt. The conception of the picture-gallery scene in
Act I, the fight between Lava and Candraketu

in Act V, the visit of Vadistha and the Party
to the hermitage of Valmrki in Act IV and the like
are skilful details which have been invented by the

creative genius of the dramatist for the development
of the theme. Likewise the characters of Atreyr,
Vsantr- and others bear eloquent testimony to the
excelling genius of the dramatist. But in spite of
Bhavabhuti's dramatic ski1l his poetry aPPears more
as an exceedingly human story of love and suffering
steeped in the charm of poetry and sentiment.
ill
The date of Vidakhadatta may be placed about Vidkha,4.o. 860, as the lunar eclipse mentioned in his drama datta:
Mudraraksasa is taken by some ro refer to the pheno- N{udrrksasa
menon of that date. The drama (ntaka) in sevn acts
may have the Brhathatha of Gundhya as rhe source
of its p1ot. The theme is a political intrigue between
Rksasa, the minister of the Nandas and Clakva,
the great politician, who succeeded in overthrowing
the Nandas
and winning Rksasa to the side oT
Candragupta. The drama occupies a unique piace in
the history of Sanskrit dramatic literatur insmuch
.as unlike almost all Sanskrir dramas it avoids not
,only the erotic feeling but also the erotic atmosphere.
Tl: -o{y interesr in the drama is politicai inirigue
which has been delineated with such masrery thal it
can absorb the mind of the audience. The difference
between this drama and the Pratijfrayaugandhalala.1ta of Bhasa which is also a drama of political
intrigue lies in this that whereas in the 1aiter the
plotting centres round a romanric episode the former
breaks away from the subject of love. It has been
rightly pointed out that the Mudrarah,sasa is a drama
without a heroine.
Vidakhadatta's power of characterization is indeed
commendable. A study in contrast lends vividness
to the distinctive tr-aits. The characrers of Calakva
and Rksasa as also of Candragupta and Malayakeiu
rrre illustrations of this point. The dramatisi cloes
not follow the conventional mode of technique ; yet
his work betrays considerable mastery ou"i draatic presentation. His style is forceful but not affected.
It is free from unnecessary embellishments. But it
(';rnnot be denied that it marks a distinct falling off
II2
Bhdttanryana:
Venrsarhhara
l\4urri:
Anargharghava
HISTORY.OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
from the lucid diction of Kalidsa and the grandeur

of Bhavabhuti.
Vmana and Anandavardhana quote from the work
of Bhattanarayarya who probably flourished in tn-e
eighth century a.p. His only drama (ntaka) VenTsachara, written in six acts, is' based on the story of
the Mahabharata. Bhlma kilIs. Dudsana and ties
the braid of Draupadi wirh his blood. Ultimately
he succeeds in killing Duryodhana also. Bhattanaryana is undoubtedly a remarkable craftsman
among later Sanskrit dramatists ; he is particularly
adept in describing the heroic sentiment. The first
three acts of the V enisah.hara are full of action,
and the predominant emotion is enthusia sm (utsaha)tThe poet has also very successfully illustrated the
manifold technicalities of Sanskrit dramaturgy in his
drama and it is for this reason that later dramaturgists have profusely quoted from his work.
Critics, however, have not spared Bhattanrvala
for some of his glaring defects. It has been pointed
out that the drama is not a unified work. It is rather
a panoramic presentation of a large number of incidents which cannot be held together by a gradually
deveioped sequence. Further, the preponderance of
long compounds and high-sounding expressions makes
|ris diction a highly unsuitable vehicle for drama. :
No other later dramatist was able to dramatize
successfully the R.ma-episode, after Bhavabhuti had
written his masterpieces. Murri who is no exception
wrote his Anargharghaaa somewhere about the
beginning of the ninth century A.D. The drama
(ntaka) is written in seven acts. Murri is mote an
elegant poet than a dramatist in the true sense and
DRAMA
113
it
may be said of him that he is typical of the decadent Sanskrit dramatists. The play has been considered a standard for poetic criticism and grammatical
learning.
Rajadekhara was the reputed teacher of King RjaeMahendrapla of Kanauj (a.n. 893-907). Among his khara:
many works, Rajadekhara has written four dramas. his plays
The Balaramayana is a drama (ntaka) in ten acts,
dealing with the life-history of Rma. Tlne Balabharata is an incomplete drama (ntaka) of which two
acts only are available. The Karpramaian., a play
(sattaka) in four acts, is written in Prkrit. It describes the vicissitudes of the love of king Candrapla
for a princess of Kuntala, the jealousy of the queen
with the consequent impediments, the secret meetings
of the lovers and the fina1 marriage. The Viddhaialabhaiika also is a drama (ntaka) in four acts depicting the secret marriage between King Vidydhara
and Princess MrgnkavatI, daughter of King Candravarman of Lta who sends her in the guise of a boy
to King Vidydhara's queen. Rjadekhara's style is
highly artificial, but the dramatist himself claims to
be a great poet.
The CandahauSiha of Kgemrdvara is a drama Ksemr(ntaka) in five acts. The author wrote this play fs1 6vara:
ki"g Uuhip ala of Kanauj whose a....rion' to the 9:.i.1'
kaudika
thro'ne took place in a.o. 914. Th" plo;;;;i';;;
is the famous story of King Hari6candra and sage
Vidvmitra. The siyle of tliis drama also is highly
artificial.
Dmodarami6ra wrote his Mahanatuka or Hanu- Dmodaramanntaka in the eleventh century A.D. The drama ffi:i}.
is found in three recensions separately containing ntaka
B
14 ursroRy oF cLASSTcAL sANSKRTT
DRAMA
LITERATURE
nine, ten and fourteen acts. The plot is based on

the Ramayana, and the dramatist shows considerable
skill in versification. It is a voluminous .vvork, more
a poem than a play and we often discover verses of
other authors freely introduced into it.
According to Lders it is specimen of shador,vpiays in Sanskrit in the sense thai it is written mainly
in verse with litrle of prose, that the verse is rrot of
the dramatic type bur narrative in character, thar
there is complete absence of Prkrit and that the
dramatis personae though large do not include the
Vidusaka.
The date of the Prabodhacandrodaya, an early

allegorical drama, wrirten by Krspamidra is uppro"iPrabodhamately the latter half of the eleventh century e..
candrodava
In the Prologue there is a reference ro one Gopla at
whose command the play was written to commemorate the victory of King Kr-rtivarman over the Cedi
King Karna. As the Cedi King is mentioned in an
inscription dated r,.o. lA42 and as an inscription of
Candeila King Kirtivarman is also dated a.r. l09B it
is concluded that Krslamidra belongs ro the second.
half of the eleventh century a.o. fhe characters of
this drama are Viveka, Manas, Buddhi, etc. This
drama is a solitary insrance where the quietistic
sentimenr has been represented on the ,tug. The
drarna (ntaka) contains six acts, and the- style is
Krrami6ra:
simple.
The history of the origin of allegorical dramas in

Sanskrit is iittle known and it is difficult to say
whether Kyglamidra has revived an old tradition or
the credit belongs to him of attempting to produce
115
ymboiical drama by means of personified absrractions. Philosophical allegories may be traced in the
story of Purafijaya in the Srtmad Bhagaaata (chap.
25-28) which may have inspired larer wrirers in turn-
"ing a dogma into a drama. It is obvious thar such

allegorical drarnas by reason of their remoteness frm
real life and their concern with abstract ideas and
symbols are hardly expected to create the maximum
interest. Krsr]ami6ra has, however, succeeded in
presenting a vivid picture of the spiritual struggle of
,the human mind in the dramatic form of a lively
,conflict in which the erotic, comic and devotional
interests are cleverly utilized. In form the work is a
regular comedy and its dialogue is lively. The author
shows considerable power of introducing satire of the
purest type. His power of characterization is bold
and the interesr is not allowed to flag. Though
Krsr,ramira's work possesses a permanent value of its
own, still the works of later wrirers inspired by him
,lI" of little imporrance. Thus Mohaparajaya of

Ya6atrpla (thirteenth centur)), a play in five acrs,
written in the interesr of Jainism, tini Caitanyacandroof Paramnandadsasena Kavikarlapra (sixreenth century) depicting a dramatized form of SrI
Caitanya's life at the command of Pratparudra of
Orissa, the Dharmauijaya of Bhudeva ukla (sixtccnth century) in five acrs, the VidyTparinaya and
rlrc lruananda of Vedakavi each in seven ats (the
(scventeenth-eighteenth century), tirre Arurtodaya of
( lrkulantha in five acts
(seventeenrh century), the
Sri.damacarita of Samarajadiksita in five acts (seventccrnth century), tlne Sahkalpasryodaya ot Venkatanatha Vedanmdedika Kavitrkikasirhha in ten acts
rlaya
t17
DRAMA
and the Yatiriaaiiaya of Yaradacatya in six acts are

some of the allegorical dramas.
Kundamdl: ascribed to Dinnga or Dhiranga-quoted in the

Sahityadarpana-not later than the thirteenth century e..
I16
by Subhala of the thirteenth cenrury e.o.-a
.Dtahgada:
play.
shadow-
Hammlramadamardana: by Jayasirhha of the thirteenth century
five
tr.
LESS IMPORTANT DRAM.dS
by Bodhyanakavi-sometime between the first

tnt to.ru .dntury ,t'o.-written with the purPose of ridiculing the doclrine of-Buddhism -a prahasana in tuo acls' so
n".r"re the principal charactdrs are Bhagavn, a mendi"u?o"
and Ajjuk, a hataera.
cant
bv Anahgaharsa Mlrarja-Dr Keith fixes the
Tabasaucttsaraiacriu:
--'rs"
ol rbL Ratnauad as the-uppei .limir ot the work-based on a
Bhaeaxadaiiuhxya:
- '-'"rn
A.D.
acts.
-in
{/ikrdntahauraaa
and Li[aiqhilThalyna: by Hastimalla of the thirteenth
century e.o.-in six and five acts respectively.
Paroatlparinaya: atrributed to B!a, but allottrjd to Vmana Bl-ratta

Bna of ihe fourteenth centurv A,D,
Saugan'dtihaharat.ta: by Vi6vanth of the fourteenrh century A.D.-
vyayoga.
Dhrtasamagama:
by
Kavidehhara
a prahasana in one
act.
of the fourteenth century ,D.-
Vidagdhamadhan-ta and Lalitamddhaaa:
by Rpagosvmin of the six-
teenth century ,t.o.-dealing with the attiaciive Krsna legendin seren and ten acts respectirely.
Karhsaaaelha: by Sesakrsna of the seventeenth century e.o.-in seven
Vatiai-aia, PadmratI and Vsaradatt'

viriation of the
Candra
Unaiai, a Buddhist clrama in Ti6etan version ascribed togrammaor Candraka(?) who is identified with Cndragomin, the
rian, ol the seventh centurv A.D.
Udfrttardshaua: a lost Rma-drama by Myurja -quoted five times
in le Daiarupaha and is known r Abhinavagupta a.nd Kttn.faka,'
Saapnadaianana: 6y Bhimata who wrote fire drarmas in all- mentioned
Jdnahiparinaya: by Rmabhadra Dikqita
nnrikabit"dava: a r]a\ in one act by Meghaprabhcrya-a shadowdrama'o[ inknown are-the stage-direction mentioning clearly a
puppet (putrakal and calling itself a chayAnAtyaPrabandha.' ,
Kariasu'ndar'i: by BilhaTa of the eleventh century A'D'-a natlka.
Citrbharoto, b1, Kqemndra of the eleventh century e.n.-a lost
Dhrtanartaka: by Smarja Diksita of the seventeenth century e.o.a prahasana in one act but with two sandhls.
KautukaratnAhara: by Kavitrkika, son of Bnrntha of the sixteenth
century e.o.-a prahasana.
Adbhutadarpana: by Mahdeva, contemporary of Rmabhadra--in
ten acts.
Hd.syrnaua: by Jagadidvara of unknown dare-a highly popular
theme ol-
by Riadekhara.
drama.
by Rmabhadra Muni of the twelfth century

a.o.-in six acts.
Kaumu.mitrananda'. by Rmacandra of the twelfth century A'D'-a
orakarana in ten acts.
by Saikhadhara Kavirja of the twelfth century A'D'
Latahamelaia:
'
prahasan io t*o acts describing the -assemblage -of difierent
-a
kind of roguish people at the house of Dantur for winning
the favour f her'dai.rehter. Madanamafr.iarr.
l\tudritahumudacandra: by-Ya6acandra of the twelfth century A'D'a Jinistic drama.
Nirbhiyabhimatsy@.yoga: by Rmacandra, a prolific Jaina dramatist'
Prabudtlharauhiryeyaz
belonging to the twelfth century A'D.

Kiratarju:zy . Ruhmiryl_harana,__'Tripuradalm' Samudramathana,
Kirpiacata and i'Tasyacudmani: by Vatsarja-.of the twelfth
lhmrg in fotrr
cenfurv a.o.-the first, a vyyoea;
'fo-ur the second. an
acts : the fourth, a samavakra
,cr. ; ih" third, a dima in
in three acts, the f,fih, a bhana and the sixth, a farce (prahasana)
in one act.
Prthapar.ctkrama:
a
vyayoga.
by
Prahldanadeva
of the twelfth century A.D'-
by Jayadeva (of Berar) -of the tweifth century A.D.

ol tt'e RAnxAyarya-a nAlaka in seven acts'
-based
by Vidiadeva Vigraharja of the twelfth century
Harahelinlaha:
A,D.-Partially preserved in stone.
Prasannargi.axa:
acts.
of the
seventeenth century
A.D.
llallihdmdruta: by Udda!din of the

prakarana.
seventeenth century A.D.-a
in two cts.
by Goplntha of unknown date-a prahasana
written for the Durg puj in Bengal-more amusing and less
prahasana
Kautuhasaruasua:
vulgar than other prahasanas.

[lnmattarghaaa: by Bhskara of unknown date-an airka.
Alulzundananda: by Kdipati Kavirja who flourished at the Court
,of Naijarja of Nlysore of the eighteenth century a.o.-a mixed
bhna.
lIrthaasadhana: by Nrtyagopla Kavirarna of the nineteenrh

century A.D.
lm.aramahgala: by. Paficnana Tarkaratna of the latter half of the
ninetenth century a.o. and the first half of the twentieth centurv
a.n.;*in eight
acis.
EFERENCES
Ayyar. A. S.
P.:
?zoo plays
of Bhdsa
ll;rrooah, A.: Bhauabhti-His Place in Sanshrit Literature

ll;rsrr, Chandranatht SohuntalAtutua
Ii;rsrr, Devendranath : Sakuntal,ay NptyakalZ
lltlvalkar. S. K.: (i) Origin of Indian Drama (The Calcutta Reuiew,
May, 1922) (ii) Uttararfrmacarita (HOS)
Itlr:rndarkar, R.
G.:
Mdtatlmddhaaa
118 rusroRy oF cLASSTcAL sANSKRIT LITERATURE'

of the Ratnuafi
hler, G.: On the Authorship
Chatieriee. Bankim Chandra: Viuidhaprabandha
Chatteriee. N.: Mrcchakalika: A Studt
(IA' Vol' I]
;;;hr,'i.'i..'-Flry' scribed' to Bhdsa" Their Authenticitv and

Merits
Gaienragadkar, A. B.: The Veryisamhara-A Cr'itical Study
Holruitz, E. P.: The Indian Theatre
kG. la.' R.: i\ Abhiiiana!;ahuntala, (1\) uttararamacarita
K;ilh, A. n.: iil rne Sanshrit Dramai (ii) JR.AS. 1909'
Kulkarni, K. P',i Sanshrit Drama and Dramatists
Konow, S.: TA. Vol' XLIII (on Viikhdarta)
Konow, S. & Lanmann, C. R.: Karpurantaftiarl (HOS)
Lvr, S.: Le Theatre Indien
Maconell, A. A.: A History of Sanskrit Literature
Mankad, D. R.; The Ts.pes of Sanshrit DramaNariman, G. K. & & Jatson, A. V. W': PtiyadariihZi
Pishraoti, A. K.: Bhsa's Works--'a Criticism
Pusaiker. A. D.: hasa: a Sludy
Ranson. E.: TRAS. 1900, (on Vi6khadatta)
iJ;;;;i
61 rne origi" o7 Tragedl', \iil Dtamns and Dramatic
Dances ol Non-Eurobeatt Races
strin, shdkanath: (i) Prcinhltdrate Drlyakduyotpattir lihaso
(Bhratauarsa, B,S. IJJJ-34). (ii) Bhdratlvanatyer Vedant.lako,td,
(iiiS Bharaiiy'andtycr Praclnatt -.1.\Jo:ik Vasutnatl, B'S' 1315-46)"
(iv1 AbhinayadorPana
oI Nandikeixara^
-hasa's
Worhs- a Critical Sttrdy
strin, T. C.:
Tagore, Rabindranath: Prpczn Sahityct
Vivbhusana, S. C.: Ddtc of Ratntuh
Weber, A. : The History of I ndian Literature
Wilson, H. H.: Theatre of the Hindus
Winternitz, M.: Some Prblems of Indian Literature
Yajnik, R. K.: Tfue lndian Theatre
_
CHAPTtrR IX
LYRIC POETRY
A.
INTRODUCTION
Crassrcar, Sanskrit literature is very rich in lyrical Extent of

poetry. Though it is a fact that Classical lyric poetry l-i.::l'to
llt"'
iru, ,io, produled many works of considerubl. i.r.g,h
and size, yet none would deny that its merit is usually
of a high order. Lyrical poets have often been
successful in depicting the amorous feeling with a
few artistic strokes, and their compositions can very
well stand comparison with those of foreign poets.
The range of lyrical literature in Sanskrit is very
wide. It is not confined to the theme of love and
amorous feeling only. It includes secular, religious,
gnomic and didactic poems and thus offers a variety
which is sufficient to prevent monotony.
In all lyrical poems dealing with love, Nature FIaYS Nat.rr" i.,
a very important part. The intimate relation between Sanskrit
Natuie a;d Man has not in all probability found 2 lyrics
more charming expression in any other branch of
literature. The Lotus and the Lily, the Cakora, the
Cakravka and the Cataka, all are inseparably connected with human life and love in its different
phases.
It is further to be noted that Prkrit iiterature is.Prkrit

also very rich in lyrical poetry. The Satta5al 61 lyrics
Gathasaptaati attrtbuted to Stavhana is an outstanding work of this type. The book is a collection
120
of
in Prkrit dealing with various

of the sentiment of love. B?a refers to this
work in l;ris Harsacarita. Professor Nlacdonell wants
to place it before 1000 a.n. If, on the other hand,
Hala or Stavhana, ro whom the work is attributed,
is taken as a king of that .name of the Andhra
dynasty, the work must be placed early in the
seven hundred verses
phases
Christian era.
.
Y.shndta
r.YRrc
GROWTH AND DE\IELOPMENT OT'

LYRIC POETRY
The name of Kalidasa stands high in the realm of

"no
Sanskrit lyrical poetry. There is
gainsaying the
fact that }ais Meghadata whidn'has been unsuccessfully imitated times without number by later poets,r
is the finest flower of Classical lyric poetry. The lyric
has inspired poets like Goethe and Rabindranath
who have lavishly bestowed their praise upon rhis
magic personality in literature. Fancifully the poet
makes a cloud the rnessenger of the message of love
and admiration to the beioved of a banished Yaksa,
who had been pining for her during the rainy season
at AIak. The work is divided into tl,vo sections
1
No less than fifty D{ta-kvyas on the modei of Klidsa's Ltleghadta are extant in Sanskrit literature, It is true that their poeiical
worth is not much. Their chief interest lies in the utilization of
the original fotm and molive in diverse ways and {or diflerent purposes.
o1 o,nly inanimate objects but beasts and birds as weII as mythological personalities and even abstract things have been chosen as
messengers for imaginary.journeys over different places in India.
Metres orher than Mandkrnr har-e been employed. Jaina and
Vaisnar.a writers have used such poems as the vehicle of religious
instruction.
Vedntadeika's _Harhs.asandela (thirteenth century o.o.), Rpagosvmin's Hainsarlta (sixteenth century a.o.), Krslnn da,s' paddhha. (lta (seyeoteenth cntury a.o.) are some of the more well-known
Dtakvyas,
PoETRY
121
known as the Puraamegha and the Uttaramegh.a.

The poem is written in Mandakrnt metre of. gor,geous rhythm like the roar of a July cloud weary
under the burden of its water. This is also quite in
keeping with the sublime conception of love which,
tinged with the burning colour of separation, resemtrles a black cloud with a silver lining. The stanzas
(ontaining the words of message are the most PoiSrant and beautiful in literature, and the lyric will
,ever stand impressed on our memory like a rainbow
,springing from the earth. The book has been translated into various European languages, and Schiller's
Maria Stuart owes its origin to it.
Tt.e $.tusamhara is the second lyric of Ka1idasa.
It is a short poem in six cantos describing all the six
seasons of the year. It is undoubtedly an earlier
production of the poet and though Kalidasa's authorship of this poem is doubted by many scholars,l still
we can find in it the aspirations of a budding poet.2
Tradition makes Ghatakarpara one of the nine
qems in the court of King Vikramditya. Tlne Ghata'
learpara-haaya after the name of the poet is written
in twenty-two stanzas. It describes how a young wife
in the beginning of the rains sends a cloud-messenger
to her
absent husband.
Rtusarhhra
Ghata-
karpara:
Ghatakarpara-
kvya
The poem abounds in
yamakas (figures of speech) of which the author feels

proud.
Bhartrhari has to his credit the three Satakas

(collections, of a hundred verses), viz., (a) the Srnga-
Bhartr-
hari:
raiataka (b) the NttiSataba and (c) the Vairagya|atah,a. three
atakas
rProfessors Kielhorn, Bhler, Macdonell, Schroeder and others

:rct:cpt the authorship of Klidsa while other scholars entertain a
.
lilfcrcnt view.
'See, Aurobinda Ghosh, Klidsa ; Gajendragadkar,
Rtusarh.hara.
122
Mayra:
Srya6ataka
Amaru:
Amaru6ataka
HISToRY oF CLASSICAI, SANSKRIT LITERATURE
The single authorship of these three poems is doubtect

pI .o-" _scholars, but Indian tradition acceprs Bhartrhari as their author. Bhartrhari is said to^have died
in a.o. 651.r All rhe three poems are written in a
very lucid style, and they have the greatest interest
to those for whom they are .intended.
Mayra was a contemporary of Bar,rabhatta of the
seventh century A.D., and is reported to be his fatherin-law. }Jis Sryaiatakaz is i religious 1yric in one
hundred verses written in honour of the Sun. Tradition sa.ys that the poet was cured. of leprosy by
cornposing this eulogy of the Sun.3
It is impossible to ascerrain rhe dare of AmaruVmana (a.n. 800) is the earliest wrirer who quotes
three verses from the Aruaruiataka, a lyrical po.*
in one hundred stanzas4 describing the conditions of
women at different srages of life aird love. The poet
is real1y gifted and his delineation of sentiments and
emotions, especially of love, is superb in character.
The love which Amaru likes is gay and high-spirited,
and unlike Bhartrhari he paints the relation of 1or,.r*
and takes no thought of other aspecrs of life. According to the commentator Ravicandra Amaru's stanzas
have double meanings, one erotic and the other philosophical. But another commenraror Vemabhpla
takes it to be a purely rhetorical textbook meuni for
1
It is yet to be
same person as
Vhyapadtya.
decided whether the author of the Satakas is the

the famous grammarian of that name who wrote the
are other Sryaiatakas by different poets which clo not

Vajradatta,. a Buddhist poet of the ninth cntury A.D. com
_ .3
I;:is Lokeluaraiataka and wa-s cured of 'leprosy.
.l.The text of_ the poem has come dorin t'o us in four recer
,'Thireany spectal mention.

deserve
which vary widely among
themselves.
LYRIC
POETRY
123"
illustrating the various classes of heroines and the

diversity of their modes of 1ove. His style is difficu-It,.
but ceriainly graceful. Amaru's Poem has found the
widest recognition in the hands of Sanskrit rhetoricians and he is quoted by great thinkers on Poetry
like Anandavardhana. The Poem has been commented on by more than a dozen writers inciuding
Arjunavarman (e.n. 1215).
th" c o u, op a c a si k a ar B it h an a u u" O. :I
I E*ll,r*
û:!n$
o[ ""his.-;r
a lover's recollections of the s\\'eet company
beloved. The poem contains fifty stanzas. The date
of the poet is a.o. 1076-e.o. 1127. Bhratacandra, a
Bengali poet of the eighteenth century A.D., drew
the lnspiiation of his popular Poem lVidyasundara'
from this work of Bilhala.
The Krs.ra-legend found a poetical interPreter in Jayacleva:
GttlJayad.eva, the last gr.ut nu* in Sanskrit poetry, govinda
iho flourishecl in Bengal during .h. ;;;""f otJt
Laksmanasena of the twelfth centul'y A.D. lle was
the son of Bhojadeva of Kendubilva. His poem, the
Gvtagoainda, ranks high amongst Sanskrit lyrics, and
the poet is a gifted master of poetry. According to
Professor Macdonell the poem marks a transitional
period between pure lyric and pure drama.l Sir
William Jones cal1s it a small pastoral drama while
Professor Lassen regards it as a lyrical drama.
Leopold von Schroeder would look upon it as a refined
yatra- Both Professors Pischel and L6vi place it in
the category between song and drama. Some Indian
scholars maintain that the poem is a court-epic.
1
It is probable that the poet took as his model popular plays

life of K1s+a as the modern ytrs
rcpresenting incidents from the

in Bengal still do.
12+
Dhoyl:
Pavana-
,dta
Dhoyr, a contemporary of Jayadeva, graced the

court of King Laksmanasena. Like other Dtakvyas,
his poem, dne Pauanaduta, is written in imitation of
dne Meghadta. The poet makes Kuvalayavatr, a
Gandharva maiden of the Malaya hills, faIl in love
with the hero (the poet's patron, King Laksmanasena) during the latter's career of conquest in the
south and send the south-easterly wind as a messenger.
C.
LESSER LYRIC POEMS
AND ANTHOLOGIES
:srhgaratilaha: attributcd to Klidsa-containing attractive pictures

of love in twenty-three stanzas.
Bhahtamarastotra: by Mnatuga, probably a contemporary of Bla
or earlier-written in honour of the Jaina saint $gabha in forty-
four
verses.
Kalyanama.ndirctstotrat by Siddhasena Divkara,^ probably of the

seventh century a.o.-written in imitation of Mnatunga-con-
taining forty-four
stanzas.
and AslamahScaityastotrai by King l{arsavardhana-the first being a morning hymn in twenty-four verses
in praise of Buddha and the second, a hymn in five verses in
praise ol the eight gteat shrines.
of the seventh centurv a.n.-a collection
Candiiataka:
bv Bnabhatta
'and
' '.f
orr" hunred
two verses written in honur of the goddess
Suprabhtastotra
-
PrvatI.
Sragdharfistotra: by. Sarvajfiamitra, a Bucldhist of the eighth century

a.o.-dedicated to Tar, the Buddhist goddess-containing thirtyseven stanzas.
Ku[tdnxmata: by Dmodaragupta, minister of . King Jaypida of

Kshmir (t.. 77Z-d,.o. 813) an interesting treatise on Indian
pornography showing how a young girl wins gold by making use
of all the arts of flattery and feigned love--possessing historical
interest as
it
depicts a representation
of
Flarsa's Ratnaaali.
nandalahari ot Saundaryalahari and Ltlohamudgara: attributed to

ankara, the great teacher of monistic Vednta.
Dettataha: by Anandavardhana, the famous rhetorician of the ninth
century A.D.
Bhallata-Sataha:
by Bhallata, a junior contemporary of Anandavardhana-a gnomic poem.
Mahimnasstotra: by Puspadanta, not later than the ninth century

a.o.-a religious lyric.
.Subhfi;itaratnasandoha, Dharmapaksd &. Yogasara: by Amitagati of
the tnth century a.o.-all didactic poems.
Krsnaharnamrta & Vrnd.duanastuti: by Bilvamaigala or LIIduka of
the eleventh century A.D.-very popular and graceful in style,
t25
LYRIC POETRY
Samay amatrhd, Kalatil@sa, D arpadalana,
gasarhgraha
&
didactic poems.
Crucaryataha;
by
euy aseuak opade
Ksmendra^
3a,
C at
uruar-
of Kshmir-all
an anthology in 525 stanzas-of the

Anyohtimuhtlatdiaiaha: by Sambhu who wrote under Harsa of
Kshmir (a.n. 1089-a.o. itOt;-a gnomic poem.
ryasaptoiatl: by Covardhana, a conremporary of Jayadera-containing seven hundred erolic stanzas-written after' the Sallasai ol
Kauindrauacanasamucco)ai.
eleventh centurv A.D.
Hla.
& Xlalruulrastotra: by llemacandra of the

lyric poems, sometimes
Sarluhtiharnamr!o: an anrhology by Sridhara of rhc twel[rh cenlury
_ n-o.-including_excerpts troin 4+O poets, largely of Bengal.
Sdntiiat.aha: by Silhalaf of Kshmir who lived Lefore a.o] 1205written in rhe style o[ Bhartrhari's poems.
Bhakti.lataka: by Rmacandm of B.rgri who came to Ceylon wirh
- King.Parkramabhu (rhirreenth ienrury a.o.).
Syhgarauairgy.a-tarahginl: by Somaprabha oi the' rhirreenth cenrury
.r-o.-a didactic poem in forty-six stanzas written in perfect
Kvya style.
SubhasitamuhtAr.)aIxi. an anthology by JalhaTa of the thirteenth
century A.D.
Sarhgadharapaddhati: an anthology by rngadhara of the fourtenth century a.o.-arranged in 163 sections and containing 4689,
Yogadstra, VxturAgastotra
twelfth_ century- A.D.-very good didactic

reminding us oI rhe poems of Bharrrhari.
ta nza s.
Subhasitaalt: an anthology by rivara of the fifteenth century a.o.

Padyauali: an anthology by Rpagosvmin o[ rhe fi[reenth ienrury
a..-containing verses in honour of Krsna from a wide rang
of authors.
Bhdmiruuild.sa & Gahgalaha:
by Jaganntha, the famous rhetorician

of the sevententh centurv A.D[N.8.- Names of some- lyiical poetesses and their stray verses are
found in some anthologies. The more important ainong therrare Silbhattrik, Vijjak, Vikatanitamb,'priyarhvacl tc.l
REFERENCES
NI: Classical Sanshrit Litetature

Macdonnell, A. A.: A History of Sanskrit Literature
Weber, A.: The History' of lidian Literature
Krishnamachariar,
HrsroRrcAl
CHAPTER X
HISTORICAL WR.ITINGS
A.
INTRODUCTION
?aucity of Noeov denies the antiquity and greatness of Indian

I{istorical civilization but it is rather unfortunate that in the
rvorks
{caLlses
wide range of early or medieval Sanskrit literature,

one seldom comes across a useful work of history'
The paucity of authoritative historical books bewilclers [ ,trr.r.t, of Classical Sanskrit literature, and
it is a pity that India has failed to produce even one
ortrtut ding historian noted for his critical insight
and scientific presentation of facts. It is, however,
aclmitted o.r uU hands that Kalhala is the most successful of all Indian historians and that the history
of Kashmir would have remained obscure without
his immortal work, the Raiatarahgint. But eYen
Kalhana's writings are not without exaggerated and
..confusing statements, and poetic fancy has often been
allowed io dominate the genuine spirit of a historian'

The causes of the paucity of historical works may be
traced to the peculiarities of Indian psychology "4_.d
by environmnt and the course of events. The
ppular Indian view on worldly life and the teachings
f India" philosophical and religious works are surely
responsible for fostering a feeling of apathy towards
,rruiirrg any serious attemPt at recording facts and
dwelling on them.
wRrrrNGS
IZT
The beginnings of Indian history are to. be traced riarliest

to the Purnas lvhich contain amidst vast masses 6f Historical
religious and social matters, accounts of genealogi., *otkt
r,vhich are the very germs of history.
In Prkrit, however, there is i .rr"ry important Vkpati:
historical work called the GautJaaaho' which qrzs Gauavaho
written by Vakpati. It celebrates th. defeat of one
Gauda king by_ Yadovarman, king of Kanauj, the
poet's
who
_was again overihrown by ialita_
-p3rlorr,
ditya hrtukrprda,
king oT Kashmir. Vakpati is a
follower of the Gauda style and uses long coirpoun.ls.
His date has approximately been fixed I" th" eighth
century a.n., and he is mentioned along with Bhava-
.bhutl.
B.
CROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF

HISTORICAI, WORKS
Padmagupta also known as parimala, wrote his Fadma_

Naaasahasanhacarita in a.o. 1050. The book con_ gupra:
rrrins eighteen cantos and describes the winnins o1 Navashal\incess Sadiprabha and also alludes to the histofy
Sindhurja Navashasnka of Mlava.
"f :ilrf:
Sandhyakaranandin's Ramapalacarita describes Sandhy,
rlrrough double entendre the story of Rama and also krrrrrurrtlrt' Iristorv of King Rmapla of Bengal who re_*,]-l
,.,rvcred his ancestru'i ho,," i.orr, Bh-r*r:;
l^T"n""'"
r,lricf.
.and _conquered Mithila. Sandhykarrrrndi,-,
ll,,rrlished during a.o. I057-a.o. 1087.
patron was Vikramaditya VI, a Calukya Bilhana:
,.Ilillhap'l
I'irrr of Kalyna who flourished duiine a.o. 1076-a.p. Vikramn-
il;r;;
ll17.
Bilhana glorified his patron Ey writinq 6i, kadevl'ilifttntqnkadeaacarita in eighteer, .u.rtor. Biihuqu tu,r,u
l28 rrrsroRy oF cLASSTcAL SANSKRIT TTTERATURE
a Poet than a historian and his work

in numerous imaginary and fanciful des-
was more
abounds
criptions.
Kalhana:
Riataran911.11
IIemacandra:
Kumraplacarita
P-r1hvt-
,?Ja'
Yllaya
Kalhala is the best of Indian historians' FIe wrote

}ris Rajatarangint in a'n. 1100. Kalha']a has derived
materials for his book from older sources including
t}re Ntlarnata-purar;ta. The Raiarurah.gint is the only
reliable book'on the history of Kashmir after the
death of King Harga when the country passed through
stormy blooy days. Though a historian, Kalhana
hus the rare gifts of a poet, and his book it a wonderful admixture of poetic fancy and historical facts'
According to European scholars, it is the.only work
in Sanskrit literature which approaches history to a
certain extent.
Ilemacandra who flourished during a.n. l088-a'o'
ll72 wrote his Kumarapalacarita or DayaSrayakauya
in honour of Kumrapla, king of the Clukyas'
The anonymous Prthotraiaaiiaya celebrates the
victories of King Prthvirja over Shihab-ud-din Gho
in a.o. 1191.
C. MINOR HISTORICAL WORKS

bv Pradvumnasri
(a.o. 1277)-regarded as a continualion ol Hemacndr a's' Pari ii staDaruon-contai-ning the life-history of twenty-two Jaina teac
l-a semi-historical work.
Raiendraharnapra: by Sambhu who wrote in honour of Ha
Prabhaahacaritraz by Prabhcandra and rerised
" ot Kshmir (n.o.
1089-,t.o. ll0l).
& Surathotsaua: by Somedvaradatta (a'' 1179-e'n' I
-Ktrtikaumurlz
l*or" in the form of pangyrics-the latter, written in fil
cantos.
Sulertasahhtrtana: by Arisirhha of the thirteenth century a'o'-a
gyric in eleten cantos'
uca ri a : by Sarvnanda of unknown date-a panegYric of a Ja
I a ga"d
- uho
iendered help to his townsfolk at the time of the famine
e.o. 1256-8 in Gujart.
t
t?9
HISTORICAL WRITINGS
Prabandhacintamalei: by Merutufrga of the fourteenth century A.D.-a

quasi-historical-bjographical u ork.
Prabandhakoia: by Rjaekhara of the fourteenth century A.D..-containing the life-stories of Jaina teachers, poets, king6 and other
personages.
I{trtiLatS: by Vidypati of the fourteenth cntury
A.D,
REFERENCES
Keith, A. B.: A History of Sanskrit Lilerature

Macdonell, A. A.: A History of Sanshrit Liter&ture
Weber, A.: The History of lndian Literature
Winternitz, M.a A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II.
pRosE
PROSE LITERI'TURE
History of
Sanskrit
Prose
Iiterature
INTRODUCTION
IN matters of expression the Indian mind has alway.s

preferred poe.try to Prose. Commentaries and lexicons were wntten ln verse, and sometimes even conversation was carried on in metre. The major portion of Vedic literature is in metre. So this peculiarity
of the Indian mind is the cause of the dearth of
prose literature in Sanskrit. In the Krsna-Yaiuraeda,ilo*"rr"., we come across the earliest specimen of
prose-writing. The prose of the Atharaatteda should
lso be coniidered in connexion with the study of
the history and development of prose-writing in ancient
India. The prose of the Brhmanas is simple yet
elegant, and ihe prose of the Stra literature is more
o, f"t, in the form of a message such as we usually
send in a telegram. None of these, however, can give
us any standrd of writing which may be imitated
with profit. The prose Portions of dne Mahabharata,
and f the Pranas such as the Visnu and the
Bhagaaata, and of the medical compilations of Caraka
and Sudruta should also be mentioned. The earliest
standard of prose-writing is to be found in Patafljali's
Mahabhasya which is noted for its grace, vigour and
elegance, and in it we find the perfection of Brhrrali'
cal prose. The prose of explantory treatises or commeitrries offers a good example of Sanskrit composi'
tion. Thus the writings of
Sabarasvmin
l3l
the commentaries of Sankara on the Brahmastras

and the lJpanisads and the explanatory work of
CHAPTER XI
A.
LTTERATURE
on
the
MTmamsasutras, of Vtsyyana on the Nyayasutras'
Medhatithi on Manusmrti are insiances ro the point.

Besides all these, there is the prose of the early
dramatic literature which necessarily demands a careful study. fn facr, rhe exrenr of prose-writing is not
v.ery small, but by comparison with the grearer quantity of poetic composition it is consideredlnsignifant.
Though the beginnings of Sanskrit prose--writings Romance
may be ffaced to a very dim antiquity, the .*tunt and Fable
works ol p.or. literature are of a comparativelv late
date. The extant prose literature miy be divided
into two broad classes: romance and fable.
It appears that in early Classical Sanskrit there were Akhyyik
numerous types of prose romances, the two most & Kath
important among them being Akhyayika and Kath.
But as early as the seventh century a.., Danclin
wri1gg in his Kauyadarsa that there ii no vital point
of difference in the narure of these rwo rypes of prose
compositions and he regards them as the diffrent
names of one and the same species. Amarasirhha,
the iexicographer, horvever, distinguishes between the
tu,o, Akhyayika having a historical basis and Kath
being a purely poeric crearion"
The origin of Indian fable literarure musr be traced Origin of
lrack to the earliest times in the life of Vedic Indians. Fable
'l'he tales current among the people were later on literature
rrsed for a definite purpose, and ihe didactic fable
lrcc'arne a rnode of inculcating useful knowledge.
ts. ROMANCE
'l'hcre is a great difierence of opinion amongst
r,'lrol;rrs regarding the age of Daldin. It is hetd n
I3Z HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRI,T LITERATURE

Dar-rdin:
age and
home
the evidence of the Kaaydaria, a well-known work

on rhetorical canons by the Poet, that he flourished
after Pravarasena. According to the Riatarait,gini,
Fravarasena ruled Kashmir in the sixth centurv A.DThis Pravarasena was probably the author of the
poem Setwbandha. The relation between l)andin
und Bhmaha, another rhetorician, has created a
great controversy. Some scholars are inclined to
elieve that Dandin has criticized the views of
Bhamaha while others entertain the opposite view.'
There is some controversy again with regard to the
relation of Daldin to Bhatti, the grammarian-poet.
Some scholars are definitely of opinion that Dandin
used the Bhattikaaya. It is, however, presumed that
he flourished in the seventh century A.D. From the
internal evidence furnished by both tJne DaSahuntaracarita and the Kayadara, it appears that Daldin
was an inhabitant of South India. He was fairly
acquainted with the Kverl, the Andhras and the
Colas.
DaTdin's Daakumaracarita, a work of the Akhyayika type, describes the exploits of eight - princes,
contents &
i{ajavahana and others. As the name of the work
character
implies, it should have contained accounts of ten
princes. The stories of the other two princes .are
gir,"n in the prelude (Praafltika), and-the incomplete
s"tory of one of the princei (Vi6ruta) has been ilcorported in the seqrel (Uttaraptlika) which tw9 c!1Pi"r, ,..r, to be t-he work of- a different hand. The
romance reflects admirably the social conditions in
which the author lived and where the standard of
morality rvs markedly Poor. Daldin's writings
I
usually conlorm to the Vaidarbha sty1e.
Da6akum-
racarita:
PRosE
LTTFRATURE
133
Subandhu appears to have been earlier than Bala- Subandhu:

bhatta who has referred to the former's Vasazsadatto, age ancl
in his introduction to the Kadambaru. In a passage in work
thc Vasauadatta Srbandhu laments over the death of
Vikramditya. This has 1ed scholars to surmise that
after the death of Candragupta II of the Gupta
dynasty who assumed the title of Vikramditya, there
was a civil war in the country, and Subandhu suffered
from upholding the losing cause. This theor], however, is not generally accepted. From two passages
in the Vasaaadatt, European scholars find references
to Uddyotakara, the great writer on Nyya, and the
Bauddhasangatyalanh,ara of Dharmaktrti. If the a1lusions are correct, Subandhu may be placed in the
beginning of the seventh century A.D.
The theme of Subandhu's Vasaaadatta is the love- Storvof
story of Prince Kandarpaketu and Princess Vsava- Vsavadat. The playful imagination of the poet .orr."ir", d"t
how on one night, the prince dreams about a beautiful
princess and starts in quest of her" Meanwhile, the
princess having dreamt of Prince Kandarpaketu sends
,one of her personal attendants in search of him.
Kandarpaketu in course of his travels comes to
learn about Vsavadatt from the conversation of a
pair of birds. Ffe arrives at Ptaliputra and is united
with Vsavadatta. But the king, Vsavadatt's father,
wants to give her away to another prince. Thereupon
lhe two leave the palace on a magic steed and go to
thc V'indhyas. One night they fall asleep but in the
Irrorning the prince gets up and is surprised not to
lirrrl Vsavadatta by his side. He commences a vigot'orts search and at last discovers her in the hermitage
I34 HISToRY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT TITERATURE
of a sage.
Style
'
She is turned
into a stone, and the prince
revives her by his touch.

The poet is a master of a style which is marked. by
a preponderant use of alliteration. Subandhu ciaims
that he is a storehouse of cleverness in the composition of works in which there is a Pun in every sy1labie.
But even though his style lacks artistic grace his
writings reveal the poetic genius in him.

Blabhatta is undoubtedly the greatest of Indian
Bna:
Fortunately, the date of Bna is one
prose-writers.
age &
works
surest
of the
planks in the tottering edifice of ancient
Indian chronology. Bala has to his credit the Harsa'
carita and the Kadarubart. which are respectively an
Akhyayika and a Katha.
In his Harsacarita, Bna glorifies his patron, King
EIarsaHarqa who flourished during *o. 606-*. 647. In the
carita
first and second chapters of this incomplete book
Bana gives an account of his genealogy and earlv life
which reveals him as a great traveller.
Kdambarl Bna makes lavish use of his poetic imagination rn
relating the story of Kadambarr. wlnidn also he could
not complete. The theme of this book is the fascinating love-story of Candrprda and Kadambarr in their
several births. Running para1le1 with the main story
we also find the love-episode of Puldarrka and Maha6vet. The romance relates how the Moon-god being
cursed by Puldarrka who was pining for Mah6vet,
was born on earth as Candrprda and fell in love with
Kadambarr, the Gandharva princess. Puldarrka also
cursed by the Moon-god r,vas born on earth as Vai6ampyana, the friend of Candrprda. In this birth also
both Candrprda and Vaidampyana gave uP their
lives and were again born as King Sdraka and the
PRosE
LTTERATURE
parrot respectively. Happily
135
in this birth they were
all reunited.
Much has been said of Bna's style. Western
critics describe it as a big forest where all access is
prohibited because of the luxuriant undergrowth of
words. But Indian scholars have the highest admiration for Bna and his style, and it would not be an
exaggeration to say that his style has been regarded
by Indian scholars as the standard style of prose.
Superb is Bna's power of description and he wields
the language with the greatest ease. With regard to
the theme European scholars have frankly admitted
that they find no interest in it in view of the fact that
they have no belief in rebirth or even in a reunion
after this mortal life. The whole romance, therefore,
seems to be fantastic with uninteresting characters
living in an unreal atmosphere. But be this as it may,
they have also the highest admiration for Bna's
treatment of 1ove, which they think, is refined and
graceful. l-hev also pay him the compliment for
possessing a wonderful insight into the currents of
youthful passion and virgin modesty which sway a
giri's mind when she is moved to love for the first
time. Bala is praised aiso on account of his awareness of the advantage of contra-st and his dramatic
sense. And the Indian critic recognizes and appreciates the extraordinarily rich creative talent of the
poet, when he says that he has touched upon 11 the
rlifierent topics of description.
C. FABLtr
'l'he short stories in Indian literature may be classed
rrrrrlcr three different heads, viz., the popular tales,
Style
136
Classifica-
tion of
fables
the beast-fables and the fairy tales. The popular

tales again may be broadiy sub-divided into Bud-
dhistic and non-Buddhistic.r

The Buddhist popular tales are the Pali Jatakas
Buddhist
popular
which were current among the Buddhists from the
tales
earliest times. Apart from these Jataka stories there
are some Buddhist Sanskrit popular stories.
GuTrdhya's Brhatkatha is an outstanding work
Gulamong non-Buddhistic popular rales. It was written
{hya's
Brhatin Paidacl Prkrit, a dialect spoken in the norrh
kath
western parts of India. The work is now unfortunately
& works
on
it
lost to us, but the story has been preserved in three
based
Sanskrit works, viz., (1) Budhasvmin's loleasamgraha
(composed between the eighth and the ninth century
a.o.), (2) Ksemendra's Brhatkathamafi.jart, (a.o. 1037)
and (3) Somadeva's Kathasaritsgara (r.o. 1063-81).
According to Dr Keith the Slohasamgraha (which is
found only in a fragment of twenty-eight chapters and
some 4539 verses) is a genuine translation of Gupdhya's work and he holds that neither Somadeva's
Kathasaritsagara (containing 21,388 verses) nor
Kgemendra's Brhathathamafi.jan. (containing about
7,500 verses) is from the original Brhatkatha. Nevertheless, dne Brhatltatha is mentioned as early as the
seventh century a.n. in Daldin's Kaayadara, and
Dr Bhler has placed the work in the first or the
second century A.D. Dr Keith suggesrs that it was
written not later than the fourth centurv A.D. The
importance of the Brhatkatha .ur, .r"u, b" overestimated. As a perpetual source of inspiration the
I The fable literature of the
Jainas is extremely rich. But only a
few works are written in pure Sanskrit,
PRosE
LTTERATURE
137
rhatleatha occupies in ancient Indian literature, a

place next only to that of the two Great Epics, the
Ramayana and the Mahabharatu.
The Paficatantra attributed to Vis{rudarman is an yi.rrr_
irnportant piece of beast-fable literature and it is said daran:
that the book has an earlier basis called the Tantra* Paflcahhyayiha now lost to us. The work is written i, fio" 'utttu
books in clear lucid style with a mixture of prose and
verse. It appears to a1lude to Calakya and follow
Kautilya's Arthaiastra. It is suggested by Hertel that
it was originally conceived as a work for teaching
political wisdom but it must be admitted that its
.character as a political textbook is never glaring. It
'is essentially a story-book 'in which the story-teller
,and the political teacher are unified in one personality'. The importance of this work may be judged
from the fact that it was translared into Pahlavi and
Syriac in the sixth centurv A.D., into Arabic in the
eighth century a.o., into Hebrew in the eleventh
'century a.o., into Spanish in the thirteenth cenrurv
.r.o., and into Latin and English in the sixteenth
('entury A.D.
The Hitopadeia is another beast-fable literature Nrvana:
written by one Narayala Paf dita. The author imi- Flitofa-'
tates the style of Visnu6arman and the method 6f dea
irrrangement is entirely the same in both works. The
;ruthor lived in the court of King Dhavalacandra of
whom we know little. A manuscript of this work
rlrrtes from the fourteenth century A.D. According
to I)r Keith its date cannot be later than the eleventh
( ('ntury A.D., as a verse of Rudrabhatta is cited in the
lrrok. Moreover a Jaina scholar made use of it in
,r.n. 1199 in order to produce a new version.
r

Srlvara:
Kathkautuka
VetlapaflcavirhSati,
Sirilhsana-
dvtrirh6ik
& Suka-
saptati
Another work of the beast-fable class is Srlvara's

Kathahautuka written in the fifteenth century A.D.
Under fairy-tale literature we may class the following three books of unknown date. Tlne Vetalapai't'ca-'
aiTniati attributed to ivadsa and the Sin'thasanaduatrimiika are probably of the Buddhist origin. Bgth
books are based on the character of a fictitious king,
named Vikrama. The Sukasaptati of unknown origin
and date is a collection of seventy tales which the
parrot narrates to the mistress who was about to play
her husband false.
D.
LESSER PROStr TALES
bv Siddha or Siddharsi, a Jaina monk,

Ilamitibhaaafrra\artta'kuthA:
-t".i"".".'S016-*tittcn in proi
irt.t.p"rsec1 with verses-a didactic
ta1e.
Katharnaaa: by ivadsa-containing thirty-five tales chiefly of fools

as a late work'
and thieveJ-of unknown date birt apparing
Purusdpdraksa: by Vidyapati beiongin to ^the latter part of the
A.D.-contalnlng torty-lour- stones'
foulteenth centuly'Baillasena
of the sixteenth cntury 'D'-conBhoiatrabantlha: bv
'tr'ining Iegentls bf rhe coutt of King Bhoja'
ampahalrest hikdt hAnaha

CampahalTestiikathqnaka
C
iifteenth century
(
the
rnaKlru of
Dy JJinakirti
Palagopalaathanaka:
goP'Lla.kal ltana Ea : by
& Pdln
{
A.D.
Kathakcia.: collection of tales of unknown date-written in

Sanskrit.
Sam\aktuahaumudl: by an unknown author, probably of a later
dz
character.
having a propegandist
-by
KathAratka;a:
-containing
llemavijaya-gafi of the seventeenth century
238 different'shrt tales, fables and anecdotes'

REFERENCES
Keitlr, A. B.: A Historv of Sanshrit Lilerature

Macdonell, A. A.: ,4 itiory of Sanskrit Literature
Weber, A. : The Hislory of Indlian Literature
CHAPTIIR XII
CAMP LITERATURE
A.
INTRODUCTION
CouposrrroN in mixed prose and verse in Sanskrit is Camp:

called Camp.l Though the admixture of prose and character
ancl age
verse can be traced even in Vedic literature, specially
in the Brhmanas, stili the origin of Camp is to he
sought in its immediate predecessors, the fables and
the romances. Already in the writings of Subandhu
and BaTra and in some inscriptions we find stray
verses, untii much later the mingling of prose and
verse became a singular characteristic of a different
section of literature. In the literature of Katha and
Akhyayika, which makes prose its exclusive medium,
one invariably comes across a number of verses and
in order to distinguish the Camp from this type of
prose literature it becomes necessary to presume that
the mingling of prose and verse in the Camp must
not be dispioportionate. And it should be carefully
remembered that the ernployment of prose and verse
in the Camp need not follow any fixed principle.
Authors of the Camp use prose and verse quite
indifferently for the same purpose. The use of verse
is not restricted to passages of poetic description or
irnpressive speech or sentimental outburst. Prose is
;rs rluch the medium in a Camp as verse. It is
rlorthy of notice in this connexion that the history
IKz:ydarla,
i.
31.
140 HISTORY OF CLASSICAT SANSKRIT LITERATURE
does not Possess any Sreat litelary

interest and we refrain from giving a detailed account
of the available Camp literature on this ground'
Suffice it to note that the Camp form of composition
flourished in Southern India and the Bengal Vaislva
school and the Jaina writers made use of this kind of
literature for rligious propaganda. It is a curious
fact that no Camp older than the tenth century A'Dis extant, though Professor Cldenberg has discovered
something likeCampn in the latahamala of rya|ara'
of the Camp
B.
SOME IMPORTANT WORI(S
by Trivikramabhatla of the tenth

yasit:{lt"p, by Somadeva, a Digambara Jaina, in e'o' 959-describing
Nalacamptr,
centurv
&
M.adglascamp:
A.D.
the conversiotr of King Mridatta.
rlt"ii*inlirz: by Dhana!Ia, a Jaina, who wrote about e'o' 970'

iiiir,ri""*pni ay Haiicandra, not earlier than a'o' 900 in eleven
lambhahas (sections).
Ramyanacamru: attributed to Bhojarja and Laksanabhalla'
llh.aritaiambi bv A.rrrtn of unknown date in twelve sections'
iilyitiiairieathla: by soddhala of e.. I040-strongly influenced by
Rna.
of the sixleenth century

Cohlaiamb: bv Trvasosvamin
"by
iaiilatolroionrrrhi,u,
A D'
in the second half of the sixth

by Kavikar4apra dealing with the early
Sesakrsna
century.
nanda-V/ndq.aanacamPili
life of Krsna.
Sxahasudhakacmpi by Nryala of the seventeenth century A'D'
Sahkaracetot:il.ato"o*p: by Sankara-a very late work'
CHAPTER
XIII
GRAMMAR
A.
INTRODUCTION
Gnaltlten is one of the most important branches of Importance

Sanskrit literature. From very early times til1 most of Sanskrit
recently, grammar has held a unique place, and its grammar
study has been continued through centuries with
deepest reverence and consummate application.
tratafljali, the author of the Vyaharanaruahabhasya,
has dwelt at length on the various uses of the study of
gramrnar. It is a fact that grammar as a branch of
literature had a peculiar appeal to the early Indians,
and it is worthy of notice that it is in India alone
that the study of grammar has ultimately led to the
discovery of a system of philosophy.l
The most popular of all the schools of grammat i, prrirri &
that of Palini who has mentioned no less than sixty- his predefour names of previous grammarians among which cessors
Kadyapa, Api6a1i, Grgya, Galava, Skatayana, Senaka
:rnd Sphotyana may be cited.

REFERENCES
Keirh, A. B.: A History of Sanskrit Literalure

Wintrnitz, M.: A Hisiori of Indian Literature,Yol' Il
Dasgupta,'S. N. t De, S.-K': History of Sanskrit Literature,Yol.
' The high degree
r'orroborated
by the
of popularity enjoyed by Sanskrit grammar is

of nearly a dozen schools of grammar
existence
of which is represented by writers of established reputation and

rrllrrwing. Indra is, however, mentioned ln tlne Taittinyasathhitd as
rlrt. first of grammarians. The KathasariAgara informs us that the
Airrtlra school was supplanted by Pnini, the author of the Astadhyayi.
'l'lris has led Dr Burnell to conclude that the Aindra school of grammar
i,, llr(' oldest in India. It should be noted, however, that neither
l';u.rirri nor Patafrjali rnentions Indra as a grammarian. It is, therel,'rr',;rrgucd by some that the Aindra school is post-Plinrya in date,.
tlrurrglr ple-P{rinlya in substance.
r.rrch
f
I+2
B. THE PANINI
ranlnl
Acia.dhyyi
Ktyvana:
i/rttika
GRAMMAR
SCHOCL
Scholars vary widely among themselves in determining the age of Falini. Professor Goldstiicker
places him in the eighth century n.c., while Professors
Mu" Mller and Weber are of opinion that he
belonged to the fourth century n.c. His grammar,
tkre smdhyayi, is a work in eight chapters each of
which contains four sections. Th.e arrangement of
the rules is highty scientific, economy being the most
outstanding characteristic.
Katyayana who is known as the Varttikakara came
after i'alini and he is usually assigned to the third
century B.c: The Varttikas are undoubtedly 'suppiementaly mles' which were framed by Katyayana -to
justify certain new forms which crep^t into the
iurrgrug. after Pnini had written his Stras. But

Kaiyayna did not only supplement the rules of
Pnini but also rejected some of them which were
deemed unnecessary. In some cases again he improved upon the text of tt'e Astadhyayt to rneet 'the
demands of a living language.
Patafijali who is regarded as the last of the 'three
Patafijali:
N{ahbh- great sages',. lived during the reign of King__Pugyasya:
itru (oi Puspamitra) of the Sunga dynasty. I{is date
150 r.c.
is onet of th few definite landmarks in the whole
range of early lndian literature. Patafijali earned for
hieH u tî" reputation and his views were referred
phiiosophers with the

utmost resPect and reverence. Patafljali used scrne
technical d"ui.., whereby he could effctively extend
the scope of the original Stras of Panini and did nol
on thai account venlure any addition like Ktvvana
to by later schools of rival
143
ft
must, however, be said that he, too, rejected quite

large
number of the Stras of Palini. The prose of
a
Pataf,jali's Mahabhasya, is inimitable and marked by
the qualities of grace, brevity and perspicuity.
After the three great sages mentioned above, one Bharrlnust remember the name of Bhartrhari who is often IlJi'
wrongly identified with Bhaqli, the grammariaf-poet,
and who is in all probability referred to by I-tsing |ffi"ru
tner
when he says that a great grammarian died in a.n. l. rvorks
Bhartrhari is known as the author of the Vahyapadlya
(tin two chapters), the Prakrrnaka and a commenrary
on Patafijalt's Mahabhasya, fragments of which are
"I, *uy be proved on
preserved in the Berlin Lib.ury.
thestrengthoftheinterna1evidencefurnishedbythe
VAkyapatya that the grammarian lived earlier than
the seventh century A.D. The opening chapter of the
Vabyapadrya discusses rhe philosophy of Sanskrit
grammar. In the second chapter and the Prakrnaka,
he discusses various topics of Sanskrit grammar.
Vmana and Jayditya are the two Buddhist wrirers Vmana &
who wrote the Kaiiha, a commentary on the Stras ef Jayditya:
Pnini. I-tsing informs us that Jayditya died about K6ik
n.o. 660. The object of Vmana and Jayaditya was
to incorporate in the system of Par:ini all the improvenrents made by Candragomin. The Kaiiha is usually
li.nown as the VrtLi.
Jinendrabuddhi, a Bengali Buddhist, wrore an excel- linendraIt'nt and exhaustive commentary called thc lr/vdsa o. lruddhi:
irc Kaihaaiaarana-pajiha, on tLe Kaiika of Va-r.ra Nvasa
rrnrl Jayditya. Jinendrabuddhi is referred to by
lilr:unaha, the rhetorician, and accordingly he cannoi
lrt' latcr than the eighth century A.D.
GRAMMAR
I44 HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Kaiyata is one of the most authoritative writers aflf,Pradrpa

Iiated to the school of Palini. IIis commentary, the
Pradtpa, on the Mahabhasya of Patafrjali, is an invaluable tr-eatise. It is believed that Kaiyata wrote in the'
eleventh century A.D.
FI.araHaradatta, the author of the Padantafi.iari, a comdatta:
mentary on the KASikA, is well-known for his indepenPadadent views which more often than not contradict the
mafljan
statements of Patafljali. Haradatta is quoted by Mal1intha while he himself quotes Magha. It is assrimed
that Haradatta flourished in the twelfth century A.D.
The Astadhyayr. of Palini was rernoulded by later
Rmacandra:
grammarians who arranged the Stras according _to
Prakriythe topics selected for discussion. Rmacandra who
kaumudr
flourished in the first half of the fifteenth century
A.D., wrote irris Prakriyakaumudv which is supposed to
be the model for BhattojT's Siddhantahaumu/'v. The
most famous commentary, the Prasada, on the
Prahriyalzaumudt. was written by Vitthalacarya in the
first half of the sixteenth century A.D.
'the Siddhantaleaumudt of Bhattoji is a recast of the
Bhattoji:
Siddhnta- Stras of Palini in the topical method. Bhattoji
kaumudi
flourished in seventeenth centry a.p. Bhattoji himself
& other
wrote a commentary on his Siddhantuhaumudr' which
works
is called ttte Praudhamanorama. I]ris Sabdahaustubha
is an authoritative commentary on Palini's Asla'
dhyayr.. Bhattoji's reputation as an authoritv on
Sanskrit grammar is enviable. The most famous comi
mentary on the Siddhantaleaumudt is t};.e Tattz
bod.hini by'T]he
Jfinendra Sarasvatr of the eighteenth ce
Balamanorama of Vsudeva is an
turv A.D.
commentary on the SiddhantakaumudT.
Kaiyata:
145
Nage6abhatta was a versatile genius of the eighteenth Nge6a:

c"ntrt.iy e.o. who wrote treatisei not only o.r rr*.rrm his works
but also on Yoga, Alankra and other subjects. Among
his important works in grammar are the (Jddyota, a
commentary on Kaiyata's Pradipa, the Brhacchabdenduiehhara and the LaghuSabdenduekhara (both commentaries on Bhattojl's Siddhantukaumudt) and the
Paribhasenduekhara, a collection of Paribhass in
connexion with Pa{,ini's grammar. Tlne VaiyAharanasiddhantamafrjsa (Brhat and Laghu) is another out:
standing work which discusses various topics of
Sanskrit grammar.r
Yaradaraja, a very recent writer popularized his ,, -name by ,.iriirg abridgements of th ;iat antopr" Y;':o;;
mudt.. His two books, dne Laghusiddhanmkaumudt wrks
and the MadhyasiddhamahauntudV are widely read by
all beginners of Sanskrit grammar.
C. OTHER INIPORTANT
SCHOOLS OF
GRAMMAR
Candragomin flourished in the middle of the fifth

gffi|i'
..rrtrry . Bhartrhari in his Vahyapadry; e;r-;; ^__
the Candra school -of grammarians. The object of
Candragomin was to rearrange with marked brevity
.
the system of Patrini. The Candra grammar, however,

gained much popularity and was widely commented
upon. The commentaries are now preserved mostly
in Tibetan translations.
Jinendra flourished in the latter part of the fifth Jinenctra
('cntury a.o. and condensed the Stras of Palini 21d school
r According to the tradition which we have been privileged to
irrlrcrit and which comcs down uninrerruptedly from Ngedabhalp,
tlv' I'aramalaghumafij;1t is not the work bf Ngeda.
IO
146 HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT
LITERATURE.
the Varttikas. Two main commentaries on his grammar have been preserved-one by Abhayanandl (a.o.
750) and another called Sabdarnauacandrika by
Somadeva.
Skatvana
school
Skatyana, the founder of .a school after his name,

should not be confused with the ancient Skatyana
mentioned by Panini. Skatyana wrore lnis SabdanuSasana in the first quarter of the ninth century A.D.
A,moghaartli is another work of this author. Sakatyana has based his work on Palini, Katyayana and
Jinendra. Skatyana is also credited with the authorship of (i) the Paribhasastras (ll) r.he Ganaparha (lil)
the Dhatup,tha (ir) the Unadistras and (u) the
T'.
Llnganusasana.
IIemacandra
school
Ktantra
school
llemacandra, the prolific Jaina writer, wrote his

in the eleventh century a.o. The book
more
consists of
than four thousand Stras, and is a
compilation rather than an original work. Hemacandra himself wrote a commentary on his book
known as Sabdan u iasan a brhadurt li.
Sabdanuasana
Sarvavarman is the author of the Kdtantrasutras

otherwise known as the Kaumra and the Kalapa.
The beginnings of this school belong to the early cnturies of the Christian era. There are, however, evidences of later interpolations in the Katantrastras.
Sarvavarman's views are in many places different from
those of Plini. Durgasirirha wrote tlis fanaus Vrtti
on this grammar not later than the ninth century A.D.
Durgasirhha's Vrtti \vas commented by Vardhamna
in the eleventh century A.D. Prthvtdhara wrote a subcommentary on Vardhamna's work. The Katant
school has been very popuiar in Bengal and Kshm
GRAMMAR
t+7
AnubhUtisvarpcrya, rhe aurhor of the SarasuotaSrasvata

prakriy, flourished in the middle of the fourteenth school
crntury e.o. Brevity of expression is a characteristic of
this school. Some of the many commentators on
the Sarasuata prakriya, are puffj raja, Amrtabharatr,
Ksemendra and others.
Vopadeva wrore his Mugdhabodha in the thirteenth
Mugdhacentury- Jd-D. Vopadeva's style is brief and simple. bocl-ha
His technical terms in many'places differ from ,fir. school
of Palini. Rma Tarkavagidi is the most celebrated.
commentator of this grammar.
Kramadl6vara wrote his Samksiptasara in the
thirteenth
A.D. The work hs eight sections Jaumara
.century.
and the illustrations have been takeil from
d1s
."school
Bhattihaa_ya. The Samle;iptasara rnderwent a thorough

-Jumaranandin
revision in the hand of
who wrote a
commenrary
-called the Rasauati. This grammar is
widely read in
Western Bengal.
The author of the Supadma is padmanbha who
flourished in the fourteenth cenrury A.D. This system
of grammar, like many other systems, is bared on
Pa+ini. Padmanbha himself wrore a commentary
known as the Supadmapa,iiha.
D.
Saupadma
school
SECTARIAN SCHOOLS OF GRAMMAR
In recent centuries there flourished some gramma_

lians who wanted to make grammar the ve"hicle of
r',.'ligion. This tendency was heady pr.esenr in Vopa_
r lt'va.. Rpagosvmin wrore
l-is 'HLrinamamrta' in
tlrcr sixteenth century a.o. The names of Krsna and
l{;irlh are used as actual technical terms of grammar.
f rvlrgosvmin wrote a grammar of the same name.
Harinmmr
-a
&
Caitanl'mrta
148 rrrsroRy oF
cLASSTcAL sANSKRTT LTTERATURE
A third
Vaisnava grammar named Caitanyamrta is

mentioned by Professor Colebrooke'
E. SOME trMPORTANT WORKS ON
POETICS AND DRAMATURGY
GRAMMAR
bv Saranadeva, a Bengali Buddhist oI the rwelfth
Durohataartti:
""'".;;1";"';.".1'a.rii"s
words'
with derivatins ol di{ficult
Purugottamadeva o[ the twelfth ce-ntury A'D'- a comBhasaarlti:

-'-- -h"htrtvby
n rhe' Asl.adhyayl (sections on Vedic accent are lel t
out).
Ganaratnamahodadhi: by Vardhamna in e'o' 1140'

ParibhdSattytti: by Srradeva-a collection of paribh;s
with their
explanation.
HemacandraDhAtuDradlpa: by Maitreyaraksita who is later than

containing a list of rools and thetr uss'
of
DhAtuafttit try Mdhava, son of Syala-written after the model
trre DhAtuqrttdlqa.
Va iyaka ranabh ilsa
na &
Vai ydha ranabh
5.a
rta sd ra
:, fV, :lldlbl^',11:
'nephew of Bhattoji-dealing with philosophical and olner pornts

of Sanskrit grammar.
of
abdaratna: by Haridikgita, grandson oj nnafloil 3nd teacher
Nge6a-a commentary on t}re Prau(hamanordmd'
the
PrauQhamanoramdhucamardini.: by . Pa4{itarja- - -l?9?-:Y-^'h"'
Praudnamanoralna'
t}l.t
ol
criticism
reat rhetorician-a
REFERENCES
Belvalkar, S.
K.: Syslem s of
Sanskrit
-C.ram.mur
Keith, A. ,: A History of Sanskrit Ltterature
CHAPTER XIV
A.
INTRODUCTION
in the
Brahmana,
Upanisads
tkre
and
$geda,
the Mahabhasya of Patafljali. Many of the Vedic Bharata:
hymns exhibit fine specimens of poetry. It is true flru1 N1yau;like Classical pots Vedi. p.t, id ,o, employ 6stra
flgures of sense Llke drpaka and utprehsZ but that they
had some idea about the embellishing factors underlying different kinds of literary compositions can be
ascertained from the repetitions of the ame letters or
words which approach n anuprasa oi a yamaha. The
two great Epics contain gems of poetical expressions History of
which are undoubtedly instances of very common Sanskrit
figures of speech and sense. The term lattkara in Poetics
the technical sense does not occur in the Nirukta b:ut
Yaska uses it in the sense of 'one that adorns'. In
the Nighantu l. 13 a list of twelve varieties of
particles of comparison is given. Six of such varieties
are indicated by the particles, ia, yatha, na, cit, nu
.and a. Yaska also mentions bhto?ama, siddhopama,
rpopama and luptoparuA arnorrg other varieties of
,comparison. The rules .of Plini, however, illustrate
that the technical words Tike uparua, upamana, etc.
had gathered a fixed meaning long before Panini
rvrote his grammar. Reference to a science of poetics,
hrwever, cannot be found in the works of Yajflav;rlkya and Apastamba or the Visnupurana and the
Tnacus of early poetic efforts may be seen
t}ae Satapatha
I5O
Arthaiastra and it is extremely doubtful whether any

science of Poetics rea11y evlved in India beforl
Patafljali. As we have said before the origin may be
'who
traced with certainty from the time of Bharata
in the llatyaiastra mentions four alahharas, tert gunas
and thirty-six lahsana.s of a good Kvya.
The literature on poetics and dramarurgy is conspicuously rich in Classical Sanskrit. Mrt y ubl.
thinkers have written importanr works both on poetics
and dramaturgy. These allied subjects have been
treated by one and the same author. Bharata's
Natyaiastra is the earliest known rreatise on poerics
and dramaturgy. The date of this monumenral composition has 'been variously assigned by scholars ro
the period between the second cenrury s.c. and third
century A.D. The Natyalastra shows unmistakable
proofs of a systematic tradition which has preceded
it by at least a cenrury. Bharata has been held in
high esteem by all later writers on poetics and his
work has continued to be a source of inspiration to
them.
With the progress of years there arose four maiq

Four
schools of
poetics
of poetics which maintain different views with

regard to the essential characteristics of poetry. Thus
from time to time, alankra (figure), nti (styie), rasa
schools
(aesthetic pleasure) and dhvani (suggestion) have been

declared to be the essential factols of poetry. The
Dhvani school, however, has glorvn to be the most
important of all schools of Alankra literature;
Anandavardhana, the .author of the Dhaanyalolea is
known to be the pioneer of this school and it has
been for his commentator Abhinavagupta to brin
l5l
out the importance of the doctrine of Dhvani through :

his lasting contriburions.l
Bhamaha is one of the earliest rhetoricians to take (i) Alanup a systematic discussion of poetic embellishments k.u school
after Bharata's treatment of figures. Bhmaha
flourished in all probability in th sevenrh cenrury Bhmaha:
A.D. His only work, rhe Kuyalahhara, contains six koyalanchapters. In his definition of poetry Bhamaha h2s kra
accorded equal status te 'word' and 'import', though
he has devoted more attention to the former.
Udbhata wrote his Alahhrasancgraha in the latter
half of the eighth century A.D. The work is a collection of verses defining forty-one figures and contains Uclbhata:
six chapters. In his treatmenr of figures Udbhata has Alanki.asarirgraha
followed in the line of Bhamaha.a
Rudrata wrote lnis Kaayalahhara in the first quarter Rudrata:
of the ninth century A.D. The work which is in Kvyiansixteen chapters, deals mainly with figures of poetry. kto
In his treatment of figures Rudrata seems to have
been the follower of a tradition different from that
of Bhamaha and Udbhata. Of the three commentators of Rudrata, Namisadhu appears to be the most
impoltant.
Daldin, the author of the Kaayadaria, is the precursor of the Rlti school which was developed by (ii)Rrri
Vmana. Though Dandin is usually assigned to the ichool
seventh century A.D., still the relative priority of BhaI
According to modern scholars, a comparatively late work on
Irr<lian poetics is th'e Agnipurana where in as many as eleven chaptcrs, comprehensive and autholitative information about the various
sclrools of poetics known to the author is available.
, Though Udbhata belongs to the Alafrkra school, his well-knorvn
( orr)mentator Pratihrendurja, a pupil of Mukulabhatta, is a follower
ol llrc Rasa school. Pratihrendurja is assigned to the first half of
lltc tcnth centurv
A.D-
I52
Daldin:
Kvvdara
maha and Darldin is a disputed point in the history of

Sanskrit poetics. Daldin appears to have been greatly
influenced by the Alankra school. His most outstanding contribution to poetics is the concept of
Gupa. In his definition of poetry Da?din gives more
importance to the word-elem'ent than to the sense-
element. The most authoritative commentator of

the Kuyadaria is Taruf avcaspati.
Vmana who flourished in the latter half of the
eighth century A.D., wrote lnis Kaayalahharastra in
Vmana: five chapters and twelve sections in which he boldly
Kavvalan- asserted that Rrti is the soul of poetry. The ten
krastra
Gunas are important in so far as they constitute Rrti.
The Kamadhenu, a late work by Gopendra Tippa
Bhupala, is a lucid commentary on the Kaayalank'ra'
stra.
The Rasa school originated from the interpretations
by different commentators of Bharata's aphorism on

(iii) Rasa
school
Loilata
Rasa. Lollata who is known to be the earliest interpreter, flourished in the eighth cenrury A.D. The
work of Lollata is unfortunately lost to us, though a
review of his opinion is found in the Abhinaaabhratt of Abhinayagupta and the Kauyaprakaia of
Mammata. The text of Daldin's Kvyadar6a on

figure, rasaaat, leads us to presume that the rhetoriSIr-
Sankuka
Bhattanyaka:
Hrdayadarpana
cian was influenced by the Schooi of Lollata.

Another interpreter is Sri-Sankuka who has criticized the views of Lollata. The work of Sn-Salkuka
aiso is lost to us. He is believed to be a junior contemporary of Lollata.
Bhattanyaka is the most celebrated commentator
of the Rasa school. He is said to have flourished
between the last quarter of the ninth century a.. and
POETICS AND
DRAMATURGY
I53
the beginning of the tenth century A.D. His work,
the Hrayadirpana, is unfortunately lost to us. Bhattanayaka hu, tj..t"d the views of Lollata and SnSunkuka. It is interesting to note that Bhattanyaka
has recognized two additional powers of word, viz',
the powr of generalizatiorr (bhaaak-ata") -Py which
the ireaning is made intelligible to the audience and
the power it bt oiohotua wlnidn enables the audience
to r"lirh the enjoyment of the Poem.
The doctrine of Dhvani according to which 'suggestion' is held to be the essence of poetry, was formu- (iv) Dhvani
lated by Anandavardhana in his Dhaanyaloh.a in tlne Jchool
rniddle of the ninth century A.D. Anandavardhana Anandainforms us that the doctrine of Dhvani is very old, v2166urru '
the dim beginnings of which are lost in oblivion. DhvanyAccording to Anandavardhana, a word is not only ^'--*
endowed with the two powers of denotation (lahti)
and implication (lahsan) bu also with that of sugges-
tion (uyafi.iana). Through the power of
suggestion,
,either a subject, or a figure or a sentiment is revealed.

The views of Anandavardhana found a large and
,definite shape in the rvritings of his erudite commen-
tator Abhinavagupta who flourished at the end of Abhi.ravathe tenth and the beginning-of the-eleventh centuty flll?r;*
A.D. Abhinavagupta has to his credit two importutt "njri.rr.,u,commentaries on poetics which may be looked upon bhratr
as independent treatises and these are tlne Locana on
the Diaanyaloka of Anandavardhana and the AbhinaaabharatT on the Natyaastra of Bharata. Abhinavagupta thinks that all suggestion must be of sentiment,
lirr the suggestion of subject or that of figure may be
,rrltimately reduced to the suggestion of sentiment.
I54
B.
WORKS ON POETICS
& DRAMATURGY
Abhi-dhdurltim,At,yka: by Mukulabhalla who is generally assigned ro

fhe perioct betwe(n the eDd of the ninrh and the'beein"nine of
the renrh century A.D.-a grammatico-rhetoricat *ork-'

Ka"L1*11"7,nta: by RjaSekhara oi the tenlh cntury a.o._ wrirren
rn elgfireen chaprers_a practical hand_book for poets.

vakrohtiiluita:,by Kuntala or Kuntak who flourished in the micldle
rhe.tenth c-enrury-.p. a,nd belohged to a reactionary school

Dhvani- upholding_.Vakrokri l6gurrive speech) ,, ,'t ..*." to
9t. pygrry. (1-he Vakrokri school is an bff_shoot ot "the olclei
ot,
Atanka.ra schoo!).
Daiqrpaha: by Dhanajaya o[ the. tenlh cenrurv e.o._conrairring

atso a section on dramaturgy besides sections on Rasa and allieE
. lopicuc-ommented on by Dhanika, a contemporary of Ofrr".n_
jaya in his Aualoka.
Aucityaaica.ra and Kauikanthabharana: by Ksemendra of the
eleventh cenlury a.o.-the firsr, discussing proprietv as essential
lo senriment and rhe second. discs_sing such" rpii. n.'rt" p"*liii,y
of becoming a poet, the issue of boriowing, .'r..,
"1..
Sarasuatihanthabharana. and Srhgaraprakaia: by Bhoja
of the fir.st
half of ihe eleventh centu.y i.n.-lrhe first, an encllclopaedic work
containing information ab6ut different schools of
,"a ifr
.,::9:d, , supplement to the first and conraininfo"t'i..
u ,;.;i"" ;;
oramaturgv.
Vyahtiuiueka: by nrlahimabhttta pf the second half of the eleventh

century_ e.o. who belonged to the reactionary school to Dhvani_]
pontainin^g discussions -on the possibility f including
iifri,r";
under inference.
Kduyaprakaia,: by Mammara of the eleventh cenlury e.o._ much in_
Iluenced .bv the writings of Anandavarclhana no Abhinnuunror*
llasa as rhe soul of poetry_commenred on bv Ricjka
;drsc.qssr_ng
(rdentrfied with Ruyl,aka, auihor 'oI the Alahkrasarz.asta\.
Mnikyacandra. Srldfi.ra, Canclrdsa, Vi(vanrha ;;;-";;;,
Destcles a number o[ minor commentators.
Bhataprahaiana: by Sradtanaya who flourished in the first half of
tne tweltth centurv n-. and was one of the later writers
on ftssa-;";i.;';
much influenced 6y the'wort.
dra nra
Alahharasaraasaa: by Ruyyaka
"i-n"rr"jl1t"g
of the latter half of the twelfth
cen_
tury A.D.-written in the line of Udbhata_discussing the import_
ance of Dhr.ani in so far as it embellishes the expre"ssecl mea'ninr
on by Jayaratha, Vidycakr.r".il" ""o,fr"rr.-'"""
-commented
Kaaynuirisana: by, Hemacandra. betonging ro the rwelfih centurv
A.D. who has bcrrowed from the wrirings
--"'" of AbhinavaguprJ,
Mammata, Kuntala and other.s.
Vgbhatlahkara: by Vgbhata of the twelfth centurv a.o._a work
In
velse.
Candrloka: by Ja1,deva who was not earlier than the tlvelfth centurv
A.D.-a convenient manual of figures of speech with happy illustra'_
tions,
155
Rasamafijari and Rasatarahgirp: by Bhnudatta who was not earlier

than the twelfth century A.D.-the two works treating of Rasa and
allied topics.
Natyaddrpana: by Rmacandra and Gu4acandra of the twelfth century

a..n.-a r,vork on dramaturgy differing widely from the Ndtyaiastud
of
tsharata.
Kxyanu!;esana: by Vgbhata of the thirteenth cntury A.D., who

follows Hemacandra.
Kaaitrahasya or Kxyahalpalata: by Arisirhha and his pupil Amaracandla, two Svetmbara Jainas, belonging to the thirteenth cen-
turv
A.D.
Kauil?alpalafi: by Devevara, a Jaina writer, probably belonging to

the thirteenth century A.D.
by Sgaranandin of the thirteenth century
Nataholahsanaratnahola:
'o.o.-i #ork on dramaiurgylstrictly
following tine Naryaiastra.
EhaualV: by Vidydhara of the fourteenth century a.o.-written for
King Narasirhha of Orissa-belonging to the Dhvani schoolcomlnented n by Mallinrha.in hi\ iaralti.
PratLparurlrayaiobhsana: by Vidyntha of the fourteenth century
a.o.-written for King Pratparudra of Warangal-a voluminous
treatise containing various informations about poetics and dramatu
rgr.
Sahityadarpana: by Vidvantha of the fourteenth centurry .D.-treating in the manner of Nlamma(a, Rasa as the soul of poetry, thongh
fully acknowledging the importance of Dhvani-containing dis.cussio.ns on both poetics and dramaturgy-criticizing Mammata
and in turn criticized by Govinda and Jaganntha.
Ujjxalanllamat1i: by Rpagosvmin of the sixteenth century A.D. who
regarcls the Erotic as only a difierent name for the Devotional
(Bhakti)-commented
on by Jivagosvmin who flourished after
him in the sarne century, in his Locanarocant,
by Kedavamidra of the sixteenth century A.D.-a

short treatise on poetics, the Kriks of which according to the
Alahhralehhara:
author are rhe composirion of auddhodani.

Citranmfiisd and, Kuxalaydnanda: by Appayyadrksita of the seventeenth century a.o., who is noted for his critical insight and originalit), of appreciation. The first has been criticized by Jaganntlra and the second is based on t}:.e Candraloha of Jayadeva.
Rasagahgadhara: by Jaganntha of the seventeenth century a.. who
is the last of the Titans in Indian poetics and evinces a superb

por,ver of criticism and presentation an importanl work on the
dialectics of Indian poetics
in
particular.
REFERENCES
De, S. K.: Sanskrit Poetics, Vols. I & ll

Kane, P. Y.: Sdhityadarpana (\ntrodttction)
Keitlr, A. B.: A History of Sanskrit Literature
A.
l\{etrics:
a Vednga
Pingala:
his Stra
CHAPTtrR XV
CHAPTER XVI
METRICS
LEXICOGRAPHY
A.
INTRODCTION
IN the Brhmalas we find discussions on metrical

matters and it may be presumed that at that time the
study of metrics was deemed essential as one of the
six Vedangas.
Pingala is, however, the earliest known author on
prosody. In his work which is of the Stra-type, we
find for the first time the use of algebraic symbols.
The book discusses both Vedic and Classical metres.
Scholars opine that Pingala's work is surely earlier
than the chapters on mefte (chs. XIV, XV) in the
NatyaSastra and the metrical section of the Agnipurana. The text attributed to this aurhor on Prkrit
metres (Prakrta-Paihgala) is undoubtedly a later work.
B.
WORKS 01{ METRICS
Erutabodha: ascribed to Klidsa and often attributed to Vararucia manual of Classical metres.
Suurttatila.ha: ly_semendra of the eleventh century e..-containing
a variety of Classical metres.
Chando'nuidsana: by Hemacandra of the twelfth centurv A.D.-a com-
Yska's Nirukta is the oldest extant lexicographi. yarku,

work which contains a collection of Vedic terms. The Nirukta
lexicons o{ Classical Sanskrit literature are in many
respects different frorn the Nirukta. One of the salient
points of difference is that the Classical dictionaries
treat of nouns and indeclinables while the Nighaltus
contain both nominal and verbal forms. Almost all
the lexicographical works of Classical Sanskrit are
wntten In ve.rse.
The Namalinganuiasana or tlne Amarakoa is pne
of the earliest lexicographical works in Classical
Sanskrit. Amarasirhha, the author, probably flourished Amarain the seventh century A.D. He is, however, believed sirhha:
ro have been one of t(e 'nine gemsi in th. court of rhe f#""t"famous Vikramditya. Of the many commentators of
this work, Ksrrasvmin, Sarvananda, Bhanuji and
Mahevara are well-known.
B.
pilation and nof an original work.
Vrttarat.nAkara:_,by,Kedrabhalp (earlier than the fifteenth century
a.o.)-a bulky book dealing with one hundred and thirty-sii
urrrSliri.rr: bv Nrvana of the sixteenth cnturv A.D.

by Carigdsa -a la le and yet popular work
Chandoma.fi jarl:
pt'osody.
RI,FERENCES
Keith, A. B.: A History ol Sanskrit Literoture

A. A.: a Ftisiory of Sanskrit Literature
A.: The History of indian Literature
Macdonell,
'Weber,
LESS IMPORTANT LEXICONS
'fihanQaiey and Hdrdaak: by Purusottama-both early
lexicons,
ol many rare words.

Aneharthasamltccayai by Svata, a contemporary of Amarasirhha.
,4lthidhanaratnamdld: bv Halvudha of rhe renth century A.D.
l'uijavanfl: by Ydava f th.'"l"r"rrth centnry a.o,
.lltltidhnacintamatti and Anekarthasathgraha: by Hemacandra o[
containing co'l'leclions
on
IN'I'RODIICTION
the twelfth .e.rt,r.y e.o.-both contaifing a ricir variety of words.

l'iiaaprakia: by Meliedvara of the twelfth"century a.o.
.lttL'hrthaiabdakoia: by Medinrkra of the fourteenth centurv A.D.
I'itspatya:. by Trniha Tarkavcaspati of the ninereenth ientury
encyclopaedic work of outstanding merit.
^.D.-an
I58 HISToRY oF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LI.IERATLTRE

abdahalpadrurua: an encyclopaedic compilation made by a batch of
Sanskrit Pundits in the nineteenth century .r.o., und'er the patronage of R.i Sir Rdhaknta Deva.
CHAPTER XVII
REFERENCES
CIVL AND RELIGIOUS LAW
I(eith, A. B.: A History of Sanskrit Literature

Macdonell, A. A.: A History of Sanskrit Literature
Wber, A.: The History of lndian Literature
A.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF'

LECAL WORKS
Besides the Srautastras and the Grhvastras there
were
in
ancienr times a number oi bharmastras

may be viewed as rudimentary texts on civil and
religious law. Among these Dhaimastras mention pur1,
must be made of the Dharmastras of Gautama, iru.*"Vadistha, B_odhayana, Apastamba, Hiranya- rt.us
-Ja1rta,
*T+
kedin and others.
It is not definitely
these Stras were composed bur
known w'hen
it is geierally believej
that their age must be approxi-ut"i-y the fiith or rhe

fourth cenrury B.c. Two other Dirarmastras, the
l/aisnaaadharmastra and the Vaihhanasadharma_

.stra were written at a Tater period, the former being
assigned ro rhe third century A.D. Grave doubt existl
1r.,-" ,hg antiquity of the alleged Dharmastras of
Paithhasi, Sankhalikhita, U6anai, K6yapa, Brhaspati
and others.
The most outstanding and popular work on Brhma_
r.rical laws is the Manaadhraiastra or rhe Manu_
sntrti. TlrolS-h the author of this work is generally
Iinown to be Manu, still the present rexr is sai to hav
lreen the work of Bhrgu. Again, from certain refer_
lnces it becomes evident thai the present version of
lht'. Mamusmrti was narrated by one of Bhrgu,s
NIanu_
*ltrdents and not even by Bhrgu himself. pr. g[f,1s1 smrti:
rirtgf{csts that the Manavadharrnaittstra or the Manu- authorship
crvrl
is a recast and versification of an original work

of the type of Stra works known as the Mnauastrakarana, a subdivision of the Maitryar,rrya school which
adheres to a redaction of t.he Krsna-Yaiurueda- The
work itself ascribes its origin to Brahm whence it
came to men via Manu and'Bhrgu while the Nrada
Srnrti, tells of a smrti in 100,000 verses by Manu reduced to 12,000 by Narada, 8,000 by Markaldeya and
4,000 by Sumati, son of Bhrgu. This account is suggestive of a successive series of redactions of some original
stra and the inconsistencies in the Smrti as well as
allusions to a Vrddha-Manu and Brhan-Manu have
been adduced in support of this view.
It has been argued that the present text of t};.e Manu'
smrti contains various facts about the supremacy of
Ag.
the Brhmar,ras over otlrer castes. The presumption'
therefore, is that the work was written at a time when
the Brhmanas were kings of India and had great
in their hands. History tells us that there were
power
^Brhmala
kings in India after the fall of the Sungas"
It is known that the Knvas ruled in ancient India for
forty-five years in the first century s.c. It is suggested
thai the pt.t.nt text of tt..e Manusrurti was prepared
during the reign of the K4vas:
The Manusmrti is written in lucid Sanskrit verse
which comprises 2684 couplets arranged in twelve
duties of
chapters. The work discusses at length
-the- societyn
Hindu
of
orders
four
the
and
castes
the four
the duties of the king in particular and civil and
Contents & criminal law. The woik has been commented on by
commen- numerous scholars including Medhatithi, Govindarja,
tators
Nryana, Kullka, Rghavnanda and Nandana.
B.
sru.rt'i
AND RELrGrous
LAw
16l
IMPORTA\TT WORKS ON LAW
NZiradasmyti: Presumably a late work which has its individual

merits but cannot stand comparison with the work of Manu_
usually regarded as the lega[ 6upplemenr 10 rhc Alanusntrti.
Brhaspat.ismr.ti: A supplemenrary wik to the Manusnrti- Lrlongirrg
to the sixth or the seventh centurv A.D.
Yajaualkyasmrti: An importanr work-in the style ol the Manusmrli
- conraining a methodical and very sarisfactory trearment wilh
a slamp oI individuality-not eariier than the rhircl cenrurv

A.D.-commented on by Vijflnedvara of the eleventh centuri,
a.n. in his AlitAksara.
Satitshdrapaddhati and PrAyaicitta?rakarana: by Bhavadevabhatta
(eleventh c-entury a.o.), the famus minister oi Kirrg Harivarmn
of south Bengal.
Smytikalpataru: by Laksmrdhara, minister of Govindacand.ra of
_ Kanauj (ruelfrh cenrury A.D.)..this
Pardiarasmyti: The authoi of
work is not the sam person
ggo19d as .an aurhority by Yjfravalkya-commnted oin ny
Mdhava, of the fourteeth ientury o.o.. in hi" payiaramdhau'Brahmanasaruasa_a.: by Halyuclha. ol rhe twelf rh t"n,ury o.r._
_ _ writlen for King Laksmanasena of Bengal.
DaSakarlnapaddhari: by PaSupari oI rhe twiltrh cenfury A.D.
Pitrdayitd: by Aniruddha of ihe tweHth centurv .D.
Caturuarga.cintdmani-: by Hemdri of the thirtenth century a.o._
r olu minous n ork.
Dharmaratna: by -[rmtavhana of the fourteenth centurv A.D.-an
importanl work containing the famous Dayabhga wh'ich
-
nates lhe views
of
Bengal on inhcrirance.
clomi_
Di?ahaliha: !f ilapaai of-the fourteenth cntury A.D.-a commentary on t!;.e Yajaaalktosmrti.

Madanapgri jata:. by ViSve6vara of the fourteenth century e.n.-a
work on religious laws.
Vivctdaratmkard, Sm,ftilatnLhara and other Ratngkaras: by Candedvara, grand-uncle of Vidypati, minister of Harisirhda of: 'the
fourteenth cenlllry ,r.o.-r ry important Iarv books.
Raghunandatrusmrlisi' by R:rghunanana ol the sixteenth centurv
A.D.-twenty-eiglr1 i" number-all bearing the appellation of
Tattaa, e..9., Tithitattva, UdDiAhatuttta, e1c.-highili authoiital
tive. specially in Bengal.
Vitadacitttama4i, Vtauahhracintmani and othei" Cintamanis: bv
Vcaspati who wrote for hairavasirhha (Harinryana; and Rma'bhadra (Rpanry-a4a) of Mithil (fifteenth centi.rry i.n.)-highly
importanr law books.
Viramitrodaya: by Mitramidra of the seyenteenlh 6gn1u1y 6.p.-2

voluminous work.
Nirnayasindhu: by Kamalkarabhatla of the seventeenth century a.o.

REFERENCES
Itiihler, G.: SBE VoI. XXV
Y.: History of Dharmaistra

Wrlrcr, A. : The History oi lntlian Literature
I(;rnc, P.
l(r'irlr. A. B.: A H'istory ol .sanshrit Lilerature
ll
,por,rrrcs
CHAPTER XVIII
POLITrcS
A.
Kautilya:
Arthastra
INTRODUCTION
Kautilya's work is an outstanding work in the field of

Indian politics and is claimed by some modern scholars
to have been composed sometime in the third century
A.D., though traditiqnally the author is believed to have
been none other than Calakya or Visr,"'ugupta, the able
rninister of'Maurya Candragupta (fourth century n.c.),
who has been unanimously recognized by all scholars
as the Machiavelli of India. It is, however, a controversial matter as to whether Kauflya himself wrote
the book in the Maurya age, or it was the production
in a late period of any other author or a board of
authors belonging to the Kaulilyn school of political
and economic thoughts. -[he Arthaastra mentions
Brhaspati, Bahudantiputra, Vi61ksa and {J6anas as
authorities and thus exhibits every sign of a long prior
development of this science. The book is a perfect
manual for the conduct of kings in their political existence. It is divided into fifteen great sections, adhikaranas, and I B0 sub-divisiqns, prakaranas. The subdivision is crossed by one into chapters, Adhyyas,
which are marked off from the prose of the treatise
by the insertion of verses summing up the doctrine
expounded before. Later works on this science are
mainly based on the ArthaSastra.
It is not true to say that the Vedic Indian occupied
himself with religious practices alone and igno
.16g
practical life and tgmgoral topics. The Grhyastra of

Hira4yake6in and the Mahabirutur..ogrrirJ Dharma,
Artha and Kma as rhe three ends of huan exisrence.
Doctrines of Artha appear to have found their first
expressions in didactii verse. The Mahabhrata
in_
forms us that Brahm, the creator was the author of
an Arthadsrra in 100,000 sections, that Siva as Vida_
lksa reduced it to 10,000, that Indra brought it down
to 5,000 and that B1!1pa1i and Udanas giadually re_
,duced the same to 3,000 nd 1,000
sections respectilrely.
The epic itself contains cerrain sections a"riirrg *iih
polity and scholars have traced. the actual us of a
formal Arthadstra in it.
T,h.. discovery, nearly half a cenrury ago, of the
,
Arthaiastra
of Kaudlya,. the lost jewel'fro the ea_
sure-house of Indian political literalure, brought a revo_
lution in the study oi ancienr Indian poritico"-economic
topics. The work rvas firsr published in 1909 bv the
late Dr R. Shamasastry of yror" and its uulr.'rruv
be guessed from the comment of a schola, *no J.Jcribed ir as 'a library of ancient India,.
Kautilya bases his own political theories and dis.courses on a monarchical form
of government, but not
an absolute monarch.y. Al1 eariy"teachers of political
,science were.of opirion that th.'king.,
supreme dutv
was ro contribute to the happiness uid *.jfure of
hil
own.people and to maintain peacefully law and order
in his own kingdom so that ihe life nd property oi
his people might be well protected and secured. The
king's,other
.hlg!* {uty wa1 ro remain ever visilant
over rhe activities
of neighbouring rulers of f'reign
states and ready for launching ircct hostilitv Bv
w;rr', if need be. The above trio duties ,"rp.oiir.li,
16+
HISTORY OF CLASSICL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
known as tamtra and 'aaapa' have been elaborately

treated by l(auti1ya. And one, may Presume that in
the Arthsna Kavtilya probably wanted to state the
principles and regulationi of state-craft as also laws'
rrd oidirrrr.., *f,i.h may be. regarded as an ideal for
an ambitious king (uiiig'tsu) who aspires to builci an
empire under himself as the lord-paramount'
MINOR WORKS ON POLITICS

the character of ar
bv Kmandaka-written in verse lvith
N:itisra:
-'{'D'
Krrr-'rot later rhan tlrc eighth century
i"'n"' o{'Y:rjasrilaka -tlre derails
r*t;iai'r!i*rir",' ;v*"S";;""'"'t'i mcagrcly
dealr with and the author
o[ rtar anrl kinttred ,opitt 'i"
apperrs to be a gre.al moral Ieacher'
('r'o'. '1088Arhannilr: oy rne tt,i' l'i"' u.ritcr Hemacandra
Lashu
"""';:"."iiiri-*ritrn
in i"'st-lan abbreriation of another bigger
B.
*ork of the aurhor written in Prakrit'

to Bhoja'
"Candes'ata'
Yuktikal bataru : ascrihed
-
a jurist grand-uncle of Vidyapari"

ttii;i:r,i,iiri"i' b],
it .rik,.oouo'-'"ihottt'ip-- a wo"rk ol a very late date'
i"i";i
mentioning the use of gunPolvder'
REFERENCES
Keith. A. .: A Hislory oI Sanskrit ['ilc.ralttrr

., A iri'to'v of san.skrit Literature
il;;;;;il,-'
'Wrher. A.: The History ol Irtdion Lt!atatute
CHAPTER XIX
EROTICS
A.
IN'IRODUCTICN
Enorrcs or the science of love was specially studied in

,ancient India. The most outstanding work on rhe
subject is the Kamastra of Vtsyyana who is placed Vtsysomewhere in the third century A.D. The work ir lj-^T -- _
llamasutra
,divided into seven parts and is #ritten in prose interspersed with stray verses. The work does not claim to
have been the first to be written on that subject. The
work is a mine of information on matters ielating to
the sociai order and customs of the day.
Yadodhara of the thirteenth century A.D., wrote a YaSo,commentary, the JayamahgalA, on the Kamastra of dhara:
Vatsyayana. Credii is due" to this commentato, ,"t
o {lfi;
"f!'"unsuta
has explained many technical ,.r;^';;;;
Vtsyyana.
B.
MINOR WORKS ON EROTICS
Pacasayaka: by Jyotilidvara, later than Ksemendra.

Ratirah.osya: b1, Kokkoka-prior to ,r.o. I200.
Ratimafi,jari: by one Jayadeva of unknown date-sometimes identilied
with tlre poet of
th.e Gitagouinda.
,Anangarahga: by KalyIamalla
of the sixteenth century
A.D.
llatitastra: by Ngrjuna of unknown date-ofpen rvrongly identified

with the great Buddhist thinker.
REFERENCE
licitlr, A. B.: A History of
Sanshrit Literaturi
MEDICINE
written a Sahhita which,
167
in the opinion of
scholars, is earlier than the work
some
of Caraka.
CHAPTER XX
B, LATE MI]DICAL
N,{EDICINE
A.
Introduc-
tion
HISTORY OT'N,TSbTCAL WORKS
A Sruov of Vedic literature will reveal that Anatomy,

Embryology a+d Hygiene were known to Vedic
Indians. The science of Ayurveda was also looked
upon as one of the auxiliary sciences to the Vedas"
There are refe{ences in early literature to ancient sages

who delivered instruction on the science of medicine.
Atreya is one of these sages who is usually held to
be the founder of the science, and Clakya is said to
have written on rnedicine. According to Buddhist
tradition, Jtvaka, a student of Atreya, was a specialist
in the diseases of children.
The earliest extant literature on medicine is the
Carahasamhita.
Caraka, according to Professor L6vi,
Caraka
was a contemporary of King Kaniska. It is, however,
known that the present text of Caraka was revised by
one Drdhabala, a Kashmirian, who lived as late as the
eighth or the ninth century A.D.
Sudruta is another great teacher of Indian medicine
Sudruta &
his comwhose name occurs in the famous Bower Manuscript
mentators and who is mentioned as the son of Vidvmitra in the
Mahabharata. As early as the ninth and the tenth
centuries his reputation travelled far beyond India.
Among his commentators, mention must be made of
Cakrap4idatta (eleventh century A.D.), besides Jaiyya.ta, Gayadsa and Da1lana.
Bhela
Bhela
is another authority who is said to
have
WORKS
A;thgasamgraha and Ast@hgahrdayasa?hhitAt by Vgbhata, the next

great authority after Sudruta-often identified with the medical
authority referred to by I-tsing.
Rasaratnaka,ra: by Ngrjuna, probably of the seventh or the eighth
century a.o.-containing a section on the practical application of
mrcury.
Ntdna: by Mdhavakara of rhe eighth or the ninth century A.D.-
an important treatise on
Pathology.
by Cakrapnidatta: a work on Therapeutics.

CikitsAhalika: by fisata of the fourteenth century A.D.
Bhdaaprahpta: tiy Biravamidra of the sixtenth century A.D.
Vaidyajluana: by Lolimbarja of the sevenreenth cenlury A.D.
Cihitsasdrasathglahq;
REFERENCES
Keith, A. B.: A History of Sansbrit Literature

Macdonell, A. A.: A History of Sanshrit Literature
Weber, A.: The History of Indian Literature
I ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATTCS AND ASTROL,OGY 169
able to us are the ryabhatlya,

CHAPTER XXI
ASTRONO'Xi,}ffi|VATiCS AN D
A.
Astro-
nomy:
an early
sclence
HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY
Ir is not definitely
known whether Astronomy was
systematically studied as a science in Vedic timJs. It

is as late as the sixth century A.D. in the Paficasid-
Aryabhata is to be carefully distinguished from Arvabhata

another author of the same name who wrote the Arj,aryasiddhanta in the tenth century A.D. and 'rvas siddhnta
known to Alberunl.
Brahmagupta is another great name in Indian BrahmaAstronomy who in the seventh century A.D. wrote two gupta: his
irnportant works, tine Brahmasphutasiddhanta and the works
Khanciahhadyaka.
about the contents of five Siddhantas of an earlier date.

is, however, a fact that the lunar mansions were
known to Vedic Indians. Dr Weber says that the
names of some asterisms occur in the Rg:eda, dne
Satapathabrahmana, the TaittirVyasanhita and the
Atharvaaeda. It is presumed that with the discovery
of planets, the science of Astronomy made a significant advance. Planets are mentioned in the Taittinyaranyaka, the two Great Epics, and the Law-books of
Manu. It still remains an open question, holvever,
whether the ancient Indians discovered the planets
independently of others or whether the knowledge
came to them from a foreign source. Nevertheless, it
cannot be denied that Indian Astronomv thrived well
under Creek influence.
Lal1a who is later than Brahrnagupta, has to his tru11a;

credit one work tine Sisyadhvurddhitantra.
t;1,lTrX
To the elev,enth_century belong two writers Bhoja ui"i""
and Satnanda whose works are respectively, the Sathanda:
B.
his works
in which there is
dhantika of Varhamihira that we get information
It
Arvabhata:
in ten stanzas, the
Daagrtihastra and t-lne ryastaSata

a section on N{athematics.
WORKS
OI{
ASTRONON{Y
Brponr the discovery of the Paficasiddhdntika, Aryabhata was regarded as the only authority on Indian
Astronomy. Aryabhata wrore towards the close of
the fifth century A.D. Three of his works now avail-
Raiamrganka and rhe
BhasaatV.
;*"rT,
Bhskarcarya of e.o. I 150 wrote his masterpiece, the Bhskara:
Siddhantaironnani, which is divided into four sections. his works
A second work of his is the Karanokuthala.
C. WORKS ON MATHEMATICS
IN the field of Indian Mathematics, there are only a
few narnes. Aryabhata was the first to include in his Aryabhata,
work a section on Mathematics. Brahmagupta has Brahmaciiscussed the principles oI ordinary Aritheiic ;" , ffiffl;r.,
brief manner. In the ninth century a.o. Mahavlr- &
crya wrote an elementary but comprehensive 1v611< Bhskara
on Indian Mathematics. In the tenth century .n. he
wrote his TriatV. which discusses quadratic equations.
It was Bhskarcrya who in the two secti;ns viz.,
l,tlaaatr and Btjaganita af his. work, tine.Siddhaaiirot
170 rrrsrony oF cLASSTcAL
sANSKRTT LTTERATURE
ru.aryi, made some lasting contributions

Mathematics.
D.
Early
works:
Later
works
to
Indian
WORKS ON. ASTROLOGY
IN India Astrology has been studied as a science frorn

very ancient times. The works of Varhamihira, of
course, eclipsed the fame of earlier authorities
whose writings are lost to us. Fragments of one
Vrddhagargasahhita are still available. Varhamihira
classified Astrology into the three branches of Tantrc
*the astronomical and mathematical foundations,
Hora-that dealing with horoscope and Samhita-that"
discussing natural Astrology. The most outstanding
contribution of Varhamihira is the Brhqtsaruhitd
which was commented on by Bhattotpala. On the
Hora section Varhamihira wrote two works, the
Brhajjataha and ttre Laghujatah.a. . Besides the works
of Varhamihira, we find a reference to a Yaaanaidtaha of dubious authorship.
Among later works on Astrology, mention may
made of the Horaatapafrcaiika by Prthuyadas, son
Varhamihira, the Horaastra by Bhattotpala, t
VidyamadhauVya (before A.D. 1350 the Vrddhauist
satuhita of unknown authorship, the lyotisasdroddh
of Harsakrrti, the lyotiraidyabharana of unknow
authorship (not later than the sixteenth century A.D.
and the Taiika in two parts (the Saruifratantra arrd
Varsatantra) of Nilakaltha (sixteenth century a.o.).
1
Closely associated with works on Astrology are treatises on or
and prognostications. Among such treatises are the Adbhutasd
(twelfth centuly
century A,D.J
(twelfth century A.D.
e.o.) ano
and tne
t},e Samudratilaka
Jdfnudrortraa (twerltn
(Iwerrtn
Durlabharja and Jagaddeva- T}.e Ramalarahasya of Rhayabhaflj
Sarman is a work on geomancy and under the style of th.e Patahaht
preserved
in
the Bower Manuscript, are the two treatises on cu
ASTRONOMY, MATHEMATICS AND ASTROLCGY

REFERENCES
_eit!, A B.: A History of Sanshrit Literature

Macdonell, A. A.: A Aisiory of Sanskrit Literature
Weber, A.: The History of'Inian Literatu.e
t7t
MISCELLANEoUS
CHAPTER XXII
MISCELLANtrOUS SCIENCtrS
Ir is a pity that though the Indians specialized in
Archery
ahnost every branch of Sanskrit literature, the literature on a considerable number of minor sciences is
little known to us.. Thus there are no extant works
on Archery. Among the authoritative writers on
Archery the names of Vikramaditya, Sadadiva and
Sciences
of
elephants
&
horses
Sarngadatta have reached us.

On the sciences of elephants and horses which are
associated with the names of two ancient sages
Falakapya and Salihotra respectively, a few works are
available. Tlne Hastyayun:eda of uncertain date and
t}ae Marungahla of Naraya+a are the two known
works on the science of elephants. The Aiaayuraeda
of Gaga, the Auaaaidyaka of Jayadatta and of
Dr-pankara, tlne Yogamafijan of Vardhamna and the
A?uaciltitsa of Nakula are extant works on rhe science
of
Architecf,llre
horses.
The literature on Architecture is represented by

the Vastuuidya, tine Manusyalayacandrilea in s.o"rt
chapters, tt'e Mayamata in thirty-four chapters, the

Yubtikalpataru in twenty-three chapters, dne SamarakganastradhAra of Bhoja, t-he ViSaabarmapralzaia
and some sections of the Brhatsahhita, dne Matsyapurana, the Agnipurana, the Garudapurana, the
Vi;nudharmottara, the Kyapasamhita, the Silparatna of Snkumra and such other works.
Science of
The science of jewels has been discussed in suc
Jewels
works as the Agastimata, dne Ratnapartksa of Budd
bhatta and the Naaaratnaparr,ksa of NarayaTapandi
SCIENCES
I73
Mention may be made of the Sanmuhhakalpa, a Scienceof

'
stealing
treatise on the-science oI stcaling.
Mention should also be made of the l{alapaha Science of
Cooking
r.vhich treats of the art of cooking.
On music there have been many important works Science of
besides t]ne lityalstra. Among the more important Music
works on this subject, menrion may be made of the
Sangitamakaranda, the Sangptasudariana of udar6ana, the Sangjtaratnahara of Sarngadeva, the
Sangttadarpana of Dmodara and the Ragaaibodha
o[ Somantha.
On dancing the literature is not very extensive. g.1"rr." 69
Besides the Natyaastua, we have the Abhinay'a-Dancing
darpar4a
of Nandikedvara, the SrihastamuktAaalt, the
Nartananirnaya and a few other works.

On painting the Visnudharmoilara,
date, contains a chapter.
REFERENCES
Keith, A. B.: A History of Sanskrit Litbrature

Weber, A.: The History of Indian Literature
of
uncertain S.i.n.".,[
Painting
PHILOSOPHY
whose probable date is not later than the

CHAPTER
XXi[
PHILOSOPHY
A.
THr Nyya
I
Nyya
Introduc-
tion
-Works
on
Nyya:
(a)old
school
ORTHODOk SySTBUS
sysrem which represents the analytic

of
philosophy
like the Vaidesika sysrem, has a
lyPe
long history thar exrends over the vast period of
twenty centuries. Indian tradition has assigned a
unique status to this system and it has been universally held in high esteem and reverence.
There are two well-known schoois of the Nyya
systems, the o1d and the new. The earliesr known
literature of the old school is the Nyayastras of
Gautama which are divided into five books. It is
believed that the Nyayastra.r are as old as the third
century r.c.l Vtsyyana's Nyayabhasya is the most
lmportant commentary on the Nyayastra.s of Gautama and it is presumed that the work was written
before a.o. 400. Vtsyyana's views were yehenlently
criticized by Dinnga, the famous Buddhist logician,
Vidybhsana believes that Gautama wrote only the first
. 'Dr S.
chapter of^C.-the work, and was a contemporary of Buddha. He further
thinks that this Gautama is the same s the author of dne Dharmastras w};,o lived in Mirhil in the sixth cenrury B.c. He suggests
that Caurama's original vieus are conlained in'the Carakasa"niihita

(Vimanasthna). But t}re CarahasathhitA itselt has suffered considerable refashioning and its date is uncertain. professor Jacobi believes
that the Nyayastras and the Nyayabhasya belong "to about the
same time perhaps separated by- a geneiation. Ile places them
between the second centlrrv a.n. when the doctrine of Snya developed,
and rhe fifrh century a.ol *hen the doctrine of Viifrna *u. .,i.t.matized. Professor Suali also supports professor -[cobi and rfers
the work to a.n. 300. According i6 professo, Garb the date is a.o.
100. MM.,Haraprasda^strin believes that the work has und.ergone
several redactions. Professor lladhakrishnan places it (though"not
in the present form) in thc fourrh century n..
175
fifth century
A.D. IJddyotakara wrote his l,{yAyauarttiha in the

sixth century A.D. with the sole object of defending
Vtsyvana against the criticisms of Dinnga. Ii
was Dharmakirti, another nored Buddhist logician,

who took up the cailse of Dinnga and wrote his
Nyayabindz in the latter part of the sixth century A.D.
Probably Uddyotakara and Dharmaklrri were contemporaries who mutually referred to each other. A
comrrrentary on rhe lt{yAyabindu was written in the
ninth century by the Buddhist logician Dharmottara.
It was in the first half of the ninth cenrury A.D. rhat
Vcaspati, a versarile genius and most prolific wrirer,
came to write his Nyayaaarttikatatparyaliha, a supercommentary on the Nyayaarttiha of Uddyotakara
and gave a sufficient stimulus to the orthodox line of
thought by writing his NyayascVnibandha (a.o. B4l)
and l\'lyayastroddhara. Udayana who is noted for his
trenchant logic and convincing presentarion of facts,
wrote a commentary on Vcaspati's Iiyayauarttikatatpary1..tJha, known as the NyayaaarttilzattparyapariSuddhi in the last part of the renrh cenrury (e.n. eS+).
'Ihe NyAyakusumafrjali, the tmatattuaruiaeka, the
Kiranaualt and the Nyayapariiista are four other we,llknown works of Udayana. Jayanta is another great
name of this school and he wrote dne llyayamaitjarz
in the tenth century A.D. He is admitted ro have been
a Bengali by origin. Bhasarvajfia's llyayasara is a
survey of Indian logic. The author was a Kashmir
Saivite of the tenth century A.D.
Gangeda is the father of the new school of the Nyya Works on
system (Navyanyya) which flourished mainly i" )I*yil
Iiengal.
His Tittiorinta*oni is u *ognu;-'rp;;
lllil:*
176 rrrsrony oF cLASSTcAL
which was written in the last quarter of the tr""ttth

century A.D. The work discusses primarily the four'
means of knowledge admitted in the Nyya systemIIis son Vardhamna (a.t. 1225) continued the tradition by writing commentaries on the treatises of Udayana and Vallabha. Jayadeva (sometimes identified.
with Faksadhara Mi6ra) of Mithila wrote lnis lohq
on the Tattaaacintan'Lani in the latter part of the
thirteenth century A.D. Vsudeva Srvabhauma, a
Bengali Brhmana, wrote his Tattaacintomaniuyakhy-the first great work of the Navadvipa (Nadia)
school. He had at least three distinguished pupils:
Sn-Caitanya Mahaprabhu, the famous Vaislava saint
and founder of the Gaudlya Vaisnava school, Raghuntha Siromani, the great logician and Krsrlnanda
Agamavgra, the author of the Tantrasara. Raghu,
nalha *rot. two outstanding works, Yiz., tlne Dxdhtt;
and the Paclarthahhandana in the fifteenth century
A.D. Jagadida (end of the sixteenth century a.o.) and
Gadadhara (seventeenth century A.D.) are reputed
Fundamcntal
concepts
of Nyya
PHTLosoPHY
sANSKRTT LTTERATURE
thinkers of the modern school, who wrote besicle many

commentaries, the Sabdaiahtipraka|ih.a and the Vya?'
tipacaka respectively. Vidvantha's Nyayastraartti
(a.n. l63a) is another important work.
The logicians of the o1d school recognize sixteeri
categories while those of the modern school who have
been $eatly influenced by the Vaidesika system,
reduce them to seven only. The logicians of both
schools accept four means of proof, viz., perception
(pratyahsa), inference (anumana), analogy (upamana)
and verbal testimony (labda). They do not admit
the ,self-manifestation of a cognition. Like ths
Vaidesika, the Nyya regards the world as a
177
posite of external, unchangeable and causeless atoms.

The soul in the Nyya system is a 'real substantive being' which has certain qualities. The God (Ivara) is
the Supreme Spirit or the Universal Soul who acrs as
the Creator of the universe in the capacity of an efficient cause (nimittalearana), while the aroms are rhe
material caue (upadanalzarana). A true knowledge
(tattaajfiana) of the categories leads to the liberation
(muhti) of the soul in bondage, and the liberated soul
is essentially conscious.
The Vaidesika system which is also called the II
Aulukya philosophy, is closely akin to the Nyya sys- Vai6eika
tem. It is, however, presumed that the earliest extant
literature of this system is older than what is available fntroducin the Nyya system. Thus while the VaiSesikastras tion
of Kalda (Kanabhaksa, Kanabhuk or Ka6yapa) and
t}ae P adar t hadhar mas afugraha of Pra6astapda, evince
no influence of the Nyya system, the Nyayastras of
Gautama and the Bhasya of Vtsyyana betray the
{act that they have been greatly influenced by the
views of the Vaiesika system.
The VaiSesihastras of Ka!da which are of un- Workson
known date but are generally considered to be later Vaidesika
than 300 r.c., received additions from time to time.
They are divided into ten books. The work of Pradastapda which is generally regarded as a commentary on the VaiSesihastras may be viewed as an original contribution to the Vai6esika system. Pradastapda
is usually assigned to the end of the fourth century
a.o., though Dr Keith makes him later than Dinnga,
but earlier than lJddyotakara. There are four noted
(:ommentaries on the work of Pradastapda and they
:rre (1) the Vyomaaatr. by Vyomadivcrya alias
12
I7B rrrsronv oF
pHrr,osoprry
cLASSTCAL sANsKRrr LTTERATURE
or Sivditya (of unknown date, probably of the ninth century A.D.), (2) the Nyayahandalv by Sridhara (last part of the tenth century
A.D.), (3) the KiranaualT and the Laksan1,aalt by
Udayana (last part of the tenth century A.D.)
and (a) rhe Nyayahlavatt by Srrvatsa or Vallabha
(probably towards the end of the tenth or the beginVyomaekhara
ning of the eleventh century e.o.). Sankara's (Jpaskara

(latter half of the fifteenth century a.o.) is one important commentary on the VaiSesikasutras of Kalda.
Laugksi Bhskara's Tarkahaurnudz is another work
based on Pradastapda's treatise.
belonging to both Nyya and
Among
Manuals of
ûo,rui,
Nyya &
Vaidesika systems
of Indian philosophy, may be menVai6esika
tioned ivditya's Saptapadartht (eleventh century
a.o.), Varadarj a's
arkikaralzs, Kedavami'ra' s T ark a'
bhasa (thirteenth or fourteenth century
A.D.),
Annambhatta's Tarkasarhgraha and Dx?iha (sixteenth or seventeenth century A.D.), Jagadlda's Tar'
hamrta (a.o. 1635) and Vidvantha's Bhasapariccheda
or Karikauah. (seventeenth century e.o.) and its famous
commentary Siddhantamuhtaaalr by himself. Iuyu'
nryana's (seventeenth century x.) Viarti is another
important compendium of the Vaidesika school.
'Ihe Vaidesika system which in broader details agrees
Fundamental
with the Nyya, accepts six categories to which a
concepts of
seventh was added later on. It recognizes only two
Vai6esika
means of knowledge, viz., perception and inference.
It does not accept verbal testimony as an independent
means of proof, but as one included in inference.
Both the Vai6esika and the Naiyyika are advocates
of what is known in philosophical terms as Asatkrya'
vada (the doctrine of the creation of the non-existent
.179
effect) and Arambhavda (the doctrine of initiation

which makes the universe an effect newly produced
from the eternal atoms). In the state of liberation,
the soul in Vaidesika conception retains no consciousness (ifrana), while in the Nyya view the released
soul is conscious.
The Sankhya system is universally believed to be t1I
the oldest of the existing sysrems of Indian philo- Snkhya
s?phl. The Sarkhya views are found in the Upunisads, in the Nlahabhrata, in the law-books ^6f IntroducManu and in the medical works of Caraka urr6 tion
others. Indian tradition ascribes the authorship of
the system to the sage Kapila, an incarnation of Lord
Vislu. The successors of Kapila were Asuri, Paflcaikha, Gargya and U1uka. Professor Garbe makes
-Faflcadikha a conremporary of the great Mrmrhsist
abarasvmin (sometime between a.n. 100 and n.o.
300). Chinese tradition ascribes the authorship of
the Sasthrtantra to Paffca6ikha, while Varsag,,,,va
gets the same credit in others' opinion.
The Sanhhyakariha is the earliest known work of Works on
the SaRkhya system. It is believed that Tdvarakrsna snkhya
wrote this work in the third century a.o.r An'important commenrary on the Karika is that of Gaudap77î . The Matharaartti is anothe4 commenrary
which is regarded by some as the source of Gauda1
A Chinese tradition ascribes to Vindhyavsin the writing of a
work 'of Vrsagalya. Professor Takakusu identifies Vindhi,avsin
with lvarakrsna. In that case the KprihA of I-svarakrsna has an-earlier

basis. Gunaratna, however, regards Vindhyavsin and ldvarakrsna as
rlifferent. ISvarakrsla was . erlier .than 'Vasubandhu who is ,row
;rsrigned to the lorrrth century A.D. The Ktirika was translated into
(lhinese by Paramrtha (sixth century a.n.).
'.
r
! Whether he is the same as the author of
dne MarydhyakarihZt
< rrnnot be decided, and some seek to place hini in the eighth century
lB0 rrrsronv oF
PHTLosoPHY
cLASSTcAL SANSKRIT LTTERATURE
pda's coinmentary while others assign a later_date

io it. Yet another commentary on the Sankhyaharika is the Yuhtidtpiha which is wrongly ascribed
to Vcaspati. The Sanhhyatattaahau.mudi' of Vcas-
pati (middle of the ninth century e'o.) is a rnost

work of this system. Another popular work
poputar
is the Sanbhyaprauacanastra which contains six
chapters. The authorship of this work is attributed
to rr" Kapila. But this Kapila cannot be identical
with the founder sage of this system, for the work
cannot but be assigned to such a late date as the
fourteenth centul'y e.n., since it is not referred to
even in the Saraadaranasarugraha Qt Mdhava
(fourteenth centurv A.D.). Aniruddha's Sanhhyastravrtti, wlhidn was composed in the fifteenth' centurv e'.,,
is an important work commenting on the Sanlzhyaprarsacanastra. But the Sanhhyaprauacanabhasya
of Vijfianabhiksu, (sixteenth century A.D.) a commentary on the Sanhhyapraaacanastra, is the most
important work of the system. Vijfianabhiksu wrote
another work on Sankhya known as the Saitkhyasara^
The Sankhya system is essentially dualistic, inasmuch as it speaks of Puruqa (Spirit) and Prakrti
Fundamen (Matter) as the two Ultimate Realities. The funda*
tal conmental position of this system. is that 'cause' is th
cepts of
entity in which 'effect' lies in a subtle form. Thu
Sfrkhya
this system advocates the doctrine of Satkryavd;
The world is said to be the evolution of Prakrti whic
is its material cause. Prakrti has been described
be of the nature of equilibrium of the triple Gur
sattaa (purity-stuff), raias (passion-stuff) and tam
(inertia-stuff). Purusa is defined as Pure Spirit whi
is different from Prakrti and Purusas are many
l8l
number. A Supreme Spirit (I6vara) or God is not

admitted to exist in so many words. The Sankhya
system acknowledges the authority of three means of
knowledge, viz., perception, inference and verbal
testrmony.
The Yoga and the Sankhya systems are used as IV

complementary aspects of one whole system. \Mhils Yoga
the Sankhya system signifies 'theory', the Yoga signifies 'practice'. In the lJpanisads, the Mahabharata,Introducthe Jaina and the Ruddhist literatures, Yoga practisss tion
have been mentioned.
The Yogastras of Patafijalil form the earliest ex- Works on
tant literature on the Yoga system. The YogaslrosYoEa
are divided into four chapters known as samadhi (concentration), sadhana (practice), aibh1,1ti (rniraculous
powers) and kaitalya (emancipation). It is Vysa who,
according to modern scholars, is said to have written
a masterly commentary on the Yogastras about the
{ourth century a.o., though traditionally he is betrieved
to be the same as the author of the Mahabharata.
Vacaspati wrote an interesting. and learned gloss
on the Vyasabhasya known as the TattuaaaiSaradr. Ngedabhatta of the eighteenth century A.D.,
wrote another gloss on the Vyasabhasya known as the
Chaya. Other important works on the Yoga system
,are the Rajamartanda of B.hoja (eleventh century a.o.)
and the Yogaaarttika and tlne Yogasarasafugraha of
Vijflanabhiksu (sixteenth century a.o.). Vijfianabhiksu
criticizes Vacaspati and brings the Yoga system nearer
to the philosophy of the Upanisads.
'It is traditionally believed that Patafrjali, the author of tlne Yogais the same person as the grat grammarian of that name who
wrote the Mahabhasya in the middle of the second century n.c. But
there is no positive evidence to prove the identity and some modern
srTlras
l'82 rrrsrony oF
cLASSICAL sANSKRIT LTTERATURE
Thd Yoga system discusses how through methodical

effort of concentration of mind we can attain perfec.
yoSa
tion. It teaches us how to control the different elements of human nature both physical and psychical.
The Yoga system explains ful1y the principles according to which 'the physical body, the active will and the
understanding mind are to be harmonically brought
under control'. This is technically known by the
name Royal Yoga (Rajayoga). There is yet a phvsical
side of Yoga (Hathayoga) which describes.how to control the body in various ways. Too mch indulgence
in this'Hathayoga serves s an obstacle to the attainment of real Perfection.
The Yoga system materially differs from the Sn.
Yoga &
Snkhya: khya a1 least in one essential point, viz., *tat while the
comparlson
latter systern does not explicitly say anything of God;
the former regards God as a third category besideq
Prakrti and Purusa and hqlds that devotion to the
I-ord is also one of the means of Release (Kaiualya).
, The Prvamrrrirhs, Karmamrrlrhs or Mtrnrhs4
V
Purvaml- ystem mainly interprets and explains Vedic injunc:
mrhs
tions and their applications, and thus has a unique iml
,.'
portance of its own.
Works on , The earliest literature on the Prvamrmrhs is t
PHILOSOPHY
i.t
183
Rjayoga
stras. Sabara w-rote his commentary on the Mrmafusa-
& Hatha-
stras probably in the first century B.c. Professor

Jacobi thinks that the Vrtti, qroted by Sabara, t,elongs
to a peliod between e.o. 200 and e.n. 500, while Dr
Keith holds a.o. 400 to be the earlier date for it.
Sabara's predecessors were IJpavarsa, Bodhayana,
Bhartrmitra, Bhavadsa and Hari. MM Ganganath
Jha identifies Bhavadsa with the Vrttikara referred to
in the Sabarabhasya. Both the Mr.mamsd.stras and
the Bhasya were interpreted differently by three
different schools of thoug'ht associated with the names
of Prabhakara, Kumrila and Murri. The school of
Murri is known by name alone.
Prabhakara who was called'Gaudamrmrhsaka'Prbhand 'Guru' wrote tine Byhatr, u .o*-"rrtary on the }ffol
Bhasya of abara, probably about a;o. 600. Accordirg to some, Prabhakara preceded Kumrila, but
tradition runs that he was a pupil of Kumrila.
Slikantha's Rjuaimala which is a commentary
on the Brhatt, was written about the ninth Cerr.
Purvamlmrhs
Purûamimarusasutras of laimini who, according

modem scholars, wrote in a1l probability in the fourt
century B.c. The orthodox tradition, however, ma
Jaimini a disciptre of Vysa, the.author of the M
bharata. It is held by some that the Mtmafil.saswtr'
are later than both .the llyayastras and the Yog
scholars r positively gainst this view. Ilhoja in the introduc

verses of tt. Rajamartanda rnakes a suggestion to the efiect
Patafljali (author of the Mahabhqya), Patafljali (author

Yogaitrasj, and Caraka (author
of the Carahasariqhita)
are
_of
tury A.D. Another important work of the same

author is the Praharanapafr.cika, a good and useft.l
,
manual of the Prbhkara system. Slikantha has

referred to Dharmaklrti. Bhavantha's Nayauiueka
(c. a"o. 1050-a.n. 1150) is another important work of
this school. Vcaspati in his llyayahanika dlfferentiates betvveen two sub-schools of the Prbhkaras, viz.,
olcl ancl new.
Kumrila is a great name in Indian philosophy, Bhtta

noted for his spirited zeal for Brhmanical orthodoxy. schoot
It was he urho fought courageously against the
onslaughts of Buddhism, and but for the stand he took
up, much of Brhmanical heritage of which we feel
lB4 rrrsronv oF
tD
proud today, would have been lost. Kumrila's Slokaaarttika, Tantraaarttika and lupirka are the three
great works. The first, which is in verse, is a cornmentary on the first part of the first chapter of the Mimamsastras. The second, which is in prose occasionally
interspersed with verses, takes us to the end of the
third chapter, and the third covers the rest. Kumrila
is earlier than Sankara and is usually assigned to A.D.
750, though some new data point to the fact that he
lived in the seventh century A.D. Tlne Slokaaarttika
was commented upon by Umbeka or Bhavabhuti
(eighth century A.D.), by Sucaritamidra (not later than
the middle of the thirteenth century e.n.) in his Kaiha
and by Prthasrathimidra (according to the orthodox
tradition, tenth century A.D. ; according to Professor
Radhakrishnan, A.D. 1300) in his Nyayaratnahara. The
Tantraaarttika was commented upon by Bhavadevabhatta (eleventh century e.o.) in his Tautatitamatatilaka and by Somedvarabhatta (c. e.o. 1200) in his
Ilyayasudha. Venkatadikgita wrote his commentary
on the lupnka known as the Varnikabharana. Muqdana (eighth century e.o.) is the next great name after
Kumrila who is reported to be Mal.rdana's teacher and
father-in-1aw. Mandana who is earlier than Vcaspati
and is traditionally identified with Suredvara and ViSvarpa, wrote his Vidhiaiveha, Bhaaanaiueka, Vibhranlaaiaeka and Mtmarusanuleramaryi,.t The first was
commented upon by Vcaspati in his I'lyayakanika.
Among independent works on the Mtmarirsa
Independent
system, may be mentioned the Sastradrpika of Parthaworks on
Mrmrhs srathimidra, the laiminryanyayamala of Madhava
t
Tl;'e Spho(asiddhi of Maldana which explains the grammarian's

of Sphota is an important work.
doctrine
PHTLosoPHY
cLASSTcAL sANSKRTT LTTERATURE
l8.t
(fourteenth century A.D.), the tJpakramaparakram,a and

tlne Vidhirasayana of Appayyadrksita, t"he Mtmamsa'
'nyayapraka.(a of Apodeva (seventeenth, century A'D.),
the Arthasatir.graha of Laugksibhaskara (seventeenth
aentury a.o.), the Bhauad4tika, the Mtmansalaaustubha
and the Bhdttarahasya of Khaldadeva (seventeenth
,century A.D.), the Bhattacintamani of Gagabhatta
(seventeenth century A.D.), the Manameyodaya of
Nrayanabhatta (seventeenth century a.o.) and the
Mtmamsa-paribhsa of Krlsayajvan (eighteenth century a.o.). Rmakrslabhatta, author of the Yuhtisnehapraprani., Somantha, author of the Mayuhha'
rualika, Dinakarabhatta and Kamalkarabhatta belong
to the Bhtta school.
The Prvamrmrhs systern recognizes the self- [mportant
validity of knowiedge. Jaimini accepts only three f?l':ry'^:f
lvrlmamsa
means of knowledge-perception, infernce and verbal
testimony. To these three Prabh akara adds two more,
viz., comparison (upamana) and implication' (artha'
patti). Kumrila also recognizes non-apprehension
(anupalabdhi.) as a means of knowledge. It is generalIy believed that the Prvamrmrhs has not accorded
any significant status to God, though, in the Vedanta'
stras, Jaimini has been represented as theistic in
views.'
I-Ittaramrmrhs, Brahmamlmrhs or the

Vedanta is the most popular oI all orthodox systems -_VI
of Indian philosophy. The earliest teachers of the vedanta
school were Asmarathya, Bdari, Krsljini, Ka6a- Introduckrtsna, Audulomi and Atreya. These teachers along tton
with Jaimini are mentioned in the Vedantastras.
The
Introduction to the Pn;amlmarhs, Dr Pashupatinath Shastri,
pp.
lJ2-8.
186
The
Vedntastras
PHTLosoPHY
HISToRY oF CLA,SSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATUR.E
' Scholars differ with regard to the age when the

Vedantasutras or the Brahmastras of Bdaryana
were composed. Modern Indian scholars are inclined
to assign as early a date as the sixth century B.c. while
others would prefer to fix the date between 400 s.c"
and e.o. 200'.
The Vedantastras contain four chapters.. The
first discusses the Brahman as the Ultimate Reality,
The second deals with objections raised by rival
schools of philosophy. The third proposes to study
the means of attaining Brahmavidy, while the fourth
discusses the results of Brahmavidy. The Vedantastras are in intimate agreement with the teachings
of the Upanisads. Thus Badarayana has evinced his
great and abiding reverence for the Vedas. Unlike the
Sankhya, the Vednta of Badarayana champions the
cause of monism when he holds that it is the One
Brahman which is the Transcendent Reality. Badaryapa openly refutes the Sankhya doctrine which conj
ceives Puruga and Prakrti as two independent entities.
The conception of my as the illusory principle which
shuts out the vision of the Brahman and reflects It as
many, is a great contribution to the philosophical
thought of the world. The world exists so long as the
vision of the Brahman does not dawn upon u
While the Snkhya maintains that the world is a
evolution (parinama) of Prakrti, the Vednta hol
I Tlre orthodox Indian tradition makes the author identical wi
Vysa, the author of tbe L,IahabhQrata. Sankarcrya,'however, d
not clearly state anywhere that Vysa (or, Krsladvaipyana born
an incarnation of the Vedic sage Apntaratamas by the direction
Lord Vislu) was the author of th,e Brahmastras. He invari
calls this author Bdaryana and ner.er Vysa and does not explic
sy that the two are identical. But Vcaspati, Anandagiri, Rmnu
Mdhava, Vallabha and Baladeva identify Bdaryana with Vysz
187
that the world is an appearance (uiuarta) of the lJrah-'

man.
Among the early teachers of Vednta mention must Early

be made of Gaudapda who in his famous Karihas teachers of
Vednta
has attempted a systematic treatment of the monistic
Vedanta. Another important author is Bhartrhari
(probably belonging to the first part of the seventh
century e.o.) who is said to have written a commentary
on the Brahmastras. Yet another author hinted at
by Sankara is Bhartrprapaitca, according to whom the
Brahman is at once one and dual. Besides him
Sankara speaks of one Vrttikra, who remains even
now unidentified.l
The greatest of ali thinkers on monistic Vednta Sankara:
is Sankara who, according 'to Professor Max Ml1er age &
and.other modern scholars, wrote his immortal Sara. works
lzabhasya between x.p., 788-a.o. 820. The orthodox
tradition, however, assigns him to the latter half of
the seventh ceiltury (a.o.
686-a.o. 720). Besides the
'which
philosophicai insight
marks his writings his
style and diction have always lenr a unique distinction
to them. Sankara has written commentaries on the
ten majori Upanisads and his commentary on rhe
Brhadaranyalt,opanisad has, in particular, attracted the
atlention of many an able thinker. ankara's expositions'have earned for him such distinction that by the
expression Vednta we seem invariably to understand
his views on ir.
The Sartrahabhasya was commented upon by lzuo Vivalarla
schools of thought known as the Vivarana school school
rWhether he is rhe sarne as IJpavarsa, a brother of Varsr, rhe
of .Plini, or Bodhyana, or whether the two sags are
identical, or w-hether there was . a third author who passed as
Vrttikra, cannot be definitely ascertained.
teacher
PHILOSOPHY
and the Bhmatl school. The original source of the

former school is found in the Pafr.capadilt of Padmapda who is said to have composed the commentary on
the first five quarters (pdas) of the Brahmastra'

iarTrakabhasya of which only the commentary on the
first four Stras are now available. The age of
Padmapda is about the end of the seventh and the
beginning of the eighth century A.D., as he is represented as the senior-most disciple of Sankara. The
Viaarana which is a gloss on the Paficapadika, was
composed by Frakadatman (probably ninth century
a.o. ; 1200 a.n. according to Professor Radhakrishnan).
According to him the Brahman is both the content
(aisaya) and the locus (airaya) of Maya. Vidyralya
who is generally.identified with Madhava (fourteenth
century a.o.), wrote a summary on the Vivarana known
as the Viaaranaprameyasaru.graha.
The Bhamatr school has been well represented in
ljhamatr
.school
the Bhamati. of Vcaspati, the Kalpataru and t}i-.e
Sastradarpana of Amalnanda (thirteenth century e..)
and the Parimala of Appayyadrksita (sixteenth-seventeenth century a.n.).
Works on
The literature on monistic Vednta, as interpreted
N{onistic
by Sankara, is extremely rich. Suredvara (who is
Vednta
traditionally identified with Maldana who later became a disciple of Sankara), wrote his Taittiruyo?;
ani
dbh
a gy
aa ar
tih
a,
B r h a dar
a\y
ak ab ha s y av ar t tih a
and. Naiskarmyasiddhi about the end of the seventh

or the beginning of the eighth century a.n.r Maldana's
Brahmasiddhi is an outstanding work in which he puts
forward many original ideas. The Samksepaar7raha

I Some would rather place
cenlury
^.D.
him in the first half of the ninth
t89
was written in verse by Sarvajfftmamuni in the ninth

century A.D. The Istasiddhi of Avimukttman (o.
Vimuktatman) is. another notable work of the school.
In a.o. 1190 Sri-Harsa who is nored for his rrenchanr
logic and Advaita polemics, composed lnis Khandanakhandqlrhadya-a masterly contribution. In the thirteenth century A.D. Citsukha wrote on the same lines
his Pratyahtattaaprapika or Citsulzhi. In the fourteenth century a.o. Vidyranya wrote his Pafrcadalr,, a
highly popular work in verse, and tlne lr.uanmuktiaiaeka, a work of considerable importance. Vidyralya and his teacher Bhratlttrtha jointly wrote the
Vaiyasihanyayamla. The Vedantasara of Sadananda, is a good manual of monistic Vednta. It
was composed in the fifteenth century a.o. Anotherepistemological manual on monistic Vednta is the
Vedantaparibhasa which was composed by Dharmarjdhvanndra in the sixteenth century a.o. His son
Rmakrsla (sixteenth-seventeenth century e.o.) wrote
the commentary Sikhamani on it. Anandagiri's,
I'lyayanirnaya (fotnteenth century e.o.) and Govindananda's RatnaprabhZ (fifteenth century a.o.) are two.
other commentaries on Sankara's Brahrnastrabhasya.
Frakdnan
.D.)
da'
Sidd
ha n t a m u h, t au alV
(fifte enth century
and Appayyadiksita's Nyayaraksamani and
Siddhantaleiasarhgraha are other valuable manuals of
the monistic school.
Madhusdana Sarasvatl,
I3engali of the sixteenth century A.D., wrote his monumental work the Aduaitasidclhi which contains an
intricate and abstruse criticism of the rival school of
Madhva as represented in dne llyayamrta of Vysatrrtha or Vysarja (last part of the fifteenth century
A.D.). The GaudabrahmanandV or Laghucandriha of
190 HISTORY oF
HrLosoPHY
CLASSICAL. SANSKRIT T,ITERATURE
Brahmnand,a, is a defence of the Adaaitasiddhi

against the criticism of Rmacarya (alias Ramatrtha
or Vysarma) in his Tarangi.nr (latter part of the
sixteenth century A.D.).The Brahmastras of Bdaryala have been
differently interpreted by a number of great thinkers
of different schools, all of '1,l'horrr wrote after Sankara.
School of
Veclnta:
One such thinker was Bhaskara who wrote his
(i)BhsBhasya sometime about the end of the eighth or the
kala
first part of the ninth century A.D. Bhskara was a
champion of the doctrine of simultaneous identity
and difference (Bhedabhedavda).
Rarnanuja is another great commentator on the
(ii)Rmnula.
Brahnrasutras wlno is assigned to the eleventh century
A.D. I{is philosophy is based on the doctrine of
quaiified monism (Vi6istdvaitavda) according to
which God is the one Reality, but is a composite of
the conscious individual selves and the non-conscious
material world. Rmanuja's chief sources of inspiration were the Tmil Gathas of the Alvras or Vaisnava
saints of South India, the chief of them being Nathamani and Ymuncrya (tenth century e.o.). The
name of his commentary is the Srubhasya- The
Srutaprakail?a of Sudardana (thirteenth century a.n.)
is a well-known gloss on the Sribhasya. Venkatantha
Vedntadedika (thirteenth century a.o.) was perhaps
the greatest successor of Ramanuja. He was the
author of the SatadwsanV., the Tattuattha (a commentary on t}ae Sribhasya) and dne Sevaramimtits.
Nimbarka is another commentator on the Brahma.(iii)Nitttbrka
stras. His commentary is called tine Vedantaparijarusaurabha. He advocates the doctrine of dualistic
non.dualism (Dvaitadvaitavda) which is somewhat
191
akin to the view of Bhskara with but minor technical

differences. Nimbarka lived about the eleventh
century A.D. His disciple Srrnivscrya wrore a commentary known as the VedAntuhaustubha. Kedava:
k6mrrin, a follower of this school (fifteenth century
a.o.), wrote a commentary on tlne Ga known as the
Tattua prakaiihA.
Another commentator on the Brahrnastras i, (iu) MuMadhva who was born in e.o. llgg. Besides the dh'va
commentary he r,r,rote, he justified his interpretation
another work called the Anuuykhyana. He
advocates the theory of pure dualism"(Dvitavada).
Yet another commenfator is Vallabha who lived,
in the last part of the fifteenth century and the first
part of the sixteenth century a.o. His commentary
is called the Anubhasya. The theory he dvocates is
pure non-dualism (Suddhadvaitavada). He looks
upon the world as a reality which is in its subtlest
form the Brahman.
Lu.r., ,lgygh nor the least, is the school of the (v) Gaudrya
^
Gaudlya
Vais?avas who advocate the doctrine of in- ' '
scrutable identity and difference (Acintyabhedbhedavda). Though they call rhemselves a branch of the
Madhva school yer in views they are more akin to the
schooi of Nimbarka and sometimes follow Sankara
also. The school traces its origin ro the teachings of
Srl-Krsna-Caitanya who flourished in Bengal in the
sixteenth century A.D. In the Gaudlya- Vaisnava
'urrd ais.ipte
scho-ol,
_Rupagosvamin, a contemporary
of Srl-Caitanya, was a versatile scholar who wrte
w.orks on drama, rhetoric and philosophy.
A?"y
His Vaisnaaatosini, a commentary on the tnth
,chapter bf the Bhagavata, is an impor-tant contribu-
in
tion to the literature of the Gaudlya Vaisnavas. His

nephew and disciple lvagosvmin was also a great
scliolar and prolific writer. His six Sandarbhas
ha, T at ta a s an d ar b h a, B hak ti s an d ar b h a,
etc.,) and the SaraasamaadinT are outstanding_works
on iaudlya.Vaistava philosphy. Baladeva Vidybhusala (ighteenth century a..) wrote tk'.e Goainda'
bhasya, the commentary on the Brahmastras,
u..oidirrg to the Gaudtya Vaisnava point of view. His
Prarneyaratnaaalt is also a popular work.
(Kram
an d ar
B.
HETtrRODOX SYSTEMS
The Buddhists are the followers of Gotama Buddha

Buddhism who preached his doctrines in the language of the
peopl som.etime in the sixth and fifth centuries s.c'
Introduc- fh Buddhist Canonical literature or the Tipitaha
tion
which was written in Pli, has three divisions: (1) the
Vinayapitaha, (2) the Suttapitaka and (3) the Abhidhammapitaka. Besides the Canonical works, the
Budd.hisf [terature is rich in non-Canonical works
which were also written in Pa1i. It must be mentioned here that Buddhist literature has a still wider
scope and includes a fairly long iist of Sanskrit works,
ur, ..orlrlt of which has already been set forth in a
previous chapter.'
Four
schools of
Buddhism
^ The Buddhist philosophers ate broadly divide
into four schools-the Sautrntikas, the Vaibhasik

the Madhyamikas and the Yogcras. Like Jainism
Buddhism-also does not accePt the authority of thr
Vedas. The Buddhists acknowledge only two mea
of knowledge-perception and inference. Thou
I Chap.
V, pp.
51-75.
PHILOSOPHY
193
there are sharp lines of difference among the four

schools referred to above, they are.unanimous in their
attitude against Brhmanic cuhure. I-tsing, the
traveller, says-Those who worshi! the
thrl:rq
Bodhisattvas and read the Mahayanastras aie the
Mahayanists and those who do nor perform such acrs,
are the Hlnaynists. The Mahaynists are divided
into two branches-(l) Madhyamika and (2)yogcra.
The Hin_aynists also have two divisio".-(t; Vuibt asika and (2) Sautrntika. Both are calied Sarv*
stivdins.
The Vaibhsikas reject the authority of the Stras (i) Vaibh_
and attach rhemselves to rhe Vibhasa, rhe comme"_ ilu
tary on dne Abhidhamma. Ktyyanlputra,s !frana{a:tlaTa (composed about three'hundr:ed years after
Buddha's Nirvla) is their chief work. th. .o*_

menrary Mahaaibhasa was compiled by five hundred
Arhats led.by,_Vasumirra, proably after the great
council under Kaniska. Frgments of Udanaagga,
Dhammap-ada, Eh,ottaragama, Avaghosa,, Budfliclyita and Aryaira' latahamala ,"* to belong to
this school. Bhadanta (third cenrury a.o.) Dhaa_
_eta and Ghosaka are other prominent exponents of
this school.
According ro__ Hiuen
(yuan Chwang) (ii)Sau__
.
- tu"g
Krrmralta (or J(umralabdha),u torrt"*porary !f irntika
Nagarjuna, was the founder of the Sautrantila school.
The Sautrntikas derive their name from the fact
that they take their srand on the Stras. To be
precise, unlike the Vaibhsikas, they adhere ro the
Suttapitaha, (the secrion consisting of th. discourses
of Lord Buddha) ro the rejectiori of the rwo or,her
Pitakas. It is unfortunate that none of the works of
13
ll94' rrrsroRy oF cLASSTcAL sANSKRTT
'this school are extant. Dharmottara, the logician, and

'Ya6omitra, the author of the commentary on Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa, are said to be the
followers of this school.
(i)Mdhy
amika
The founder of the Madhyamika school was

Nagarjuna who is said to have written the Satasaha'
sriia-frajfrapararua, the latest of the Mahvanastras. It may be mentioned in this connexion that
t}ie Praifrpararnitas declare that the highest wisdom
,consists of'the knowledge of Void (Snyata)' Th:
most rePresentatiYe work- of the M1{hlamika..school
is the Madhyamikahariha or the Madhyami-hastra
of Nagarjuni which consists of four hundred verses
in twty-seven chapters' Nagarjula wrote a commentary on his own work, which is named the
Akutobhaya. IJnfortunately the work has not come
,down to us in Sanskrit. Among other works written
by Ngrjurla are the Yuh,tisastikA, ttre Snyats.aptati,
a amutp a dahr d ay a, t't'.e M ahay anaaim Saka
the P iatziy'Vi.grahyaaartani.
Nagarjuna is usually
and the
placed b"t*n the first century n.C'^(accordilg-to thg
iradition preserved in the archives of the Dalailama)
and the to,rrth century a.o. (according to Dr S' C'
Vidyabhsala). In any case he cannot !1 1a1;,r tfan
o.r.' 4Ol, wh Kumaiajrva ffanslated his life into
Chinese. , Sntideva (seventh century e.o'), the author
of the Bod.hicaryaootaro and the Sik'sasamuccaya, is
sometimes cailed a Madhyamika and sometimes
.advocate of the Yogcra doctrine. The comn
tary named the Prasnnapada, written by Candraklrti
in ihe sixth or the seventh century a.., is an importanl
contribution to the Madhyamika iiterature' Aryadev
who is a'disciple of Nagarjuna, wrote the CatuSSatah
s
PHTLosoPHY
LTTERATURE
195
which is another important work of the Madhyamika

school. It was commented on by Candrakirti. Other
works by Aryadeya are t,ne Cittaaiuddhiprakarana.,
the Hastaaalaprah,arana and two other small treatises
constituting a kind of commentary on some sections
of the Lahkavatdra.
The founder of the Yogcra school was Maitrela- (iv) yognt};,a, the teacher of Asanga who is generally believed cra
to have clearly expressed the implications of his
system. Asanga is at least as late as the third century
a.n., though some would place him in the fourth or
the fifth century A.D. According to the Yogcra
school nothing exists beyond consciousness (uiifrana).
The Abhisamayalankarakarikas and probably the
text of tJae Mahynastralahkara attributed by Professor L6vi to Asanga and the YogcarabhmiSdstra,
a prose work after the manner of the Abhidharma
text, are the work of Maitreyantha.r Advaghosa was
a follower of the Yogcra school who wrote among
other works the Mahynaraddhotpadastra as
detailed in a previous chapter.2 Vasubandhu Asanga
is a great name in Buddhist literature who is assigned
to the fourth century A.D., though some place him in
the fifth century A.D. His work the Abhi,dharmakoa
in six hundred verses, which has not reached us in
the Sanskrit original, is a lasting contribution to
Buddhist philosophy. In this work the ,author has
refuted chiefly the views of the Vaideqikas. The
Sankhya theory has been criticized in his Paramarthal The name of Asafiga has become mote famous than that of his
teacher Maitreyantha. This explains why the works of the latter
are atmibuted io the former. Acording t the Tibetans and Hiuen
Tsang the Yogd.crabhmiSdstra tras been ascribed to Asanga.
'Ch, VL, p.
68.
196
HISToRY oF CLASsICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
saptati. Yadomitra wrore a commentary on the Abhi_

dharmahoSa known as the Abhidharmahoiat:yakhya,
the earliest translation of which into Chinse was
done in the sixth cenrury a.. The work is extremely
important as it enables us to know the views of thl
Vaibhasikas and the Sautrantikai. Vasubandhu wrote
a monumental trearise, rhe VijfrapmAtratd.siddhi consisting of two works the Virhiatika and the Tri?hsiha
which explain the doctrine of the reality of consciousness. A few other works, viz., Pafrcaskandhaprakarana,
the Vyahhyayukti, the Karmasiddhiprakrana and
two commentaries on the Mahayanastrdlankdra and
the- Pratttyasamutpadastra, the Madhyantaaibhaga
and the Aparimitayusstropadeia are iaid to have
been written by Vasubandhu. Among the adherents
to the school of Vasubandhu rnention must be made
of Sthiramati, Dinnga, Dharmapla and Silabhadra.
Sthiramati wrote a commentary on Vasubandhu,s
Trimika-Vijfrapti, and Dharmapia made a com-
T."!Ty. 9o !h9 Vitu1aka-Viirlapti. Dinnga was

the disciple of Vasubandhu, brothr of Arya Asanga.
Dinnga's date also is not accurately fixed. Tlius
while some assign him to the fifth ."rirry e.n., others
him berween a.o. 520 and e.o. 60, and make
him a contemporary of Gur,"'aprabha, the teacher of
King Sn-Harsa of Kanauj. Mallintha, rhe famous
commentator of the fifteenth century A.D., seems to
place
find a reference to this Dinnga in l(atdasa,s MeghadAru. Dinnga's Pramnasamuccaya, Pramd,nasfr."strapraaeia and other works are preserved in Tibetan
manslations, and are very popular in Japan. The
only Sanskrit work of Dinnga which has me down
to recenr times is tlne Nyyapraaeia. Dharmakirti
PHILOSOPHY
197
(sixth or sevenrh cenrury a.o.) wrote a valuable work

:thp Nyayabindz-which was commented on by
Dharmottara (ninth century a.o.) in his Nyayabindu.
lxha. Silabhadra (seventh century a.n.) wai ihe head
of the Buddhist Vihara at Nalanda and Yuan
Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) acquired from him his knowledge of Buddhist phitosophy. Sntaraksita in the
eighth century A.D. wrote a- voluminous work, the
Tattaasarhgraha, in which he has criticized the views
of many rival schools of philosophers. His work was
commented on by Karnaladlla in his Pafrjiha.l
The Jainas are the followers of Tina which is a title II
applied to Vardhamna, the last prophet. Vardha-:Jainism
mna said that he was the expounder of tenets that
had been successively held Lry rwenry-three earlier
sages. The Jainas are divided into two schools: (l) Two
Svetmbara (white-robed) and (2) the Digambara (skyrobed or nude). We are told that this division took
place as early as the first century a.o. The vetmbara
Jainas possess both Canonical and philosophical
works, while the Digambara Jainas have no Canonical
literature. The Canonical literature of the vetmbara sect comprises eighty-four books among which
forty-one are Stras. Both the schools disregard the
authority of the Veda and are, therefore-, called
heterodox schools of philosophy by the orthodox
schools
Hindu philosophers.
The earliest Digambara author who is also held in (i)Digamhigh esteem by t[e Svetmbara sect, is Kundakundu bara
whose works are all wrirten in Prkrit. The first
known Digarnbara writer in Sanskrit, is Umsvmin,
1
A late ueatise on the Buddhist philosophy is the work of Advayavajra who .i-assigned to the close-of the eieventh or the beginning
of the twelfth century A.D.
PFIII,OSOPIIY
198 HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT I-ITERATURE
f)iganrbi:rra iaina rr,ho \t,'rote lhis litanarn(tG, a philosophical work in verse, at the close of the eighth or
thc lreginning of thc ninth century A.r].
Ilaribhadra is tl-re ,:ar'liest Svctmbara Jaina philo- (ii)Svetrnsophcr ilrho ltrotc tr,r'o important works, the Saddara- hara
nasLrrtxuccaya ancl tirc Lokqtattuanirr.taya, besides a
ccmmentary oI) thc i{yayaprat:ea of Dirrnga, the
Y go tlr s Li s a rLr t t c c ay o,, tb,e Y o ga b in tlu, and dne I ) h ar m abinriu,. His date is believed to be the nintir century
A.D. Tor'varcls the close of the ninth century A.D"
Amrtacandra r{'rote th.- TatLurthasara and the Puru'
sarthasiddlryupaya bcsides :r fcr'v commcntaries.
Hcmacandra is a great [aina phitrosophcr n'hose
PramanatmVtna'tsa is an important work on Jaina
philosophy. Maliiserla in the thirteenth centruY A.D.
\,vrote lnis SyAduadanrufijart., a commentar)/ on I{emacandra's Anyayogaayaaacc;lte diha. To the same
century bclongs A6aclhara amol]g u'hose u'otks tnention shotrld be macle of thc Dharruun'Lrtc.t. Dcvenclrasri, another lvliter of the slllnc centul-Y, \1'1'ote thc
Si tltiltapanch li\ru, thc V tntdaruu'rt fi and the IJ paruitibhaaaproitactt'hathu-:;ZirarJcJltara. In the fifteenth
centluy Sakalakirti ],1'rote a volurninolrs r'vork the
Tottuirthctsu'rattipctlut in trveLve chapters. 'fo rhe
saine ccntur",. betrongerl Srutasgara lvho 11'rote tl-Ie
In thc
.l itt,enr{rayai a."idtti anri lhe T at luarthurlt,piha.
u'rote
u'ho
seventeclrth c.intuiv flo'.rrished Yadovijaya
r}.:.c: l'anabind,upra,kctrone and thc .f itatt.usurc.
',Lhe substance ol. thi: cioctliile of th-c Inr:lian matcIII
fuIateriathe
up
in
stunined
brieflv
ver"Y
and
riaiists is aptlv
lism
aliegrrrical di:arua, tirc Pralsodlwcttndrotlttltn-'Loki- (Crvka)
\rt; is the onlv Sstra. In this systcm pcrceptual
,:r.irlencc is the otrh, ;nttholit-\'. 'Ihc e.[ements are
also ca1led Umsvti (thircl century A.r,.) n'hose

Tctttaarthdhigamastra (in ten chapters) is rcgarderl
as an authoriiative text by both sccts. SidChasena
L)ivkara is aiso a well-knor'vn Digambara philosopher
who vsrote probably in the fifth century a.n. His
commentary on the Tattvarthaclhigamasutra ancl his
two other works t-he I'Jy7yAuatara and the Sammatitcrykastra are a1l important contributions. In the
first half of the eighth centriry e'o., Samantabhadra,
a Digambara, w-rote a commentary on the Tattuarthadhi,gmastra tnhich contains an introduction caiied
tlte ptamlmaths rvhich t'uas knorvn both to Kurnrila and Vcaspati. Samantabhaclta's other lvorks
are Yuhtyanuasana :rnd l?atnakarandairauakacara"
To the salrre century, in all probability, lived Akalairka anlong ll'hose works dhe Tattaartharaiaarttilea
and thc Aiaiatt, commentaries on tine Tattaarthadhigamastra and the ptamvmamsa resPectivelyr
,rny b" mcntioned. His views r'vere strongly ogpo:e{
by Kumr-ila. It lvas Vidynanda r'vho defended
r.t
Akalanka against the criticisms of Kumrila .by

rvriting thc Astasahasn, tlne TattaarthaSlokaaarttiha,
ttre lttapart/esa, the Fcraparlhsa, the frawamctpariksa orrrl th" Pravrtananirnaya. \'tlaqikyanandin
in'r,,to h\s Partksawrulthosutra n'hich is based on the
!'lyayauinicaya of Akalarika. Prabhcandra who is
of Kundakunda, llrrote two inclepenrrid tn be a pupil
tine Pram,eyahamalantartanda
logic,
dent rvorks on
and thc Nyayahumudacand.roclaya' It is
usuatrly
helicvecl that Prabhcandra was a pupii cif Akalanka,

lrrrt it is stated in the epilogue of the Pranteyahamalu'martancla that thc tryork r,vas composed during tl-rr:
rcign of Bhrja of l)hara. ubhar:andra is anotircr
##ir.
FiFq+6Hi
t99
2AO HISToRY oF
Introduc-
tion
CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE
four in number-e4rth, warer, fire and wind. Weaith

and enjoyment are the objects of human existence.
Matter can think ; there is no other world. Death
is the end of all.'r 'Lokeyata' (directed to rhe world
of enjoyment through senses) is the Sanskrit expression for materialism. It is rhe 'name of the stra.
The materialists are called Lokayatikas or Crvkas
called as such after the name of the founder of the
school.
References Crvka's story is found in the Mahabharata while

the doctrine is referred to in the Mahabharata (Salya:?S::l:13.
pnuosopny
paraan and Santiparrtan), the Visnupurana and ihe
Manusmrti. as that of the Nihilists and the Heretics.
Sometimes Crvka is identified with Brhaspati, who
incarnated himself as an atheist in order ^to bring
ruin unto the demons. The classic authority on the
materialist theory is said to be the Stras of Brhaspati,
which have perished. The Saraadaranasanlgraha ot
Madhava gives a summary of the teaching of the
school in its first chapter. Fragmentary quotations
of Stras and passages from works of the school now
lost to us, can be traced in the polemical works of
other philosophical schools.
Early
Among the earlier heretical teachers, mention may
teachers be made"of Safijaya the sceptic, Ajita Ke6akambalin
the materialist, Purna Kayapa the indifferentist,
Maskarin Gosla the fatalist and Kakuda Ktyyana
the elementalist.
Schools .
The materialists, again, were subdivided into several
ofJvlateriaschools-those who entified the body with the self,
those who confused the self with the external senses,
i
those who regarded the internal organ (antahharana)
I 'Act IL
20t
PHILOSOP}TY
as
their self and so on. The oft-quoted verses quoted
by Madhava, give a popular view of the materialists

the life regains, let a man live happil) i let
-'While
him
feed on ghee, even if he runs in debt; when
once the body becomes ashes, how can
it
ever return
again?' 'The three authors of the Vedas were the

hypocrites, knaves and nightprowlers', etc., etc.
C,
MISCtrI-LANtrOUS WORKS ON PHILOSOPHY

rihanthab-hsy-a: a comlnentary on t]ne Brahmastlas by rfta!1ha
alz'as Nr-Iakantha (thirteenth or fourteenth century e.i,),-written
from the Vidistadivdvaita point of view-much iri the'same line
as that adoptd by Rmnlrja.-commentid ort ty tp;tt;drksita in lnii Siuarhamaryipiita. (It is said tt at ppay'f. 'ri,as
.t hrst a aiVaite and 'htr was converted into a .(dvaitaVednrin.)
a commentary o.n t}ire Brahmastras by sripati paldita

representing the Dvaitdvaita point of view.
Commentaries on the Gltd (namecl Subodhint), the BhAgalatd, and
Srzharabhqya:
the Visnupurna: by rldharasvmin (twelfth or- thirieenth

cntury a.o.)-who is claimed to be an exponent of the Suddhdvaita school, inasmuch as he refers to Vinusvmin, the founder
of the uddhdvaita school in his commeniry on tie Bhdgaaata.

[Vallabh-crya (fifteenth-sixteenth century n.o.) was a laier exponent of_ thi.s school. But as he has alio refrred to Citsukha,
it may also be possible that he was a thinker of the Advait
school, who had his leanings towards the doctrine of devotion

(!hakt4. .This sort of copromise between the doctrines of
devotion (bhahti) antl knowledge (iAnd, is also found in
the Bh.ahlira-sayana. ol Madhusdna Sarasvatl who was a sturdy

champion of the Advaita philosophyl.
-Saraadar9anasarhgrahq:
by Mdhavcry-who along with his brother
S,aya+a, the -celebrated commenra (or of Veclic -literaturc, was in
the court of Kings Harihara and VTra Bukka of Viiavanasara
(fourteenth cenrury a.o.) and subsequently turned a "Sannvsin
and passed his days in the SJhgerr Malh,-a valuable encvclopaedia of Indian philosophy. whfuh contains the summary ot' rhe
views of at Ieast sevenfeen different orthodox and hterodox
. schools of Indian philosophy.
Saraasidddntasarasarhgiaha: scribed to Safrkarcrva but seems ro
be the work of more modern hand who wad possibly one of
the later chiefs of a afikara Matha-a work in 'the line of the
Saraadarianasathgraha though wriiten in easv vcrscs.
VijfrnamrtabhaCy?: -by Vijfrilbhiksu (sixteentli cenrury e..) who
by .wr jing this commentary on tie Brahmasrraj sought to
edtablish- i comproTis-e_ betwen tlre Srikhya ,"d i;d
,iE;; ;
one hand and the Vedntic (Upanisadic) viws on the"other.
202
by Paflcnana Tarkaratna of the twentieth century

.
A.D.-an lnsenlous work in the form of a commentary on the
Brahmasilts. It does not, however, strictly conform to the
Sahtibhqya:
INDEX
orthodox ktgama standPoint.

REFERENCES
N.: Flisfory of Indian Philo'sophy, Vols' I, il &ilI

Keith, A. B.t A Hislory of Sanshrit Literature
Radhkrishnan, S.: Indian' Philosophy, VoIs. I & II
Winternitz, M.: A History of Inirin Literature, Vol. II
Das Gupta, S.
Abhayanandin,
Amaramahgala, l17.
146.
Amarasirhha, 42, 43, 131, 157.
Abhi dhammapilaka, 192,

A
bhidkanaratnamal,
Amaru, 122, 123.

Amaruialaha, 122, 123.
I 57.
Abhidhi.nacintdmar.zi, I 57 .
Abhidharma, 193, 195.
Abhidharmahoia, T2, 195, 196, 199.
Abhidharmaho Saxy ahhy q, 19 6.
Amitbha, 70.
Amitagati, 124.
Amoghaaytti, 146.
A.mytabhrati, 147.
A mytacandra, 199.
Abhidhaurttimatrk, 154.
Abhiift,anaSahuntala, 93' 10 .
Abhinanda, son of Jayanta, 98.
Abhinanda, son of Satnanda, 83.

Abhinatabhfr.rafi, 152, 153.
Abhinavagupta, 49, 75n., 116, 153-4.
AbhinayadarParya, 173.
Abhisainayalahhdrakdrih, 71, 195.

Acinivabhedbhedavda,
Adbhitadarpa4a, ll7.
Anangaharsa Mtrarja, 116.
l9l'
Anahgarahga, 165.
Ananta,
Anehrthaiabdahoa, 157.
A nehdr thasait gr aha,
57 .
Anehdrthasamuccaya, 157.
Aniruddha, Pitydayifi, 161.
Agastimata, 172.
Agnipursr4a,44, 151n, 156, 172.
A hirbudhnya Sahhifi , 49.
Aihole inscription, 80.
Aniruddha, com. on
Annarhbhatta,
Anubha;ya,
Ai
Ah;obhyaayha, 70.
Ahutobhata, Tl, 194.
Alakra,- minister of .layasirhha, 84.
AIankra (lir.), 145, l5l-2. 154.
A tahkarakna ol Bhattihduya, 80.
51.
Amalnanda, 188.
Amaracandra, 84, 155.
78.
y a y ogai., y aaacch edi
h.
I 99.
Anyohtimuhtalatd-iataka, 125.
Apntaratamas, 186n.
Aparimity us str op a de 3a,
Apastamba, 41, 149, 159.
Api6ali,
|9
6.
141.
Apodeva,
18.5.
Appayyadiksita, 155, 185, 188-9,
Alahhdrasarvasaa, 154.
Alahhdraiehhara, 155.
Alberni, 33, 40, 169.
Alexander, 86.
Allahabad Stone Pillar Inscription,
Aloka, 176.
Alvras, 190.
191.
Anubhtisvarpcarya, 147.
Anuayahhvna, 191.
Ke6akambalin, 200.
Akalanka, 198.
Akhyyik, 131.
SdhlehYastra,
l 80.
59.
Amarahoia, 2, 157.
140.
Anar ghardghaxa, 112-3.
dya Sakti, 45.

gama, 47, 49.
graha,
53-4.
nandaxyncl@aanacamp, 140.
Adbhutasgara, 170n.
dipurana, 83.
Advayavajra, 197n.
Alahbfi.rasarh
Anandalahari, 124.
1
Abhyankar, 98n.
Ajita
nandabhairaaa, 49.
Anandagiri, 186n, l89.
Anandavardhana, 9, 81, 112, 123-4, 150,
Abhiseka, 96n. 99.
Aiver, G.,
Amytamanthana, 85.
Amrtnanda, 65.
198,
201.
?tarnzrnafusA, 198.
Aptapdfihsa, 198.
55.
Arambhavda, 1 79.
Arisirhha, 128, 155.
Ariunaruary1ya, 83.
Arjunavarman,
Arthasathgraha,
123.
185.
Arthasastra,94,95, 137, 150, 162,
164.
INDEX
204
Arvabhata. 168-9.
Aryabhaia, ryasiddhanta,
ryabhafiya, 169.
Arvacandra,
Baladeva, 186n, 192.

Bdlarnanorama, 144.
Bdlardmfiyar.ta, 133.
Blasubrahmanyam, I.R., 77n'
169.
69.
Arvadeva,7l,194.
R. D., 64n,^^65n.
Banerji Sastri, 4., 98n.
Barnett, L. D., 4, 98n.
anerjl,
Asairga, 71, 195-6.

Asatkryavda, I78.
!;c a ry a -u pa purana, 46.
Amarathya, 185.
Adoka, 8, 12, 59, 73.
Bhadrakalpdaadgna,
B
Bhaauati, 4+, 45, 84, t15, 130, l9l

20t.
Bhaimarathl, 52.
Bhairavasirhha, 161.
Bhahfimaruslotra,
Advaghosa, 27, 57, 62-9, 71,76,77n,
95n,193,195.
A6valyana, 36.
Bhallala,
168.
Atreva. ritual authority, 166.

Arreya, aulhority on edicine,
Aucityaaicra, 154.
Aulkya Philosophy,
77.
BhratItlrtha,
Bhravi, 80,
73.
Bhrgu,
82.
Bhartrmenlha,
154.
83.
183.
Avalokitevara, 70.
Bhartrmiira,
Axi.mdraha, 102.
Bhasapariccheda, 178.
Bhsarvajfra, 175.
Aa ani't sun darihat hd' 97 n.

Avantivarman, 83.
Bdaryata, 186,
Bdari,
190.
Bhudantiputra, 162.
Bdlabhdrata, Amaracandra,
Balabhrata, Bhsa, 1 I3.
Bdlacarita, 101, 103.
B hsh ar a-upapurdrya,
84.
6.
Bhskara, Varixasyfi.rahasya, 50.

Bhdsaatt, 169.
BhAtMcinfimary| 185,
a,
27
, 62, 65-7 , 6,
7
'
c.,
121n, 136, 159.
198.
Burnell, A. C.,
Burnouf, E., 3,
l4ln.
4,
153.
140.
160.
ryaaat
ra,
194,
rl.tmaryasariasa, 161.
llrahma7dapurArya, 42, 44.

ltrahmapurna, 44.
ttruhmasiddhi, lBB.
7Z
n,
I B;hi.ili;:i.
I Buddhist Tantra. 48.
I Budhasvmin, I36.
4, 5. B-10,12,14n,55,
I Bhler,
6.
tlhrlingk, O., 3.
Ilopp, F., 2.
Ilrahmadatta, 61.
Ilrahmagupta, 169.
Ilrahmnanda. 190.
II
136-7.
Buddhaghosa, 83.
Buddhauatarhiaha, 70.
6.
Bilvamaigala, I24.
Bindumati, 94.
Blan, A., 42.
l) o d h i ca
Bhdsaartti, I4B.
Bhskarcrya, 169.
Bhskara, Philosopher, 190-91.
Bhskara, Unmatiard.ghaaa, ll7,
185.
83. r93.
70n.
Bloomfield, M., 4.
odhyana. I59, 183, I87n.
odhyanakavi, l16.
Bhartrprapafica, 187.
Bhsa, 93, 95-102.
189.
Buddha^cârira,
1
hdevaSukla, I I5.
Bijagar1ita, 169.
Bilhana, 116, lZ3, 127.
89.
Z0O.
Brhatsarhhitfi, 170, l7Z.

P"94!.r, 18, s9, 63, 66-7,70, tsz-3.
Buddhabhatta, 172.
Bhoiaprabandha, 138.
Bhojarja,
Bhartrhari, I,80, l2l-2, 125, 143,
Ataddnaatka, i2-3, 83.
Avimukttman,
Bhojakatva,
1
Bhratacamp, 140.
Bhratacandra, 123.
Bhdratamafi.jari, 83.
Audulomi, 185.
Aufrecht, T,, 3.
18+.
Bhoja,- 154, 164, 169, t7Z, t8t-2,

Bhojadeva,123.
55.
170.
Brhaspatismrti, 161.
Brhaspatistra, 200.
Brhatz, 183,
166.
ty
Brhajjataha,
Bphaspati, 159, 162-9,
Bhimaia, 116.
Bhit medallion, Iln.
157.
Bharata, 19, 75n, 85, 104, 149,

1
108-
Brhatkathd, 99, tlt, tO3,

Brhathathanaftjari, 136.
BhihhhubiicittT"t;,
Bhrma. izl.
188,
Bhandarkar, R. G., 33, 64n.

Bhnudatta, 15.5.
Bhnuji,
185.
sy azta.r t ti ha, lgg.

Byhadiranyahopaniiad, 40, [87.
Brhadbrahmasnhita. SO.
BhxaprahaSa, 167.
BhaudbrakAiana. lS4.
citt
189.
pir na, 42.
Pf ha da ra f ya ha bh
Bhaaanaiaeka, lB4.
B h i h h h ut.ti p1t
Bhaminh;ilasa, 125.
Athansaaeda, 36, 40, 85, 130,

tnatattuaiveha, 175.
Bra h maztaiaar la
Brhacchabclendiiekiaia, l+5.
Bhvakatva, 153.
Bhvamira, 167.
Bhavanrha, 183.
Bhela,
124.
190,
201-2.
Brahmastrabha;ya,
t8+.
Bhayabhaffl'anadarman,
Bhedbhedavda, 190.
Bhallala!;atalza, 127.
Bhmaha, 81, 132, 143, l5l-2.
Bhdmafi,
Aiuauaidyaha, 172.
Aiuayun:eda, 172.
Brahmasphu{asiddhanta, 169.
Bhaaiiyapurana, 44.
124.
Bhalztirasyana, 201.
BhahtiSataha, 125.
179.
A!;aacihits, 172.
Aaaloka,
3.
a, 1 16,
l, 2, 33-4.
hagauad.aj j uhiy
141-2, 144, 148. Bhasaaadgitd,
Astahgasarhgraha, 167.
Astasdhasn, 198.
A;taiatt, 198.
Avadna, 67,72-3.
Auodanakalialata,
tt2,'127,
Bhavadsa, lB3.
Bhavadevabhatfa, 16l,
Bhavadevasri, 84.
Belvalkar, S. K., 98n.

Bhadanta, 193.
A s lam a hA iti cd i ty a-s I otra, 12+.

As tdh ga hy daya sa rh h ita, l6i.
Asuri,
110,
alahhdra, 133.
Baudd.hasarhgaty
205
Brahmastra, l3l, 186n, lg7-g,
12.
Bhattahyaka, 152-3.
Bhdltarahasya, 185.
Bhatti, 27, '80-81, 83, 132, t4g.
Bhartikduya, 76n, 80, l3Z, l4T.
Bhattoji, l4+-5, 148.
Bhattotpala, 170.
Bhaumaka, 83.
Bhavabhti, 27, 86, BB, 93, lO4,
Btabha11a, 36, 40, 83, 96n, 97n, 9t

107, 117, 120, 122, 124, 134-5, 139.
Adhara, 199.
zt,
Bhafiddipiha, 185.
Bhaqtanryar.ra, I
Balibandha, 95.
Balllasena, 138,
ryasaptaiatt, 125.
ryasiddhnta, 169.
ryaqlaiata, 169.
Aryara, 69, 140, 193.
Asokauadana. lJ,
AstQd.hyAyl' i, s,
INDEX
Cai lanyacandrodaya, 1l 5.
Caitanyamrta, l4i-8.
Cakrap?idatta, 166-7,
C_ambridge
C-a m
pa ka !
History of India,
resth
ihai
a ak
Camp, 55.
Cr.rakya, 137, 162, 166.
Car.tQahauiiha, 113.
Ca4d.edvara,
Cat.cdt., 45.
Car,rdrdsa,
l5l,
a,
37n.
t 3g.
164.
154.
CandlSataha, 124.
Candra, Candraka, 116.
Candragomin, 116, 143, 145.
Candragupta, 43, 76, 133, 162.
Candrak-rrti, 72n., l9S.
Candrdloha, 154-5.
Cndra school, I45.
Caraka, 130, 166, 167, 179, t81n.

Carahasarhhitd, 166, 174n, lgn.
Cdrucary1ataka, 125.
Crudatta, 93, 97n, l0Z-3.
Crvka. lgg-200.
Catalogis Calalogotum,
Caturbhayl, 92.
Deul uPcqurdrya,
3'
Ca turDar pd c i n tdm aryi, 16l.

Ca t urz:a r:ga sarh graho, 125.
Catuiataha, 71, l9+'

CauraPaftcdiikA'
Chanriastra, 53.
Chandomafr'iart, 156.
Chando'nulsana, 156.
Chdv, on VYasabha;Ya, 181'
Chai'pintier, i., sa".
C:ndzi, A. L., 2.
Cidarirbara,
84.
Cikiahdiha,
sasa
Ya
graha,
167.
Citrabharata, 116.
Citsuhht.. 189.
Ci ttauiiuddhi brahara4tt, 71, 195'
Colebrooke.
f., t,
Court epics,
t+4.
75-84.
i. s., +, 7lnCunninghum. A., 4' il,
Cowell,
Dalai Lama,
59.
Dharmabiidu,
Dharmaklrti, 69, 72n.,75, 133' 183,
DharmmYta, 199.
Dharmapada,193.
Dharmaila, 72,
I 89.
Ddnastuti,
51.
56, g7n,
Darbadalana, 125'
br"Oi", i4,
'11.
arridbhYu daYa, 84.
DlntubradlPa, 148.
Dhatubrttl, 148.
Dhiranga,117.
a4hbhnmaka, 70.
169.
Daiaiarmabad dhati, 16l.
Daakumdiacarito, 103n, 132'

Daarathaidtaha, 29.
Daiarbaia, 116, 154.
81,
Dntaksantd!;rava,
-
Davids, R., 10.

Dayabhaga, 16l.
Delssen, P., 4.
Devadhara, C. R', 98n.
Devaprabhsri, 84.
Devaoutra. 65n.
Deveidrasri, 199.
Deve6vara,
Derlmahddeua, 94.
Dea:tmdhtmya, 45.
DealSataha, 124.
Frank,
Dhaanyloha, i50-51,
Govinda, 154-5.
Goaindabha;ya, 192.
Govindacandra, 161.
Govindnanda, l89.
Govindarja,
160.
IL,
Grassmann,
3.
Grhyastra, 30, 36, 159.

Grierson, G., 4.
Gadddhara, 176.
Ggbhatta, 185.
Gunabhadra, 83.
Gu?acandra, 155.
Gajendragadkar, l?ln.
Galava, 141.
Ga4a, 172.
Gdnaqatha, 146.
Gundhya, 99,136.
Gu{raprabh, 196.
Gunaratna, 179n.
Gangdsa, 156.
Gahgalahari,
-125.
Gangesa, .t 75-.
Garbe, R., 4, 174n, 179.
153.
Grgya, 141,
Diiakarabhatta, 85.
Dinga. 72.'77n, ll7'
1
196,199.
DlPakaliha, 161.
Drfankara,172.
Dtpiha, 178'
Diringer, I I.
Diuvztaddna, 59, 73.
Drdhabala, 166'
Dsanslun, 73.
Dubruil. I., 64n, 65n.
Dureasirhha, 1 46.
148.
Durl"abharja, 170n.
Dtaghatothaca, 100.
Dthgada, 117.
DtaudhYa, 100.
Doada!;anihaYaiastra, 7 l-
Hla, 120,
70.
Gan@stotragdthd., 67.
197.
191.
Goldstcker, T., 4, 5, 142.

Gopalacamp, 140.
Gopatha-Brahmarya, 40.
Gopendra Tippa Bhpla, 152.
Gat?astras', 2l,
176.
Duhataartti,
Gokulantha, 115.
Gokulikas, 60.
Goplnrha,1l7.
64n.
Galdavyha,
Dhrtasamagama' 1 17.
Dhrtaaitasaryttdda, 92n.
Dhvani school, 153.
Dvaitavda,
86.
Gar,taratnamahodadhi, 148.
124.
Dtdhxti,
Ehottardgama, 193.
193.
Dharmaviiava, 115.
Dharmotrr, 72n, 175, l9+' 197'
Dhatubathd, 140.
lo3n, 131-2, l5l'2' Dieambara,
7 1.
155.
Feigusson, J., 4, 64n, 77n, 78n, 104n.

Fleet, J. F., 4, 54, 64n, 7Bn, 103.
Forster, G., l.
[)harmastra, 5,' 41,'159, 174'
Dhoyi,
Govardhana, 125.
Dharmaiidhvarindra,
Dharmaratna, 161.
a
Ehaaali,
Erotics,165.
196.
DharmalPurlkld, lZ4.
D ha r m
EkaSloha*fistra,
Elizabethan drama,
Dhrva, K. H., 98n.

Dhrtanartaha, ll7.
Dallana. 166.
modara. 173.
I)modaraguPta, 124.
Dmodaramidra, 113.
155'
editio princeps of $gueda,

Eggeling, J., 4.
Dhavalcandra, 137.
194.
Daiasltikstra,
154.
Dharasena, 81.
Dharmatrta,
Citromlmairs, 155.
Citsukha, 189, 201.
Gitagoztinda, 123, 165,

Goethe, I,104, 120.
DhaneSvara, 84.
Dhanika,
207
Ghosh, Arabinda, 121n,

Girnar Inscription, 55.
Gxfi, 33, 191.
Du
Dharmascuhlraha,
167.
sath
Dvaitdvaita, 190, 201.

-aairh a ty aa a ddna, 7 3,
Daydirayahdaya. 128.
46.
DhanafljaYa, 154.
Dhanapla, 140.
DharmabhtudaYa'
-199. 116.
69,
123.
C atu|Satahastotrd,
Cihil
INDEX
INDEX
206
174-5,
Gatha Nraiarhsti,
25.
Gathsaptaiatl,1l9.
Gauda style, 57, 109.
G
au da br ah mdnan
Geldner, F., 3, 88.

Centoo law, A Code of. l.
Ghataharfarakdaya,
1Zl.
'T.
chatak,
C., i8n, I04n.
Ghorl Shahabuddin, 128.
Ghosaka,
193.
ll7,
HarhsasandeSa, 120n.
Haradatta, 144.
Haradattasri, 84.
Harahelinalaha, 116.
Hgtraalx, 157.
89.
Gaudapda, 179, 187.

GaudapadahrihA, 7.
GauQaxaho, 109. 127.
Gaudlya Vaislavas, 191-2.
Gautama, 41, 159, 174-5, 177,
Gaydsa, 166.
Ghatakarpara. l2l.
HammVlamadamardana,
Hathsadta, 120n.
Hanumd.nndtaha, 113,
Hanxleden, J. E., L
179.
Garudapurgr.ta, 4+, l7Z.

Gathe, 58, 62, 70.
125.
Halyudha, 83, 157, 161,

Elamilton, A., 2.
Hararijaya, 76n,
Hari, 81,
I99.
Haridiksita,
I48.
Haricandra, 84,
Harihara, King
Harinamdmrta,
Harisela, 55-6.
Harisirhha, 161.
Hrita,
83.
183.
Harihhadra,
140.
of Vijayanagara;
20'1.
147,
159.
Hariaarha, 32, 34-5, 41, 95, 97n, 99,

101.
Ilarit:arh3a, court epic,

Hariramapurdrya, 83.
B4.
il
208
F{arivarman,
l6t.
King of South
Bengal,
Idvarasena,104.
I-tsing, 64, 65, 143, 193.
Harh:ild.sa, 83.
Harsa, 41, 107-8, 124-5' l2B, 134, 196.

Harsacarita, 40, 107, 120, 134.
Ifargadev4, King of Kashmir, 125,
Jackson, A. M. T., 42.

Jacobi, H., 4, 25-6,28, 30, 37, 39, 98"
174
Harqakirti,
170.
Hastabal apraharaqa,
Hastimalla, I17.
Hastings, W,,
n,
183.
lagaddeva, 170 n.
128.
19
Hiranvakedin. 163,
Histoiy ol lnd.ian Literature,
Hitopadeia, 1, 2, 137.
IIittite,
I 1.
Hiuen Tsang, 22,64n, 193' l95n'

Hopkins, E.-W., 4, 37 n.
Hor1Zstra, 170.
HorAsatubaficdiiha, 170.
Hydayad.rpaqa, 153.
Hroznv.
1.
Hultzs'ch, E., 4.
Humboldt, W. von,
Ilunter,
fluvigka,
2.
11.
64.
Indra, l4l.
Indradhvaja, 8.5,
Tavasirhha, ll7.
iayasirhha, King of Kashmir,
layaswal, K. P., 98 n.
Jha, Gangnth, lB3.
Kalpanalahhrtihd,
Kalp anm
Kath, l3l.
KalyTamalla,
84"
Tinasena, Hariaarhiapurd,na, 83,

Jinasena, Mahdpurdrya' 83.
143.
199.
J-wagosvmin, 140, 147, 155, 192.
Jrvnanda,1l5.
fiuandharacamp, 140.
I;tasid.d.hi, 189.
Iltraradatta, 92 n.
Idvaraklspa, 179.
lioarasnthhitd, 49.
J ft.d.ndmy
a, lB9.
f ftinabinduprakarana, 199.
tasrasdtlxhitd, 50.
Jfrnaprasthd.na, 193,
3,
67 n.
7
6n.
16.5.
Kaly@namandirastotra, 124,
Tinakrrti,138.
166.
Kautilya, 94, 95 n, 137,
aryQi ti led,
Kalpataru, 1BB.
Timtavhana, l6l.
Jinadsa, 84.
ek
Kahduytti, 81, 143, lB4,

Kdipatikavirja, ll7.
Kdyapa, l4l, 159, 177.
Kayapasarhhifi, 172.
Kalhipurt.ta, 46.
154.
fia anm uh tiaix
lB5.
144-5.
Kalpa drumdaadnamdl.d,
fivaka,
Karpilramafiiari, 94, ll3.
Kd,tantrastra, 146.
Kd,Ttailsa, 50.
Iinmd.rayajaaidhi.,
Karpracarita, 93, 116.
Krstjini,
83.
Jayditya, 143.
layamahgald, 165.
Iinendra,
linendrabuddhi, 81,
Inscriotional Kvvas, 54'

Intuouction to Pruamimdthsd, 185.
I, 64 n,
II,64n.
Jayadeva, Berar, l16.

Jayadera, Candrdloha, 154-5.
Jayaratha,
Kan.casundari, 116.
Kthasarhhitd, 36,
Kathhautuha, 138.
Kalapa, 146.
Kathdhoia, 138.
Kldoka, 38.
Kathrand,hara, 138.
Kaltutilasa, 125.
Kathdrnaaa, 138,
Kale, M. R., 98 n.
Kathsaritsdgara, 103, 136, lsln.
KalhaBa, 108, 126, 128.
Ktyyana, 21, 96n, 142.
KIidsa, 1, 56-7, 76-83, 94,96n, 98, Ktyyaniputra, 193.
104-108, 112, 120-1, 124, 156, 196.
Kaumra, 146.
Kalihapurana, 46.
Kaumu rmi trdnan da, L I 6,
145-6.
87.
ddhra,
0.
17 0.
17
Karna, King of Chedi, ll4.
Kakudaktyyana, 200,
|ayanryar,ra, 178'
Jayan tabhalta, 83, 17 5.
197. Jaypida, 124.
170.
haraqta,
72,
Karmasieldhipraharat.za, 196,
Kan.rabhara, 100.
Jumaranandin, 147.
Junagadh Inscription, 64n,
Jyotirldvara, 165.
Kaiyala,
fdtahamal, 68, 140, 193.

.layadaua, 172.
layadeva, 123-5, 165, 176.
3.
Karmaiataha,
Jolly, J., 4, 28 n, 98 n.
Jones, W., l, 77 n, 123.
Kadphises
Kadphises
lnahtparit.raya, 1 17.
Ttaka literaturc, 29-30, 61.
Succes-
KrihdaaFt, 178.
Kaclamban, 133-4.
Kdamba Kmadeva,
Halha Yoga, 182.

Hayagriaatadha, 83.
Helen, 30.
Jaina Tantras, 48.
Hemacandra, 84, 125, 128, 146' 148, Jaiyyata, 166.
t54-7, 164, 199.
.Ja1hana, 125.
lmbauttaijaya, 83.
Hemdri, 46n, 16l.
fanah1iharana, 81.
Hemavijayagagi, 138.
Herder, l.
Heretics,20l.
Hertel, J., 88n, 137.
Hillebrandt, A., 88 n.
IlInavna, 54, 6l-2, 73.
Hindi Law on Conlracts and
sion, A Digest,2.
Kan.tahuthala, L69.
Ksi kdaia ar aryap afrj ikA, H3,
! aiminry any ay amQln, 184.

J aina-M ahqbhdrata, 84.
Jaina-Rfrmd.yarya, 84.
Hsyarqaaa, 117.
[ft.dndn.taoa, 50. 199.
Kakptsna, 185.
lagaQucarita, 128.
.Jaganntha, 125, 148, 155.
.Jaimini, 182, 185, 197-9.
1.
209
ffrnasdra, 199.
Jffanendrasarasvati, 144.
J y otiruidab
J y o ti;asdro
Jagadida, 176, 178.

Jagadi6vara, 117.
5.
Hasttayurxeda, 172.
Has;fainQama4i, 116.
Hora,
INDEX
TNDEX
Kdmadatta, 94.
Kdmadhenu, 152.
Kamalkarabhaga, 161, I85.
Kamaladila, 197.
Kmandaka, I64.
Kdmastra, 22, 165.
Kathsaaadha, 52,95.
Kathsaaadha, esakygr.ra, 117.
Kanahdaatimdhaaa, 94,
Kaniqka, 63, 64n,71, 166, 193.
KaTabhaksa,' I 77.
Karlabhuk, 177.
Kat:da, 177.
Kane, P. V., 98 n.
Kant,3.
Kapila, I79, 180.
Kapilapurdna, 46.
Kapphanbhyudaya, 83.
t+
Kautuharatnfrkara, ll7,
Kautuhasaraasaa, Ll7.
Kavi, R., 97 n.
Kavihalpalat, 155.
162-4.
Kaui
ary1h
Kaat
140,
draaa canasamuccaya, 125,
hara
4a,
Kavikarnapra, l15,
Kaviputra,
54,
103.
Kaoirahasya, 83,
Kavirja,
83.
Kavidekhara, 117.
Kaoinrahasya, 155.
Kavitrkika, I l7
Kauyadar!;a, 103,131-2, 136, 139n,

K.daylahhra, Bhmaha,
151
l5l.
Kauyamimarhsd, 154.
Kaydnuidsana, Ilemacandra, 154.
Kdaydnuidsana, Vgbhata, 155.
Kduyaprahda, 152, 154.
Kedrabha11a, 156.
Keitll A. 8.,
1t6, 136-7,
4,
81,
177, 183.
Keliraiaataha, 94.
Kennedy, 64 n.
Kern, Ef., 62-3, 70,
95, 97
n;
98 n.
INDEX
2\0
Ku{l.anlmata, 124,
Kuxalaydnanda, 155.
Kedavakdmirin, 191.
Ke6avami6ra, rhetorician, 155'
Mdhavakara,
85.
'
Laghu ArhannTti,
Khahahhad"taka, 169.
Kh ary a n ahha
qd
ah
hail Y a, 189.
Khiavela, Hthigumph Inscription,

19.
Kxranaalx.
Lalla,
K.drastala, 94.
5.
153.
140.
169.
Lanman, C. R., 4.
Lassen, C., 2, 30, 123.
Latakamelaha, ll5.
Laugksibhskara, 178,
185.
Lesnv, V., 98 n.
Kitnanda, SahTdaYdnanda, 84Krinnanda. Tantrasdra, 50.

Rri,1a-yaj uraeda, 130, I 60.
185.
Lindanau,
M., 98 n.
, 146.
Lipikra,
5.
116, 125, 136, LocanarocanV,, 155.
Lacote, F., 98 n.
Loknanda,116.
165.
Kqemendra, grammarian,
147.
Lo hat
Ksemir-ara. 113.
Ksrrasvamln. l5/.
a t ta
anirnay
Lolimbarja, 83,
160.
Lorinser, F., 33.

Lrlers, H., 4, 68.
Maitryatiya,
3.
Ku mAra bAl a carita, l2B.
Kumaraiambhaoa, 7B-9.
Kumrilabha1ta, 36, 40, 183-5,
Kundakunda, 197-8.
Kundamal, 116.
Kuntaka, Kuntala, 154.
KuntelaaradautYa, 83.
Krmapurdrya, 44,
198.
Macdonell, A,
A' 4,
104
n'
120,
l2l
123.
Machiavelli,
162.
Maddlas-camp, 140.
Mddandbariidta, 16l.
Mdhav, 148, 161, 180, 184, 200-1.
6.
49.
Matairyal77a, 172.
Mtrcet, 69.
Mqgupta, 83.
MatsyapurAna, 43-4, 172.
72,.
a,
1,
19 5
-6.
194.
Mahimabhatta, 154.
Mahimnastotra, 1,24,
Mahrpla, 113.
Maithilzhalyana, ll7.
Lomaharsaqa, 34, 42.
Ludwig, 4.,
l{atanga,
Mahedvara, Iexicographer, 157.
167.
Lollata,152-3.
Kumradsa, 81.
Kumragupta, 76,78n.
Kumra'ilva, 194.
Kumraiabdha, 193.
Kumralta, 193.
Markqdeya, smrtidstrakra, 160.

Marshall,. I. H., 4, 64 n, 65 n, 77 n.
Mahendale, 104 n.
Mahendrapla, 113:
Mahendravikrama Varman, 94, l0B.
M a he 3u a ra -upa pu rdna, 46.
232,
Lokayata, 200.
Kul.n.caaa, 50.
Mah.daarhSa, 59, 60.
Mrhandeya-purdtpa, 44-5.
Mah-aaastu, 41, 59, 60-1, 66.
M ahy nastrdlahhar
Loheiaara$ataha, 122 n,
Lokottaravdin, 59, 60.
KulacAdama7i, 50.
M arici -up apurdtTa,
Mahaydnaxirniaha,
a,
200.
2.
Mahsnghika, 59, 60.

Mahnaagga,7.
Mahaynairaddhotpadastra, 68, 195.

Mahaynastra, 69, 70, 193.
Locana, 153.
ll3,
17
Maskari GosIa, 200.

Maria Stuart, 121.
Mahdvirastotra, 125.
Mahyna, 41, 58, 61-2, 68-9,
Lihgapuralca, 44.
Mdnaoadharmadstra, 159.
Manuqylay acandrihA,
Mahaa'rracarita, 84, 109.
Li h gnuSasana
196.
Marmt-tastraharat.za, 160.
Ma{rdana, 184, 188.
Manusmrti, 1, 2, l3l, 160-1,
113-4.
Mahaibhasa, 193.
Mahvrra, 18.
Mahvrrcrya, 169.
LrlauatV, 169.
MaLlihdmruta, ll7.
Mallintha, 78, 129, 144, 155,
Mallisena, 199.
Mammala, 152, 154-5.
Mdrnmeyodaya, 185.
Mnatufiga, 124.
Mandasor Inscription, 56.

Mandhyahariha, 179 n.
M{rikyacandra, 83, 154.
Mnikyanandin, 198.
130, 137, 163, 166, t79, 186.
Mqikyasri, 86.
l\tlcrhdbhdsya, 52, 95, 130, l4L-2, 144, Mankha, 84.
149, 181 n.
Mnsehr Inscription, 8.
Mahdeva, 117.
Manu, 43, 159, 160, 168.
Mahpurna, 83.
Maharja-Kanihalehha, 69.
Lt"76rfta, 127.
176.
Krinnanda, Pdahhodta, 120n.
99 -100.
Mdhyamika, 7l-2, 192, 194-5.

Mddhyamihakarika, 7 1, 194,
Madhyamihasutra, 194,
Madhyantaaibhnga, 196.
M adhy asi ddhantahaumu, I 4 5.
Mgha, B1-3, 144,
L[ahbhdrata, 1, 2, 28, 32-9, 41, 48,
51, 75 n, 80, 82-4, 95, 99, 102, ll2,
Mahdniradryatantra, 50,
I 95.
iinananda Agamavgi6a,
n, l9l.
Mahinataha,
Lahkdtsatdra, Tl,195.
Levv, S., 4, 9, 68,98n, 107n, 123, 166,
Krsqakar4myta' 124.
Krsnamira, I l4-6.
Kullka,
I4
Laksmldhara. 161.
Latiiaditya Muktprda, 127,
Lalitumadhdad, 117.
Lalitaaistara, 41, 59, 61-3, 66, 83.
Kondabhatta. 148.
Konw, s.:'4,64n,98n, lo3, 107n.
Korur theory, 78 n.
Kramadidvara, 147.
Kramasandarbha' 192,
ls4, r56,
[t,
ha umu
Lakimanasena,' 123-4, 161,
80.
116.
I29,
Ksemaria. 4.
Kiemend"ra, 73, 83,
ta
Laksmanabhatta,
Klrtivarman, I14.
Kokkoka, 16.5.
Krslayaivan,
icl dh an
186
M adhy amauy dy o ga, 23,
Lahsat.ti.aali, 178.
Kiraiarjumya, court epic, 2,
Irtildfi,
us
Laksal,
ll5,
Kiraldrjuniya, drama,
Krtikaumudi, 128.
Mdhva,
164.
Lahucand.rika, 189.
Laehu-Jataha, 170.
La\hu sab d en du 3 e hhara, 145.
Lah
Kharoglha, 9.
Kharoqthi, 8, 9, 14.
Kielhorn, F., 4, 54, l2ln.
167.
Madhaoasddhana, 117.
Madhusdana Sarasvatl, 189, 201.
Kedavamidra, naiyyika, 178.
Khandadeva,
2n
IIIDEX
Ald[haraartti, 179.
MattaDilasa, 94, 108.

Maudgalyyana, 68.
Maurya eru, 19.

Max MIler, F., 3, 54, 59,
n,
142,
MayAhapali.ha, 94.
Mayamata, 172.
May-Pole (dance),
87.
Mayhhamdlihd., 185.
x4ayura,
122.
116.
Myurja,
Mazumdar, R. C.,
N4edhtithi, 131,
64 n.
160.
Medinftra, I57.
160.
Maitreyantha, 71, 195.

Maitreyarakgita, 148,
Maitreyasamiti, 69.
Meghadfrta,
M ai tr ey a-r: y dk ar at.ta, 69,
Meghaprabhcrya,
MalinToijaya, 49.
77
187.
Megasthenes, 38.
77
n, 78, 83,
120-1, 124,
t96.
Ma linla i ja y ot ta raztdrt ti
ka,
Mdlaaikgnimitra, 77
n,
49.
Mlati.mZdhaaa, 93, 109, 110.
Malaoiha, 94.
105, 109.
16.
Menahdhita, 94.
Merutunga, 129.
Mlmrhs, philosophy,
184-5.
Mim.cnhsZihaustubha, lB5.
Atimdrhsdnukramaryi, 184.
2t2
INDEX
INDEX
Nryar.rapaqdita, Nazsaratnaparik;d,
Mimdthsanyfiy apraka, 185.
172.
Mimdrhsparibhaqa, 185.
Nryanapaldita, Hitopadeia, 137.

Nariman, G. K., 63.
Mimarhsastra, 130.
MitdhqarQ, 16l.
Mitramidra,
Nartananin.taya, 173,
Nasik Cave Inscription, 8, 55.
161.
Moha'rnudgara, 124.
N d[ahalah ;at.taratnah
Mohaparajaya, 115.
Morgenstierne, G., 98n.

M1cchakaliha, 90, 93, 97
MTgdaaticaritra, 84.
Mlgendra,
n,
Nthamuni,
Mugdhabodha, 147,
154,
Nigama, 47n.
149.
200.
Mlakar.rlha, philosopher,
Nilaka4lha, Tjik,
193-4.
Ngeabhatta, 145, 148, l8l.

Nai;adhacarita, Naiqadhiyacarita,
76n,82.
Nai;harmyasiddhi, l8B.
Nai|adsa,49.
Nitisdra,
I 16,
LJ t .
Nyya,
164.
l2l.
174-7.
Nyd.yabindu, 175, 197.
Nydyahusumdfr,iali,
NyayalzlQztati, 178.
6.
Nradlyafurna, 44.
Narasiriitia, King of Orissa,
155.
Narasirhhapur4a, 46.
51.
Nryala, commntator on Manu'

smrti, 160.
Nryala, Matafigahla,
140.
Nrya4a, Vrttaratnfi.hara, 156,

Nraya4abhagla, MAnarneyoday
a,
185.
5.
Oldenberg, H., 39n, 64n, 88, 140.

On the Language and Wisdot ol tlte
2.
17
a,
198.
5.
Nyayamaft.jan, 175.
NyAyArnfta, 189.
Nydyanirnaya, 189.
NyayapariSi;p, 17 5.
Nydyapraaea, 72, 196, 199.
Nydyaratndhara, 184.
Nyyasdra, 175.
N ydyasciniband.ha,
Nyayasudha, 184.
hat.tQana,
I'aiupati, l6l.
7.
Zln,
Pafilaaiiaya, 83.
Pataffjali, 19, 21, 36, 52-3, 8J,
130, t4t-4,149, 150.
Paspadhniha,
I 7 6.
Patajali,
Pausharasarhhifi, 49.
Pauanadla,124.
Peppe,
17
5.
77n.
63.
Pifigala, 53, 156.

Piprawa Vase Inscription, 7, t2.
Pischel, R., 3, 58, 86n, 87-8, t03n,
104n, 107, 123.
Pitrdayifi,
K. P., 97.
161.
Po-t'iao, 65n.
Poussin, V., 4, 62.

19
6.
P r ab an d h
acin
taruani,
129.
Prabandhahoa, 129.
Prabhcandra, 128, 198.
141-7, 149, 187n.
Prabhkara, 183,. I85.
Prabhdoahacarita, 128.
P
of
rabod.hacan droday
a,
Prabuddharauhineia.
Pradlpa, l4+-5. '
Pradyumnasri, 132.
197.
Ceylon,
ghuma nl uso, I +5.
mrtha, I 79n.
Paramrtkasaptati, 172, 195-6.

Paramarthasra, 49.
Paramasathhita,49.
Paraaramadhaua, 161'.
7.
Phuyan-King,
P{,ini, 5, 14, 21, 36, 52, 83, 91, 96n,
I)ara
P.,
Peterson,
Pandavapurarya, 84.
Pannauanaslra, 13,
Paranjape, S. M., 98n.
Parkramabhu, King
C. C.,
Pargiter, F. 8., 42, 45.

Petersburg Dictionary, 3.
Pisharoti,
dhaprahar arga,
96rr,
Y ogastra, 181-2.
Patraparihsa, 198.
Paftcapadiha, 1BB.
Pacarairci, 100.
Pacasyaha,165.
PafrcasiddhdntihA, rc9.
Paffcadikha,179.
Prlvabhyudaya, 83.
hacarita, 84.
Pdrlhapardhrama, Ll6.
Pritsanat
Pdiah.aheual-r, 170n.
17
Paithinasi, 159.
Pah;adharamifra, 176.
rdramat
PariliSlaparaan, 128.
Prthasrathimira, I 84.
PArudfiparinaya, 97n, l17.
Pdataditaha, 92n,
Padmagupta, 127.
Padmanbha, I47.
Padmapda, 188.
Padmaprabhytaha, 92n.
Padmapurdna, 44, 83,97n, 107.
Padyacttdamani, 83.
Padyduali, 125.
Pafrjika,
Parib hfisenduSehhara, 145.

d. ta har a,lac amp, 1 40.
Prij
Parimala, 188.
l?arimala, 127.
Pndaxacarita, 84.
Nyyaraksrnani, 189.
172.
Sudhdsudhdkara-canx|,
17
Parlhsamuhhastra, 198.
Paficatantia, 2?, 137.
N y ay a kurnuda can dr oday
Naradasmyti, 160-1.
lti,
NyayaainiScaya, 198,
P afica shn
Nyayabind.utihd, 197.
tttyayakandalr, t7S.
Nla"tahanika, 184.
6.
5,
Pelakepya, 172.
Pli Jtakas, 136.
Pafrcadaii,189.
Paflcnana Tarkaratna, 117, 202.
Nyayabhasya, 174-5.
4
Palagopalakathnaha, 138.
157.
NZtiuQkyamyta, 164.
Napoleon Bonaparte, 2.
Nrya4a,
ga,
Nrtyagopla Kaviratna, I17.

Nyasa, 81, 143.
Nafijarja,117.
N-ardaftsi
Nin.tayasindhu, 16l.
NttiSaIaha,
il:ihe 3a ar a-up ap ur Ar?a,
N irb hayablnmaxy dy
Niruhta, 149,
172.
N d.r a d.a-upapurna,
190-1.
Nrtiratndhara, 164.
Nandike6vara, 173.
N an
201"
170.
NildmatapurAna, 128.
Nimbrka,
Nyayauatara, 198.
P adarthah
Nighantu,
Nfrjuna, 63, 71, 165, 167'
Paribhi;dsutra, 146.
Paribha;aa7tti, 148,
NtAyaLarttihafitparyapariudd
Padarthadharmasarhgraha,
Nicula, 77n.
Nidana, 167.
Nagananda, l0B.
Puraiara-u papurarya, 46.
Padamajari, 144,
Pailirhadta, lZ0n.
Testament, 33.
Nihilist,
Paraiarasmyti, 16l.
182.
176.
Nyyastroddhara, 17 5.
Nyyaudrttiha, 175.
N y ay aar tti h attpary agthd,
Indians,
auasaiha&hhacarita, 127.
Neu
Murri, philosopher, 183,

Murwarth. A. M.. 98n.
Naldbhyudaya, 84.
Nalacamp, 140.
Nalabka, 173.
l\atnallnganusasana,
Namisdhu, 151.
Nandana, 160.
5.
Nayaoiaeka, 183.
Neminiradlta, 84.
Netrdgama, 49.
Muir, J., 4.
Nakula,
r50, 153, 155-6, 173.

NaDdratna\drik;A, 172.
Mudrdrdhqasa, 102. 111.

Mudritahumud.acandra, | 16,
Mukundfrnanda, ll7,
Murri, poet, ll2-3.
a,
Nalyadarparya, 155.
Ndiyaidsira,19, 75n, 85, 96n' 104, 149,
102-4.
49.
Mukulabhalla, 151n,
o 3
190.
Nyyastra, 130, 174, 177,
Nyayastratytti,
213
I 25.
I 14,
I I 6.
Prahldanadeva, l16.
PrajftadanQa, 71.
Prajfr-apramitas, 70, l9+.
Prahar alzapafrcihA, 3.
Praknanda, 189.
Prak6tman, 188.
Pirahtrrraha, 113.
il
214
Prfota-Pihgala, 156"
Prahriydhaumudi, 141.
Rabindranath, 120.
Rdhkrishnan, S., 17'1n, 184,
Pramryamimrhsd, 199.
Pramdryanirqaya, l9B.
Pramiry.apafiksa, 198.
Rahauanal ;ad
RaghaaaPandaaTya, S3.
RaghauapandaulYanai;ad hlYa, 84.
Raghunandana. 46n, 16l.
Raghuntha jromani, 176.

Ra-ghuuamla, 77n. 79-80, 9in.
Fru4ato;ir.m' 50.
Pra?afi.casAra, 54,
Raixatamad.anihA, 94.
Prasda, 144.
Prasannapadd, 194.
Prasannardghaua, 116-
Ra.ia,
7.
a
io b h -u sa
a,
55.
Pratparudra of Warangal, 155'
Pratihrendurja, I5ln.
PratijfidyaugandhardYa4a, 96n,
102,
tIl-
PrafrtyasarnutpAdahr da5ta, 7 1, r94.
Prafrtysamilt?Adastra, 196'
[it.),
Princep, I04n.
I 48.
4a, l6l.
108.
Romacarita,83.
Rmcrya, 190.
Rmatirtha, 190.
RdmTtana,2,24-32, 37'9, 5l-2' 79. Bl'
S3. 9S, gZ", 99, lO9, ll4, 116, 137.
Rdmd.tana-camPu, 140.
Punyar.ia, 147.
Pulakedin II, 80.
PurIa, 25, 40-6, 61.
KamaydryAmanldrl, J.
Ramopdkhyona, 28.
Rapson. E. J., 61n.
Purlak6yapa, 200.
Purnasarhhitd, 42.
Purafiiaya.
155.
RatiSdstra, 165.
Ratnkara,
83.
RatnahdrarpQalraahcdra, 198.
aiva Tantra,47-8.
Ralnoh\o,70.
Ratnaparlle;d, 172.
Sakalakrrti,84,199.
Ravise\ra, 83,
Renaissance theory, 55, 78n.
$peda, 3, 25, 30, 85, 88,

r
10.5,
Rasa, 75.
30.
Rasagahgdhara,155.
Rasamaiar1, 153.
Rnsnralnakata.167.
Rasa school, i52-3.
PurusaParthsd,138.
Purusdrthasiddh yuPdya, 199.

Purusoftama, I57.
Purugottamadeva, 148.
P ntamimtuh s.d, 182- 5.'
I'urdmtmdmstlsutra. l6l.
Pusalker, A. D., 9Bn.
Puspadanta. 124.
puii amirra. Puspamitra, 73. 77n.
RasatarahgiryT,155,
Rasaaat1,147,
Rasihdrtjatru.84.
141.
Ra;trafdla,70.
Rotimafijatl, 165,
Slkyamuni,
146, 202,
70.
lihotra,172.
slikanrha, 183.
Samdhira j.a, 7 l.
t49, Smarjadiksita, 115,
Ridgeway, 87.
Riti schogl,.l5l-2.
Rjutimala,lS3,
Roer, 8., 4.
Roger, A., l,
Rosen, F.,.3.
Sa m h ;c
Rsbha, 83.
Rtusafilhara, 1, 121,
Rucaka, 154.
Rckert, F., 3.
Rudrabhatla, 1 37.
Rudradman, 9, 55, 64n.
Rudrata. l5l.
Rudraydmala, 49.
Ruhmiry.lhayar.ta, 94, I 16.
Rpagosvmin, 117, 120n, 125, t47,
rss, l9t.
154.
pa|ari raha, I 88.
Saman tabhad
ra,
Sabarabhsya, l83.
abarasvmin, 30, 1 79, 1 83.
Sahdbolbadruma, 46n, 158.
1
abdahastubha,14l.
lnhara,
rha
abdaratna,118.
dtt
rI
li,
46.
abda rnaoac.a ndriha, 146.

Sa bda!;ahr i pra kA li kd, l7 6,
Sadnanda,189.
Sad6iva, 172.
Sad dar ian samuccaya, 199.
Saddharmafundarlka. 41, 6q-i0
Sa
duh
i ha rrgd
ta,
17
17
3.
3.
hkalpasryodaya, I I S.
airkar, 40, 50, 125, l3l, 140, l8+,
186n, 187-90,201.
Sa
ace toailds acamp, I 40.

Sairkaramira, 178.
ahhar
Sabdanuidsana, I{emacandra, 146.

abdnu!;asana, katyana. 146.
ld sanab
98.
Sarhvda hymn. 51. 88. 105.

Samgahtahaumudi, l3B.
Sanathumra-upapurdna, 46,
Sandhykaranandin. I 27.
Sahgitadarpa4a,173.
Sa h g7 lama haranda, 17 3.
Sahgltasudarana,
Sar'i.iaya,200.
nu
2.
Sarhhsiptasara, l4T.
Sammatitarleastra, 198,
Sarhshrapaddhati, 161.
Samudragupta. 55.
Samudramanthana, 93, 116,
Samudratilaha, lT0n.
Sahgltara
bda
17
Saitjfilanlra.170.
3.
Roychowdhuri, H. C., 65n.
Sa
117.
SamarhgarlLastradhfu a,
Samaua.ydhgastra, 13,
Sdmaueda, 85.
Samayamtrh, 125.
Smha-upapurdrya. 46,
Sambh, 125, 128.

Sarhhit Iitetature, 49-50.
Rolr;. S., 77n.
Ruyyaka, B+,
117, 155,
Sahribhsya,202.
Sahunlala, l, 77 n.
68.
Roth, R.,
l4l,
Skatyana,
n,
Skta Tantra, 47-8.
Ratnaprabhd, lB9.
Ratnaaad0namola, -.
14,
Ratndualn, 94, 107-8, 116, l2+,
Rvarydrjuniya, 83.
Raaanauadha, 80-l,
Rma' Tarkav g7a, 147.
146.
Prthtrraiaaifaya, 128.
r6,
Rmak59na. l89.
Privarhvad, 25.
Prthuyadas,170.
Prthvidhara,
161.
Rmakrspabhatta, 1 85.
Ramalarahasya, lT0n,
Rmnuja, 40, 186n. 190, 201.
Rmabaldcarita, 127.
Printz, W., 98n.
Priyadarih,
Rmabhadra,
I 28.
Rmacandra, Taina dramatist, ll6.

Rmacandra of Bengal, 125.
Rmacandra, Rasihafrjana, 84.
Rmacandra, grammarian, 144,
Pra tyabhi i fidui mariini. 49.

Pra{ya kt ai lud P radv Pi ha. 189.
Praudhamanorama. 144, 148.
Prdya ici ttaprahara
Rjendrakarnapra,
49.
Pratyabhi jftahr daya, 49.
Prau{hamanoramkucamardint,
Pravarasena,132.
97.
Rmabhadra Diksita, 117.

Rmabhadra Muni, 116.
Rmacandra, Kauruudlmitrnanda;
Pratim.Z, 96n, 99.
Pratyatrhijff
Dr.,
Raiamrtary(a, l8l, lB2n.

Rjamrgahha, 169.
Rjaek-hara, 81, 88, 94, 98, ll3, 116.
Rja(ekhara, I4rh century, 129, 154.
Riayoga,182.
Rajd'Laiafiginl, 10J. 108, 126' 128, 132.
Praastapda" 177-8.
Pra ld paTudray
84.
Rghavnanda,160.
iZ.
Prasenaiit,
hit'a.
Sgaranandin,155.
Sahiryadarparya,93,91
Sahrdayananda, 84.
Ratirahasya, 165,
lBB.
Rdhkntadeva, i58.
Rdgauiuodha, Li3.
PramA gdpraae a s tra. 196.

196.
Ptama4asamuccaya,
Prameya hamalamA t lan4t, 198.
Pra m ey ara t nZlnk, 192.
2r5
INDEX
INDEX
125,
afikhadhara Kavirja, ll6,
Safrkhalikhita,159.
Snkhya phil.osophy, 43, 72, 179-181.
Soh
hhyahorih,
SA h
hhya lnauaca
I 79-80.
na st
ra,
I 80,
Sahlzhyasdra, lB0.
Sa hlzh yas t raur t
ti,
180.
Sahhhyatattuahaumud'-t,
Sdithh yva naira
ankuka, t5Z-3,
ast
ra,
180,
36,
INDEX
216
garymuhhahalpa, 173Sntarakgita, 197.
antideva, 72 r, 194SantiSataka, lZ5.
Sapta?adartha, 178."
Saptaatt, 45radtanaya, 1 5,1Saradatilaha, 50.
SaraI'adeva, 48.
Saundaryalahar\, 124.
Sautrntika, 92-3.
1
Sauvira, 64 n.
Syata, 3, 148. 201"
Schelling, 3.
Schiller, 3, l2l.
'Schlegel, F., 2, 28 n.
Schlegel, A. W- von, Z.
Schopenhauer, 3.
Schreder, L. von, 88, l2l
SAraflataprahriyA,
147 -
riputra,
68-9.
SAripurrapraharana, 68, 95"
Sarlrahabha;5a,
Sarma, R., 98 n.
SarmisJhAyayoti,94.
Srgadatta, 172.
rngadeva, 173.
Srngadhara, 125.
Sarhgadharapadd hat
Sarup, 98 n.
i,
4, 180,
Si d
200,
strin, Pasupatinath,
ha,
189.
iksasamuccttya, 194.
Srlabhadra 196-7.
Silbhanrike, I25.
6i,
77n,
SatasZhasrihapraiApArurnifi
119-20.
Satldha, 38.
a t ruj ay amd h-a t my a, 84.
Sattasai, ll9.
SAz)atdsathhifi, 5A.
Sauddhodani, 155.
ll7.
103.
34.
Sanndarananda, 67, 76.
na dad
tr
irh
ii hA, I 38-
Srradeva,148.
Siri Pulumayi.
55.
Sitbeng Cave, 86.

ivadsa, 138.
ivadatta,163.
97-8.
sa
iSupalaaadha, 8l-2.
Sisy a d hixr cld hit antr a, 1 69.
185 n.
95n,
mha
19
1.
iuad harma-u pa pur

178.
na, 16.
Sivditya,
Siaadrsti, 49.
Sh:arhamaryidipika, 201.
Siuapurdna,44.
ivasvmin, 83.
Skandagupta, 77.
ShandapurZirya, 40, 4+, 103.
Slokasamgraha,126.
Slokazrttika, 181.
Smith, V. A., 4, 7-8, 13, 59, 63, 64n.
Smrtikalpataru, l6l.
Smrtiratnahara, 161.
So{dhala,
140"
Somedvaradatta, 28.
Sphotasiddhi, 184 n.
Sumanottar, 5?.
Su
ll5.
klrtana,
128.
Slapli, 16i.
Sumati, 160.
Snyafisaptati, 71, 194.
Sphotyana, l4l,
176,
ky t as ah
Sukthankar, 98 n.
Silny a-upapurar.ta, 46.
Supadma, 147.
Supadmapajika, 117.
Suparrwdhyaya, 88n.
SuPrabhAtustutra, 124.
Surathotsaaa, 128.
l9l.
Srldhara, 125, 154, 178.

rldharasena, 8 l.
rldharasvmin, 201.
rlharsa, 82, 189.
Sure6r,ara,
84,
88.
Sf,tryaiataha, 122.
Sulruta, 130, 166-7.
Strdlahleara, 67.
SrxhdstdrnuhtaDak, 17 3.
Sr|hanthabhd.sya, 201.
Suttapitaha, 192-3.
SrThaqlhacarita, 86.
Snkarabhaqya, 201.
SuuartTaprabhd.sa,
Srlkumra,
rinivscrya, 191.
Suacchanela, 49.
Sad.hasudhd.karacamp, 140.
Srrpatipaldita,20l.
rlvara,125,138.
Sa
rivatsa,178.
Svyambhuva, 49.
SrhgaraprahdSa, 154.
Svirmbara,
172.
Sr h gd.rauiragya ta rah
ginl,
Subhdsitdztal,z, 125.
117.
Subodhiru, 201.
Sucaritami6ra, 1 84.
190.
datta, 96, l0 I -2.

197.
jarl,
199.
I 25.
Subarrlksl, 65.
Subandhu, 36, 133-4, 139.
ubhacandra, 84, 198.
Subhdsitamuhtaxalt, 125.
Subhasitaratnasandoha, 124,
I73,
altnaztgts ava
Syadudama
Stein, M. .A.., 4.
Sthiramati, 72, 196.
Strauss, O., 4.
Suali, 174 n.
Sudardana,
1.
Suapnada!nana, 116.
Srutabodha, 156.
rutaprahdrhd, 190.
Srutasgara, 199.
Stael-Holstein, A. ron, 67.
Stein, O., 98 n.
Subhata,
Suarttatilaha, 156.
Srhgraataha, l2l.
Syhgdratilaha, 94, 124.
ilhata,125.
atad;aql., 19A.
Satnanda, 169.
Satapathabrdhtnana, 3, 44, 1,49, 168.
Saunaka,
B.
SiddhdntamuhtaaalV, 17 8.
Siddhantamuhtauali, Y ed1rrta, 189.
S i
140.
Suhraniti, 164.
Srlddmacarita,
Silparatna,172.
Sstracltpiha, 184"
Sstrin, MM Haraprasad, 65,
87, 97n, 174n.
Sstrin, H., 98 n.
strin, MM. K., 96 n.
Saugandhihaharar?d,
3as arh gra
Suhhauath.tyha, 70.
Jaina,
Somnanda, 49.
Somantha,173.
Somaprabha, 125.
Somevarabhatla, 184,
Srzbhdsya, 190.
omaryi, I 69 -7 A.
SiddhapaftcaiihA, 199.
Siddhasena Divkara, 124, 198.
Sihhdmani, 189-
179.
T. Gar,rapati,
6vata, I57.
dhdnta.l
Somadeva,
ri Caitanya,
Si d d hantair
Sdstradarparya, l8B.
Saumilla,
WA.
Siddhlntahaumurti, 144-5.
Sarvnanda, lZ8, 192.

Saruasatiraddinl., 192.
S ara asiddhantasdra saitgr a ha, 20 l.
Sarvstivdin, 58, 61, 62,71, 193.
Sarvavarrnan, 146.
Shvehana,
123.
Seiuaramimdthsa, 190.
Setubandha, 132.
125-
Suhyllehha, Tl.
Suhasaptati, l3B.
Sragdharastotra, 124.
Srautasiltras, 159.
Shhbzgarhi, Inscription,
Shama Sastri, S., 163.
Siddha, Siddhargi, 138.
z0l.
Sarvajflamitra, I24.
Sarvajfrtmamuni, 189.
Sstrin,
n,
Seuyaseuakopadeia, I 23.
Saraadarianasathgraha,
ga;lhitantra,
ll7,
SegakSgna,
187-8.
Sohgaura coppcl-plate, 7,
Somadeva, 136, 146, 16+.
Senaka, 141.
Senart,4, 58.
Sarasuah.franthibiararya, I 54.
217
INDEX
Suddhdvaitavda, l9l.
Sdtaka, 92n, 97 n, 103-4.
Sue Vihara Inscription, 64 n.
aittiriyranyaha, 168.
Taittirtya Saqnhit, 141 n.
tiri,
Taiiha,
T ai
dni sa
170.
op
Takakusu, 72,
Tamil Gths,
d b
hd ;y
a-",-t
168.
Zr t ti ha,
179 n.
190.
Tantras, 47-50.
Tantrabhyyika, 137.
Tantrloha, 49.
Tantrardia, 50.
Tantrasara, 49-50, 176.
Tantraudrttiha, 184.
Tpasaaatsarj ac arita, I 16.
Taral,
155.
Terentha, 69.
Trnth Tarkavcaspati,
Tarahginl,
190.
Tarhabhdsd, 178.
Tarhahaumudi., 178.
Tarhdmrta, 178.
Tarhasarirgraha, 178.
Trkikarahs, l7B.
157.
188..
2t8
Tattuabodhini, 144.
Tattaacintdmani, 17 5-6.
Tat tuacintAmanfu
y Ah hy
Tattaaprahiiha, 191.
'
A,
Umbeka,
I 7 6.
Tattz;rthddhigamastra, 198.
T a t tar t ha tpi hA, 199.
Tat tvor I hd rA jaor r ha, 198.
Tattaarthasara, 199.
T at tuAr t h a s d,r a d-tp aha, 199.
T attadr thailohaadr ttiha, 198.
Tattaasarhgraha, 197.
Tattaasathgrahapafijiha, 197.
Tattz.tasandarb ha, 192,
Tattaafiha, 190.
TattuauaiSradz,
l8l.
TautAtumatatilaha, 184.
Taylor, I., 9.
Telang, 33.
'Thera, 60.
'Thibaut, G. 4.
Thomas, F. W., 4, 64 n, 69, 97 n,
Tilakamafrjart, 140.
TiPitaka, 6, 29, 36, 69, 192.
Tisata, 167.
Tithitattua, 16l.
Trihdrydaiesa, 157.
Trimiihavijapti,
Trirhiihq,
196.
196.
Tripuraddha, 85, 94, 116.

Tri sa ;ti lalahapuru sac arita, 84,
Tri1ati,
169.
Trivikramabhatta, 140.
Trozan War, 30.
'Tscherbatsky, T., 4.
Tucci, G.,
Tuptlh,
Vmana, granlnr&rlltn, 143.

Vmanabha{}ii llr.rrr, tl4, I17,
Umsvtl
Tarunavcaspati, 152.
'
INDEX
INDEX
4.
184.
197.
184.
U'pa mi tib iau a pr a panLa ha

U p ami ti b haa apraP ac a -
Vandruaylti,
iha,
t 38.
lzathd.sdroddhdra, 138.
Upanisd, 2, l3l.
Upashara, 178.
Upavarga, lB3, 187 n.
Vaihhnasadharmastra, I 59.
157.
Ujjaalanilamani, 155.
179.
rUmsvmin, 197.
Vaipulyastra, 61-2.
Vairagyaiataha, 121.
Vaidampyana, 34.
Vaieqika philosophy, 177-9.
VaiSeqihastras, 177.
ainqaaadharmastra, I 59.
Vaisnava-tantra, 47 -8,
V
Vai;nauato;int, 191.
I
5.
Vkpati, 109, 127.
Vahrohtiilaitao 154.
Vahyapad-tya, 122n, 143, 145.
Valiaadha, 52,94.
Vallabha, Iogician, 176, l7B,
Vallabha, Vedntin, l9l, 201.
Vlmrki, 24-5, 30, 38, 52, 79, 96 n.

Vmana, rhetorician, 81, 103 n, ll2,
122, 151-2.
Vidh.irctsayana, 185.
Virlh.itiueha, 184,
Virlybhusana, S. C., 174
Gu4auttnanmholulh.l,
Vidycakravartin,
Virlydhara, 155.
l' itl.y
n,
l9r[.
154.
nrudhauiya, 170.
Vrsaga(rya, 179,
Virlyananda, l98.
Virlyntha, 155.
V itlyapariltaya, I15.
Vitlypati, 129, 138, 161, 164"
Vitlyrarlya, 189.
Vrttikakra,
I'itl.vsundara, 123.
V i ynt ltrruyauartanl, 7 l, 194.
Vii.i:rka, I25.
Varsa,
187.
Varsatantra, 170,
Vdrttihbharana, lB4,
146.
V i j'll
Vdsauadatt, 52, 133.

Vsiska, 64 n.
Vadistha, 5, 159.
Vdstuuidyd, 172.
Vasubandhu, 71,
3.
1t
Varuna-upapurZrya, 46,
Yajradatta, 122 n.
Vajrasucl,68.
Ulka,
VarAhapurAr?a, 44,
Vrarucahduya, 52, 83,
Variaasyarahasya, 50,
Vdirja, 83.
Vgbhata, epic poet, 84.
Vgbhata, rhetorician, 154.
Vgbhata, medical authority,
Vagbhatlahk/ra, 154.
Vaibhsika, 192-3.
Vaidarbha style, 55-6.
Vaidyairaana, 167.
Vaijayantz, 157.
i.da.gdhamadhatsa, 117.
V it I d alalab hafriihA, I I 3,
V
Vardhamna, Jina,197.
Vcaspati, 161, 175, 180-1, 184, i86 n.

188,198.
Vdcaspatya, 157.
Udayana, 175-6.
U day asundarihathd, 140.
133, 175, 177.

Ududhatattaa, 16l.
Ugradravas, 34.
170,
Vardhamna, Iogici:rn, I76.

Vardhamna, Yoganmfl.jari, 172,
110.
V aiy akararyab h5ar.ta, I 48.

V aiy dharanab hsanasZira, 1 48 "
V ai.y alzarat.tasiddhantamafi.jsd,
V aiy asihanydy amala, 189.
Uddandin, 117.
Uddyota, 14.5.
.Uddyotakara,
Viblnamaaiaeha, 184.
ici lraharnikVxadana,
145,
148.
Sanas-upapurdr.Tq 46.
.Ubhayasariha, 92 n.
U cc hu smab hairazta, 49.
Udnaaagga, 193.
Uddttardghaua, 116.
Udbhala, 151, 154.

-
Varhamihira, 168,
Vardhamna,
U6anas, 159, 162-3.
Utpala, 49.
UttararTmacarita, 86, 88,
Vcnkaladrkgita, 184.
Vcrikatantha, 115.
V e tla?aftcaaithiati, 138,
199,
Varadcrya, I 16.
Varadarja, grarnmarian,
Varadarja, logician, 178,
Vararuci, 92n, 156.

Vardhamna, Ktantru echool, l4.
rubhahga, 100.
U
Vcnis, 4., 4.
Vcnisamhra, 112.
Vdmanapurdl1tt., 44,
Uqtadistras, 146.
Unmattardghava, ll7.
U pakramapardhrama, 185
219
179
na b hairav
a,
49.
Vi,jflarrabhikgu, 180-1, 201.

l' i j finrrumytabhdsya, 201.
Viil-iarrc(vara, l6l.
n,
194, 196,
i j itutlt
imatratsidtlhi, 7 2, 196.
Vikatanitamb,
125.
Vsudeva I, 65 n.
Vsudeva, Blamanoramd, 14,1.
Vsudeva Srvabhaurna, 176.
Vasumima, 63, 193.
Viklrrrnditya of Ujjayinr, 77n,
VedAntuhaustubha, 191.
V e ddntaparibhasa, 189.
V edantaparijtasaurabha, 190.
Veddntasdra, 189.
Vtra Bukka,
Vi.lirirrndirya, Chandragupta
II,
l2l,
133.
Viklamditya, authorirv bn archery,

t7z.
Vatsabhatti, 56-7, 116.

V ihramdhhadetacarita, 127.
Vatsarja, 93-4, 116.
Vilerarttoraaiiya, 94, 105-6.
Vetsyyana, Kdmastra, 22, 165.
Vikrama Sambat, 64n.
Vtsyyana, logician, 130, 174-5, 177. V ilardntahauraaa, I 17.
Vayupurana, 40-3.
Vilsauati, 94.
VA)u-uPapurana, 40-3.
Virhaka, 196.
Vednta,185-92.
Vimukttman, 189.
Vedd.ntade|iha, 120 n.
Vinayapitaha, 7, l9?.
Veddntaffi.h;ita, 184.
Vindhyasvmin, 179n.
Vedd,ntastra, 185-6.
Vedas, 16-8, 35, 48.

Vedic Concordance, 4.
Vedic Grammar, 4.
Vedic Index, 4.
Vedic Mythology,
Vedic Studies, 3.
Vemabhpla, 122.
4.
201.
Wramitrodaya, 16l.
Virulaka,
7.
Vidkhadatta, llt-2.
Vidladeva, Vigraharja, ll6.
Vi(laksa, 1 62-3.
Vidistdvaitavda,
V
i;r.ru
harmo
ttara,
190.
17
Z-3.
Vislugupta, I62.
Visnupurana, 42-4, 97n, 130,
200- 1.
Visludarman,
137.
149,.
INDEX
220
Whitney, W, D.,
Visqusvmin, 201.
4.
Wilford,
Vi6varpa,
Williams, M., 4, 28n, 140n.

Windisch, E., 86.
Winternitz, M., 4, 28-9, 32-3, 35, 38,
39n, 41, 45, 67n, 6Bn, 98, 107n.
Wogiharu, 72.
Woolner, A. C., 98n.
iSuakarmabrahia, 172.
Vivantha,' rhetorician, 117, 154-5.
Vivantha, philosopher, 176, 178.
ViSaaprah|a, 157.
184.
Vi6ve6vara, 161.
Vztargastotra, 125.
Viglhalcrya,
144.
Viu dacintamat.zi, 161.

Viaddaratndhara, 161.
Viaddfrn4aztasetu,
Viuaralta,
V ia araqtapram ey
Viayti,
a s ath
Ymuncrya, 190.
Ya6a6candra, l16
YaSastilaha, 140, 164.

Yska, 21, 149, 157.
Vrddhaearsasahhita, 170.
*hita,
Si lha sa
l7 0.
Yadodhara, 165.
Vyd.ilhamanu, 160.
Ya|odharacarita, 83.
Vrnduanastuti, 124.
Vrttaratnkara, Kedra,
Yaomitra, 72n, 194, 196.

Yadovarman, 109, 127.
Yadovijaya, 199.
156.
NrYar.ra, 156.
VfttarahAhart,
Vrtti, Kiliha,
143.
Yatiraiat:ijaya, 116.
V7tti, Durgasimh.a, 146.

V1tti, qtoled by abara, 183.
Vrttikra, 83, 87.
Vyakhyayukti, 196.
1
YaaanajZtaka, 170.
Yavannl,
14.
Yoga, lBl-2.
Yogabindu, 199.
Vyahtiaiaeka, 154.
VyaOtiOancaha, 176.
y.y*"i?!,
40, 42, e6n, tsl-2, 186n.

vyasabhayd, tt-L.
Vysarja, 189.
Vysarma, 190.
Vysatirtha,
157.
Yjflavalkya, 149, 16l.

Yajurveda, 36, 85.
gr aha, 188,
178.
dhaa
1.
Yadaaodaya, 94.
Vopadeva, 147.
YratAaadanamalq, lJ.
Vrd
Wilkins, C.,
Ydava,
l.
187 -8.
104n.
Yogcra, 71, 192, 195-7.

Yogdcdrabhmidstra, 7 l, 195.
Y ogady ;lisamuccaya,' 199.
Yogamaft.jarV, 172.
Yogasra, 124.
Yogasrasarhgraha, 181.
89.
V l auahdracint dm ani, I 61,
1
YogaSfrstra, 125.
Yogastra,
V'vomadekhara, 178.
Vvomaslvacarya, I / /.
Vyomaaatl., 177-8.
l8l,
183.
Yogaarttika, l8l.
Yuan Chwang, 193, 197.
Yuhtipiha,
180.
Yuhrikalpataru, 164, 172.
Weber,
A. A., 3, 9, 10, 29, 30,
107n, 142, 168.
Weller, H., 98n.
86n,
Yuhtisa;iika, 71,
194.
raqti,
Yuhtyanuidsana, 198.
Y uk ti sn e haprap
1 8
5.

A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature PDF

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Originaltitel

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

A Concise History of Classical Sanskrit Literature PDF

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

r-

Principal, Gooernment Sanskrit College, Calcutta

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Amen House, London 8.C.4

GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTOI

PRtrFACE TO THtr SECOND EDITION

An Introduction to Classical Sanshrit by Modern

Second edition-published as A,Concise History of Classical Sanshrit

Literature by the Oxford University pres

of Sanskrit literature is by itself a fascinating subject

5, chintamani Das Lane.

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

Tnr impetus to the writing of the present work came from my

In the preparatio-n of the bok I have freely tonsulted'the

also acknowledge my indebtedness fo all those"authorities whose

thq pryss copy, my

has rendered invaluable assistnce. Anothr pupil'of mine. Shri

from time to time. I must also'acknowTedse rhe

wlich was taken by my

ousin, Pandit Ashokanath' Shastri,

in seeing the work through.

their relationshi5Prkrit-Was Sanskrit

Chapter I : The Great Epics

Malibhrata: General character and story-GltAge of Gr-t-Christian influence in Git-The

Introduction-Ag. and antiquity-Was there

original PurTa-Character and value-Name and

of Purnas-Classification of Pur4asThe Bhgavata Purpa-Devlmhtmya-Name

Renaissance Theory of Max Mller-Girnr, Nsik,

Chapter VI : Early tsuddhist r,r,orks in Sanskrit

Introduction-Growth and development

Chapter IX : Lyric Poetry

Chapter XII: Camp literature

fntroduction-Alankra school-Riti school-Rasa

Chapter XVil: Politics

Chapter XIX : Erotics

Chapter XXI : Astronomy, Mathematics and Astrology 168-17l

Poetics and Dramaturgy

Chapter XI :. Prose Literature

Chapter XVI : Lexicography

Chapter XVII : Civil and Religious Law ...

drama-Characreristics-Classification-Growth and development-Less impor-

Chapter X : . Historical writings

Orthodox sysrems: Nyya, Vaidesika, Srlkhva,

Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute

Journal of the Royal

Kale, 2nd edition)

OF T}{E. STUDY OT-SANSKRIT

I'r u,as in the seventeenth century that the European people,

HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE

of the Indians was of an abiding character. Another

HISTORY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE

works and is a monumental work of its kind. Arthur Anthony

ORIGIN OF INDIAN WRiTING

'l'he aforesaid references do not help us much

rrrsroRy oF cLASSTcAL SANSKRTT

in determining the genuine Indian growth of writing'

found can be safely dated earlier than the period of

There are quite a large number of . passages i

'Lekha' and 'lekhaka' are mentioned in the Bhikhh

fritakas know of proclamations. We are also told of

uTsToRY OF CLASSICAL SANSKRIT LITERATURE

dated about half a century prior to A6oka.r The