Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Coordinate Representations
Contents
1 Vector Spaces
1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Linear Combinations, Spans, Bases, and Dimensions
1.1.3 Sums and Products of Vector Spaces and Subspaces
1.2 Basic Vector Space Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
1
1
1
3
5
. . . . . . . . . .
Homomorphisms
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
15
15
15
18
20
23
25
25
26
4 Change of Coordinates
4.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Change of Coordinate Maps and Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
31
31
2 Linear Transformations
2.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 Linear Transformations, or Vector Space
2.2 Basic Properties of Linear Transformations . .
2.3 Monomorphisms and Isomorphisms . . . . . . .
2.4 Rank-Nullity Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1.1
1.1.1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Vector Spaces
Definitions
Basics
A vector space (linear space) V over a field F is a set V on which the operations addition,
+ : V V V , and left F -action or scalar multiplication, : F V V , satisfy: for all
x, y, z V and a, b, 1 F
VS1 x + y = y + x
VS2 (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
(V, +) is an abelian group
VS3 0 V such that x + 0 = x
1.1.2
0F
This representation is called the trivial representation of 0 by u1 , . . . , un . If, on the other hand,
there are vectors u1 , . . . , un V and scalars a1 , . . . , an F such that
a1 u1 + + an un = 0
where at least one ai 6= 0 F , then that linear combination is called a nontrivial representation
of 0. Using linear combinations we can generate subspaces, as follows. If S 6= is a subset of V ,
then the span of S is given by
span(S) := {v V | v is a linear combination of vectors in S}
(1.2)
(1.3)
The dimension of a vector space V is the cardinality of any basis for V , and is denoted dim(V ).
V finite-dimensional if it is the zero vector space {0} or if it has a basis of finite cardinality.
Otherwise, if its basis has infinite cardinality, it is called infinite-dimensional. In the former case,
dim(V ) = || = n < for some n N, and V is said to be n-dimensional, while in the latter
case, dim(V ) = || = , where is a cardinal number, and V is said to be -dimensional.
If V is finite-dimensional, say of dimension n, then an ordered basis for V a finite sequence or
n-tuple (v1 , . . . , vn ) of linearly independent vectors v1 , . . . , vn V such that {v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis
for V . If V is infinite-dimensional but with a countable basis, then an ordered basis is a sequence
(vn )nN such that the set {vn | n N} is a basis for V . The term standard ordered basis is
applied only to the ordered bases for F n , (F )0 , (F B )0 and F [x] and its subsets Fn [x]. For F n ,
the standard ordered basis is given by
(e1 , e2 , . . . , en )
where e1 = (1, 0, . . . , 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0), . . . , en = (0, . . . , 0, 1). Since F is any field, 1 represents
the multiplicative identity and 0 the additive identity. For F = R, the standard ordered basis is just
as above with the usual 0 and 1. If F = C, then 1 = (1, 0) and 0 = (0, 0), so the ith standard basis
vector for Cn looks like this:
ith term
ei = (0, 0), . . . , (1, 0) , . . . , (0, 0)
where en (k) = nk
More generally, if {Si | i I} P (V ) is any collection of subsets or subspaces of V , then their sum
is defined to be
n
o
X
[
Si = v1 + + vn si
Si and n N
(1.5)
iI
iI
We are of course interested in the (internal) sum of subspaces of a vector space. In this case,
we may have the special condition
V =
k
X
Si
and Sj
i=1
Si = {0}, j = 1, . . . , k
(1.7)
i6=j
When this happens, V is said to be the (internal) direct sum of S1 , . . . , Sk , and this is symbolically
denoted
k
M
V = S1 S2 Sk =
Si = {s1 + + sk | si Si }
(1.8)
i=1
i6=j
(1.10)
iI
We can also define the (external) sum of distinct vector spaces which do not lie inside a larger
vector space: if V1 , . . . , Vn are vector spaces over the same field F , then their external direct sum is
the cartesian product V1 Vn , with addition and scalar multiplication defined componentwise.
And we denote the sum, confusingly, by the same notation:
V1 V2 Vn := {(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn ) | vi Vi , i = 1, . . . , n}
(1.11)
In the infinite-dimensional case, we have two types of external direct sum, one where there is no
restriction on the sequences, the other where we only allow sequences with finite support. To
distinguish these two cases we use the terms direct product and external direct product, respectively:
let F = {Vi | i I} be a family of vector spaces over the same field F . Then their direct product
is given by
n
o
Y
Vi :=
v = (vi )iI vi Vi
(1.12)
iI
n
o
[
f :I
Vi f (i) Vi
(1.13)
iI
(1.14)
iI
n
o
[
f :I
Vi f (i) Vi and f has finite support
(1.15)
iI
(1.16)
(1.17)
iI
(V I )0 :=
(1.18)
iI
Example 1.1 Common examples of vector spaces are the sequence space F n , F , F B , (F )0
and (F B )0 in a field F over that field, i.e. the various types of cartesian products of F equipped
with addition and scalar multiplication operations defined componentwise ( = N and B is any set,
and where (F )0 and (F B )0 denote all functions f : F , respectively f : B F , with finite
support). Some typical ones are
Qn
Q
QB
(Q )0
(QB )0
Rn
R
RB
(R )0
(RB )0
Cn
C
CB
(C )0
(CB )0
1.2
Theorem 1.2 If V is a vector space over a field F , then for all x, y, z V and a, b F the
following hold:
(1) x + y = z + y = x = z
(Cancellation Law)
(2) 0 V is unique.
(3) x + y = x + z = 0 = y = z
(4) 0x = 0
(5) (a)x = (ax) = a(x)
(6) The finite external direct sum V1 Vn is a vector space over F if each Vi is a vector space
over F and if we define + and componentwise by
(v1 , . . . , vn ) + (u1 , . . . , un )
:=
(v1 + u1 , . . . , vn + un )
c(v1 , . . . , vn )
:=
(cv1 , . . . , cvn )
More generally,
Qif F = {Vi | i I} is a family of
Lvector spaces over the same field F , then the
direct product iI Vi and external direct sum iI Vi = (V I )0 are vector spaces over F , with
+ and given by
[
[
[
v+w =
f :I
Vi + g : I
Vi := f + g : I
Vi
iI
cv
= c f :I
iI
Vi
:=
iI
cf : I
iI
Vi
iI
iK
iK
are subspaces.
Proof: (1) If C = {Si | i K} is a collection P
of subspaces, then none of the Si are
S empty by
the previous theorem,Sso if a, b F and v, w iK Si , then v = si1 + + sin iK Si and
w = sj1 + + sjm iK Si such that sik Sik for all ik K. Consequently
av + bw
because
asik Sik for all ik K because the Sik are subspaces. Hence by the previous theorem
P
S
iK i is a subspace of V . The direct sum case is a subcase of this general case.
T
(2) If a, b FTand u, v T
iK Si , then u, v Si for all i K, whence au + bv Si for all i K,
or au + bv iK Si , and iK Si is a subspace by the previous theorem.
Theorem 1.5 If S and T are subspaces of a vector space V , then S T is a subspace iff S T or
T S.
Proof: If S T is a subspace, then for all a, b F and x, y S T we have ax + by S T .
Suppose neither S T nor S T holds, and take x S\T and y T \S. Then, x + y is neither
in S nor in T (for if it were in S, say, then y = (x + y) + (x) S, a contradiction), contradicting
the fact that S T is a subspace. Conversely, suppose, say, S T , and choose any a, b F and
x, y S T . If x, y S, then ax + by S S T , while if x, y T , then ax + by T S T . If
x S and y T , then x T as well and ax + by T S T . Thus in all cases ax + by S T ,
and S T is a subspace.
Theorem 1.6 If V is a vector space, then for all S V , span(S) is a subspace of V . Moreover,
if T is a subspace of V and S T , then span(S) T .
Proof: If S = , span() = {0}, which is a subspace of V ; if T is a subspace, then T and
{0} T . If S 6= , the any x, y S have the form x = a1 v1 + + an vn and y = b1 w1 + + bm wm
for some a1 , . . . an , b1 , . . . , bn F and v1 , . . . , vn , w1 , . . . , wn S. Then, if a, b F we have
ax + by
= a(a1 v1 + + an vn ) + b(b1 w1 + + bm wm )
=
span(S)
Theorem 1.12 If V is a vector space and u, v V are distinct, then {u, v} is linearly dependent
iff u or v is a multiple of the other.
Proof: If {u, v} is linearly dependent, there are scalars a, b F not both zero such that au + bv = 0.
If a = 0, then b 6= 0, and so au + bv = bv = 0 = v = 0 = u 6= 0, and so v = 0u. If neither a nor
b is equal to zero, then au + bv = 0 = u = a1 bv. Conversely, suppose, say, u = av. If a = 0,
then u = 0 and v can be any vector other than v, since by hypothesis u 6= v, whence au + 0v = 0 for
any a F , including nonzero a, so that {u, v} is linearly dependent. Otherwise, if a 6= 0, we have
u = av = 1u + (a)v = 0, and both 1 6= 0 and a 6= 0, so that {u, v} is linearly dependent.
Theorem 1.13 (Properties of a Basis) If V is a vector space, then the following are equivalent,
and any S V satisfying any of them is a basis:
(1) S is linearly dependent and V = span(S).
(2) (Essentially Unique Representation) Ever nonzero vector v V is an essentially unique
linear combination of vectors in S.
(3) No vector in S is a linear combination of other vectors in S.
(4) S is a minimal spanning set, that is V = span(S) but no proper subset of S spans V .
(5) S is a maximal linearly independent set, that is S is linearly independent but any proper
superset is not linearly independent.
Proof: (1)= (2): If S is linearly independent and v S is a nonzero vector such that for distinct
si and ti in S
v
a1 s1 + + an sn
b1 t1 + + bm sm
then grouping any sij and tij that are equal, we have
0 = (ai1 bi1 )si1 + + (aik bik )sik + aik+1 sik+1 + + ain sin
+ bik+1 tik+1 + + bim tim
implies aik+1 = = ain = bik+1 = = bim = 0, so n = m = k, and for j = 1, . . . , k we have
aij = bij , whence v is essentially uniquely represented as a linear combination of vectors in S.
9
(1.20)
The previous theorem did not say that any such basis exists for a given vector space. It merely gave
the defining characteristics of a basis, should we ever come across one. The next theorem assures us
that all vector spaces have a basis a consequence of Zorns lemma.
Theorem 1.15 (Existence of a Basis) If V is a nonzero vector space and I S V with I
linearly independent and V = span(S), then B basis for V for which
IBS
(1.21)
More specifically,
(1) Any nonzero vector space has a basis.
(2) Any linearly independent set in V is contained in a basis.
(3) Any spanning set in V contains a basis.
Proof: Let A P (V ) be the set of all linearly independent sets L such that I L S. Then A
is non-empty because I I S, so I A. Now, if
C = {Ik | k K} A
is a chain in A, that is a totally ordered (under set inclusion) subset of A, then the union
[
[
U=
C=
Ii
iK
is linearly independent and satisfies I U S, that is U A. But by Zorns lemma every chain
has a maximal element B, so that B A maximal which is linearly independent. But of course
such a B is a basis for V = span(S), for if any s S is not a linear combination of elements in B,
then B {s} is linearly independent and B ( B {s}, contradicting the maximality of B. Therefore
S span(B), and so V = span(S) span(B) V , or V = span(B). This shows that (1) there is a
basis B for V , (2) any linearly independent set I has I B for this B, and (3) any spanning set S
has B S for this B.
10
(1.22)
Proof: If S = V , then let T = {0}. Otherwise, if V \S 6= , then since V has a basis B and B is
maximal, we must have S = span(B S) and B (V \S) 6= . That is, there is a nonzero subspace
T = span(B (V \S)), and by Corollary 1.8
V = span(B) = span((B S) (B (V \S))) = span(B S) + span(B (V \S)) = S + T
But S T = {0} because of the essentially unique representation of vectors in V as linear combinations of vectors in B. Hence, V = S T , and T is a complement of S.
Theorem 1.17 (Replacement Theorem) If V is a vector space such that V = span(S) for some
S V with |S| = n, and if B V is linearly independent with |B| = m, then
(1) m n
(2) C S with |C| = n m such that V = span(B C)
Proof: The proof is by induction on m, beginning with m = 0. For this m, B = , so taking C = S,
we have B C = S = S, which generates V . Now suppose the theorem holds for some m 0.
For m+1, let B = {v1 , . . . , vm+1 } V be linearly independent. By Corollary 1.8, B 0 = {v1 , . . . , vm }
is linearly independent, and so by the induction hypothesis m n and C 0 = {u1 , . . . , unm } S
such that {v1 , . . . , vn } C 0 generates V . This means a1 , . . . , am , b1 , . . . , bnm F such that
vm+1 = a1 v1 + + am vm + b1 u1 + + bnm unm
(1.23)
Let C = {u2 , . . . , unm }. Then u1 span(B C), and since v1 , . . . , vm , u2 , . . . , unm B C, they
are also in span(B C), whence
B 0 C 0 span(B C)
Now, since span(B 0 C 0 ) = V by the induction hypothesis, we have by Corollary 1.8 that span(B
C) = V . So we have B linearly independent with |B| = m + 1 vectors, m + 1 n, span(B C) = V ,
and C S with |C| = (n m) 1 = n (m + 1) vectors, so the theorem holds for m + 1. Therefore
the theorem is true for all m N by induction.
Corollary 1.18 If V is a vector space with a finite spanning set, then every basis for V contains
the same number of vectors.
Proof: Suppose S is a finite spanning set for V , and let and be two bases for V with || > || = k,
so that some subset T contains exactly k + 1 vectors. Since T is linearly independent and
generates V , the replacement theorem implies that k + 1 k, a contradiction. Therefore is finite
and || k. Reversing the roles of and shows that k ||, so that || = || = k.
11
Corollary 1.19 If V is a finite-dimensional vector space with dim(V ) = n, then the following hold:
(1) Any finite spanning set for V contains at least n vectors, and a spanning set for V that contains
exactly n vectors is a basis for V .
(2) Any linearly independent subset of V that contains exactly n vectors is a basis for V .
(3) Every linearly independent subset of V can be extended to a basis for V .
Proof: Let B be a basis for V . (1) Let S V be a finite spanning set for V . By Theorem
1.15, B S that is a basis for V , and by Corollary 1.18 |B| = n vectors. Therefore |S| n,
and |S| = n = S = B, so that S is a basis for V . (2) Let I V be linearly independent
with |I| = n. By the replacement theorem T B with |T | = n n = 0 vectors such that
V = span(I T ) = span(I ) = span(I). Since I is also linearly independent, it is a basis for
V . (3) If I V is linearly independent with |I| = m vectors, then the replacement theorem asserts
that H B containing exactly n m vectors such that V = span(I H). Now, |I H| n, so
that by 1 |I H| = n, and so I H is a basis for V extended from I.
Theorem 1.20 Any two bases for a vector space V have the same cardinality.
Proof: If V is finite-dimensional, then the previous corollary applies, so we need only consider bases
that are infinite sets. Let B = {bi | i I} ba a basis for V and let C be any other basis for V . Then
all c C can be written as finite linear combinations of vectors in B, where all the coefficients are
nonzero. That is, if Uc = {1, . . . , nc }, we have
c=
nc
X
ai bi =
i=1
ai bi
iUc
S
S
for unique a1 , . . . , anc F . But because C is a basis, we must have I = cC Uc , for if cC ( I,
then all c C can be expressed by a proper subset B 0 of B, so that V = span(B 0 ), which is
contradiction of the minimality of B as a spanning set. Now, for all c C we have |Uc | < 0 , which
implies that
[
Uc 0 |C| = |C|
|B| = |I| =
cC
Reversing the roles of B and C gives |C| |B|, so by the Schroder-Bernstein theorem we have
|B| = |C|.
Corollary 1.21 If V is a vector space and S is a subspace of V :
(1) dim(S) dim(V )
(2) dim(S) = dim(V ) < = S = V
(3) V is infinite-dimensional iff it contains an infinite linearly independent subset.
(1.24)
}|
{
z
x = a1 v1 + + ak vk
= ak+1 vk+1 + + an vn
{z
}
|
span(BC)
=
=
|A B| + |B C|
|A| + |B| + |B| + |C|
|A B C| + |B|
dim(S + T ) + dim(S T )
13
i6=j
However, vj Sj , whence
vj Wj
Si = {0}
i6=j
= u1 + + un
= w1 + + wm
for some ui Ski and wj Skj . Then, grouping terms from the same subspaces
0 = v v = (ui1 wi1 ) + + (uik wik ) + uik+1 + + uin wik+1 wim
(
ui1 = wi1 , , uik = wik
=
and uik+1 = = uin = wik+1 = = wim = 0
proving uniqueness.
Pn
(3) = (4): Suppose each vector v V = iI Si can be uniquely written as vP= v1 + + vk ,
n
for vi Sji . For each i I let i be anordered basis for Si , so that since V = iI Si , we must
Sk
have that V = span() = span
i=1 i , so we only need to show that is linearly independent.
To that end, let
v11 , v12 , . . . , v1n1 i1
..
.
vm1 , vm2 , . . . , vmnm im
for
Pniany bases ij for Sij F, then let aij F for i = 1, . . . , m and j = 1, . . . , ni , and let wi =
j=1 aij vij . Then, suppose
X
w1 + + wm =
aij vij = 0
i,j
14
Tm
since 0 i=1 Sji and 0 = 0 + + 0, by the assumed uniqueness of expression of v V by wi Si
we must have wi = 0 for all i, and since all the i are linearly independent, we must have aij = 0
for all i, j.
S
(4) = (1): if 4 is true, then there exist ordered bases i the Si such that = iI i is an ordered
basis for V . By Corollary 1.8 and Theorem 1.22,
[
X
X
V = span() = span( i ) =
span(i ) =
Si
iI
iI
iI
i6=j
i ) =
i6=j
Si . Then,
Si
i6=j
S
which means v is a nontrivial linear combinationSof elements in i and elements in i6=j i , so that
v can be expressed as a linear combination of iI i in more than one way, which contradicts
uniqueness of representation of vectors in V in terms of a basis for V , Theorem 1.13. Consequently,
any such v must be 0. That is,
X
Sj
Si = {0}
i6=j
iI
Si , proving 1.
15
Linear Transformations
2.1
2.1.1
Definitions
Linear Transformations, or Vector Space Homomorphisms
If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F , a function T : V W is called a linear
transformation or vector space homomorphism if it preserves the vector space structure, that
is if for all vectors x, y V and all scalars a, b F we have
T (x + y) = T (x) + T (y)
T (ax) = aT (x)
or equivalently
(2.1)
or
Hom(V, W )
(2.2)
Linear transformation, like group and ring homomorphisms, come in different types:
1. linear operator (vector space endomorphism) on V if V is a vector space over F , a
linear operator, or vector space endomorphism, is a linear transformation T L(V, V ). The
set of all linear operators, or vector space endomorphisms, is denoted
L(V )
or
End(V )
(2.3)
(2.5)
16
A crucial concept, which will allow us to classify and so distinguish operators, is that of similarity
of operators. Two linear operators T, U L(V ) are said to be similar, denoted
T U
(2.7)
(2.8)
(2.10)
(2.12)
(2.13)
The expression T = L(V ) means there are subspaces R and S of V for which (R, S) reduces
T and = TR and = TS .
If V is a direct sum of subspaces V = R S, then the function R,S : V V given by
R,S (v) = R,S (r + s) = r
where r R and s S, is called the projection onto R along S.
17
(2.14)
Example 2.1 The projection on the y-axis along the x-axis is the map Ry ,Rx : R2 R2 given by
Ry ,Rx (x) = y.
Example 2.2 The projection on the y-axis along the line L = {(s, s) | s R} is the map Ry ,L :
R2 R2 given by Ry ,L (x) = Ry ,L (s, s + y) = y.
Any projection R,S is linear, i.e. R,S L(V ):
R,S (au + bv)
And clearly
R = im(R,S )
and
S = ker(R,S )
(2.15)
(2.16)
= = 0 T0
(2.17)
if
This is of course by analogy with orthogonal vectors v w, for which we have hv, wi = hw, vi = 0.
We use projections to define a resolution of the identity, a sum of the form 1 + + k = I
L(V ), where the i are pairwise orthogonal projections, that is i j if i 6= j. This occurs when
V = S1 S2 Sk , i = Si ,Lj6=i Sj , and i j for i 6= j. Resolutions of the identity will be
important in establishing the spectral resolution of a linear operator.
18
2.2
Theorem 2.3 If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F and T L(V, W ), then ker(T )
is a subspace of V and im(T ) is a subspace of W . Moreover, if T L(V ), then {0}, ker(T ), im(T )
and V are T -invariant.
Proof: (1) If x, y ker(T ) and a, b F , we have T (ax + by) = aT (x) + bT (y) = a0 + b0 = 0 so
ax + by ker(T ), and the statement follows by Theorem 1.3. If x, y im(T ) and a, b F , then
u, v V such that T (u) = x and T (v) = y, whence ax + by = aT (u) + bT (v) = T (au + bv) im(T ).
(2) Clearly {0} and V are T -invariant, the first because T (0) = 0, the second because the codomain
of T is V . If x im(T ), then of course x V , so that T (x) im(T ), while if x ker(T ), then
T (x) = 0 ker(T ).
Theorem 2.4 If V and W are vector spaces and B = {vi | i I} is a basis for V , then for any
T L(V, W ) we have
im(T ) = span(T (B))
(2.18)
Proof: T (vi ) im(T ) for each i I by definition, and because im(T ) is a subspace, we have
span(T (B)) im(T ). Moreover, span(T (B)) is a subspace by Theorem 1.6. For the reverse inclusion,
choose any w im(T )j. Then v V such that w = T (v), so that by Theorem 1.13 !a1 , . . . , an F
such that v = a1 v1 + + an vn , where by vi we mean vi vji . Consequently,
w = T (v) = T (a1 v1 + + an vn ) = a1 T (v1 ) + + an T (vn ) span(T (B))
Theorem 2.5 (A Linear Transformation Is Defined by Its Action on a Basis) Let V and
W be vector spaces over the same field F . If B = {vi | i I} is a basis for V , then we can define a
unique linear transformation T L(V, W ) by arbitrarily specifying the values wi = T (vi ) W for
each i I and extending T by linearity, i.e. specifying that for all a1 , . . . , an F our T satisfy
T (a1 v1 + + an vn )
= a1 T (v1 ) + + an T (vn )
(2.19)
= a1 w1 + + an wn
Proof: By Theorem 1.13: v V , a1 , . . . , an F such that v = a1 v1 + + an vn . Defining
T W V by (2.19) we have the following results:
(1) T L(V, W ): For any u, v V , there exist unique a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bm F and u1 , . . . , un ,
v1 , . . . , vm B such that
u = a1 u1 + + an un
v = b1 v1 + + bm vm
= a1 w1 + + an wn
= b1 z1 + + bm zm
= T a(a1 u1 + + an un ) + b(b1 v1 + + bm vm )
= aa1 T (u1 ) + + aan T (un ) + bb1 T (v1 ) + + bbm T (vm )
= aT (a1 u1 + + an un ) + bT (b1 v1 + + bm vm )
= aT (u) + bT (u)
19
n
X
ai U (vi ) =
i=1
n
X
ai wi = T (v)
i=1
and U = T .
Theorem 2.6 If V, W, Z are vector spaces over the same field F and T L(V, W ) and U
L(W, Z), then U T L(V, Z).
Proof: If v, w V and a, b F , then
(U T )(ac + bw) = U (T (ac + bw)) = U (aT (v) + bT (w))
= aU (T (v)) + bU (T (w)) = a(U T )(x) + b(U T )(y)
so U T L(V, Z).
Theorem 2.7 If V and W are vector spaces over F , then L(V, W ) is a vector space over F under
ordinary addition and scalar multiplication of functions.
Proof: First, note that if T, U L(V, W ) and a, b, c, d F , then v, w V
(aT + bU )(cv + dw)
so (aT + bU ) L(V, W ), and L(V, W ) is closed under addition and scalar multiplication. Moreover,
L(V, W ) satisfies VS1-8 because W is a vector space, and addition and scalar multiplication in
L(V, W ) are defined pointwise for values which any functions S, T, U L(V, W ) take in W .
20
2.3
Theorem 2.8 If V, W, Z are vector spaces over the same field F and T GL(V, W ) and U
GL(W, Z) are isomorphisms, then
(1) T 1 L(W, V )
(2) (T 1 )1 = T , and hence T 1 GL(W, V ).
(3) (U T )1 = T 1 U 1 GL(Z, V ).
Proof: (1) If w, z W and a, b F , since T is bijective !u, v V such that T (u) = w and
T (v) = z. Hence T 1 (w) = u and T 1 (z) = v, so that
T 1 (aw + bz) = T 1 aT (u) + bT (v) = T 1 T (au + bv)
= au + bv = aT 1 (w) + bT 1 (z)
(2) T 1 T = IV and T T 1 = IW shows that T is the inverse of T 1 , that is T = (T 1 )1 .
(3) First, any composition of bijections is a bijection, so U T is bijective. Moreover,
1
(U T ) (U T )
= IZ = U U 1 = U IW U 1
= U (T T 1 ) U 1 = (U T ) (T 1 U 1 )
and
1
(U T )
(U T ) = IV = T 1 T = T 1 IW T
= T 1 (U 1 U ) T = (U 1 T 1 ) (U T )
so by the cancellation law and the fact that L(V, Z) is a vector space, we must have (U T )1 =
T 1 U 1 L(Z, V ) and by (1) its an isomorphism. Alternatively, we can get (3) from (2) via
Theorem 2.5:
U T : V Z, so (U T )1 : Z V
and of course
T 1 U 1 : Z V
Let , and be bases for V , W and Z, respectively, such that
T () = and U () = U (T ()) = (U T )() = , so that (U T )1 () =
which is possible by Theorem 2.10. But we also have
U 1 () = and T 1 () =
so that
(T 1 U 1 )() =
By Theorem 2.5 (uniqueness) (U T )1 = T 1 U 1 and by (1) its an isomorphism.
Theorem 2.9 If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F and T L(V, W ), then T is
injective iff ker(T ) = {0}.
Proof: If T is 1-1 and x ker(T ), then T (x) = 0 = T (0), so that x = 0, whence ker(T ) = {0}.
Conversely, if ker(T ) = {0} and T (x) = T (y), then,
0 = T (x) T (y) = T (x y) = x y = 0
or x = y, and so T is 1-1.
21
Theorem 2.10 Let V and W be vector spaces over the same field and S V . Then for any
T L(V, W ),
(1) T is injective iff it carries linearly independent sets into linearly independent sets.
(2) T is injective implies S V is linearly independent iff T (S) W is linearly independent.
Proof: (1) If T is 1-1 and S V is linearly independent, then for any v1 , . . . , vn S we have
0V = a1 v1 + + an vn = a1 = an = 0, so
0W = T (0V ) = T (a1 v1 + + an vn ) = a1 T (v1 ) + + an T (vn )
whence {T (v1 ), . . . , T (vn )} is linearly independent, and since this is true for all vi S, T (S) is linearly independent, so T carries linearly independent sets into linearly independent sets. Conversely,
if T carries linearly independent sets into linearly independent sets, let B be a basis for V and
suppose T (u) = T (v) for some u, v V . Since u = a1 u1 + + an un and v = b1 v1 + + bm vm for
unique ai , bi F and u1 , . . . , un , v1 , . . . , vm B, we have
0
= T (u) T (v)
= T (u v)
= T (ai1 bj1 )vi1 + + (aik bjk )vik + aik+1 uik+1 + + ain uin
+bik+1 vik+1 + + bim vim
=
so that aik+1 = = ain = bik+1 = = bim = 0, which means m = n = k and therefore ai1 = bj1 ,
. . . , aik = bjk . Consequently
u = ai1 vi1 + + aik vik = v
whence T is 1-1.
(2) If T is 1-1 and S V is linearly independent, then by (1) T (S) is linearly independent. Conversely, if T is 1-1 and T (S) is linearly independent, then for K = {v1 , . . . , vk } S V we have
that
T (0) = 0 = a1 T (v1 ) + + ak T (vk ) = T (a1 v1 + + ak vk )
implying simultaneously that a1 v1 + + ak vk = 0 and a1 = = ak = 0, so K is linearly
independent. But this is true for all such K S, so S is linearly independent.
Theorem 2.11 If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F and T GL(V, W ), then for
any S V we have
(1) V = span(S) iff W = span(T (S)).
(2) S is linearly independent in V iff T (S) is linearly independent in W .
(3) S is a basis for V iff T (S) is a basis for W .
T GL(V,W )
}|
{
z
Proof: (1) V = span(S) W = im(T ) = T (span(S)) = span(T (S)).
Pn
(2) S linearly independent means for any s1 , . . . , sn S we have i=1 ai si = 0 for all ai = 0,
which implies
T
n
X
i=1
n
X
ai si =
ai T (si ) = 0 = T (0)
T GL(V,W )
i=1
n
X
ai si = 0
i=1
S lin. indep.
22
a1 = = an = 0
so T (S) is linearly independent, since this is true for all si S. Conversely, if T (S) is linearly
independent we have for any T (s1 ), . . . , T (sn ) T (S)
n
n
n
X
X
X
T GL(V,W )
0=
ai T (si ) = T
ai si = T (0)
=
ai si = 0
i=1
i=1
i=1
T (S) lin. indep.
a1 = = an = 0
so S is linearly independent.
(1), (2)
Proof: V = W = T GL(V, W ), so B basis for V = T (B) basis for W , and dim(V ) = |B| =
|T (B)| = dim(W ). Conversely, if dim(V ) = |B| = |C| = dim(W ), where C is a basis for W , then
T : B C bijective. Extending T to V by linearity defines a unique T L(V, W ) by Theorem
2.5 and T is an isomorphism because it is surjective, im(T ) = W , and injective, ker(T ) = {0}, so
V
= W.
Corollary 2.14 If V and W are vector spaces over the same field and T L(V, W ), then dim(V ) <
dim(W ) = T cannot be onto and dim(V ) > dim(W ) = T cannot be 1-1.
Corollary 2.15 If V is an n-dimensional vector space over F , where n N, then
V
= Fn
(2.21)
If is any cardinal number, B is a set of cardinality and V is a -dimensional vector space over
F , then
V
(2.22)
= (F B )0
n
B
Proof: As a result of the fact that dim(F ) = n and dim (F )0 = , by the previous theorem.
Corollary 2.16 If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F and T GL(V, W ), then for
any subspace S of V we have that T (S) is a subspace of W and dim(S) = dim(T (S)).
Proof: If S is a subspace of V , then x, y S and a, b F , we have ax+by S, and T (x), T (y) S
and T (ax+by) = aT (x)+bT (y) T (S) imply that S is a subspace of W , while dim(S) = dim(T (S))
follows from the theorem.
23
2.4
Rank-Nullity Theorem
Lemma 2.17 If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F and T L(V, W ), then any
complement of the kernel of T is isomorphic to the range of T , that is
= ker(T )c
= im(T )
V = ker(T ) ker(T )c
(2.23)
Theorem 2.18 (Rank-Nullity Theorem) If V and W are vector spaces over the same field F
and T L(V, W ), then
dim(V ) = rank(T ) + null(T )
(2.24)
c
Proof: By the lemma and
we have ker(T ) = im(T ), which by the previous theorem implies
dim ker(T )c = dim im(T ) = rank(T ), while by Theorem 1.23 V = ker(T ) ker(T )c implies
dim(V ) = dim ker(T ) + dim ker(T )c
= dim ker(T ) + dim im(T )
=
null(T ) + rank(T )
Corollary 2.19 Let V and W are vector spaces over the same field F and T L(V, W ). If
dim(V ) = dim(W ), then the following are equivalent:
(1) T is injective.
(2) T is surjective.
(3) rank(T ) = dim(V )
Proof: By the Rank-Nullity Theorem, rank(T ) + null(T ) = dim(V ), and by Theorem 2.9 we have
T is 1-1
Thm 2.9
ker(T ) = {0}
null(T ) = 0
R-N Thm
Thm 1.21.1
im(T ) = W.
T is onto
assump.
dim(W )
24
(2.25)
Moreover, if there is an m N for which rank(T m ) = rank(T m+1 ), then for all n N we have
rank(T m ) = rank(T m+n )
(2.26)
Proof: (1) Let n N and v ker(T n ), so that T n (v) = 0. Then, 0 = T (0) = T (T n (v)) = T n+1 (v),
so v ker(T n+1 ), which proves (2.25).
(2) If there is an m N such that rank(T m ) = rank(T m+1 ), then by the Rank-Nullity Theorem null(T m ) = null(T m+1 ), which by (1) shows that ker(T m ) = ker(T m+1 ) and hence T m (V ) =
T m+1 (V ). But then T |ker(T m ) = T0 L(ker(T m )) and T |T m (V ) must be bijective. Consequently,
T |T m (V ) (v) 6= 0 if v 6= 0, so T |nT m (V ) (v) 6= 0 if v 6= 0 for all n N. This shows that T |nT m (V ) (v) = 0 iff
v ker(T m ) for all n N, so ker(T m+n ) = ker(T m ) and T m (V ) = T m+n (V ) for all n N, proving
(2.26).
25
3.1
Definitions
(3.2)
(x) = [x]
(3.3)
is given by
Let V and W be finite dimensional vector spaces over the same field F with ordered bases =
(v1 , . . . , vn ) and = (w1 , . . . , wm ), respectively. If there exist (and there do exist) unique scalars
aij F such that
m
X
aij wi
for j = 1, . . . , n
(3.4)
T (vj ) =
i=1
a11
a21
..
.
am1
a12
a22
..
.
am2
a1n
a11
a2n
..
.. = .
.
am1
amn
..
.
a1n
..
.
amn
)
1
3
T (e1 ) = T (1, 0) = (1, 0, 2) = 1e1 + 0e2 + 2e3
0
=
[T ] = 0
T (e2 ) = T (0, 1) = (3, 0, 4) = 3e1 + 0e2 4e3
2 4
2. If T L(R3 [x], R2 [x]) is given by T (f (x)) = f 0 (x), and = (1, x, x2 , x3 ) and = (1, x, x2 ) are
the standard ordered bases for R3 [x] and R2 [x], respectively, the matrix representation of T is
found as follows:
T (1) = 0 1 + 0x + 0x2
2
0 1 0 0
T (x) = 1 1 + 0x + 0x
=
[T ] = 0 0 2 0
T (x2 ) = 0 1 + 2x + 0x2
0 0 0 3
3
2
T (x ) = 0 1 + 0x + 3x
26
3.2
=
=
n
X
Aik (B + C)kj =
k=1
n
X
=
=
m
X
n
X
Aik Bkj +
k=1
(D + E)ik Akj =
k=1
m
X
n
X
k=1
m
X
k=1
Dik Akj +
k=1
[a(AB)]ij
k=1
k=1
[(D + E)A]ij
n
X
m
X
m
X
k=1
k=1
n
X
Aik Bkj =
k=1
n
X
n
X
k=1
n
X
aAik Bkj
k=1
k=1
(Im A)ij =
m
X
k=1
m
X
ik Akj = Aij =
k=1
n
X
Aik kj =
k=1
n
X
k=1
Theorem 3.2 If A Mm,n (F ) and B Mn,p (F ), and bj is the jth column of B, then
AB
= A[b1 b2 bp ]
=
(3.5)
(3.6)
That is if uj is the jth column of AB, then uj = Abj . As a result, if A Mm,n (F ) and aj is the
jth column of A, then
A = AIn = Im A
(3.7)
Proof: First, we have
Pn
(AB)1j
B1j
k=1 A1k Bkj
.
..
..
uj =
= A .. = Avj
=
.
Pn .
(AB)mj
Bnj
k=1 Amk Bkj
As a result
A = [a1 a2 an ] = [Ae1 Ae2 Aen ] = AIn
and
Im A = Im [a1 a2 an ] = [Im a1 Im a2 Im an ] = [a1 a2 an ] = A
27
Theorem 3.3 If V is a finite-dimensional vector space over a field F with ordered basis =
(b1 , . . . , bn ), the coordinate map : V F n is an isomorphism,
GL(V, F n )
(3.8)
Proof: First, L(V, F n ) since x, y V and a, b F we have by the ordinary rules of matrix
addition and scalar multiplication (or alternatively by the rules of addition and scalar multiplication
on n-tuples)
(ax + by) = [ax + by] = a[x] + [y] = a (x) + (y)
Second, because (b1 ) = e1 , . . . , (bn ) = en , it takes a basis into a basis. Therefore it is an
isomorphism by Theorem 2.12.
Theorem 3.4 Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces having ordered bases and ,
respectively, and let T L(V, W ). Then for all v V we have
[T (v)] = [T ] [v]
(3.9)
TW
Fn
- Fm
TA
a11
h
i
amn
am1
..
.
a1n
..
.
amn
= T (b1 v1 + + bn vn )
= b1 T (v1 ) + + bn T (vn )
so that
[T (u)] = T (u)
b1 T (v1 ) + + bn T (vn )
b1 T (v1 ) + + bn T (vn )
b1 [T (v1 )] + + bn [T (vn )]
[T ] [u]
28
Theorem 3.5 If V, W, Z are finite-dimensional vector spaces with ordered bases , and , respectively, and T L(V, W ) and U L(W, Z), then
[U T ] = [U ] [T ]
(3.11)
[U ] [T ]
Corollary 3.6 If V is an n-dimensional vector space over F with an ordered basis and I L(V )
is the identity operator, then [I] = In Mn (F ).
Proof: By Theorem 3.5, given any T L(V ), T = I T , so that [T ] = [I T ] = [I] [T ] = In [T ] ,
so that [I] = In by the cancellation law.
Theorem 3.7 If V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces of dimensions n and m, respectively,
with ordered bases and , respectively, and T L(V, W ), then
rank(T ) = rank([T ] )
and
null(T ) = null([T ] )
(3.12)
Proof: This follows from Theorem 3.4, since and are isomorphisms, and so carry bases into
bases, and T = TA , so that
rank(T ) = dim im(T ) = dim( (im(T )) = rank( T )
= rank(TA ) = dim im(TA )) = dim im(TA )
= rank(TA ) = rank(A) = rank([T ] )
while the second equality follows from the rank nullity theorem along with the fact that the ranks
are equal.
Theorem 3.8 If V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces over F with ordered bases =
(b1 , . . . , bn ) and = (c1 , . . . , cm ), then the function
: L(V, W ) Mm,n (F )
(T ) =
[T ]
(3.13)
(3.14)
is an isomorphism,
GL L(V, W ), Mm,n
and consequently
(3.15)
L(V, W )
= Mm,n (F )
(3.16)
dim L(V, W ) = dim Mm,n (F ) = mn
(3.17)
and
29
Proof: First, L L(V, W ), Mm,n : there exist scalars rij , sij F , for i = 1, . . . , m and j =
1, . . . , n, such that for any T L(V, W ) we have
T (b1 ) = r11 c1 + + rm1 cm
..
.
and
m
X
rij ci + l
i=1
m
X
i=1
sij ci =
m
X
i=1
As a consequence of this and the rules of matrix addition and scalar multiplication we have
(kT + lU )
[kT + lU ]
kr11 + ls11
..
=
.
=
kr1n + ls1n
..
..
.
.
krm1 + lsm1 krmn + lsmn
s11 s1n
r11 r1n
..
.. + l ..
..
..
= k ...
.
.
.
.
.
sm1 smn
rm1 rmn
= k[T ] + l[U ]
= k(T ) + l(U )
for j = 1, . . . , n
This makes onto, and also 1-1 because ker() = {T0 } because for O Mmn (F ) there is only
T0 L(V, W ) such that (T0 ) = O, because
T (bj ) = 0c1 + + 0cm = 0
for j = 1, . . . , n
Theorem 3.9 If V and W are finite-dimensional vector spaces over the same field F with ordered
bases = (b1 , . . . , bn ) and = (c1 , . . . , cn ), respectively, then T L(V, W ) is an isomporhpism iff
[T ] is invertible, in which case
1
[T 1 ] = [T ]
(3.18)
Proof: If T is an isomorphism and dim(V ) = dim(W ) = n, then T 1 L(W, V ), and T T 1 = IW
and T 1 T = IV , so that by Theorem 3.5, Corollary 3.6 and Theorem 3.1 we have
[T ] [T 1 ] = [T T 1 ] = [IW ] = In = [IV ] = [T 1 T ] = [T 1 ] [T ]
so that [T ] is invertibe with inverse [T 1 ] , and by the uniqueness of the multiplicative inverse in
Mn (F ), which follows from the uniqueness of TA1 L(F n ), we have
[T 1 ] = [T ]
30
1
and
[T U ] = [T ] [U ] = AB = In = [IW ]
But since L(V, W ), Mm,n (F ) is an isomorphism, and therefore 1-1, we must have that
U T = IV and T U = IW
By the uniqueness of the inverse, however, U = T 1 , and T is an isomorphism.
31
4
4.1
Change of Coordinates
Definitions
We can also now define the change of coordinates or change of basis, operator. If V is a
finite-dimensional vector space, say dim(V ) = n, and = (b1 , . . . , bn ) and = (c1 , . . . , cn ) are
two ordered bases for V , then the coordinate maps , L(V, F n ), which are isomorphisms by
Theorem 2.15, may be used to define a change of coordinates operator , L(F n ) changing
coordinates into coordinates, that is having the property
, ([v] ) = [v]
(4.1)
, := 1
(4.2)
F
- Fn
4.2
(4.3)
Theorem 4.1 (Change of Coordinate Matrix) Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space over
a field F and = (b1 , . . . , bn ) and = (c1 , . . . , cn ) be two ordered bases for V . Since and are
isomorphisms, the following diagram commutes,
1
Fn
- Fn
n
and the change of basis operator , := 1
L(F ), changing coordinates into coordinates,
is an automorphism of F n . Its matrix representation,
M, = [, ] Mn (F )
(4.4)
where = (e1 , . . . , en ) is the standard ordered basis for F n , is called the change of coordinate
matrix, and it satisfies the following conditions:
1. M, = [, ]
= [ ]
h
i
= [b1 ] [b2 ] [bn ]
2. [v] = M, [v] ,
v V
3. M, is invertible and
1
M,
= M, = [ ]
32
)([b
]
)
)([b
]
)
1
h
i
= (b1 ) (b2 ) (bn )
h
i
= [b1 ] [b2 ] [bn ]
=
[ ]
M, = [, ] = [ 1
= [ ] In1 = [ ] In = [ ]
] = [ ] [ ] = [ ] ([ ] )
implies that
1
[v] = [ (v)] = [(( 1
) )(v)] = [ ] [ (v)] = [, ] [v] = M, [v]
And the last point follows from the fact that and are isomorphism, so that , is an isomorn
phism, and hence 1
, L(F ) is an isomorphism, and because the diagram above commutes we
must have
1 1
1
= 1
= ,
, = ( )
so that by 1
1
M,
= [1
, ] = [, ] = M,
M,
= ([, ] )1 = [1
, ] = [, ] = [ ] = M,
Corollary 4.2 (Change of Basis) Let V and W be finite-dimensional vector spaces over the same
field F and let (, ) and ( 0 , 0 ) be pairs of ordered bases for V and W , respectively. If T L(V, W ),
then
0
[T ] 0
= M, 0 [T ] M 0 ,
(4.5)
1
= M, 0 [T ] M,
0
(4.6)
where M, 0 and M 0 , are change of coordinate matrices. That is, the following diagram commutes
TA
, 0
- Fn
0 ,
Fn
6
0
V
TA0 - n
F
6
0
T
33
- W
Fn
Proof: This follows from the fact that if = (b1 , . . . , bn ), 0 = (b01 , . . . , b0n ), = (c1 , . . . , cm ),
= (c01 , . . . , c0m ), then for each i = 1, . . . , n we have
0
0
[T (b0i )] 0 = [(, 0 T 1
, 0 )(bi )]
so
0
[T ] 0
[, 0 T 1
, 0 ] 0
[, 0 ]m [T ] [1
, 0 ]n
[, 0 ]m [T ] ([, 0 ]n )1
1
= M, 0 [T ] M,
0
(4.7)
34