مشروع التخرج Underbalanced Drilling

Underbalanced Drilling
Senior Project
Underbalanced Drilling Of Horizontal
Gas Well
Obaiyed field case study
Under supervision of/
Eng. Abd El Fatah Sharf

Team members/
1. Abdallah Magdy Darwish
2. EL Sayed Amer Hassan
3. Mossad Mossad Dawood
4. Sandy Mohamed Sherif
5. Mina Naguib
6. Magdy Hamaza Ahmed
(Eng20072007@yahoo.com)
Team Work
Under supervision of/ Eng. Abd-Elfatah Sharaf
Abdallah Magdy Darwish
El Sayed Amer Hassan
Sandy Mohamed Sherif
Mossad Mossad Dawood
Mina Naguib
Magdy Hamza
We dedicate this book to all the

Egyptians who pay their life for the rise of
this country. These people will beforever- in our hearts where no one can
erase them.
Acknowledgement
Although we didn't study UBD; But we
challenged the process
We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our advisor
Eng. Abd- El Fatah Sharaf
For supervising this work and for his valuable guidance and
genuine interest in completing this study.
We would like to thank our family for their ultimate help and
efforts without Allah's blessing and their prayers we would not
be able to finish this work.
We also like to acknowledge our

Prof. Attia M. Attia,
Eng. Sayed RIzek,
Eng. Ahmed El Rayan
Eng. Mohamed Salah
Project Team Work
2012
II
ABSTRACT
uch UBD technology is still considered relatively new, and
probably just leaving the Early Adopters stage. The key to

success in moving underbalanced drilling up the growth curve lies
in a good understanding of the technology, careful planning
(including full consideration of the risks), disciplined execution,
and
effective
dissemination
of
technological
information.
Otherwise, early adopters can pay dearly for taking up the flag of
new technology.
Several papers have been published discussing the UBD processes
as well as the benefits achieved from this technology. However,
few papers have examined the criticality of planning for UBD
operations.
We provide a detailed study in how to plan for UBD operations to
achieve success in drilling the well. Our case study was brought
from BAPETCO Egyptian Company, obaiyed concession, western
desert. The study emphasizes formation stability, appropriate
technique, well control, minimum formation damage, hydraulic
analysis, and guaranteed economic incentives.
Project Team Work

2012
HISTORY OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING ............................................................................................... 3

WHAT IS UNDERBALANCED DRILLING?................................................................................................... 4
UNDERBALANCED VERSUS OVERBALANCED .......................................................................................... 6
BENEFITS OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING .............................................................................................. 8
DISADVANTAGES OF UNDER BALANCED DRILLING: ............................................................................. 13
IMPORTANT LIMITATION FOR UNDERBALANCED DRILLING................................................................. 15
HOW TO DRILL UNDERBALANCE- TYPE OF UNITS? ............................................................................... 16
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 20
UNDERBALANCED DRILLING TECHNIQUES

GASEOUS DRILLING FLUIDS................................................................................................................... 23
MIST DRILLING ...................................................................................................................................... 34
FOAM DRILLING .................................................................................................................................... 37
GASIFIED OR AERATED SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................... 43
FLOW DRILLING ..................................................................................................................................... 49
MUD CAP DRILLING ............................................................................................................................... 49
SNUB DRILLING ..................................................................................................................................... 50
CLOSED SYSTEM .................................................................................................................................... 50
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 51
RESERVOIR CANDIDATES AND OPTUMIM SELECTION

GOOD CANDIDATE INDICATORS FOR UBD ............................................................................................ 54
BAD CANDIDATE INDICATORS FOR UBD ............................................................................................... 55
OPTIMUM SELECTION OF UNDERBALANCED TECHNIQUES.................................................................. 56
GENERAL CONSIDERATION TO SELECT DRILLING FLUID ....................................................................... 59
ECONOMIC STUDY MODEL ................................................................................................................... 74
REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 89
SURFACE EQUIPMENT OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 92
GAS SUPPLY ............................................................................................................................... 92
AIR COMPRESSION SYSTEM........................................................................................................ 94
IN-LINES FACILITIES .................................................................................................................... 98
SEPARATION SYSTEM ............................................................................................................... 101
PITS & TANKS........................................................................................................................... 104
FLARE SYSTEM ......................................................................................................................... 105
SURFACE MEASUREMENTS ....................................................................................................... 106
FOAM DRILLING ACCESSORIES .................................................................................................. 107
SURFACE EQUIPMENT LAYOUT FOR DIFFERENT UBD TECHNIQUES ............................................. 111
IADC UNDERBALANCED OPERATION COMMITTEE ..................................................................... 114
OBAYED FIELD SITE DRAWINGS & EQUIPMENTS........................................................................ 116
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 119
DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT FOR UNDERBALANCED

DRILLING
ROTARY DRILL STRING......................................................................................................................... 122
DRILLING BITS...................................................................................................................................... 125
DRILLING JARS ..................................................................................................................................... 133
STABILIZERS ......................................................................................................................................... 134
REAMERS ............................................................................................................................................. 134
SHOCK SUB .......................................................................................................................................... 135
BOTTOM HOLE ASSEMBLY .................................................................................................................. 135
DOWN HOLE MOTOR .......................................................................................................................... 136
MEASURMENT WHILE DRILLING (MWD) ............................................................................................ 137
ELECTROMAGNETIC MWD .................................................................................................................. 137
ELECTROMAGNETIC MWD .................................................................................................................. 138
PRESSURE WHILE DRILLING (PWD) ..................................................................................................... 139
HEAVY WEIGHT DRILL PIPE ................................................................................................................. 139
FLOAT VALVES ..................................................................................................................................... 140
DOWN HOLE ISOLATION VALVES ........................................................................................................ 143
DRILL PIPE............................................................................................................................................ 144

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 145
COILED TUBING
INTRODUCTION: .................................................................................................................................. 148
WHAT IS COILED TUBING? .................................................................................................................. 149
FEATURES OF CT TECHNOLOGY: ......................................................................................................... 149
USES OF COILED TUBING IN OIL INDUSTRY:........................................................................................ 150
ADVANTAGES OF COILED TUBING: ..................................................................................................... 151
DISADVANTAGES OF COILED TUBING ................................................................................................. 151
COILED TUBING EQUIPMENT .............................................................................................................. 152
COILED TUBING APPLICATIONS ........................................................................................................... 155
COILED TUBING DRILLING ................................................................................................................... 156
COMPARISON BETWEEN COILED TUBING & JOINTED PIPE ................................................................ 156
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 166
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING (D.D).............................................................................................................. 168
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 172
DEVIATION CONTROL METHODS ........................................................................................................ 180
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES ............................................................................. 181
HORIZONTAL WELLS............................................................................................................................ 196
HORIZONTAL DRILLING APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................. 196
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................ 202
Problems
ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS ......................................................................................................... 204
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING PROBLEMS .......................................................................................... 215
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING UNDERBALANCED DRILLING .............................................. 218
PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED DURING DRILLING OBAYED FIELD .................................................... 224
CORROSION PLAN FOR UB OBAYED FILED ................................................................................. 228
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 233
WELL CONTROL IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

WELL CONTROL DEFINITION ..................................................................................................... 236
WELL CONTROL PRINCIPLES...................................................................................................... 237
CAUSES OF PRIMARY CONTROL LOSS ........................................................................................ 237
WARNING INDICATORS OF A KICK ............................................................................................ 239
SHUT IN PROCEDURE ............................................................................................................... 239
WELL KILLING PROCEDURES ..................................................................................................... 241
BLOWOUT PREVENTION (BOP) EQUIPMENT.............................................................................. 244
BLOW OUT PREVENTER EQUIPMENT FOR COILED TUBING DRILLING .......................................... 250
COILED TUBING BOP STACK ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................................... 252
WELL CONTROL FOR UNDERBALANCED DRILLING (UBD) ............................................................ 252
UBD BOP STACK ARRANGEMENT .............................................................................................. 256
BOP SCHEMATIC OF OBAIYED D-2 ............................................................................................ 260
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 261
Completion for underbalanced drilling

COMPLETION OBJECTIVE AND FUNCTIONS................................................................................ 264
VERTICAL OR HIGHLY DEVIATED WELL COMPLETION ................................................................. 266
HORIZONTAL WELL COMPLETION ............................................................................................. 268
UNBERBALANCED WELL COMPLETION ...................................................................................... 270
OBAIYED D2-C/D COMPLETION .............................................................................................. 275
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 280
DIRECT CIRCULATION OF AERATED FLUID

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................... 282
MINIMUM VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATES ...................................................................................... 282
INJECTION PRESSURE AND SELECTION OF COMPRESSOR EQUIPMENT ....................................... 288
COMPRESSOR SELECTION ......................................................................................................... 316
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 320
OBAIYED D-2 WELL ENGINEERING

OVERVIEW OF BADER EL DIN PETROLEUM COMPANY ............................................................... 321
OBAIYED D-2 OVERVIEW .......................................................................................................... 322
DETERMINATION OF THE DERRICK LOAD .................................................................................. 326
SWIVEL SELECTION................................................................................................................... 327
KELLY SELECTION ..................................................................................................................... 328
HOISTING SYSTEM SELECTION: ................................................................................................. 329
SELECTION OF MUD PUMP ....................................................................................................... 334
SELECTION OF THE WELLHEAD FOR OBAYED D-2 ....................................................................... 341
DESIGN OF DRILL STRING.......................................................................................................... 344
CASING AND TUBING DESIGN ................................................................................................... 360
CEMENT PROGRAM ................................................................................................................. 377
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL TRAJECTORY ...................................................................................... 392
RECOMMENDED DRILLING ASSEMBLIES: ................................................................................... 406
REFERENCES: ........................................................................................................................... 408
RISK ASSESSMENT OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

INTRODUCTION OF RISK ASSESSMENT ...................................................................................... 412
RISK ASSESSMENT .................................................................................................................... 412
RISK MANAGEMENT AND DOWNHOLE PROBLEMS .................................................................... 413
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) ............................................................................... 415
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 417
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION................... 419
This chapter introduces the fundamentals of

underbalanced drilling operation including the history,
consideration, limitations and methods of drilling
Underbalanced drilling has been around since the start
of the oil exploration. All cable tool drilled wells were
drilled underbalanced and most of us have all seen the
pictures of blowouts and gushers as an oil reservoir
was struck. Until 1895 all wells were drilled
underbalanced.
History of Underbalanced
Drilling
What is Underbalanced Drilling?
Underbalanced Versus
Overbalanced
Benefits of underbalanced
drilling
Disadvantages of under balanced

drilling
Important limitation for
underbalanced drilling
How to drill underbalance- type
of units?
References
History of Underbalanced Drilling

Underbalanced drilling has been around since the start of the oil exploration. All
cable tool drilled wells were drilled underbalanced and most of us have all seen
the pictures of blowouts and gushers as an oil reservoir was struck. Until 1895 all
wells were drilled underbalanced.
The introduction of rotary drilling technology in 1895 required fluid circulation,
which initially was water. To enhance safety and hole cleaning, mud systems
were developed in 1920 and drilling continued overbalanced.
As deeper and larger reservoirs were encountered the reservoir damage issues
became less of an issue. Until in the 1980s the first underbalanced wells were
drilled in the Austin Chalk. This proved to be the introduction to modern
underbalanced drilling which started in the early 1990s in Canada.
1284 First cable tool wells drilled in China
1859 - 1895 all wells drilled underbalanced.
1895 Rotary drilling with water.
1920 First mud systems used.
1928 First BOPs used.
1932 First use of gasified fluids to drill
1955 Dusting or air drilling becomes popular.
1988 First high pressure gas well drilled underbalanced in Austin Chalk.
1993 First UBD wells drilled in Canada.
1995 First UBD wells drilled in Germany
1997 First UBD wells drilled offshore.
Since 1997, just after the third international underbalanced drilling conference
was held, better co-operation between operators internationally was initiated. The
first committees were developed as a result of Shell and Mobil requesting more
information and co-operation to ensure that offshore wells could be drilled safely
underbalanced.
In 1998 the IADC took the safety lead in underbalanced drilling and the IADC
UBO committee was formed in order to enhance the safety of underbalanced
drilling operations. This committee developed the underbalanced classification
matrix and continues today to develop safer and more efficient methods and
procedures for underbalanced drilling operations. The development of better flow
modeling systems and training systems together with international experiences
shared between operators has helped to develop underbalanced drilling as one
of the primary technologies for enhanced production from depleted fields and
reservoir understanding in newly developed fields.
FIGURE 1:UBD IN THE UNITED S TATE
What is Underbalanced Drilling?

When the effective circulating downhole pressure of the drilling fluid - which is
equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid column, plus pumps pressure, plus
associated friction pressures - is less than the effective near bore formation pore
Pressure. (Definition)
Underbalanced Drilling P reservoir > P bottom hole = P hydrostatic + P friction + P choke
The well is still controlled by controlling the wellbore pressure, but this pressure is
Maintained to be always below the reservoir pressure. Primary well control is no
Longer an overbalanced barrier of a column of fluid but is replaced by flow
control
Using a combination of hydrostatic pressure, friction pressure and surface choke
Pressure. The BOP stack remains as the secondary well control barrier. It must
be pointed out that a UBD well operates on a single barrier.
The bottom hole circulation pressure is a combination of hydrostatic pressure,
circulation friction losses and surface pressure applied at the choke.
The hydrostatic pressure is considered a passive pressure and is a result of the
fluid density and the density contribution of any drilled cuttings and a small
contribution of any gas in the well.
The friction Pressure is a dynamic pressure (It changes with pumps on or off) and
results from circulating friction of the fluid used.
The choke pressure arises from annular back pressure applied at surface.
These three pressures are controlled at all times and ensure that flow control is
maintained whilst drilling underbalanced.
The lower hydrostatic head avoids the build-up of filter cake on the reservoir
formation and avoids the invasion of whole mud and drilling solids into the
formation.
This helps to improve productivity of the wellbore and reduces any pressure related
drilling problems
Conventionally, wells are drilled overbalanced, which provides the primary well
control mechanism. Imposed wellbore pressure arises from three different
Mechanisms:
1. Hydrostatic pressure of materials in the wellbore due to the density of the fluid
used (mud) and the density contribution of any drilled cuttings (passive).
2. Dynamic pressure from fluid movement due to circulating friction of the fluid used
and the relative fluid motion caused by surge/swab of the drill pipe(dynamic).
3. Imposed pressure, with occurs due to the pipe being sealed at surface resulting
in an area with pressure differential (e.g., a rotating head or stripper element)
(confining or active).
Underbalanced drilling is defined as drilling with the hydrostatic head of the drilling
fluid intentionally designed to be lower than the pressure of the formations being
drilled. The hydrostatic head of the fluid may naturally be less than the formation
pressure or it can be induced. The induced state may be created by adding natural
gas, nitrogen or air to the liquid phase of the drilling fluid. Whether the
underbalanced status is induced or natural, the result may be an influx of formation
fluids which must be circulated from the well and controlled at surface.
Underbalanced drilling in practical terms will result in flow from one or more zones
into the wellbore (this is more likely, however, to be solely from one zone as crossflow is likely to result) or where the potential for flow exists.
The lower hydrostatic head avoids the build-up of filter cake on the formation as well
as the invasion of mud and drilling solids into the formation. This helps to improve
productivity of the reservoir and reduce related drilling problems.
FIGURE 2: PERFORMANCE DRILLING D EFINITION
Underbalanced Versus Overbalanced

When comparing underbalanced drilling with conventional drilling it soon
becomes apparent that an influx of formation fluids must be controlled to avoid
well control problems. In underbalanced drilling, the fluids from the well are
returned to a closed system at surface to control the well. With the well flowing,
the BOP system is kept closed while drilling, whereas in comparison to
Conventional drilling fluids are returned to an open system with the well open to
Atmosphere.
Overbalanced Operations "Conventional Drilling"

Mud fluid invasion and the hydrostatic pressure in the well bore can mask
potentially productive zones.
Reservoir damage, especially in horizontal wells, is often difficult or complicated to
remove or clean up once production starts. The lower permeability and porosity
zones may never be properly cleaned up, which can result in large sections of a
well (especially horizontal wells) being unproductive.
Lost circulation and differential sticking can often result in severe drilling problems
and many wells in depleted reservoirs never get to their planned TD.
New productive horizons are often identified when drilling. No damage or minimum
damage is done to the reservoir rocks, including the tighter sections of a well,
resulting in better production.
No losses or differential sticking as the fluid pressure is below the reservoir
pressure.
Conventional Drilling
Underbalanced Drilling
Figure 3:Conventional and uBD drillig
Benefits of underbalanced drilling
Increased penetration rate.

Increased bit life.
Minimize lost circulation.
Improved formation evaluation.
Reduced formation damage.
Reduced probability of differential sticking.
Earlier production.
Environmental benefits.
Improved safety.
Increased well productivity.
Less need for stimulation treatments.
1-Increased Penetration Rate:

Drilling underbalanced can lead to increased penetration rate. Most references,
describing drilling operations with air or lightened drilling fluids, report penetration
rates which are greater than these for wells drilled overbalanced with
conventional liquid drilling fluids.
In permeable rocks, a positive differential pressure will decrease penetration
because:
o Increases the effective confining stress which.
o Increases the rocks shear strength.
o Therefore increasing shear stress (by drilling UB) increases
penetration rate. And increases the chip hold down effect.
FIGURE 4: CHIP HOLD DOWN EFFECT AS DRILLING FLUID ENTERS THE FRACTURE , THE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ACROSS
THE ROCK FRAGMENT DECREASES , RELEASING THE CHIP .
2-Increased bit life:

It is often claimed that bit life is increased when lightened fluids are used instead of
conventional drilling mud. Drilling underbalanced removes the confinement imposed
on the rock by the overbalance pressure. This should decrease the apparent strength
of the rock and reduce the work that must be done to drill away a given volume of
rock. It is reasonable that this increased Drilling efficiency should increase the
amount of hole that can be drilled before the bit reaches a critical wear state
therefore:
o
o
o
Increased vibration with air drilling may actually decrease bearing life.
Bit may drill fewer rotating hours but drill more footage.
The number of bits required to drill an interval will be inversely proportional
to the footage drilled by each bit.
FIGURE 5: BIT AFTER BEING DAMANGED
3-Minimized Lost Circulation
Lost circulation occurs when drilling fluid enters an open formation down hole, rather
than returning to the surface. It is possible for drilling fluid to be lost by flow into a
very permeable zone. More frequently, lost circulation involves flow into natural
fractures that intersect that wellbore or into fractures induced by excessive drilling
fluid pressure. Lost circulation can be very costly during conventional drilling. The lost
fluid has to be replaced, and the losses have to be mitigated, usually by adding lost
circulation material to the mud (to plug off the path by which the fluid is entering the
formation), before drilling can safely be
resumed. Since there is no physical force driving drilling fluid into the formation if
the well is drilled underbalanced, underbalanced drilling effectively prevents a
lost circulation problems where If the pressure in the wellbore is less than the
formation pressure in the entire open hole section, lost circulation will not occur.
FIGURE 6: LOSS OF CIRCULATION
4-Improved Formation Evaluation

Drilling underbalanced can improve the detection of productive hydrocarbon
zones even identifying zones that might otherwise have been bypassed if the well
had been drilled conventional.
5-Reduces Formation Damage:

Anticipated well productivity is often reduced by regions of impaired permeability,
formation damage, adjacent to the wellbore. Formation damage can occur when
liquid(s), solid(s) or both enter the formation, during drilling. If the drilling fluid
pressure in the wellbore is less than the pore pressure, the physical driving force:
causing penetration of material from the drilling fluid is removed. That is not to
say that the possibility of formation damage from the drilling fluid is completely
removed. In some circumstances, chemical potential differences between drilling
and pore fluids could cause filtrate to enter the formation against the pressure
gradient. Also, there are instances in which a well, that is drilled nominally
underbalanced, experiences transient overbalanced conditions, due to less than
perfect control of circulating pressures or possibly due to fluid inflow while the
well is not being circulated. In any case, there are many examples of wells drilled
underbalanced with higher productivity than adjacent wells drilled conventionally.
10
FIGURE 7: SOLID INVASION INTO A HOMOGENOUS PORE SYSTEM
FIGURE 8: MECHANISM OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ENTRAINMENT
11
FIGURE 9: M ECHANISM OF SLOIDS ENTRAINMENT IN FRACTURES
6-Reduced probability of differential sticking.

In a well drilled conventionally, a filter cake forms on the borehole wall from solids
deposited when liquid flows from the drilling mud into permeable zones, due to
an overbalance pressure. If the drill string becomes embedded in the filter cake,
the pressure differential between the wellbore, And the fluid in the filter cake can
act over such a large area that the axial force required moving the string can
exceed its tensile capacity. The drill string is then differentially stuck. There will
be no filter cake and no pressure acting to "clamp" the drill string if the well is
underbalanced. Other mechanisms can cause sticking; underbalanced drilling
does not eliminate the possibility of a stuck drill string.
FIGURE 10: DIFFERENTIAL STUCK PROBLEM
7-Earlier production:
When a well is drilled underbalanced, formation fluids flow into the wellbore from
any permeable formation in the open hole section. Penetrating any hydrocarbon
bearing formation with adequate drive and permeability will result in an increased
hydrocarbon cut in the drilling fluid returning to the surface. With adequate mud
logging and drilling records, underbalanced drilling can indicate potentially
productive zones, as the well is drilled. Conversely, during conventional drilling,
the overbalance pressure prevents formation inflows; hydrocarbon-bearing zones
have to be identified from cuttings, core analysis, logging or DSTs.
8-Environmental benefits.
There can be environmental benefits associated with properly managed,
underbalanced drilling operations. These depend on the exact drilling technique
adopted. With dry, gaseous drilling fluids there is no potentially damaging liquid
drilling mud to dispose of after drilling is completed. The chemical used in mist
and foam drilling are often benign and biodegradable surfactants that do not pose
significant environmental concerns.
12
9-Less need for stimulation:

Following conventional drilling operations, wells are often stimulated to increase
their productivity. Stimulation include acidizing or surfactant treatment!, to remove
formation damage; or hydraulic fracturing can be used to guarantee adequate
production in low permeability reservoirs or to bypass damage in higher
permeability formations. Reduced formation damage means lower stimulation costs.
Therefore: If the formation is not damaged during drilling and completion,
stimulation to remove the damage will not be needed.
Disadvantages of under balanced drilling:

1-Increased Operational Complexity
space requirements for additional equipment

requires dedicated, knowledgeable personnel
capable of providing onsite coordination of all services
rig crews may be unfamiliar with underbalanced drilling procedures
2-Conventional Mud Pulse MWD is Ineffective when compressible

Fluids are used
The alternative electromagnetic MWD data transfer is generally more

expensive and tool availability may be limited.
Wire line wet-connect steering tool result in slower connections and

increased operational complexity.
3-Poorly Managed Multiphase Flow Regimes can Create Drilling

Problems:
Insufficient cuttings removal from the wellbore.

Motor can over-speed.
Excessive down hole motor stalling due to low effective fluid injection
rates.
Incorrect fluid mix can create in stationary drilling conditions and

destructive vibrations.
4. Increased Daily Costs Due to Additional Equipment and

Personnel
13
TABLE 1: UBD ADVANTAGES VS DISADVANTAGES
Advantages
Disadvantages
Decreased formation damage
Possible wellbore stability problems
Eliminate risk of differential sticking
Increased daily costs

Generally higher risk with more inherent
Reduce risk of loss circulation

Problems
Increased ROP
More complex tripping operations
Improved bit life
Possible increased torque and drag
Reservoir Characterization
More complex drilling system

More people required
14
Important limitation for underbalanced drilling
15
Wellbore stability issues. Deep, high pressure, highly permeable wells

can be problematic due to flow control & safety issues.
Excessive formation water.
High producing zones close to the beginning of the well trajectory will
adversely affect the underbalanced conditions along the borehole.
Not following established design guidelines.
Wells that require hydrostatic fluid or pressure to kill the well during
certain drilling or completion operations.
Slim hole wells with high annulus friction pressures.
Wells that contain significant pressure or lithology variations.
Operators interfering with the UBD experts.
Increased complexity and HSE issues on H2S wells.
Handling and disposal of produced fluids.
Flaring of produced gas.
Erosion and corrosion issues and risks.
Wellbore consolidation.
Increased drilling costs (depending on system used).
Compatibility with conventional MWD systems.
Spontaneous counter current imbibition effects.
Gravity drainage in horizontal wells.
Possible near wellbore mechanical damage.
Discontinuous underbalanced conditions.
Generally higher risk with more inherent problems.
String weight is increased due to reduced buoyancy.
Possible excessive borehole erosion.
Possible increased torque and drag.
How to drill underbalance- type of units?

1. Snubbing systems
If tripping is to be conducted underbalanced without a down hole deployment
valve, a snubbing system will have to be installed on top of the rotating control
head system. The current snubbing systems used in underbalanced drilling are
called rig assist snubbing systems. These units need the rig draw works to pull
and run pipe and are designed to deal only with pipe light situations.
A jack with a 10ft stroke is used to push pipe into the hole or to trip pipe out of
the hole. The ability to install a snubbing system below the rig floor allows the rig
floor to be used in the conventional drilling way.
Snubbing with an onshore rig where there is no space under the rig floor to
install a snubbing unit will have to be conducted on the rig floor. In order to
facilitate snubbing, so called push-pull units are installed on the rig floor
FIGURE 11: WELL CONTROL EQUIPMENT FOR SNUBBING
16
Snubbing unit offers better flow capacity, breaking load and rotation capacity and it
is also able to put weight on the downhole tool.
Tripping takes longer because the lengths of pipe have to be screwed together.
Operating this type of unit requires specialized personnel usually consisting of a
head of unit and three or four people per shift
Diameter of the snubbing pipe, usually at least 3 1/2" and sometimes up to
7 5/8" are possible.
Hoisting capacity in the strip phase 340,000 lb
In the snub phase capacity is usually half that of the strip phase due to jack
design.
Circulate at a higher flow rate.
Clean out hard fill and scale that require weight on the tool and rotation.
Spot cement plugs.
Perform some fishing jobs.
17
FIGURE 12: SCHEMATIC SNUBBING LAYOUT
2. Coiled tubing unit

Although coil tubing drilling (CTD) is still considered to be in the early stages
of development, CT has been in use for underbalanced well interventions and
work overs since the 1970s. However, as Figure 19 illustrates, todays CTD
rig with its specially designed mast can be used in any area and in all types of
conditions. In addition to the potential for reduced environmental impact, the
lack of pipe connections in coiled tubing gives it many advantages over
Jointed pipe UBD:
There are no bottom-hole pressure fluctuations due to connections.
Personnel are not required to work directly above the well bore.
The ability to transmit continuous data with the use of electric line
inside the coil.
Continuous injection of gas through the drill string (CT).
Underbalanced tripping is relatively routine and much faster than
with jointed pipe.
Disadvantages of coiled tubing are:
The inability to rotate the string.
Limited pulling or pushing power (surface equipment limitations).
Limited coil life due to fatigue cycles (bending / straightening).
Depth control limitations (depends on equipment selected).
Limitations in reach and hole size (3 6).
Logistical limitations relative to the coil (especially critical offshore).
3-Conventional rig
Two of the advantages of using a conventional rig are its significant mechanical
strength (generally limited by pipe strength) and the capability to rotate the string.
This makes the rig capable of handling operational problems like stuck pipe
(mechanically stuck rather than differentially stuck) and drilling larger hole sizes:
6 8. In addition, only the reservoir section is usually drilled underbalanced.
Therefore, if a conventional rig is used to drill to the top of the reservoir, it is often
cost-effective to continue with jointed pipe operations in UBD mode in the
reservoir.
18
One of the main disadvantages of using conventional rig / jointed pipe in UBD mode
is the fact that fluid circulation has to be interrupted while making connections. This
may lead to undesirable down-hole pressure fluctuations.
On many of the wells using underbalanced techniques there will be a point where a
pipe light situation will exist. This occurs where the forces inside the well-bore
acting to push the string out, is greater than the forces tending to keep it in the well
bore (p primarily the weight of the string .In a UBD operation, designing a downhole lubricator into the casing or completion string can be used to the same effect;
by installing a full-opening valve down-hole at a depth where the force due to the
weight of the string is greater than the forces acting to push the string out. The drill
pipe is stripped out (or run in) to just above the valve. The well can then be shut in
at this depth to allow tripping out (or stripping in) to continue in a normal or
conventional manner. To prevent impairment of the reservoir, the well bore below
the down-hole valve must contain only reservoir-induced fluids (no drill fluid) prior to
shutting in.
FIGURE 13:D OWN - HOLE DEPLOYMENT VALVE
19
References
Bieseman, T.,
RKER.95.071
Emeh, V., 'An introduction to Underbalanced Drilling',
Bourgoyne Jr., AT., et al 'Applied Drilling Engineering' SPE Textbook

Series 1986, ISBN 1-55563-001-4
Stone, C.R. and Cress, L.A.: New Applications for Underbalanced
Drilling Equipment, paper SPE 37679, manuscript under review (1997).
20
21
Underbalanced drilling techniques
This chapter provides detailed descriptions of the different techniques

of underbalanced drilling. The major function of the circulating drilling
fluid in underbalanced drilling is to lift cuttings from the hole. This
aspect of each technique is considered in some detail. Methods for
analyzing hole cleaning and circulating pressures are reviewed. In each
case, the required equipment is described. Any special operating
procedures that may have to be adopted are described, as are any
limitations.
Contents:
Gaseous Drilling Fluids
Mist Drilling
Foam drilling
Underbalanced Drilling techniques
For Underbalanced Drilling operation
Gasified or aerated Systems

Gasification techniques
22
Gaseous Drilling Fluids

This section will refer to the compressed gas phase as air since it is the most
economical and widely used gas in reduced pressure drilling. However, other
gases may be substituted in each of the systems discussed; Specifics to natural
gas, nitrogen or exhaust gas being used are discussed separately .
Characteristics of gaseous drilling:
Fast penetration rates

Longer bit life
Greater footage per bit
Good cement jobs
Better production
Requires minimal water influx
Slugging can occur
Mud rings can occur in the presence of fluid ingress
Relies on annular velocity to remove cuttings from the well
Problems of gaseous drilling:
Maximum Water influx.

Washouts of tool joints.
Corrosion and erosion problems.
Downhole fires with air.
Inefficient in Crooked hole.
23
FIGURE 1: GASEOUS DRILLING TECHNIQUES
1. Air Drilling
Air is about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen and contains carbon dioxide,
water vapor and trace of rare gases. Air is the least expensive of gases because
it is only need to be compressed by using compressors to be used in drilling.
1.1.
Drilling technique
The "dust" technique is used when

drilling dry formations, or where any
water influx is slight enough to be
absorbed by the air stream.
The temperature of the air injected
into the hole should be slightly
higher than the temperature at
ambient conditions.
As the air travels down the drill
string the air is heated to that of the
surrounding formation.
When the air passes through the jet
nozzles, the air expands and the
velocity increases to supersonic
flow .This causes the temperature to
decrease and cool the bit and the bit
FIGURE 2: AIR (DUST) OUT-LINE
bearings.
As the air travels up the annulus,
the air is then reheated to the temperature of the surrounding
formation. This medium requires significant compressed gas volumes
to clean the well with average velocities of over 3,000 ft per minute.
Drilling with air, nitrogen enriched air, natural gas, liquid nitrogen or other gas
often called dusting since no fluid (Water / Soap) injection means the annular
returns are Dust. It provide a minimum hydrostatic pressure Bottomhole
circulating pressures may be less than 60 psia (400 kPa) at 8000 Ft. (2500
meters) and a maximum rate of penetration.
Important notes should be considered in Air drilling:

Since the air has no structural properties to produce transport
characteristics, removal of cuttings is dependent on the annular velocity of
the air. Annular velocities in excess of 1000[m/min] or 3000[ft/min] are
typically employed for cuttings transport.
24
Drilling with dry air systems is restricted by water producing formations,

unstable wellbores and high formation pressures. When water saturated
formations are encountered, the wet drill cuttings stick together and to the
pipe walls and will not be carried from the hole by the air velocity. When
these cuttings fill the annulus a mud ring will form which stops the flow of
air and the pipe will stick.
T ABLE 1: DUST DRILLING ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS
Dust Drilling Limitations
Wellbore fluid influxes

cannot be handled
effectively with Dust drilling
Influxes will wet cuttings
resulting in mud rings in the
annulus, restricting hole
cleaning.
Switching to Mist or Foam
allows continued Air Drilling
in the presence of water.
Chance of Down-Hole Fire
if Mud Rings are not
eliminated
The problem of down hole
fires normally only occur
with air drilling where the
air is more than 90% of the
fluid/air volume.
Compression costs with air
are US$300/day or more
with significant mobilization
and demobilization costs
25
Corrosion problems is
obtained than any other
technique due to the
presence of 21% of oxygen
Advantages of Dust Drilling System

Optimum environment for use
with Air Hammers
Least Expensive operations
No fluid system to clean up or

disposal at the surface
Maximum Penetration Rates.
Extended bit life.
1.2.
Unloading and Drying the Hole
1. Run the drill string, complete with desired drilling bottom hole assembly and
bit, to bottom.
2. Start mud pump and run as slow as possible. Pump fluid at a rate of 1
to 2 barrels per minute. This may necessitate crippling the pump to get
this rate. This is done to reduce fluid friction pressures to a minimum
and pump at a minimum standpipe pressure for circulation. Standard fluid
hydraulic calculations will indicate what the standpipe pressure should be at
1 to 2 BPM.
3. Bring one compressor and booster on line. This will aerate the fluid being
pumped down the ho1e. About 100 to 150 SCFM per barrel of fluid should
be sufficient for aeration. If too much air volume is being used, the
standpipe pressure will exceed the pressure rating of the compressor and/or
booster. Therefore, slow the compressor down until air is being injected and
mixed with the fluid going down hole. Also, the mist pump and soap injection
pump should be injecting water and soap at a rate of about 12 bbl/hr and
3gal/hr, respectively. The soap will tie the fluid and air together and provide
better aeration properties.
4. As the annular fluid column is lightened, the standpipe pressure will drop
and additional compressors or air volume can be added to further lighten
the fluid column and unload the hole. The aeration procedure is far
superior when compared to the slug method of unloading the hole. The
slug method is accomplished by pumping alternate slugs of water and air
down the hole until air can be used continuously. Air is first injected up to an
arbitrary maximum pressure, then water is injected to lower the pressure
back to some arbitrary minimum pressure. This procedure is repeated until
air can be injected continuously. The aeration procedure requires less time,
does not because undue surging of the hole due to heading, does not cut
out pit walls because surges are eliminated and can be done generally at
lower operating pressures.
5. When the hole is unloaded, the mist pump and soap injection pump should
remain in operation. This provides a mist (1.5 BW/hr. per inch of hole
diameter and 0.5 to 4 gal. soap/hr) which can clean the hole of sloughing
formations.
6. At this point drilling, using air mist can commence. Drill 20 to 100 feet to
allow any sloughing hole to be cleaned up.
The method, proven in actual field operations to unload the hole of fluid, dry the
hole and start air dust drilling is given below:
26
7. After the hole has stabilized (no sloughing), stop drilling and blow the hole
with air mist to clean the hole of drill cuttings. About 15 to 20 minutes is
sufficient or until the air mist is clean. Clean air mist is usually a fine spray
and white in color.
8. When the hole is clean, stop air misting, break off the Kelly and pour 10 to
20 gallons of soap followed by 20 to 4 barrels of water directly down the drill
pipe. Do not mix soap and water in mist pump and inject it that way. Pouring
the soap and water directly down the drill pipe has proven to be a better
procedure and gives a better soap slug and a greater drying effect.
9. Put the Kelly back on and set the bit on bottom. Since the hole is now full of
air, the soap and water will run to bottom. A proper soap sweep cannot be
achieved unless it is mixed with air and pumped up the annulus. This cannot
be done if the drill bit is above the soap and water.
10. With the bit directly on bottom, start air down the hole. Pump straight air at
normal drilling volumes until the soap sweep comes to the surface. The
soap will appear at the end of the blooie line and look like shaving cream.
11. Continue to blow the hole with air for about 0.5 to 1 hour.
12. Start drilling and the hole should dust after 5 to 10 feet have been drilled.
Sometimes as much as 60 to 90 feet are required for dust to appear at the
surface.
2.Natural Gas Drilling
If a source of high-pressure natural gas at the correct volumes is available,
drilling with natural gas is a very good option. The use of air hammers with gas
drilling is another option that can be used to increase ROP. This is an option
used in tight gas reservoirs.
A flow regulator and a pressure regulator are

normally used to control the amount of gas
injected during the drilling process. Natural
gas is also non-toxic and non-corrosive if
sweetened correctly. Natural gas has
greater solubility in hydrocarbons when
compared to nitrogen, which may result in
the potential for greater disengagement
problems and asphalting precipitation.
27
FIGURE 3: UBD LOCATION WITH
N ATURAL G AS
The most efficient use of natural gas is normally through annular injection. The
use of natural gas through the drillstring is not recommended, as gas will have to
be vented every time a connection needs to be made although this can be done
safely. The use of natural gas injection through a coiled tubing system is also not
recommended, as a pinhole in the coil could not be isolated and gas maybe
released to form an explosive mixture inside the wraps of the coiled tubing reel.
3.Nitrogen drilling
a. Cryogenic Nitrogen
Nitrogen is by far the most common gas that is currently being used to lighten
the circulating fluid column in underbalanced drilling operations.
Properties of Nitrogen are listed below;

Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas that makes up four
fifths of the earths atmosphere.
Nitrogen is non-toxic, non-flammable and noncorrosive.
It has very low solubility in water and hydrocarbons, and is compatible
with virtually any fluid used in drilling operations.
Nitrogen does not tend to form hydrate complexes or emulsions.
Nitrogen forms a major part of our atmosphere in the fact that the
atmosphere comprises of: 78.03 % Nitrogen.
Using natural gas will prevent the formation of a flammable gas mixture
downhole when a hydrocarbon producing zone is penetrated. This inherently
higher potential for surface fires requires few changes in operating procedures
from those used in dry air drilling.
Cryogenic nitrogen definition

Cryogenic nitrogen is frozen liquid nitrogen. It is the byproduct of oxygen
manufacture where air is compressed and cooled and then compressed again
until the nitrogen appears as a clear liquid at -320F (-160C). A gallon of liquid
nitrogen produces 93.12 scf of gas. One Liter of liquid nitrogen produces 0.698
sm3 of gas. The nitrogen produced is 99.9 percent pure and contains no
oxygen. The field of science that deals with the technology of handling liquids
colder than -187F is called cryogenics
28
Cryogenic nitrogen production

Cryogenic nitrogen is produced by extraction from the air through fractional
distillation. In this process the air is liquefied and the liquid is then separated
though the following factors;
Liquid air boils at -317F
Liquid nitrogen boils at -320F
Liquid oxygen boils at -297F.
Oxygen starts to evaporate leaving Nitrogen rich liquid. By repeating the boiling
and condensing processes high purity of liquid nitrogen up to 99.98 % can be
obtained.
29
Procedure for Converting from Liquid Volume into gas volume.
1 gallon liquid nitrogen produces 93.12 ft3 of N2 at SCP.

1 m3 of N2 liquid produces 698 m3 of gas at SCP.
1 gal of liquid nitrogen is 93.12 ft3 at STC.
1 gal of liquid nitrogen is 0.1333 ft3.
1 liter of liquid nitrogen is 698 litres of gas at STC.
Cost of cryogenic nitrogen
World-wide is 1-3 US $/gal or 0.10 US $/scf.

In Canada is 0.02 US $/scf.
In South America is 1.00 US $/m3.
FIGURE 4: C RYOGENIC NITROGEN -PUMPING EQUIPMENT
3.2 Membrane Nitrogen

Nitrogen gas is generated by introducing compressed air into hollow membrane
fibers, which preferentially separate oxygen and other rich gases from the air
leaving high purity nitrogen at around 95%. The remaining 5% is normally
oxygen.
Membrane process procedure in field use
Each membrane looks similar to white horsehair. Thousands of membranes are

placed inside a stainless steel operating bundle, or canister, about 14 in. (35 cm)
in diameter and 5 ft (1.5 m) long. A number of the bundles are paralleled together
to make a nitrogen unit. Warm, filtered air is pumped into the bundles at 350 psi
(2,400 kPa) and is recovered as nitrogen at the discharge end at 300 psi (2,000
kPa). The efficiency of the system is about 50 percent, so only about half of the
input volume of air is recovered as nitrogen.
The nitrogen is then pressured with an air compressor booster and sent to the
rig system
The membrane is a small, long, and hollow straw. Air is fed into one end of each
membrane straw. Oxygen and water vapor quickly penetrate the membrane and
escape, which leaves only nitrogen to exit from the end of the membrane.
FIGURE 5: CRYOGENIC NITROGEN
30
Nitrogen Production (NPU) Equipment Configuration

The NPU receives compressed air from one or more primary compressors at
pressures ranging from 100 to 350 psig. The product nitrogen is pumped, with
about a 20-40 psig pressure drop, to the suction of a booster compressor where
its pressure is increased to that required for injection into the drillstring.
NPUs have three major components: an air filtration system, an array of air
separation modules, and a control panel.
The air filtration system usually consists of a scrubber, coalescing filler,
and a particulate filter. Some NPUs also include an activated carbon bed
filter and possibly a refrigerated air dryer. The activated carbon bed filter
removes aerosol-sized and smaller oil droplets down to a concentration of
a few parts per billion. The refrigerated air dryer reduces the relative
humidity into the carbon bed to improve oil droplet filtration.
The arrays of hollow fiber modules are manifold together to accept the
clean compressed air feed and to collect and deliver the nitrogen product.
The oxygen and water vapor permeate stream is also collected from each
membrane module and piped at near atmospheric pressure to the outside
of the NPU skid, where it can quickly and harmlessly dissipate into the
atmosphere.
The control panel on the NPU allows monitoring and control of the
operation. Control panel design and function vary greatly depending on
the manufacturer. Some panels measure flow rates, temperatures, purity,
and pressure drops across the NPU precisely, yet others only provide
simple output of flow rate and nitrogen purity.
FIGURE 6: N ITROGEN GENERATING UNIT (NGU)
31
2. Exhaust Gas
A potentially very attractive source of gas is the waste gas stream from selfcontained propane units or diesel fired rig engines themselves. However, when
using diesel fired engines, the combustion process is relatively inefficient and the
flue gas can contain 10 - 15% oxygen plus corrosive gases such as CO2 and
NO2 which may react adversely with produced hydrocarbons, thus accelerating
the corrosion process.
FIGURE 7: FLOW PATH OF PROPANE EXHAUST GAS
Exhaust gas is a unique method of taking the oxygen out of air and using the
process to run compressors, By using a diesel engine to run the compressors
and produce the exhaust gas, which is high in nitrogen, the cost of gas
compression is shared with the cost of producing nitrogen, which makes both
less expensive
Hole cleaning in gaseous drilling

Optimizing hydraulics with gasses is primarily concerned with hole cleaning getting the cuttings that are generated by the bit out of the hole. With gas,
rheological properties have very little to do with hole cleaning. Hole cleaning with
gasses is almost entirely dependent on the annular velocity.
Drag and gravitational force: The lifting power of an air drilling system is
proportional to the circulating density, and to the square of the velocity. The
density, and thus the suspension properties, of an air stream is much lower than
a conventional mud system. Therefore, the annular velocity is the primary factor
in transporting the cuttings to the surface.
32
VIP notes
Compressibility of air (or gas) complicates matters.

Frictional pressure increases downhole pressure - decreases
velocity downhole.
Suspended cuttings increase the density of the air, increasing
downhole pressure.
Temperature has an effect on volumetric flow rate.
We must pump at a velocity high enough to remove the cuttings,
but not too high where we waste energy.
Hole Cleaning Criteria: there are major three properties controls the hole
cleaning criteria
Terminal Velocity Criteria.
Minimum Energy Criteria.
Minimum BHP Criteria.
Erosion of gaseous drilling

A high annular velocity may cause erosion in soft formations. If the use of an air
drilling technique causes erosion of the well-bore, the addition of a stabilizing
agent or changing air drilling techniques may be required to minimize this
problem.
Erosion of the drill string can also be caused by the high annular velocities and
temperatures generated when steam zones are encountered. Some people
estimate that the velocity may exceed 10,000 ft/min in the annulus. The injection
of barrier type chemicals will inhibit this type off erosion
Corrosion of gaseous drilling

Corrosion should be considered before beginning the use of an air drilling
technique. When drilling through formations with acid contamination (CO 2 and
H2S), the problem could be a lot worse. Mixtures or hydrogen peroxide (H 2O2)
and caustic soda (NaOH) can be used to solubilize and precipitate the H 2S
contamination at the surface. An organic, phosphate, scale inhibitor can prevent
the deposition of alkaline earth metal scale on the drill string.
33
FIGURE 8: DUSTING BLOOIE LINE
Mist Drilling
This produces an air continuous system, with the water mist being carried in the
air. Foaming agent concentrations in the water typically range from 0.10% to
0.25% by volume in the water. The foaming agent reduces the interfacial tension
of the water and drill cuttings in the hole and allows small water/drill cutting
droplets to be dispersed as a fine mist in the returning air stream. This allows the
cuttings and water to be removed from the hole without the Formation of mud
rings and bit balling.
The air mist drilling system provides comparable penetration and footage per bit
rates to dry gas drilling, with the added benefit of being able to handle wet
formations. Costs of air mist drilling are slightly higher than those encountered
with dry gas drilling since foaming agent and corrosion inhibitor are needed.
When should you use mist drilling?

Mist Drilling is normally used when formations begin to produce small
amounts of water (10 to 100 bbls per hour) during air/gas drilling
operations.
Mist drilling should only use in special applications since hole cleaning is
even more difficult with mist drilling system when compared with air
drilling.
Mist drilling is a modification of dry air drilling that is utilized when water
producing zones are encountered. Like dry air drilling, this system relies on the
annular velocity of the air for cuttings transport out of the hole. In mist drilling, a
small quantity of water containing foaming agent is injected into the gas stream at
the surface.
FIGURE 9: MIST DRILLING OPERATION
34
CHARACTERISTICS OF MIST-DRILLING
Air is the continuous phase and the liquid consists of discontinuous
droplets
Similar to air drilling but with addition of liquid
Relies on annular velocity to remove cuttings from the well
Reduces formation of mud rings
High volumes required (30%-40% more than dry air drilling)
Fluid or foam injection rates less than30 [bbl/min] or 100[l/min].
Liquid volume fraction LVF < 0.025
Pressures generally higher than dry air drilling
Incorrect air/gas-liquid ratio leads to slugging, with attendant pressure
Increase.
Can perform simplified calculations by including water mist as drill cuttings
and modify the ROP to account for the equivalent weight being lifted.
The mist particles travel at a slightly different velocity than the air because
of slip.
Advantages of Mist Drilling

Gas or air volumes are increased and a mist pump skid is used to inject small
quantities of water and a foaming agent solution. This solution entraps the
water Influx and enables the air phase to lift the cuttings and influx to surface.
Higher ROP than with conventional mud
Enables drilling to proceed while producing fluids.
Improves Hole Cleaning capacity
Reduces risk of downhole fires.
Eliminates need for Nitrogen
Mist Drilling Limitations
Slower penetration rate than Dust drilling due to increased annular
hydrostatic pressure.
ROP = 30 50% less than Dusting
Limited tolerance to water influx
High amounts of Water influx typically make Mist Drilling uneconomical.
When large liquid influxes are encountered; options :
Hole Cleaning of mist drilling
35
Switching to a mist drilling technique requires an increase of at least

30% in the air volume.
The additional volume is needed to overcome higher frictional losses

caused by: wet cuttings adhering to the drill string and hole, higher slip
velocities of larger wet cuttings, and transportation of the heavier wet
air column.
The mud is injected with the air stream to disperse the cuttings and
inhibit them from adhering to the drill string and hole.
Although injection pressure of 100 to 200 psig are normally enough for
dust drilling, pressures exceeding 350 psig can be encountered while
mist drilling.
The rate of fluid intrusion will dictate the amount of air and fluid that
must be injected to efficiently clean the hole.
Formation fluid entries of up to 100 bbl/hr have been successfully
mist drilled
Corrosion Control
Chemical treatment is needed to minimize corrosion caused by the
additional fluid and air.
Basic corrosion control is provided by maintaining the pH of the mud
system above 10.5, and treating any hardness or carbonates with the
appropriate chemical.
Hydrogen sulfide and carbonate scale are treated in much the same
way as in a conventional mud system.
Pressures of 1250 psig. may be required when large amounts of fluids

are present in the annulus.
Corrosion coupons should be run in the saver and crossover sub to

monitor the type and rate of corrosion.
If H2S is encountered, the first line of protection is to maintain the pH
at or above 11.
36
Foam Drilling
Foam is like shaving cream, not like soap suds. Very dry foam will persist for
many hours like the one in this reserve pit. Foam is dry because all the water is
bound up. In wet foam more water is flee like in soap suds.
37
FIGURE 10:F OAM IS R ELATIVELY N EW FLUID TO T HE DRILLING INDUSTRY .
.
If more liquid and a surfactant are added to the fluid, stable foam is generated.
Stable foam used for drilling has a texture not unlike shaving foam. It is a
particularly good drilling fluid with a high carrying capacity and a low density. One
of the problems encountered with the conventional foam systems is that stable
foam is as it sounds. The foam remains stable even when it returns to the surface
and this can cause problems on a rig if the foam cannot be broken down fast
enough. In the old foam systems, the amount of defoamer had to be tested
carefully so that the foam was broken down before any fluid left the separators. In
closed circulation drilling systems stable foam could cause particular problems
with carry over. The recently developed stable foam systems are simpler to break
and the liquid can also be re-foamed so that less foaming agent is required and a
closed circulation system can be used. These systems, in general, rely on either
a chemical method, of breaking and making the foam or the utilization of an
increase and decrease of pH, to make and break the foam.
The foam quality
Drilling with foam has some appeal due to the fact that foam has some attractive
qualities and properties with respect to the very low hydrostatic densities, which
can be generated with foam systems. Foam has good rheology and excellent
cutting transport properties.
The fact that foam has some natural inherent viscosity as well as fluid loss
control properties, which may inhibit fluid losses, makes foam a very attractive
drilling medium. During connections and trips, the foam remains stable and
provides a more stable bottom hole pressure.
Gas phase percent by volume Expressed as %, whole number or Decimal
equivalent (e.g. 75, 75%, or 0.75)
0-55%
Aerated Fluid
55%-94%
Foam
94%-99.9%
Mist
100%
Gas/Air
The amount of gas in the fluid at any point, measured by volume, can be
expressed as foam quality or as fluid ratio. Ratio R (% by volume of gas) is the
ratio of gas to liquid unit under existing conditions of pressure and temperature. A
good rule of thumb for a gasified fluid is to try to maintain the ratio through the
system at 5:1 to 40:1 (i.e., 80 %< foam quality < 97.5 %).
Factors Effecting Foam Quality Pressure.
Depth.
Gas content.
Liquid content.
Maintaining Foam Quality
Gas and liquid injection rates.
Back-pressure on the system.
Measurement.
Calculation (computer models).
38
Adding surfactant to a fluid and mixing the fluid system with a gas generates
foam.
Foam used for drilling has a texture not unlike shaving foam. It is a particularly
good drilling fluid with a high carrying capacity and a low density. One of the
problems encountered with the conventional foam systems is that foam does
what it says on the tin. It remains stable.
Characteristics of foam-drilling
Extra fluid in the system reduces the influence of formation water

Very high carrying capacity
Reduced pump rates due to improved cuttings transport
Stable foam reduces slugging tendencies of the wellbore
The stable foam can withstand limited circulation stoppages without
affecting the cuttings removal or ECD to any significant degree
Improved surface control and more stable downhole environment
The breaking down of the foam at surface needs to be addressed at
the design stage
More increased surface equipment required
TABLE 2: VOLUME PERCENT BETWEEN MIST , FOAM AND AIRATED LIQUEDS
Gas volume percentage
Name
99.99 96%
Mist
96% - 55%
Foam
0 55%
Gasified Liquid
Guidelines for Foam Drilling
39
Liquid injection volume
16 80 gpm
Soap injection volume
0.3 to 1.0% by weight 0.05 0.5 gpm
Gas injection volume
300 1000 scft/min
The Pattern of Foam

Classic foam has a regular geometric shape -that of a 12 sided polygon because
it is the most efficient shape. In a plane two dimensional view, this would be
hexagons. Once the foam is in motion, the figures are distorted by friction.
Classic static foam pattern on the left.
Foam in flow probably looks more like the one on the right.
FIGURE 11: DIFFERENT FLOW PATTERN
FOAM
GASEATION
Emulsion.
Mixture.
Hard to Separate
Separates easily.
NO Pressure Surges.
Heading and pressure surges.
Huge lifting capacity.
Normal lifting capacity.
Plugs lost circulation and reduces

head.
Reduces lost circulation by reducing

head.
Advantages of Foam Drilling

Foam has excellent cuttings carrying capacity.
Lower Air Volume requirements can mean less Air Compression
equipment required than Dust or Mist drilling.
40
During connections (break in circulation) the cuttings will remain

suspended in the annulus.
Holding Back Pressure on Annulus can help reduce water influx and/or
maintain hole wall stability
Higher viscosity aids hole cleaning with lower annular velocity
At the bottom, annular velocities are designed for 100 to 300 feet per
minute (double that for directional wells above 30 0)
Penetration rate is still significantly higher than with mud but not as high as
with air .
The higher annular pressures may help reduce mechanical wellbore
instability and reduce production rates
Lower annular velocities may reduce erosion of the borehole wall and drill
string
No damage to formation
Continuous Drill Stem test
Controllable BHP
No lost circulation
No differential sticking.
Best for large holes
The Main Reasons for UB Drilling with Foam
1. Stops lost circulation.
2. Improve drilling rate.
3. Protects the reservoir.
4. Avoid differential sticking.
5. Hole cleaning with low fluid volume.
Lost Circulation with Foam
Reduced the mud density no junk.
Foam plugs lost zones.
The Foam bubbles are lost zone plugging agents
Improve Drilling Rate
Low bottom hole pressure increases drilling rate.
For hard rock, the new air hammer works with foam.
Protect Reservoir
41
No formation damage with no influx into the well bore.

Minimal pressure surges.
Controllable pressures.
Limitations for Foam Drilling
Need to pay attention to corrosion inhibitors

Temperature will significantly affect the effectiveness of corrosion
inhibitors.
Large quantities of foam can accumulate at the surface while drilling
Foam is a complicated system and requires computer modeling in order to
properly design the foam in the wellbore
As the quality of the foam decreases, the viscosity of the foam will
decrease
Foam quality changes with pressure and is not a constant in the wellbore
As the pressure increases, the foam quality decreases
Theoretical Foam Types
Stable Foam: 1-2% Surfactant.

Stiff Foam: 1% Surfactant
Surface requirements (pits) for Foam can become a problem.

Large pits have to be built to contain the Foam and allow time for settling.
Chemical cost to break down Foam can become expensive.
Large influx of Fluids can break down Foam and thus reduce hole
cleaning.
Foam is a very corrosive environment
General Foam Types

Stable foam
Foaming agent
Stiff
Polymer
Stiff foam
Foam
Polymer
Bentonite
pH sensitive foam (amphoteric)
Transform
PH
Sensitive
Stable
FIGURE 12: FOAM TYPES
42
Gasified or aerated Systems

The next system after a foam system is a gasified fluid system, which is used to
control slightly higher pressures. In these systems, a liquid is gasified to reduce
the density.
Characteristics of gasified-mud systems
43
Gasified liquids are often called aerated fluids

Extra fluid in the system will almost eliminate the influence of formation
fluid Unless incompatibilities Occur
The mud properties can easily be identified prior to commencing the
operation
Generally, less gas is required
Slugging of the gas and fluid must be managed correctly
Increased surface equipment will be required to store & clean the base
fluid
Velocities, especially at surface, will be lower, reducing wear & erosion
both downhole and to the surface equipment.
Effective densities of gasified liquids usually range from 4 to 7 ppg
Used primarily to avoid or minimize lost circulation
The increased ROP will generally not pay for the increased cost
Also used today to drill underbalanced and minimize formation damage in
horizontal wells
Underbalanced is usually on the order of 250 to 500 psi
Less problem with mechanical wellbore stability
Reduces formation fluid inflow rates
Can be used to drill unconsolidated formations
If a foam system is too light for the well, a gasified system can be used. In these.
Systems, liquid is gasified to reduce the density. There are a number of methods
that can be used to gasify a liquid system and these methods are discussed
within the injection systems section. The use of gas and liquid, as a circulation
system in a well, complicates the hydraulics program. The ratio of gas and liquid
must be carefully calculated to ensure that a stable circulation system is used. If
too much gas is used, slugging will occur. If not enough gas is used, the required
bottom hole pressure will be exceeded and the well will become overbalanced
The injection of air into drilling mud creates bubbles in the mud and, because of
the surface tension properties of the bubbles relative to the properties of rock and
drilling mud, the bubbles tend to fill in the fracture or pore openings in the
borehole wall as the aerated mud attempts to flow to the thief fractures and pores
his bubble blockage restricts the flow of the drilling mud into these lost circulation
sections and thereby allows the drilling operations to progress safely. Aerated
fluids have been used to avoid lost circulation in shallow water well drilling,
geotechnical drilling, mining drilling, and in deep oil and natural gas recovery
drilling operations.
When drilling with aerated fluid systems it should be realized that these are the
most corrosive of all reduced pressure drilling methods. However, with proper
selection of supply water, proper pH control and the proper utilization of
technologically advanced corrosion inhibitors, aerated fluid systems are
successfully used worldwide.
Aerated fluids are well suited for highly unstable formations where loss of
circulation is a concern. Aerated fluids also provide the greatest tolerance to fluid
influx of any reduced pressure drilling system.
Any liquid with injected air, N2, natural gas, or CO2

Liquid is the continuous phase since liquid volume fraction (LVF) > 0.25 at
surface
The gas is compressed at the bottom of the hole and expands as it goes up. It
may change the phase and convert into a mist if there is enough air and it is
allowed to expand. The only thing that holds the gas to the mud is mud viscosity,
the upward velocity of the mud and gas, and the size of the bubbles The
gaseated system is a mixture that will separate into gas and fluid
Gasification techniques
We can divide UBD techniques into four categories;
Drillpipe injection
Parasite string injection
Annular injection (through parasitic liner)
Jet-sub Application
Costs involved with aerated fluid drilling are primarily related to the composition
of the drilling fluid being utilized and corrosion inhibition.
44
FIGURE 13: DIFFERENT TECHNIQUES OF UBD
1. Drill pipe injection

Drill string injection is the first and simplest method of gas injection into the
circulation system. Compressed gas is injected at the standpipe manifold where
it mixes with the drilling fluid.
The main advantage of drill string injection is that no special downhole

equipment is required in the well. The use of reliable non-return valves is
required to prevent flow up the drill pipe. The gas rates used when drilling with
drill pipe injection system are normally lower than with annular gas lift, and low
bottom hole pressures can be achieved using this system.
45
The disadvantages of this system include the need to stop pumping and the
bleeding of any remaining trapped pressure in the drill string every time a
connection is made. This results in an increase in bottom hole pressure. It may
then be difficult to obtain a stable system and avoid pressure spikes at the
reservoir when using drill pipe injection. One alternative is to connect the MWD
back to surface using an electric cable. This technique has previously been used
very successfully with coiled tubing as the drill string. If drill pipe is to be used,
wet connects can be utilized; however, the additional time consumed using this
technique can be limiting.
FIGURE 14: DRILLPIPE INJECTION TECHNIQUE
2. Parasite string injection

The primary problem with aerated fluid systems is that they are unstable. In
foam, the foaming agent and other additives bind the gas-liquid mixture together.
In aerated systems, there is no agent binding the gas-liquid mixture together.
In worst case, there will be pressure surges during drilling and during
connections and trips. Pressure surges can destabilize the wellbore and cause
underbalanced drilling to periodically go overbalanced. During connections and
while tripping, aerated fluids will lose its gas and go flat.
The use of a small parasite string strapped to the outside of the casing for gas
injection is really only used in vertical wells. For redundancy reasons, two 1 or
2 coiled tubing strings are normally strapped to the casing string above the
reservoir as the casing is run in. Gas is pumped down the parasite string and
injected onto the drilling annulus. The installation of a production casing string
and the running of the two parasite strings makes this a complicated operation.
Wellhead modification is normally required to provide surface connections to the
parasite strings. This system is not recommended for deviated wells as the
parasite string is easily ripped off with the casing on the low side of the hole.
However, the principles of operation and the advantages of the system remain
the same as with annular injection.
There are techniques, such as adding more gas before connections, which help
reduce the ensuing pressure surge.
F IGURE 15: P ARASITE STRING INJECTION TECHNIQUE
46
3. Annular injection (Injection through Parasitic Liner)

Annular injection through a concentric casing string is most commonly used in a
number of offshore projects. This method is worthwhile if a suitable casing or
completion tubing scheme is installed in the well. For a new drill well, a liner
should be set just above the target formation. The liner is then tied back to
surface using a modified tubing hanger to suspend the tie back string.
Gas is injected in the casing liner annulus to facilitate the drawdown required
during the drilling operation. The tie back string is then pulled prior to installation
of the final completion. The alternative is for an older well to have a completion in
place incorporating gas lift mandrel pockets. These can be set up to provide the
correct bottom hole pressures during the drilling operation.
The drawback with this type of operation is that the hole size and tools required
are restricted by the minimum ID of the completion.
However, the main advantage of using an annulus to introduce gas into the
system is that gas injection can be continued during connections, thus, creating a
more stable bottom hole pressure.
As the gas is injected, via the annulus,
only a single-phase fluid is pumped
down the drillstring. This has the
advantage that conventional MWD
tools operate in their preferred
environment, which can have a
positive affect on the operational cost
of a project.
A parasitic liner or dual casing string

serves the same basic purpose as the
parasite
string.
If
gas
were
continuously injected during drilling
and connections without upsetting the
entire circulating system, it should be
possible to lighten the mud column
and limit pressure surges.
FIGURE 16: ANNULAR INJECTION TECHNIQUE
47
4. Jet-sub (bypass joint) Application

In areas of lost circulation, or to avoid major pressure surges on trips and
connections, a bypass in the drill string below the fluid level in the hole would
preferentially pass gas over fluid and start unloading the upper part of the hole.
An important problem when pumping everything down the drill pipe is that there
is a huge volume of non-aerated fluid in the hole. Using air and fluid to unload the
hole can cause a major pressure surge. In the case of lost circulation, it might
take 1000 bbl of mud lost before returns could be regained. Jet subs ease this
problem by unloading from up hole.
Figure 17: Jet-sub Applicatin
48
Flow drilling
The term flow drilling refers to drilling operations in which the well is allowed to
flow to surface while drilling.
All UBD operations are really flow drilling operations, but the term is usually
applied to drilling with a single phase mud, and no gas is injected except by the
formation.
Flow drilling occurs when a permeable formation is intentionally drilled with a
drilling fluid that encourages the formation to flow during drilling operations. Most
commonly, the fluid influx will be from a hydrocarbon-bearing formation, and the
flow returning to surface will consist of oil, natural gas and the drilling fluid. When
flow drilling, well control problems are handled at the surface rather than down
hole. Specific down hole and surface equipment are required for safe and
efficient flow drilling operations.
Mud cap drilling

Overview
Sometimes, uncontrollable loss of circulation occurs during flow drilling
operations. The driller is faced with higher annular pressures than can safely be
handled with the rotating head or RBOP equipment. One technique, called mud
cap drilling, can be used to overcome this situation.
In mud cap drilling, the driller loads the annulus with a heavy, viscosities fluid,
often saturated brine, and shuts-in the annulus of the well. The shut-in surface
pressure on the annulus, plus the increased hydrostatic pressure resulting from
this viscous pad, will equal the formation pressure. Viscosification of the pad
should be designed to minimize gas migration up the annulus. The annular
column is held in place by its density and the bull heading pressure of the rig
pumps. It may be periodically necessary to add fluid to this mud cap, to offset
annular losses to the formation during connections or trips. Drilling may then be
resumed by pumping a clean fluid that is compatible with the formation fluids
down the drill pipe, while the choke is closed and the well remains shut-in. This
blind drilling approach with a sealed annulus results in bull heading all drilling
fluid pumped with no return flow. Obviously, the formation must be able to freely
accept these fluids and the fluid used must readily be available and relatively
inexpensive. This process requires specialized well control and circulating
equipment; however, unlike flow drilling, it does not require an extensive fluid
separation system, since the formation fluids are kept down hole.
Applications of mud drilling
49
Highly fractured and vugged formation

Sustained surface pressures in excess of 2,000 psi,
Sour oil and gas product on, and,
Small diameter wellbore's (3 7/8-inches up to 4%-inches).
Snub drilling is simply an underbalanced drilling operation that involves the use of
a snubbing unit or a coiled tubing (CT) unit. The additional expense of this
equipment can be justified if very high formation pressure and uncontrollable loss
of circulation are expected. Often, personnel safety considerations provide the
necessary reasons for snub drilling. Finally, if sour gas is expected, there is
additional motivation. Both snubbing and CT units have BOP stacks that allow a
drill string (coiled tubing in the latter case) to be run into or out of the hole, at
much higher pressures (routinely up to 10,000 psi) than can be tolerated by
either a rotating head or an RBOP. Both units also allow the drill string to be
pushed into a well under pressure, even when the weight of the string alone is
insufficient to overcome the pressure tending to push it out of the well. Snubbing
and CT units can be used for underbalanced drilling, at pressures that cannot be
managed by conventional drilling rigs.
Closed system
An underbalanced drilling technique that involves using a specific type of surface
system, rather than a specific drilling fluid. The distinguishing feature of this
technique is the use of a pressurized, four-phase separator and a fully closed
surface system, to handle the fluids returning from the well. These systems can
safely manage natural gas production containing hydrogen sulfide, prevent
hydrocarbon vaporization from open pits, (i.e. environmental benefits) and, with
appropriate instrumentation, allow continuous measurement of a well's
productivity. With planning, closed systems can be designed for high pressures,
when drilling deep and over-pressured reservoirs.
Limitations
Snub drilling
Planning is required before using closed systems when high surface pressures
are possible. Precautions are a1so required if the drilling fluid is oxygenated.
Other limitations include availability of suitable equipment and personnel and
increased operating costs. Using a closed system does not remove any of the
specific limitations associated with the drilling fluid (other than air) or the
technique adopted.
1234-
High Surface Pressures.

Oxygen Containing Drilling Fluids
Equipment and Personnel Availability
Operating Costs
50
References
Medley, G.H., Stone, R.C., Colbert, W.J., and McGowen III, H.E.:
Underbalanced Operations Manual, Signa Engineering Corp., Houston
(1998).
Underbalanced Drilling Manual, Gas Research Institute Publication, GRI

Reference No. GRI-97/0236, 1997.
51
Gatlin, C., Petroleum Engineering: Drilling and Well Completions,

Prentice-Hall, 1960.
Bourgoyne, A. T., et al, Applied Drilling Engineering, SPE, First Printing,

1986
52
Of underbalanced drilling technique

Underbalanced drilling is technically feasible in almost all
situations. There will be many instances when it is also the
most cost effective procedure.
This chapter summarized various techniques for drilling a
well underbalanced, determining if underbalanced drilling is
potentially applicable, selecting the potential underbalanced
drilling methods, and, evaluating the economics to identify
the most cost effective procedure.
53
RESERVOIR ASPECTS OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

Before an underbalanced drilling operation is undertaken, a significant amount of
work needs to be carried out by the reservoir engineers. Not only is an accurate
reservoir pressure required but the damage mechanism of the reservoir must be
understood to ensure that the required benefits are indeed possible. Certain wells
or reservoirs are good candidates for underbalanced operations and result in an
enhanced recovery. Other formations or fields may not be suited to
underbalanced drilling for a variety of other reasons. A summary of indicators that
help to determine whether a particular reservoir will be a good or bad candidate
for UBD is listed below.
Good Candidate Indicators for UBD
Depleted reservoirs. Typically exhibit lost circulation and differential sticking

problems. If formation is consolidated, makes an excellent candidate.
Naturally fractured and vugular formations. Usually exhibit huge losses, which
can exacerbate well control problems or lead to differential or mechanical
sticking, making them good candidates for UBD.
Hard rock formations. Are usually consolidated and sustain UBD. Good
candidates because of the improvement in ROP and bit life from UBD.
Highly permeable formations. Once again exhibiting lost circulation and/or
differential sticking, making them good candidates.
Formation damage problems. Formation that usually suffer major formation
damage during drilling or completion operations. Wells with a skin factor of 5
or higher is a good candidate.
Any situation where ROP can be economically increased and fewer bits are
required.
Wells with massive heterogeneous or highly laminated formations that exhibit
differing permeabilities, porosities or pore throats throughout.
High production reservoirs with low-medium permeability.
Formations with rock-fluid sensitivities.
Formations with fluid-fluid sensitivities.
UBD is not a technology that should be utilized for all situations. Utilizing the
technology in the wrong application may create an unsafe situation, increase
formation damage, increase the probability of well failure or increase well cost
with no probability of economic gain.
54
Bad Candidate Indicators for UBD
Poor quality reservoirs. UBD cannot make a formation something that it is

not.
High pore pressure coupled with highly permeable formations. Are usually
easily drilled overbalanced. UBD conditions are easily achieved, but the rates
can be too high, leading to excessive drawdown, impractical surface
equipment requirements, and associated problems.
Shallow wells. Difficult to control bottomhole pressure and ensure continuous
underbalanced conditions.
Swelling shale and unstable formation. Wellbore stability problems if
underbalanced.
Formation susceptible to spontaneous imbibitions. UBD can exacerbate
formation damage.
Wells where drilling calls for frequent trips. Could create excessive oscillation
between underbalanced and overbalanced conditions, causing damage, and
eliminating the advantages of UBD.
Candidates requiring UBD for long intervals. Although UBD can be achieved,
the drawdown at the heel of the open hole intervals is likely to be very high
when the bit is near the toe of a long interval, requiring impra impractical
surface equipment requirements.
Highly unconsolidated formations which require elevated wellbore pressure to
maintain hole stability.
Formations where knowledge of reservoir pressure is poor. Reservoir
pressure drives the design of the UBD condition.
Wells with high H2S. Producing fluids that contain high levels of H2S will
complicate the system design and may pose a safety risk.
Hole sections with variations of pressure. The drilling of a section that
contains formations with a wide variation in formation pressures may lead to
cross flow or require impractical surface equipment requirements. Sometimes
it may be feasible to reduce the wellbore sufficiently so that all zones produce
into the well.
55
OPTIMUM SELECTION OF UNDERBALANCED

TECHNIQUES
In this section we will discuss our new UBD design system which helps the
engineer to achieve proper planning for UBD operation in order to achieve
success for a particular well or project.
Compatibility of Fluids. Fluid compatibility is a major concern when

designing an underbalanced system. Compatibility issues include
compatibility with components of the injected fluid, injected fluid to
produced fluid compatibility, and injected fluid to formation.
Compatibility of Base Fluids: Selection in the base fluids (liquid

and/or gas) is important. Incompatible base fluid can lead to the
formation of emulsions and precipitates. Incompatibility of the fluids can
also increase the corrosion rate. Fluid compatibility is critical in the
design of the foam system. The make up fluids can affect the foam
stability of the system.
Injected Fluid to Produced Fluid Compatibility: The mixing of

produced fluids and injected fluids downhole can lead to the creation of
emulsions, highly corrosive fluids, and poor foam stability. Analysis
must be done to assure that the reservoir fluid and injected fluid do not
create an emulsion that will affect the frictional pressure loss or the
ability to separate the water, liquid hydrocarbons, solids, and gas at the
surface. These issues are only pertinent in oil reservoirs.
If foam is planned for a well, the stability of the foam must be analyzed.
This analysis must be done with a mixture of the foam with the
reservoir fluid. Many reservoir fluids can destroy foam stability. These
include hydrocarbon, CO2, and salt.
If a gas containing oxygen is used, the explosive limit of the injected
fluid and the reservoir fluid must be determined.
This is particularly important in the presence of H2S. If there is no H2S,
standard limit tables will suffice.
Phase Trapping. The loss of both water-and oil-based drilling mud filtrate
56
to the formation in the near-wellbore region caused by leakoff during OBD

operations, or by spontaneous imbibition in some situations during UBD, can
result in permanent entrapment of a portion or all of the invading fluid. Phase
trapping refers to the permanent increase in trapped fluid saturation (water,
gas, or hydrocarbon) in a porous medium. The blockage of the entrained fluid
causes a reduction in the relative permeability to oil or gas that results in a

zone of potentially significant damage surrounding the wellbore region.
In Fig.1, increasing the water saturation from 20% to 35% decreases the
relative oil permeability from 90% to 30%, respectively.
FIGURE 1: RELATIVE PERMEABILITY CURVE
Regular situations which may result in phase trapping may include the
following:
Invasion of water-based fluids/filtrates into regions of low water
saturation and resulting trapping effects on consequent drawdown.
Invasion of oil-based fluids/filtrates into zones of low or zero oil
saturation and resulting trapping effects on subsequent drawdown.
Production of rich, retrograde-condensate-type gases below the
dewpoint pressure resulting in the accumulation and trapping of critical
retrograde-condensate saturation in the near-wellbore region.
Production of black oils below the bubble point resulting in the release
of gas from solution and the formation of trapped critical-gas
saturation.
Injection of free gas (aerated fluids and foams during poorly designed
UBD operations, nondeoxygenated brines, nitrogen-energized fluids,
etc.) into a fluid-saturated zone resulting in the creation of trapped
critical-gas saturation.
The main reason for UBD in such a situation is to prevent the significant loss
of potentially damaging and trapping of water- or oil-based filtrates into the
formation, thereby reducing and mitigating the potential severity of damage
associated with phase trapping effects.
57
Bacterial Damage. Bacterial damage is associated with the introduction

of viable bacteria to the formation. Bacteria may colonize and propagate in
either an aerobic (requiring oxygen to survive) or anaerobic (not requiring
oxygen to survive) fashion. Although most commonly associated with water
injection operations, bacterial damage has the potential to occur any time a
water-based fluid is introduced into a formation. Bacteria can grow in many
different environments and conditions: temperatures ranging from 12F to
greater than 250F, pH values ranging from 1 to 11, salinities to 30% and
pressures to 25,000 psi.
The three major damage mechanisms associated with bacterial damage
include the following:
Plugging: Most bacteria secrete a viscous polysaccharide polymer as
a byproduct of their life cycle; these polymers may adsorb and
gradually plug the formation.
Corrosion: Some types of bacteria set up an electrokinetic hydrogenreduction reaction which can result in pitting and hydrogen-stress
cracking on metallic surfaces downhole in tubing or in surface
equipment.
Toxicity: A certain type of anaerobic bacteria, commonly referred to as
sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) reduce elemental sulfate, which may
be present in formation/injection waters and create toxic hydrogen
sulfide gas.
The correct use of UBD technology prevents the continuing losses of
potential water-based fluids which may contain viable bacteria colonies into
the formation. On the other hand, in most situations, if water-based fluids are
contemplated for any UBD operation, an appropriate bacterial and biological
control is recommended.
Bacteria problems are often treated with oxidants, such as sodium
hypochlorite, and often various types of biocides are also used.
The ability to have other formation damage mechanisms such as fluid/fluid
incompatibility, rock/fluid incompatibility, phase trapping, and chemical
absorption in any drilling operation has been studied by Bennion.
1.1 ASSESSING LOST CIRCULATION POTENTIAL
58
Lost circulation is defined as the partial or total loss of drilling fluids to the
formation being penetrated. It occurs when natural, or induced formation
openings are large enough to allow mud to pass through, and when the pressure
applied by the mud column exceeds formation pore pressure. The severity of
these losses varies from minor seepage losses to a complete loss of the returns.
These losses can occur in unconsolidated or highly permeable formations, in
naturally fractured formations, in formations with induced fractures, or in

cavernous formations.
1.2 ASSESSING PIPE STICKING POSSIBILITY

In many reservoirs, differential sticking is a major problem causing significant
nonproductive time (NPT). Economic losses are compounded by the potential
loss of the BHA and the possibility of having to sidetrack the hole around the lost
pipe. Differential sticking occurs because of the filter cake (which has other
beneficial effects, as we shall see, but in this case can be harmful) and the
differential pressure between the fluid in the annulus and the formation. Since a
filter cake cannot be completely impermeable, a pressure gradient exists across
the filter cake in the overbalanced condition. If the drill pipe embeds into the filter
cake, this pressure gradient acts as a force holding the drillpipe against the
wellbore wall. The holding force is determined by multiplying the differential
pressure by the cross sectional area of the pipe imbedded in the wall cake. If the
holding force exceeds the ability of the rig to move the pipe, it will become
differentially stuck.
UBD eliminates both the filter cake and the differential pressure. As most
multiphase fluids do not have solids that produce the filter cake, one will not be
generated. In underbalanced operations differential pressure acts from the
reservoir to the annulus. If designed properly, it is impossible to have positive
differential pressure in underbalanced operations.
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATION TO SELECT

DRILLING FLUID
In designing an underbalanced fluid system, information on the reservoir
characteristic, hole geometry, availability, environment and offset history must be
considered. The following data must be evaluated when selecting an optimum
fluid for an underbalanced drilling (UBD):
1. Reservoir characteristics:
Formation type (such as sand, limestone, and clay).
Pore pressure.
Temperature.
Formation bearing fluid (such as water, oil and gas) and characteristics
(such as composition, water gas, and PVT).
Geophysical/geomechanics information.
Permeability and porosity.
59
Compatibility between reservoir fluids.
2. Well geometry:
Directional characteristics.
Hole size.
Proposed casing program.
3. Environmental:
Disposal (Cuttings, production fluids, and drilling fluids).
4. Offset history:
Mud logs, production history, well test data, seismic, and drilling
reports.
FIGURE 2: DRILLING FLUID ACCORDING TO FORMATION

TYPES
60
2.1 Well fluid design consideration

Like the fluid design for conventionally drilled wells, the fluid system in an
underbalanced wells is the transportation system for bringing the cuttings to
surface, cools and lubricates the bottom hole assembly and helps control the
bottom hole pressure. Fluid system design is one of the most overlooked parts of
underbalanced projects. In designing an underbalanced fluid system the impact
on the desired equivalent circulating density must be considered. The equivalent
circulation density is a combination of annular fluid density, frictional pressure
loss in the annulus, and surface choke pressure. The design must result in a
pressure that is below the formation pressure, but not so low that it creates hole
stability problems or excess production.
Compatibility between the components of the fluid system, the fluid system with
produced fluids and the fluid system with the formation is all critical in the fluid
selection. Incompatibility can lead to formation damage or the creation of
emulsions.
Formation fluids may also affect the characteristics of the fluid system. Acid
gases or hydrocarbons will affect the stability of most foam.
Hole cleaning is always a concern in underbalanced wells. Most underbalanced
fluid systems rely on the velocity of the fluids, not the viscosity to clean the hole.
Different fluid systems will require different velocities to achieve adequate hole
cleaning. The carrying capacities of underbalanced fluids range from extremely
poor for pure gas systems, to extremely good in foam systems.
Temperature stability must also be considered in designing an underbalanced
fluid system. Many of the chemicals used may break down with high
temperatures. These include surfactants and viscofying agents. Temperature will
also affect the density of the fluids used in designing the system. As fluids are
heated, their density falls. This is especially true for brines and oils and is critical
in designing kill weight fluids.
Corrosion is a concern in designing underbalanced fluid systems. As the well is
being produced, the interaction of the produced fluid, injected gases, and injected
liquid may create an environment that promotes high corrosion rates. Corrosion
problems are accelerated, because the circulated solids remove any corrosion
barriers that are naturally formed.
The effect on downhole tool must also be considered in the selection of the
underbalanced fluid system. This includes the compressibility of multiphase fluids,
which lower the power output of the motors. Compatibility of the fluid with
elastomers must also be considered. This can affect the functionality and
longevity of the mud motors and downhole measuring devices.
This infusion of the gas into elastomers can also lead to explosive decompression
of the elastomers during trips. Downhole tools (such as tools with no elastomers)
61
should be selected that will not be effected by the fluid or a fluid system should be
designed that mitigate the effect on downhole tools.
Fluid selection will also affect the ability to transmit data from downhole. Gas is a
compressible fluid; if gas is used in the fluid system, it may dampen or eliminate
any signal transmitted downhole.
Health, safety and environmental must be considered in selecting an
underbalanced fluid system. The system must be designed so that fluids can be
handled safely at surface.
Both produced fluids, solids, and injected fluids must be handled in a minor that
meets local regulations. It must be remembered that the returned fluid will be
contaminated with produced fluid. This will affect the disposal of the solids and all
returned fluids.
2.1.1
Equivalent Circulating Density
Achieving the desired bottom hole pressure is a combination of the fluid density,
applied surface pressure, and annular friction. The selection of the fluid system
will affect both of these components. The density of the base fluid, both liquid and
gas, will impact the density of the fluid system. The properties of the fluid system
will also affect the friction that will be generated. This will be compounded by the
interaction of the fluid system with produced fluid. Mixing of the produced and
injected fluids will change the viscosity of the fluids, which may have a severe
impact on the friction loss.
2.1.2
Hole Cleaning Issues
Hole cleaning is always a major concern in an underbalanced operations. Hole

cleaning requirements will be determined by the geometry of the well (including
washout) and the rate of penetration. The fluid must be selected that will meet the
hole cleaning requirements. The fluid used will have a significant impact on the
carrying capacity of the system.
When indications of poor hole cleaning are seen, using viscous pills as sweeps
can be used to eliminate cutting beds. The viscous pill may be foam (for nonfoam based systems) or a polymer pill. The pill should be large enough to cover
500 feet of the open hole annulus. Due to the problems of separating the gas and
solids from a highly viscous pill, attempts should be made to capture and dump
the pill when it returns to surface.
2.1.3
62
Pore Pressure
The pore pressure in formations that will be open to the borehole is the upper limit
for the range of borehole pressures which will give underbalanced conditions. The
drilling technique adopted must result in a borehole pressure which is less than
the pore pressure in all open zones.
This restriction can only be relaxed for open zones that will not be influenced by
overbalance. In practice, the borehole pressure at any depth will fluctuate during
drilling, principally when circulation is shut down to make a connection or to trip
the string.
If there is no formation fluid inflow, borehole pressures with dry gas, mist, foam or
pure liquid drilling fluids will normally decrease when circulation is stopped.
Therefore, if it is established that underbalanced conditions will result during
circulation, they will likely be maintained if circulation is stopped, unless there is
an overwhelming fluid influx
The borehole pressure can change significantly when gasified liquid is used. It
may either increase or decrease, depending on the connection and tripping
procedures. As a generalization, the borehc le pressure will probably increase
during a connection when drilling with a liquid gasified by drillstring gas injection.
In practice, if it is generally not possible to maintain a circulating pressure that is
300 to 500 psi less than the pore pressure, underbalanced conditions may not be
maintained during connections, when drilling with a gasified liquid.
2.1.4
Wellbore Stability
Just as formation pore pressure is an upper limit to allowable underbalanced

pressures, a lower limit may be established by the minimum pressure required to
maintain hole stability. In underbalanced drilling:
When there is an aqueous component in the drilling fluid, water-wet formations
may still imbibe water when drilled underbalanced. Precautions for inhibiting the
base fluid should still be taken (when drilling underbalanced) and exposure to
diluted formation fluid from greater depths should also still be considered.
The effects of desiccation (drying out), when a formation is contacted with
circulating dry gas, are not well defined in the literature. Imbibition into the
formation would seem to be inhibited. If the water content reduces, the strength
may increase However, desiccation cracking may occur during shrinkage and
some sloughing may occur. This may heighten imbibition if water does ultimately
contact the shale. In sands, the strength may also be increased because of
increasing capillary forces. Less dampening of vibrations may cause greater
formation disaggregation uphole from the bit.
63
2.1.5
Temperature Effect
Temperature is critical in determining the risk of exceeding the flash point of

liquids. It will also impact the bottom hole pressure. Temperature will also impact
surface and downhole equipment. Temperature also has an impact on the
corrosion rate that will occur and the stability of the fluid. Temperature will also
impact the chemical and foam stability.
Determining the temperature profile for underbalanced wells is not
straightforward. The velocity of the fluids, the amount of inflow, the expansion of
gas, the temperature of the surrounding formation, geometry, inlet temperature,
and the specific heat of the fluids and surrounding material impact the
temperature profile. Determining the temperature profile and the impact on the
design requires an enhanced computer simulator.
2.1.6
Water Production
The flow of formation water into the borehole can influence the selection of
suitable drilling technique
Production of even small volumes of water can make dry gas drilling difficult. A
mud ring can form as damp cuttings collect, usually at the top of the BHA where
the annular velocity is lowest. It is common to switch to mist, or even foam, if a
water inflow is encountered. When onset wells indicate that formation water
inflows are probable, the operator should not expect to drill below the water
producing zone with dry gas.
When misting, higher air injection rates are required to lift the water from the hole.
The air rate must be sufficiently high to prevent slug flow. Slug flow can damage
the borehole and surface equipment. The high air rate, in combination with tie
weight of water in the annulus, significantly increases the standpipe pressure.
Boosters are often needed to increase the gas delivery pressure when substantial
water inflows are encountered. More compressor power is required.
If nitrogen or natural gas are used as the gas phase, the gas Supply cost will be
greatly increased.
Hole size also influences the impact of water inflow on required gas injection rate
and pressure. Increased cross-sectional area reduces annular velocity and hole
cleaning efficiency, although large holes can usually produce more water before
the gas injection pressure becomes impractically high.
When large water inflows are anticipated, dry gas or mist drilling may not be
appropriate, even if wellbore stability and hydrocarbon production rates indicate
that these drilling fluids would be nominally acceptable.
64
TABLE 1:U NDERBALANCED DRILLING APPLICATIONS AND C ANDIDATE T ECHNIQUES
Reason for Drilling Underbalanced
Preferred Underbalanced Drilling Technique
Low ROP through hard rock.
(1)
Dry air.
(2)
Mist, if there is a slight water inflow.
(3)
Foam, if there is heavy water inflow, if the borehole
wall is prone to erosion, or if there is a large hole
diameter.
(4)
Nitrogen or natural gas, if the well is producing
wet gas and it is a high angle or horizontal hole.
Lost circulation through the overburden.
(1)
Aerated mud, if the ROP is high (rock strength low
or moderate) or if water-sensitive shales are present.
(2)
Foam is possible if wellbore instability is not a
problem.
Differential sticking through the

overburden.
(1)
Nitrified mud, if gas production is likely, especially
if a closed system is to be used.
(2)
Aerated mud, if gas production is unlikely and an
open surface system is to be used.
(3)
Foam is possible if the pore pressure is very low
and if the formations are very hard.
Formation damage through a soft/medium- (1)

depleted reservoir.
Nitrified brine or crude:

String injection, if the pore pressure is very low;
Parasite injection, if the pore press ire is high enough

and a deviated/horizontal hole needs conventional MWD
and/or a mud motor.
Temporary casing injection, if the pore pressure is

intermediate and a high gas rate is needed.
String and temporary casing inject Ion, if the pore

pressure is very low and/or if very high gas rates are required
with a closed surface system.
(2)
Foam, if the pore pressure is very low and an open
surface system is acceptable.
Formation damage through a normally
pressured reservoir.
Flowdrill (use a closed surface system If sour gas is possible).
Lost circulation/formation damage through Flowdrill (use an atmospheric system If no sour gas is
a normally pressured, fractured reservoir. possible).
Formation damage through an
overpressured reservoir.
Snub drill (use a closed surface system if sour gas is possible).
65
FIGURE 3: FLOW CHART FOR UNDERBALANCED DRILLING CANDIDATE SELECTION .
66
FIGURE 4:FLOW CHART OF DRILLING FLUID SELECTION FOR VERTICAL WELL .
67
FIGURE 5:FLOW CHART OF DRILLING FLUID SELECTION FOR HORIZONTAL WELL .
68
UNDERBALANCED DRILLING OBJECTIVES IN OBAYED D-2

Primary objectives:
Treatment of losses
Potential of formation damage
Secondary objective:
Rate of penetration enhancement
Other Objectives
Low permeability (0.1-1.0mD) gas sandstone. UB techniques required to

reduce formation damage. Loss circulation issues have curtailed horizontal
reach in recent well.
Reasons for evaluating underbalanced drilling (ROP, Productivity

Improvement, etc)
Productivity enhancement due to impairment during conventional drilling
practices. Secondary benefit to allow extended reach in wells exhibiting
fractures/high loss circulation
Fluid Selection
Fluid selection for underbalanced drilling operations can be extremely complex.
Key issues such as reservoir characteristics, geophysical characteristics, well
fluid characteristics, well geometry, compatibility, hole cleaning, temperature
stability, corrosion, drilling BHA, data transmission, surface fluid handling and
separation, formation lithology, health and safety, environmental impact, fluid
source availability, as well as the primary objective for drilling underbalanced all
have to be taken into consideration before the final fluid selection can be made.
The objective of the fluid selection system is to select the optimum drilling fluid for
underbalanced drilling operations that meets all the health, safety, and
environmental requirements as well as the required technical requirements.
The planned wellbore geometry: horizontal
To calculate this initial fluid density required, simply convert the reservoir
pressure and the drawdown into an equivalent fluid density.
Fluid gradients are calculated based on the following formula:
69
Fluid gradient (ppg)
Preservoir Psurface Pdrawdown

0.052 TVD
Where:
Surface Pressure is assumed to be approximately 150 psi
And the reservoir Drawdown is assumed to be 250 psi
At Preservoir=5900 psi & TVD=3968.87 m=13018 ft

Fluid gradient=8.2 ppg
Underbalanced fluid systems have been categorized by the IADC by the following
system (Table 1):
FIGURE 6: IADC FLUID CLASSIFICATION
70
Fluid System.
Specific Gravity.
Equivalent Mud Weight

(ppg).
Gas Drilling
0-0.02
0-0.02
Mist Drilling
0.02-0.07
0.2-0.6
Foam Drilling
0.07-0.6
0.6-5
Gasified Liquid drilling
0.55-1.0
4.5-8.5
Liquid drilling
0.82 and above
6.9 and above
Reservoir Data:
TABLE 2: OBAYED RESERVOIR DATA
Formation
Lower Safa Eastern Area
Lower Safa Western Area
Top (m TVD)
3800
3800
Bottom (m TVD)
3900
3900
Pore Pressure
5400 psi
5900 psi
Frac Pressure /
Gradient
0.55-0.6psi/ft
0.75 psi/ft
300
300
Permeability
1.0 10
0.1 1.0
Potential Fractures
Possible
Possible
Fracture Orientation
Not Known
Not Known
Sonic Velocity
0.005m/ms
0.005m/ms
BHT deg F
Youngs Modulus
Poissons Ratio
Cohesion
Friction Angle
Density
Borehole Stability
Issues
35Gpa
0.25
13Mpa / 1885psi
55 deg
2.65 s.g.
None in the reservoir
section
71
Compositional Data: Mole Fraction

Composition Data
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7+
H2S
N2
CO2
FIGURE 7: OBAYED COMPOSITIONAL DATA
The IADC Underbalanced Operations Committee has been working to promote

the safe and efficient application of underbalanced operations (UBO) worldwide.
One of the main achievements of the committee is the recent adoption of the
following standard classification system for UBO and a set of standard
nomenclature, which are listed in the table
TABLE 3:IADC UBO C OMMITTEE C LASSIFICATION SYSTEM FOR U NDERBALANCED WELLS
Level
72
Description
Performance enhancement only; no hydrocarbon containing zones.
Well incapable of natural flow to surface, inherently stable, and a low-level risk from a
well control point of view.
Well capable of natural flow to surface but enabling conventional well control methods
and has limited consequences in the case of catastrophic equipment failure.
Geothermal and non-hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in pressures are less

than UBD equipment operating pressure rating. Catastrophic failure has immediate
serious consequences.
Hydrocarbon production. Maximum shut-in pressures are less than UBD equipment
operating pressure rating. Catastrophic failure has immediate serious consequences.
Maximum projected surface pressures exceed UBO operating pressure rating but are
below BOP stack rating. Catastrophic failure has immediate serious consequences.
The matrix in Table 4 classifies the majority of known underbalanced

applications. This system combines the risk management categories previously
defined (Levels 0 to 5) with a sub-classifier to indicate if wells are drilled
underbalanced" or with a "low head" using underbalanced technology. In order to
provide a complete method of classifying the type of technology used for one or
more sections of a well, or multiple wells in a particular project, a third component
of the classification system addresses the underbalanced technique used.
TABLE 4:IADC UBO C OMMITTEE C LASSIFICATION M ATRIX
UBO Application Type
Term
Description
Low-head or Condition where the hydrostatic head of the well bore

near balanced
fluid column is reduced to be either in balance or
slightly greater than the formation pressure, thus not
drilling.
planning to induce hydrocarbons or formation fluids
into the well bore.
Underbalanced Planned condition where the bottom-hole pressure

drilling (UBD). exerted by the hydrostatic head of the fluid column is
less than the formation pressure being drilled.
Gas drilling.
Drilling process using only gas as the chilling

medium: no intentional fluid added.
Mist chilling.
Drilling with liquid entrained in a continuous gaseous

phase: typical mist systems have <2.5% liquid
content.
Foam drilling.
Drilling with a two-phase fluid and a continuous liquid

phase generated from the addition of liquid,
surfactant, and gas: typical foams range from 55% to
97.5% gas.
Gasified liquid
drilling.
Drilling with a gas entrained in a liquid phase.
In obayed D2, A horizontal section is drilled using a drilling fluid lightened with
nitrogen gas to achieve an underbalanced condition through the reservoir section.
The maximum predicted bottomhole pressure is 5,900 psi with a potential surface
shut-in pressure of 1200 psi.
(It as would be classified as a 4-B-4 indicating Classification Level 4 risk,

and UBD drilling with a gasified liquid).
73
2. ECONOMIC STUDY MODEL

The only reason to employ UBD technology, or any technology, is to generate
profits. Misapplying technology will not only hurt the project economics, but it also
damages the perception of the technology. As UBD will result in a higher frontend engineering cost and higher effective day rate, the gain from employing the
technology must offset the additional cost. Profit can be gained by:
Reducing direct drilling cost by increasing ROP and bit life.

Eliminating expensive fluid systems.
Decreasing stimulation cost.
Decreasing trouble time.
Increasing the deliverability of the well (accelerated production).
Value of produced fluid while drilling.
Increasing the ultimate recovery from the reservoir.
Unfortunately, many of the factors that affect the economics of an underbalanced

project are not well known. Experience has shown that the ROP and bit life will
increase when UBD is employed. Experience has also shown that UBD is
effective in reducing or eliminating lost circulation or differential sticking problems.
It is also well understood that drilling underbalanced will reduce or eliminate
formation damage. What is difficult to quantify is the magnitude of the change that
can be expected.
The cost of an underbalanced system is easier to quantify. Cost analysis must not
only include the cost of equipment and personnel, but it must also include the
cost of pre-engineering, training and project management. For a first time
application of UBD for a company or in a region, UBD adds a degree of
complexity over conventional drilling that must be managed. An improperly
designed or managed project can greatly increase the cost, risk of failure and risk
of accidents. The complexity and cost are further exaggerated with first-time
applications in an offshore or remote application.
Cost of UBD
74
While drilling hydrocarbon-bearing formations in the UBD mode, the reservoir

fluid flow from the reservoir into the borehole and the productive capacity of the
formation are immediately known. This cannot be accomplished without adequate
preplanning and specialized equipment. Additional equipment used in safe UBD
includes: rotating control head, diverter/rotating BOP, multiphase separators,
compressors/boosters, nitrogen membrane unit, and specialized personnel. The
incremental cost can be more than conventional drilling operations. However,
there are trade-off costs with UBD (i.e. low mud costs, no DST, faster ROP, less
cement volume). The benefit of planning for UBD and the detection of
hydrocarbon flow in a controlled manner occurs real-time.
Item
Areated Drilling
Mud Drilling
Interval
From 13727 ft to 14360

ft
From 13727 ft to 14360 ft
Interval Length (F) (ft)
633
633
Penetration Rate (ft/hr)
10.23
5.115
Rotating Time (t) (hr)
62
124
Bit Life (hr)
31
31
Bits Required
Unit Bit Cost
$ 4,800/bit
$ 4,800/bit
Bit Cost (B)
9600
19200
Trip Schedule
Trip in to 13727 ft
Trip in to 13727 ft
Trip out from 14044 ft
Trip in to 14044 ft
Trip in to 13885 ft

Trip in to 14044
Trip in to 14202 ft
Total Trip Footage
56175 ft
112349 ft
Unit Trip Time
0.75
0.75
Trip Time (T) (hr)
16
32
Hourly Operating Cost
$ 570/hr
$ 570/hr
Cost / ft
[9600+Cr(16+62)] /
[633]
[19200+570(124+32)] /
[633]
[B+Cr(T+t)]/[F]
= $ 85.4/ft
=$ 170.8 /ft
(hr/500 ft)
(Cr)
75
TABLE 5:QUOTE FOR UBD PERSONNEL .
Personnel Costs
Day
Rate
Travel
Project Management
2,500
3,500
UBD Consultant
2,500
3,500
HSE Consultant
2,000
3,500
UBD Supervisor 1
1,400
3,500
UBD Supervisor 2
1,400
3,500
UBD Engineer 1
1,500
3,500
UBD Engineer 2
1,500
3,500
UBD Lead Operator 1
1,300
3,500
UBD Lead Operator 2
1,300
3,500
UBD Operator 1
800
3,500
UBD Operator 2
800
3,500
UBD Operator 3
800
3,500
UBD Operator 4
800
3,500
1,100
3,500
UBD DAS Operator
700
3,500
RCD Lead Operator
500
3,500
Nitrogen superviosr
1,100
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 1
800
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 2
800
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 3
800
3,500
Nitrogen Operator 4
800
3,500
25,200
73,500
UBD
DAS
Operator
76
Lead
TABLE 6:SUPPLIER QUOTES .

Equipment
Mob
Day
Rate
Stand
Rate
Surface
Equipment
$ 50,000
$ 7,600
$ 3,800
N2
Equipment
$ 50,000
$ 6,200
$ 3,100
Rig rate
$ 32,000
$ 5,800
$ 2,900
MWD
Tools
$ 10,000
$ 2,500
$ 1,250
RCH
$ 15,000
$ 1,800
$ 900
by
Cost comparison: Nitrogen versus Natural Gas

The nitrogen drilling system [membrane generated] eliminates the downhole fire
risks associated with air drilling in hydrocarbon producing formations while
significantly reducing costs as compared to pipeline gas (methane) drilling or
truckle liquid nitrogen drilling. Typically, wells that must be gas drilled through
productive intervals rely on pipeline gas, expensive trucked liquid nitrogen, or airwater injection (mist) systems.
General Assumptions
Flowrate ................................................ 3000 cfm
Gas Price .............................................. $2.00/mcf
Trucking Distance ................ 50 miles (one way)
Drilling Hours/day .......................................... .20
Average Gas Drilling Days/well ...................... 12
Diesel Usage/hour/unit ..................... 1.0.7 gallons
Diesel Fuel Price ............................. $0.80/gallon
Standby Days (Equipment)/well ........................ 4
TABLE 7: NITORGEN VS PIPELINE GAS
Nitrogen Drilling System Cost
Pipeline Gas Drilling Cost
Compressors (8) @
$135/unit/day=135*8*12
$ 12,960
Pipeline gas 43.2 mmcf @

$2.00/mcf=43.2*2*1000
$ 86,400
Boosters (2) @ $200/unit/day

(air use) =200*2*12
$ 4,800
Booster (2) $300/unit/day

(gas use)=2*300*12
$ 7,200
Membrane Skids (2) @

$1,500/unit/day
$ 36,000
Drill Gas Unit (installed on

location)
$ 1,000
Trucking/Transportation
$ 9,200
Gas Line (2,000 feet)
$ 1,800
Fuel
(delivered)=12*20*(8+2)*10.7
gallons * $0.80/gallon
$ 20,540
Trucking/Transportation
$ 1,800
Mist Pump
$ 1,500
Fuel
(delivered)=2*10.7*20*12
gallons * $0.80/gallon
$ 4,110
Equipment Standby (4 days)
$ 1,800
Mist Pump
$ 1,500
Equipment Standby (4
days)
$ 700
Total pipeline Gas Drilling

Cost/well
$ 104,510
(1,800 cfm/skid) =1500*2*12
Total Nitrogen Drilling Cost/well
$ 88,600
77
Cost comparison: Liquid Nitrogen versus Membrane Nitrogen
78
Although operationally simple, the cost of the supply of the liquid nitrogen
to the well site can represent a significant expense to the total UBD
program.
Under optimum circumstances, the use of natural gas can be the most cost
effective method for UBD programs with the only cost being the
compression equipment. This can be minimal if a high pressure feed
supply is available at the wellsite.
The suitability of nitrogen membrane systems to high pressure, short

duration applications is not good. Only when the equipment is used over
prolonged periods, at high utilization can it be made cost effective on land.
Offshore applications are more affected by support logistics and obviously
lend themselves to membrane technologies.
The systems largest operating expense is the cost of fuel for the air
compression units ... The advantage of the nitrogen membranes versus
liquid nitrogen system is the ample supply of free nitrogen available in the
air versus the cost of liquid nitrogen and the required transportation to site.
The process of gas recycling can be cost effective with the previous
systems in very specific applications but is both technically and
operationally challenging for most UBD programs.
T ABLE 8: LIQUID NITROGEN VS MEMEBRANE NITROGEN

Item
Liquid N2
Portable N2 Generating System
Drilling Program
90 days
90 days
N2
1,500 scfm
1,500 scfm
Duration of N2 requirement
240 hrs (10 days)
240 hrs (10 days)
N2 Purity
Minimum 95 % (by volume)
Minimum 95 % (by volume)
N2 Pressure
5,000 psi
5,000 psi
1,500 scfm * 60 min/hr *

N2 requirement
24 hr/day *10 days =

584,000 sm3
1,500 scfm * 60 min/hr *

24 hr/day *10 days = 584,000 sm3
= 834,000 liters liquid N2

= 139 tanks
Method of N2 Supply
Logistics
Trucked in liquid N2
On-site membrane
(equipment rental)
(equipment purchase)
139 liquid N2 tanks, 1

evaporator and 1 diesel skid
(141 containers)
4 skid maximum, 14 tonnes each, 1

power unit, 14 tonnes (5 containers)
Electrical power: 1,400 kW * 10 days
* 24 hrs @ $0.05/kWh
Cost of Utilities
$ 1,284,000
(liquid N2 , electricity, diesel)
Maintenance
= $ 16,800
(Power unit rental included in capital
cost)
None
10 % of interest and depreciation

$ 32,000
Capital Cost
None
Interest and depreciation

over 10 years $324,000
Approximately
TOTAL
$ 1,300,000
Approximately $ 375,000
79
Economic Analysis
On the basis of available technology, select the potential drilling systems to

be evaluated.
Tabulate the tangible and intangible costs for each system.
Rely on previous history and recognize the inevitability of statistical
variation.
Perform basic cost/ft drilling evaluations.

CT
B Cr (t T )
F
Where:
80
CTtotal cost/foot.
B.bit cost.
Crhourly rig cost.
t..rotating time.
T.round trip time.
F.footage per bit run.
Obayed Planning and Budget AFE

T ABLE 9: OBAYED AFE
Completion
RATES
Preparation
Description
Rig Move
A/C no.
COST
ESTIMATES
Move
Preparation
Drilling
Completion
Total
7 days
11 days
18 days
9 days
44 days
( 1 day train)
4670 m
143,000
229,667
110,500
483,167
1,650
2,650
1,275
6,550
762,091
1,223,964
TIME
DEPENDENT
($/day)
6121
Rig Rate
6461
Catering
6122
Drilling equipment rental
6134
Liner/Tubing running services
50
50
50
550
883
425
1,858
6145
Cement serv. & pers.
1,200
1,200
1,200
1,200
7,800
13,200
21,200
10,200
52,400
6151
Mud logging ON/line
360
360
360
360
2,340
3,960
6,360
3,060
15,720
6185
Wireline Services
17,000
39,000
7751
Fuel
1,500
1,500
1,500
1,500
9,750
16,500
26,500
12,750
65,500
TOTAL
3,210
87,541
85,541
18,260
20,865
962,951
1,511,224
155,210
2,650,250
25,750
25,750
283,250
454,917
150
13,000
13,000
13,000
150
150
150
69,281
69,281
2,000
975
2,000
22,000
1,986,055
DEPTH
DEPENDENT
($/m)
6131
Deviation survey (one gyros)

Directional work (MWD,
PWD )
738,167
6141
Mud turnkey services
100,000
100,000
6142
Nitrogen operation
20,000
20,000
6145
Cement chemicals
7111
Bits + Core heads
180,000
180,000
7121
Casing and accessories
102,476
102,476
7141
Tubing, xovers and pup joints
47,500
47,500
904,893
1,188,143
TOTAL
283,250
FIXED
COSTS ($)
6111
6123
Site preparation
40,000
40,000
Road Preparation
10,000
10,000
In field rig move + W.F

Mobilization Equipment
94,000
94,000
347,500
441,500
Environmental Precautions
( EIA )
7122
347,500
3,000
3,000
drilling equipment purchase

( Kelly hose ,X/O )
78,290
surface equipment ( export flow

line material )
34,000
7142
Tubing accessories
112,000
Insurance (one off for

Blowouts)
22,000
8671
7123
TOTAL
78,290
34,000
112,000
22,000
94,000
147,000
347,500
246,290
740,790
81
SUPPORT
COSTS ($/day)
OD overhead inc.consultants
2,650
2,650
2,650
2,650
17,225
29,150
46,817
22,525
115,717
500
500
500
500
3,250
5,500
8,833
4,250
21,833
6149
Other drilling expenses
6609
Bus service
100
100
100
100
650
1,100
1,767
850
4,367
9401
Air transport
1,000
1,000
1,000
1,000
6,500
11,000
17,667
8,500
43,667
9402
Land transport
270
270
270
270
1,755
2,970
4,770
2,295
11,790
29,380
49,720
79,853
38,420
197,373
197,245
1,643,421
2,742,260
193,630
4,776,556
TOTAL
4,520
4,520
GENERAL TOTAL
TOTAL ESTIMATE
Time Estimate versus Actual

OBA D2 UBD Time Tracking Planned vs Actual
32
30
Plan
Actual
28.7
28
26
24
21.3
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
5.8
4.5
4
2
0
Rig Move
Prepare for UBD
Drill 3 7/8" Hole

Leg A
OH Sidetrack
Drill 3 7/8" Hole

Leg B
Run Completion
(UBD)
FIGURE 8: TIME ESTIMATION
82
Retrieve 7" Tie

back
Run 5" Completion
Suspend well
4,780,000
Time versus Depth Curve

Time Depth Curve UBD D2 UBD
from Spud to Release
Spudded 10th July 18:00 hrs

Released 26th August 06:00 hrs
4160
UBD Preparation
4210
4260
4310
Drill 3 7/8" Leg A

Depth [m]
4360
Drill 3 7/8" Leg B
4410
4460
4510
Completion
Prepare for UBD

Drill Leg A:
OH Sidetrack
Drill Leg B
Completion
Suspend Well
30
40
4560
4610
OH Sidetrack
4660
10
15
20
25
35
45
Plan
11.0d
8.3d
1.0d
8.3d
8.5d
0.0d
50
Actual
28.7d
21.3d
0.0d
0.0d
0.0d
4.5d
55
60
Days
Plan
Actual
FIGURE 9: TIME VS DEPTH
Cost Tracking Estimate versus Actual

OBA D2 UBD Cost Tracking Planned vs Actual
3,000,000
Plan
Actual
2,500,000
2,000,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
500,000
83
0
Rig Move
Prepare for UBD
Drill 3 7/8" Hole

Leg A
OH Sidetrack
Drill 3 7/8" Hole

Leg B
Run Completion
(UBD)
FIGURE 10: COST TRACKING
Retrieve 7" Tie

back
Run 5"
Completion
Suspension
Cost Depth Curve

Cost - Depth Curve OBA D2 UBD
Cost in $
$0
$500,000
$1,000,000 $1,500,000 $2,000,000 $2,500,000 $3,000,000 $3,500,000 $4,000,000 $4,500,000
4160
4210
4260
4310
Depth in m
4360
4410
4460
4510
4560
4610
4660
Plan
Actual
FIGURE 11: COST VS DEPTH CURVE
84
Quantifying Productivity
One of the main advantages of UBD is reduction in formation damage. Therefore
the evaluation of the productivity is indispensable for the cost estimation. To
evaluate the potential gains in productivity of a well, we must be able to estimate
the potential decrease in the mechanical skin. In order to evaluate the productivity
index and production volume for each vertical and horizontal case, the following
equations are used in our system:
The productivity index (PI) for a vertical hole is:
0.00708Kh
PI
re
0.75 s
rw
Bo ln
The productivity index (PI) for a horizontal hole is:
PI
0.00708KL
2
2r
L
h
e
s
Bo ln
ln
L
h
2rw
2re
Where
k .......reservoir permeability (md),
h ...... reservoir thickness (feet),
p. ...... oil viscosity (cP),
Bo ....... formation volume factor (bbl/STB),
re ........ external radius (of reservoir) (feet),
L ........ length of horizontal reservoir (feet)
s ......... skin (dimensionless).
rw ........ wellbore radius (feet),
85
For a vertical well, if the reservoir is considered to be radial, prior to

pseudosteady state conditions:
1
kh( Pi Pwf )
kt
q
log
3.23 0.87 s (oil)
2
162.6 Bo Ct rw
kh( Pi Pwf2 )
kt
q
log
3.23 0.87 s (gas)
2
1637 ZT
Ct rw
where:
q ......... rate (BOPD, MscfD),
Pi ....... average reservoir pressure (psi),
Pwf ...... wellbore pressure (psi),(dimensionless),
Z ........ real gas deviation factor
T ........ temperature, (OR),
t .......... time (hr),
Ct ........ total compressibility (psi-1).
At pseudo-steady state, for a radially flowing, vertical well:
86
0.00708KhPi Pwf
r
Bo ln e 0.75 s
rw
0.00708KhPi Pwf
r
Bo ln e 0.75 s
rw
Kh Pi Pwf2
(oil)
(oil)
1424ZT ln e 0.75 s
rw
(gas)
Similarly, the pesudosteady state for gases in horizontal wells would be.
q
kh P Pwf2
1424ZT ln(0.472re / rw s Dq
Where:
D is the turbulence coefficient and is equal to
D
6 10 5 K 0.1 h
2
rw h pef
Where h is the perforated section length in ft and is gas specific gravity
The Well Inflow Quality Indicator (WIQI) is the ratio of the PI for an impaired to
that for an undamaged well. PTA (pressure transient analysis) is preferable for
determining skin. It can be difficult and costly.
Simple analyses such as these can qualitatively show how production rate can be
increased if underbalanced drilling reduces skin. They may show that fewer wells
are required and that the producible oil or gas in place can be increased.
Abandonment pressure might be also reduced if the skin is reduced by drilling
underbalanced. This is because of the pressure drop through the skin. Consider
the additional pressure drop due to skin in oil well, for radial steady-state flow.
Ps
141.2QBo
s
Kh
The following operating data of obayed horizontal gas well show such calculation
in evaluating the effect of UBD in skin effect and in turn in the PI
P=5900 psi
Pwf=3300 psi
Gas specific gravity=0.778
K=0.1 md
0.427re/rw=7
D=1.5E-3 (MSCF/d)-1
T=300 oF
87
h=14360 ft
Z=0.98
Visco.=0.027053 cp
Q
(MMSCF)
PI
(SCFD/psi)
170.98556 7.148225706 1
149.61637 6.254864998 0.8750234 88%
132.9951
5.55999581
99.75048
4.170170586 0.5833854 58%
10
70.414692 2.943758038 0.4118166 41%
100
11.188211 0.467734586 0.0654337 7%
180
160
WIQI
WIQI %
100%
0.7778148 78%
Production rate
Well inflow quality indicator
productivity index
120
100
4
80
PI
WIQI
40
20
0
0
Skin factor
10
100
180
160
140
productivity index
Well inflow quality indicator
120
100
4
80
3
60
40
20
0
0
88
Production rate
PI
WIQI
60
Production rate
Production rate
140
10
100
Skin factor
FIGURE 12:VARIATION OF PI, PRODUCTION RATE AND WIQI WITH DRILLING INDUCED SKIN .
References
1. Medley, G.H., Stone, R.C., Colbert, W.J., and McGowen III, H.E.:
Underbalanced Operations Manual, Signa Engineering Corp., Houston
(1998).
2. Rehm, B.: Practical Underbalanced Drilling and Workover, Petroleum
Extension Services, Austin (2002).
3. J. R. Duda, G. H. Medley, W. G. Deskins: Strong Growth Projected for
Underbalanced Drilling, Oil & Gas Journal, (September 1996), 60-77.
4. J. Saponja, P. Eng.: Challenge with Jointed Pipe Underbalanced
Operations, paper SPE37066 presented at the 1996 SPE International
Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, 18-20 November.
5. D.B. Bennion: Underbalanced Drilling Technology Candidate Selection
For Optimal Application, JCPT, (November1994), 34-42.
6. D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas: Underbalanced Drilling of Horizontal Wells:
Does It Really Eliminate Formation Damage?, paper SPE27352
presented at the 1994
7. SPE Intl. Symposium on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, Louisiana,
7-10 February.
8. D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas: Formation Damage and Horizontal Wells A
Productivity Killer?, paper SPE37138 presented at the 1996 International
Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, Canada, 18-20
November.
9. D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas: Low Permeability Gas Reservoirs and
Formation Damage Tricks and Traps, paper SPE59753 presented at the
2000 SPE/CERI Gas Technology Symposium, Calgary, Canada, April 3-5.
10. R.A. Joseph: Planning Lessens Problems, Gets Benefits of
Underbalanced Drilling, Oil & Gas Journal, (May 1995), 86-89.
11. Bennion, D.B.: An Overview of Formation Damage Mechanisms Causing
a Reduction in the Productivity and Injectivity of Oil and Gas Producing
Formations, JCPT, (November 2002), 41, 29-36.
12. Sharif, Q.: A Case Study of Stuck Pipe Problems and Development of
Statistical Models to Predict the Probability of Getting Stuck and IF Stuck,
The Probability of Getting Free, PhD dissertation Texas A&M University
(1997).
13. Guo B., Galambor A.: Gas Volume Requirements for Underbalanced
Drilling Deviated Holes, Petroleum Extension Services, Austin (2002).
89
90
Underbalanced drilling operations require some special surface

equipment not normally used in rotary mud drilling operations.
Shallow drilling operations usually have this specialized
equipment incorporated into the single rotary drilling rig design.
For the deeper drilling operations that use double and triple
rotary drilling rigs, this specialized surface equipment is usually
provided by underbalanced drilling equipment contractor. These
contractors supply the rotary drilling contractor (the drilling rig)
with the necessary surface equipment to convert the mud
drilling rig to an air and gas or other drilling rig. The rotary
drilling contractor and the air and gas drilling contractor are
usually contracted by an operating Company.
Content
1-introduction
2- gas supply
3- gas compressors
4- in line facilities
5-Separation System
6 pits and tanks
91
1. Introduction
Most underbalanced drilling equipment is available on a rental basis from
various air and gas drilling equipment contractors. These contractors supply
the necessary surface equipment to carry out an UBD operation. The following
sections discuss a typical gaseous drilling fluid equipment layout; detailed
description of surface equipment designs for the other UBD fluids are beyond
the scope of this manual.
2. Gas Supply
While air is available by nature at each drilling location, supply of other gas
sources such as nitrogen or natural gas requires specialized surface equipment.
2.1 Cryogenic Nitrogen

The demand for nitrogen as a drilling fluid is met using either bottled gas, which
severely limits volumes available, or liquid nitrogen delivered by ship, truck or
pipeline. With these techniques, 100% nitrogen can be circulated down hole. If
pipelines are not available, the only equipment normally needed for the use of
cryogenic nitrogen onsite is a steady supply of nitrogen delivery trucks. The
cryogenic nitrogen delivery system includes three main pieces of equipment
mounted on a truck. A stainless-steel lined storage tank on a truck stores at
approximately -320F (-195C) temperature; those tanks are available in a
variety of sizes from about 2000 gallons to 7200 gallons.
A cryogenic pump is also mounted on the truck as well as a vaporizer unit which
heats the nitrogen from -320F to about 80F. This converts the nitrogen from
liquid to a gas. The vaporizers allow variable temperature control to accurately
maintain any desired pump rates. When nitrogen injection is required for only a
short duration, cryogenic nitrogen will normally
be more economical than other nitrogen generation techniques. Mobilization and
manpower costs are much less when only a nitrogen truck is involved
92
FIGURE 1: CRYOGENIC NITORGEN
2.2 Membrane Generated Nitrogen

The primary equipment requirement for on-site generation of nitrogen from ambient
air is a Nitrogen Generating Unit (NGU). A NGU is a set of modules, each
containing millions of hollow fiber membranes bundled together. The individual
modules are encased in a steel housing. The modules can handle feed air injected
using an air compressor, and must first pass through filters to remove as much
particulate matter, oil and water as possible.
Due to pressure losses through the membrane, a booster compressor may also be
required at the NGU outlet to inject nitrogen downhole. Typical Nitrogen
Generating Units have output capacities in the range of 800 to 3000 [scfm].
Hollow fiber membranes can produce nitrogen as pure as 99.9%. This would
completely eliminate the danger of either downhole combustion or oxygen
corrosion. However, flow rate through NGUs varies inversely with nitrogen purity;
the purer the nitrogen, the lower the output volume of nitrogen.
Consideration of the use of NGUs should account for location, job duration,
volume of nitrogen required, the presence of natural gas contaminants and the
nature of liquid phase of the drilling fluid. Each of the considerations above are
logistical by nature, but significantly impacts the cost of the operation as well.
FIGURE 2: MEMBRANE SYSTEM
2.3 Natural Gas

A unique gas source for gas or aerated fluid drilling is natural hydrocarbon gas.
This source is typically only feasible when drilling in an area which has a readily
available source of natural gas. Potential sources of natural gas are developed
gas fields or nearby high pressure gas lines. When using methane or field gas
as a source of drilling fluid, the setup will essentially be the same as that for
compressed air, except that a standard compressor package will not be
93
required. Some means of controlling the injection rate should be provided. This
can normally be the choke in the supply line.
3. Air Compression System

Compressors used in UBD to provide pressured gas down hole so the
Gases used for underbalanced Drilling
Air.
Cryogenic Nitrogen.
Membrane Nitrogen.
Engine Exhaust.
Natural gas.
3.1 Compressors
As their name indicates, these are the primary means of compressing air
to the Pressure required to circulate it round the well. Several different
types of compressor units are available - rotary vane, straight lobe,
reciprocating, and rotary screw. Of these, the reciprocating and rotary
screw types are the most widely used for drilling applications.
94
FIGURE 3: COMPRESSOR TYPES
Compressor output is usually expressed in terms of the free volume that the
output air would occupy under the prevailing input conditions. Delivery capacities
of 750 to 1,000 cubic feet per minute (cfm) are common in oilfield applications.
Compressor output is sometimes expressed in standard cubic feet per minute
(scfm). This is the volume that the air delivered by the compressor in one minute
would occupy under standard conditions of temperature and pressure (STP, 60F
and 14.7 psia). When expressed in scfm, the output decreases with increasing
altitude and temperature because of the accompanying reduction in density of the
free air drawn into the compressor. Assuming that air behaves as an ideal gas,
the volume, VI, occupied by a given quantity of air at pressure, P 1 (psia), and
temperature, T1 is related to the volume, VO, at standard pressure (14.7 psia) and
temperature (60F or 520R) by:
Vt Vo
14.7(T1 460)
520 P1
(E QUATION 1)
The air delivery rate, Q o expressed in scfm, can be found from the free air
delivery rate, Q,(cfm), the ambient pressure, P (psia), and the temperature T( 0F),
using:
Qo Q
520 P1
14.7(T1 460)
(EQUATION 2)
The influence of reduced ambient pressure on air delivery rate, due to operating at
high elevations, can be significant in some parts of the United States.
T ABLE 1: PREDICTED BOTTOM HOLE ANNULAR AND STANDPIPE PRESSURES AT VERSUS PENETRATION
RATES IN A 6,000 FOOT DRY, AIR DRILLED HOLE.
Penetration rate
Ft / hr
0
30
60
120
180
240
300
Annular pressure psia Standpipe pressure

Standpipe
without nozzle
pressure with
nozzle
33
93
167
38
94
167
43
95
167
53
98
167
64
103
167
75
108
167
88
114
167
As a rule-of thumb, atmospheric pressure decreases by 0.5 psi for each 1,000 feet
of elevation increase. In the Rocky Mountains, it is not unusual to have wells
located at 6,000 feet above sea level, where the ambient pressure is around 11.8
95
psia. At this elevation, a compressor rated at 1,000 scfm free air delivery will
deliver only 803 scfm, if the ambient temperature is 60F.
The influence of temperature on delivery rate is smaller, but not necessarily
negligible. Considering the same well location, if the ambient air temperature is
100"F, the delivery rate will drop further to 745 scfm. The well site elevation and
ambient temperature should therefore be considered when determining
compressor requirements.
Well site elevation can have a further impact on compressor output because of its
effect on the power generated by the compressors diesel engine. Lyons, 1984,
indicate that the power output of internal combustion engines decreases linearly
with increasing altitude. A normally aspirated diesel engine will lose 22 percent of
its sea-level power rating when operated at an altitude of 6,000 feet a turbo
charged engine will lose approximately 15 percent of its power rating. This will be
significant if the compressors are to be operated close to both their volumetric
delivery and pressure ratings.
Measurements of compressor delivery rates, made with an orifice meter during field
operations, have indicated that the delivery rate actually achieved by different
compressors can vary between 50 and 95 percent of rated capacity. A common
average is 70 to 75 percent of the rated inlet capacity. The efficiency of the
compressor is primarily a function of how well it has been maintained. As a result, it
is not possible to determine the discharge volume simply by measuring the
compressor rpm. An orifice meter is the only practical way to determine actual
volumes delivered to the standpipe. Very often, two or more compressors are used
to provide the required flow rate. Depending on the daily rent 11 rate for
compressors, in comparison to the total daily drilling cost, there can be stages in
having an extra compressor In site, in addition to those necessary to give the
desired flow rate. In this way, one compressor can be pulled out of service for
maintenance without impeding drilling Operations.
Single stage compressors typically have a maximum discharge pressure of about
135 psi. Most compressors that are used for air drilling are multi-stage (usually twostage in the case of rotary screw compressors). These have maximum discharge
pressures that range from 250 to 350 psi. In many instances, this pressure capacity
is sufficient for dry air drilling.
Air compressors are available which provide adequate air volumes along with
portability.
The most commonly used oil field air compressor is a positive displacement,
double acting, reciprocating, two or three-stage type compressor. The number of
compressors in a package will depend on the air volume required to drill hole
efficiently. Generally, one air compressor available on today's market, for oil filed
drilling will put out from 400 to 1200 cubic feet of air per minute at 300 to 320 psig
maximum pressure.
96
3.2 Boosters
Boosters are positive displacement compressors that take the exit volume of the
compressors and compress it to a higher pressure. A booster is required if drilling
pressures exceed the pressure capabilities of the compressors.
The oilfield booster will increase pressure from about 300 psig to about 1500 psig.
The booster is necessary insurance on an air drilling operation should hole trouble
develop.
Boosters are positive displacement compressors that provide high pressure air.
They are designed to receive the volumetric air/gas flow from the compressor(s)
and increase it to a higher pressure.
If one booster cannot handle the pressure boost from several compressors, an
additional booster can be added parallel.
Low pressure Boosters
The low-pressure boosters are normally composed of a two cylinder, single or
two-stage, double acting, reciprocating, inter-cooled and after-cooled, 7 1/2 x
5 pressure booster. The low-pressure booster is capable of boosting with an
inlet pressure of 165 PSI.
The high-pressure booster
It is normally a single cylinder, double-acting, reciprocating, after-cooled,
2.75 x 7 pressure booster. The high pressure booster needs an inlet
pressure of 1400 psi and can boost up to a pressure of 4000 psia. The highpressure booster may be volume restricted and this will need to be confirmed
with the equipment supplier.
97
FIGURE 4: LOW PRESSURE BOOSTER (1800 PSIA)
4. In-Lines facilities
4.1 Air/gas Line
The line from the compressor to the standpipe should be large enough I diameter
(usually 4) to minimize frictional losses. It should have a pressure relief valve to guard
against high pressures for the compressors and other equipment. It should also have a
check valve to prevent air or fluids back flow to the compressor. The standpipe should
have a pressure gauge, while the air line should have a connection to the Braden head
for reverse circulation if necessary. The air header should also connect through a
release, or blow down line, to the blooie line. This way the compressors do not have to
be shut down or taken off line during connection. A three way valve or two standard
valves may be used, and should be positioned so the rig crew can control air flow from
the rig floor all times.
4.2 Bypass Blow Down

The main air header connects a bypass and chokes to a muffler. When necessary to
stop air injection, the bypass is opened and the main air header closed while the
compressors are shut down. The bypass blow down should b equipped with a muffler,
often called a blow down silencer or bypass muffler, to silence the discharged air.
4.3 Scrubber
The scrubber removes excess water in the compressed air flowing the flow line. If the
humidity of the atmospheric air is high, then as the air is compressed in the
compressors much of the water will return to the liquid state. Dry air drilling operations
require the removal of this water before the compressed air is injected into the well.
4.4 Solid injector

Inject hole-drying powders into the wellbore to dry weeping water zones or to
reduce friction in a deep hole. The endless chain and the belt type with pistons are
most practical
4.5 Valves
98
Both manually and remotely operated valves are located along the flow line to the rig.
These valves are usually the gate or ball type. These valves cannot be operated in a
partially open position. The abrasive nature of the compressed air flow in the flow line
would erode the gate or ball of the valve and render the valve ineffective in the closed
position. At strategic locations along the flow line are check valves. These special
mechanical valves allow compressed air flow in only one direction (toward the
standpipe).
4.6 Gauges
Each of the compressors is equipped with independent gauges to assess its
operating performance. In addition to the compressor gauges are those placed
along the flow line. A low pressure gauge is placed downstream of the primary
compressors but upstream of the booster compressor. This gauge allows
assessment of the performance of the primaries. A high pressure gauge is placed
downstream of the booster compressor to assess the performance of the
primaries and booster when high pressure compressed air is required. Pressure
gauges are also placed upstream and downstream of the water injection pump
and the solids injector.
The Blooie line carries exhaust air/gas and cuttings to the flare pit. Recommended
length and diameter are 300[ft] (100[m]) or more, with a cross sectional area
equivalent to that of the annulus. The outlet end of the line should be crosswind to
the prevailing wind and should extend past the flare pit wall by 6[ft]. The Blooie line
should be securely anchored and grounded along its entire length.
5.1. Gas Sniffers

It can be hooked into the blooie line to detect very small amounts of gas entering the
return flow of air and cuttings from the annulus. The gas sniffer is located on the blooie
line just after the return flow from the annulus enters the blooie line.
5.2. Deducter
In order to minimize the dust exiting the Blooie line, a
Deducter is employed to wet the cuttings slightly prior
to their exit from the Blooie line. This accomplished
using a small centrifugal pump, flexible water lines
and some form of jet or spray nozzles inside the
Blooie line.
5.3. Pilot Light
FIGURE 5: DEDUCTER
A small pilot light or flame should be maintained at the end of the Blooie line.
This will ignite any gas encountered while drilling. When drilling with natural
gas, the flame should be extinguished until full flow is available in the Blooie
line.
99
5.4. Sample Catchers

A sample catcher is installed on the blooie line to catch drill cutting samples.
The sample catcher also serves a more important function; It allows
observation of the dust when the de-duster is being used. This is necessary
because, should the dust disappear, damp or wet down hole condition exists
and trouble is pending or has already occurred This trouble comes in the form
of down hole fires and/or a stuck drill string.
FIGURE 6: SAMPLE CATCHER
5.5. Burn Pit

Positioned at the end of the Blooie line, the burn pit should be located away
from the standard mud drilling reserve pit. The burn pit will prevent any
hydrocarbon liquids from burning or flowing into the reserve pit, thus preventing
a reserve pit fire near the rig.
100
FIGURE 7: BURN BIT LOCATION
5. Separation System
In all underbalanced operations, the separation system that is to be used has to
be tailored to the expected reservoir fluids. The separation system must be
designed to handle the expected influx fluids and gasses, and it must be able to
separate the drilling fluid from the return well flow in order for it to be pumped
down the well once again.
The surface separation system in underbalanced drilling can be readily compared
with a process plant, and there are many similarities with the process industry.
Fluid streams while drilling underbalanced are often described as four phase flow,
as the return flow is comprised of:
Oil
Water
Gas
Solids
The challenge for the separation equipment is to effectively and efficiently

separate the various phases of the return fluid stream into their individual streams
whilst at the same time returning a clean fluid back to the drilling process.
The approach taken is largely dependent on the expected reservoir fluids.
Normally the first approach is taken, but if erosion is expected to be a problem,
the solids can be removed first.
In a lot of situations, the separator is the first process equipment that receives the
return flow out of a well. Separators can be classified as:
Classification Operating Pressure
Low pressure: 10 to 20 psi, up to 180 to 225 psi
Medium pressure: 230 to 250 psi, up to 600 to 700 psi
High-pressure: 750 to 5000 psi
Separation of liquids and gasses is achieved by relying on the density differences
between liquid, gas and solids. The rate at which gasses and solids are
separated from a liquid is a function of temperature and pressure.
Separators are classified as two-phase if they separate gas from the total liquid
stream and three phase if they also separate the liquid stream into its crude oil
and water components. In underbalanced drilling, the term four-phase
separation is used to indicate the separation of 1) oil, 2) water, 3) gas and 4)
solids.
Horizontal and vertical separators can be used. Vertical separators are more
effective when the returns are predominantly gas, while horizontal separators
have higher and more efficient fluid handling capacities.
101
5.1 Horizontal separators

In horizontal separators, well returns enter and are slowed by the velocityreducing baffles.
Solids predominantly settle in the
first compartment from where they
can be removed by a solids transfer
pump. Liquid passes over the
partition plate into the second
compartment where further solids
separation takes place and the
liquids begins to separate by virtue
of their density difference and
FIGURE 8: HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR
residence time. The liquid spills
over to the third compartment
where separation is completed. The water component and liquid hydrocarbon are
discharged from different levels of the third compartment.
The separator should be fitted with adequately sized pressure relief valves and an
emergency shutdown valve, triggered on high/low liquid level, and high and/or low
pressure. It should be fitted with sight glasses to indicate liquid levels and
observe the solids level.
5.2 Four-phase separator

A separator used to process under balanced drilling returns will need to provide
four phase separation of liquid hydrocarbon, water or aqueous drilling fluid, gases
(both produced and injected), and cuttings. Typically, underbalanced drilling
separators operate at 20 to 50 psig but they can be rated for 200 to 500 psi
maximum pressure. Separating gases from the returns is only efficient if the
separator pressure is low Additional degassing equipment may be necessary
downstream of the primary separator this will be discussed later in this section.
Frequently, underbalanced drilling returns are produced in slug flow, with
intermittent slugs of liquid at much higher instantaneous flow rates than the
overall average liquid rate. These slugs can overwhelm a conventional separator.
At the very least, the internal separator design will have to minimize "splashing"
when a slug enters.
Some underbalanced drilling separators have a spiraled entry baffle for this
purpose. Using a higher vessel pressure will reduce the tendency for slug flow,
but this will also decrease the efficiency of removing gas from the liquids.
102
FIGURE 9: FOUR -PHASE SEPARATOR
5.3 Degasser
Gas carryover from the separator to an open mud pump suction tank is potentially
dangerous, particularly if there is any possibility of H2S production. Gas in the
reinjected liquid can cause lower than anticipated pressures downhole, with
consequent higher production and safety concerns. It will also interfere with the
efficiency of the mud pumps. All gas has to be eliminated from any liquid to be
reinjected into the well. In most circumstances, it will be necessary to use an
additional degasser, downstream of the primary separator.
5.4 Mud/Gas Separator

A large, vertical mud/gas separator, with a height-adjustable support frame, is
necessary for proper gas removal in the separator. This open system, or
atmospheric-pressured vessel, should be at least 6 feet in diameter by 12 feet
high, with sufficiently large gas flare lines (6- to 12-inch) and adequate liquid
dump lines to handle the expected instantaneous flow rates. The flare stack, with
variable height adjusters for different flow or location conditions, must be
equipped with an automatic flare igniter system. In areas of high gas production, it
is common to see a 50- to 100-foot high flare, concurrent with an annular
pressure of 1,000 psi or more. This instantaneous production rate cannot be
precisely calculated; rather it is empirically derived to be between the expected
future production rate and the absolute open flow (AOF) rate of the formation.
103
FIGURE 10: MUD / GAS SEPARATOR WITH B AFFLES
6. Pits & tanks

6.1 Surge Tank
A surge tank (or de-aerator) is required only in aerated fluid drilling. Its purpose
is to prevent the air from blowing water or mud out of the system and onto the
location, and to air separation for both, drilling liquid and cuttings from the gas
phase. Back pressure control chokes at the surge tank help control the down
hole pressures and surging. A huge variety of separators are available from
simple systems to closed separators.
FIGURE 11: A CLOSED SYSTEM OF UBD TANKS
6.2 Skimmers
Drilling fluid and oil flows from the gas separator into a series of two or more
tanks The tanks have weirs or partitions at the top that allows the oil that rises to
the top of the water to flow over into a second tank partition and then into the
second tank. Then the third tank, etc. The water is pumped from the bottom of the
tank. Thirty minutes to an hour of separation time is usually enough for free oil to
separate from the water and rise to the surface With persistent oil/water
emulsions, breakers may have to be sprayed or mixed into the first pit or pumped
into the line between the separator and first skimming. Actually, the skimmer can
be divided into two pits;
6.3 Drilling Fluid Pit

104
The drilling fluid pit serves as a reservoir for cleaned drilling fluid, which is
automatically returned to the rig pit for mud pump suction. The drilling fluid pit
contains two or more centrifugal pumps, with level controllers.
These maintain levels adequate to ensure proper gravity flow from the primary
and secondary oil separation pits. Each centrifugal pump has its own level
controller and acts independently, to maintain pit level regardless of the return
flow from the well. Complete redundancy in these pumps is necessary, to ensure
that the return flow of drilling fluid will not be interrupted during critical flow drilling
periods.
6.4 Water Tank

When the drilling fluid has an aqueous phase, water from the separator will be
discharged into one or two settling tanks, before being transferred to the mud
pump suction tank. Since additional solids separation occurs in these tanks, they
should have sloped bottoms and be fitted with internal risers for water draw off, to
provide the cleanest possible water to the mud pumps.
6.5 Solids Tank

There should normally be a cuttings storage tank to receive solids discharged
from the separator, unless the anticipated volume of cuttings is sufficiently low
that the separator will only be emptied at the end of the job.
7. Flare system
As hydrocarbons are produced whilst drilling underbalanced, these must be
handled on the drilling location. Gas is normally flared whilst crude oil and
condensate are stored and then pumped to a processing facility. Where
environmental regulations preclude flaring, gas re-compression and export
injection can now be considered as a viable alternative to flaring.
Flaring is either done in a flare pit or through a flare stack. The flare stack or flare
pit should be equipped with an automatic ignition system and flam propagation
blocks.
For safety reasons a great deal of consideration should be given to the surface
equipment layout to avoid unnecessary rig crew exposure to noxious fumes,
radiated heat, noise and flammable liquids.
Even with the use of water curtains as a means of preventing the spread of fire
and thermal radiation, it is necessary to know the amount of thermal radiation that
will be transmitted through the water curtains. For onshore systems a heat
radiation survey can dictate the required height of the stack.
105
FIGURE 12: FLARE LOCATION
8. Surface Measurements
It is convenient to divide UBD surface instrumentation into separate categories
based on the equipment that it serves. The general problems of instrumentation
are not unique to UBD but are common to all drilling.
With UB drilling, there are several different service companies, the drilling
contractor, and the operator on location. Each of them is collecting their own
information, often in specific formats. To be really useable, the material has to be
gathered into a standard format. On most drilling operations, the mud logger
collects the drilling data, but with few exceptions, they do not maintain detailed
operational data.
8.1 Air and Gas Drilling
106
In all operations where air, gas, or nitrogen is used, it is critical to measure the
gas content and record the pressure and temperature. The metered gas should
be reported as at local conditions, and as reduced to standard cubic feet or
meters. Metering of air and gas is traditionally done with differential pressure
Meters in a run with straightening vanes. Other systems using turbine or positive
Displacement meters are available. Any system is satisfactory that is calibrated
and Provable. Pressure is a critical part of gas drilling operations. Pressure,
weight, and ROP are the driller's measurement tools. Rig mud pressure gauges
are not adequate to measure gas pressures in the range and accuracy needed.
The gauge must precise enough to register 10 to 20 psi change at 300 psi.
8.2 Foam Drilling

Foam drilling input and output need to be carefully measured and compared
against a computer model. Foam systems are used to maintain an
underbalanced against the reservoir. Since foam is rheological a dynamic and
complex mixture of gas and fluid, good measurements are needed to maintain
balance in the system.
The basic measuring systems used for air drilling need to be used with
foam. The actual fluid and gas input need to be recorded in a parallel
manner because a constant surface ratio is one of the requirements for a
stable system. In foam drilling, manual pump stroke count are only
marginally satisfactory. A low-pressure probe and recorder should be kept at
the head of the flow line.
8.3 Aerated Fluids

In simple open aerated mud or water systems, the pit volume and mud flow
can be recorded by conventional pit volume recorders and a flow sensor in the
flow line. The rig pressure gauge and pump stroke counters are adequate to
measure mud rate. The air volume needs to be metered. The rotating head
pressure (or the pressure just below the rotating head) further supplies back
pressure and flow data.
9. Foam drilling accessories

Foam Drilling is especially suitable for drilling large holes in formations that are
prone to lost circulation. Foam is a gas liquid dispersion in which the liquid is
the continuous phase and the gas is the discontinuous phase. The low density
and high viscosity of foam at low shear rates make it extremely useful as a
circulation medium in low pressure reservoirs. The consistency of foam is
much like shaving cream. These properties minimize fluid loss to the formation
and reduce required annular velocities yet provide high lifting capacity at
minimum circulating pressures much better lifting capacity than that of a fluid.
Foam can achieve bottom hole pressure equivalent to a circulating fluid weight
in the range 0.2 to 0.8 sg
107
9.1 Foam Generator

The one addition to a conventional air/mist drilling compressor system, for preformed foam drilling, is the foam generator. It ensures thorough mixing of the
two phases.
One type of foam generator is located where the gas and liquid flows meet. It
introduces the liquid into the gas flow through a small bore tube centered in
the gas flow path, and then directs the mixture through a venture type flow
constriction. Other foam generators are located downstream from where the
air and liquid flows meet. . These foam generators may contain baffle plates,
or even sand beds, to promote mixing.
In practice, it is not clear that a foam generator is specifically required. The air
and liquid mixture will invariably flow through a number of valves and
experience many changes in direction, before it enters the Kelly; these alone
may produce a good foam. Even if foam does not form at the surface, it will
when the mixture passes through the bit. There is evidence that foam
generated at the surface is more tolerant of contaminants, such as formation
water or hydrocarbons, than foam formed in their presence. Unless there are
specific reasons not to do so, it makes sense to use a foam generator.
9.2 Foam pump types

Many types of pump are suitable for use for foam injection purposes. The
basic requirement is the ability to pump a slightly viscous, but clean, fluid up to
the maximum pressure of the air compressor (nominally above 6 bar [100 psi])
at relatively low delivery volumes (120 liters/minute [.25 - 4 gallons/minute]).
This will meet most foam drilling requirements.
The following types of pump can be used:
9.2.1
Hand Pump
Semi rotary or piston pressure testing pump.
9.2.2
Barrel Type Pump
Air- or electric-powered typical product transfer pumps designed to work from

standard 200-litre (45 gallon) drum.
108
9.2.3
Piston Pumps
Duplex or triplex high-pressure pumps typically water-pressure wash

duties. These are readily available as electric-, petrol-, or diesel-powered.
The most significant attribute of any foam pump is being able to control the
injection flow rate to just the minimum required over-injecting does not often
cause many problems other than wasting water and making more mess on the
surface. In remote locations, where water is being carried long distances, it
helps to conserve its use to the bare essentials.
9.2.4
Water Injection Pump
Unstable foam (mist) drilling operations require the injection of water into the
compressed air flow before the air is injected into the well. The water injection
pump injects water, chemical corrosion inhibitors, and liquid foamers into the
compressed air flow line these skid mounted water injection pumps are used
for the deep drilling operations. These pumps are capable of injecting up to 20
bbl/hr (at 42 gal/bbl) into the air or gas flow to the well. The smaller drilling rigs
have on-board water injection pumps. These smaller rig water injection pumps
have capabilities from 10 to 25 gal/min. The small water injection pump carries
out the same objective on these smaller rigs as the skid mounted water pump
for the larger double and triple drilling rigs. The injection of water and
appropriate chemicals and foamer is a vital option for air and gas drilling
operations. Very few air and gas drilling operations are carried out without
some water, chemical additives, and foam producing additives being injected.
9.3 Foam inlet manifold

A simple pipe manifold is required to allow injection of foam standard fittings
as found in most plumbers can be used. Both the foam pump and the
compressor require protection from being back-filled with each others medium
by fitting nonreturnable valves. For low-velocity foam a suitable gate valve
fitted to the air supply helps regulate the airflow to give the correct air/foam
mix.
9.4 Mixing method

In both foam drilling methods a good mixing method is to use two, or possibly
even three, 200-litre (45- gallon) open-topped barrels. In each drum mix the
required foam formula, first mixing the polymer (only for slow foam) arriving at
a convenient volumetric addition for the required viscosity, 3540 Marsh
funnel seconds (i.e. 1 liter jug of polymer powder = 40 sec mix in 200 liters
of water). Allow time for this mixture to yield viscosity. Add the foam .5 to no
more than 1.5% dilution i.e. 1-3 liters of liquid soap or drill foam to a 200-litre
barrel at the last minute, using just a few stirs with a clean spade or shovel to
mix. Use water as clean as possible to mix to prevent fines and dirt from
damaging or blocking suction-line filters of the small parts and passages of the
foam pump.
109
9.5 Adequate foam supply

Use the first barrel until empty and then switch the foam pump suction to the
second barrel. While using this barrel, re-mix the first barrel. In this way, it will
be possible to have a continuous foam supply available to the drilling
operation. High foam consumption might dictate introducing a third barrel into
the system to ensure that a mixed barrel of fully "yielded" polymer is always
available.
FIGURE 13: TYPICAL FOAM DRILLING METHOD
FIGURE 14: RECYCLABE FOAM SYSTEM
110
10. Surface equipment layout for different UBD

techniques
10.1 Air (dust drilling)
FIGURE 15: LAYOUT OF AIR DRILLING EQUIPMENTS
10.2 Mist or foam drilling
111
FIGURE 16: LAYOUT OF MIST OR FOAM DRILLING EQUIPMENTS
10.3 Aerated fluid drilling layout
FIGURE 17: LAYOUT OF AREATED FLUID DRILLING EQUIPMENT
10.4 Closed loop layout
112
FIGURE 18: CLOSED LOOP CIRCULATION SYSTEM
10.5 Mud cap drilling layout
FIGURE 19: LAYOUT OF MCD EQUIPMENTS
10.6 Flow drilling layout
113
FIGURE 20: FLOW DRILLING EQUIPMENT (EXAMPLE)
11. IADC UNDERBALANCED OPERATION

COMMITTEE
(Fluids Subcommittee - Equipment Requirements)
114
Fluid Group
Fluid
Equipment Requirements
Gas Drilling
Air
Compressors, boosters, mist/foamer pump, blooie line,

rotating head/diverter, flare/flame, drill string floats
Nitrogen
Cryogen tanks & heaters - OR - membrane nitrogen

generators, boosters, mist/foamer pump, blooie line,
Natural
Gas
Pipeline / gas source, compressors, boosters,

mist/foamer pump, blooie line, rotating head/diverter,
flare/flame, drill string floats
Mist Drilling
Mist
Source of gas, small injection pump, compressors,

boosters, mist/foamer pump, blooie line, rotating
head/diverter, flare/flame, drill string floats
Foam
Drilling
Dry Foam Source of gas, compressors, boosters, foam generator,

blooie line, rotating head/diverter, flare/flame, special
metering equipment, defoaming tank and pump, drill
string floats
Gasified
Liquid
Drilling
Gasified
Liquid
Gas/liquid separator, compressors, boosters, flare line,

Liquid
Drilling
Oil Based
Rotating head/diverter, drill string floats, cuttings

disposal
Emulsion
Rotating head/diverter, drill string floats, cuttings

disposal
Water
Based
Rotating head/diverter, drill string floats
NOTES:
Snubbing unit, coiled tubing unit, casing drilling, parasitic strings, and
closed loop systems may be required.
Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) production requires special considerations.
Gas and H2S monitoring systems, confined space, explosion-proof

electrical equipment, electrical bonding/grounding, and wind socks should
be considered.
Depending on fluids used and production: 2-phase or 3-phase separators

(vertical or horizontal) may be required.
Additional lighting, fire fighting equipment, and power generation may be

required.
Special data acquisition systems should be considered.
If crude oil is being considered as the UBD fluid, a HAZOP risk

assessment is required.
115
12. OBAYED FIELD SITE DRAWINGS &

EQUIPMENTS
12.1 Obayed P & ID
116
12.2 FIGURE 21: LAYOUT OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT IN OBAYED FILELD
General rig arrangement
117
FIGURE 22: GENERAL RIG ARRANGEMENT
118
FIGURE 23: LAY OUT OF SURFACE EQUIPMENT
References
Bieseman, T.,
RKER.95.071
Bourgoyne Jr., AT., et al 'Applied Drilling Engineering' SPE Textbook

Series 1986, ISBN 1-55563-001-4
Stone, C.R. and Cress, L.A.: New Applications for Underbalanced
Drilling Equipment, paper SPE 37679, manuscript under review (1997).
119
DOWNHOLE EQUIPEMENT
IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
120
D O W EN H O L E EQ UI P E MEN T IN UN D ER B A L AN C ED
IN Underbalanced Drilling
ir and gas drilling operations require some special
subsurface equipment and drilling methods that are not

normally used in rotary mud drilling operations. Deep direct
circulation operations use rotary drill strings that are similar to
those used in mud drilling. But even these drill strings are
equipped with downhole tools unique to air and gas drilling
operations.
Drill string design for an air drilled hole is very similar to that
for a mud drilled hole. The drill string still consists primarily of
drill pipe and drill collars. Stabilizers, reamers, jars and shock
subs can still be used in an air hole. There are a few subtle
differences. These are discussed in the following
Contents
DOWEN HOLE EQUIPEMENT IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
Down-hole
Equipment
1. Rotary standard drill string

2. Drilling bits
3. Air hammer bits
4. Bottom hole accessories
5. downhole motors
6. Measurement while drilling

7. Electromagnetic
measurement while drilling
8. Down hole motor
9. heavy weight drillpipe
121
Rotary Drill String

There are two general types of drill strings used in air and gas drilling operations.
The standard drill string discussed below is used almost exclusively for deep
direct circulation operations. The dual wall pipe drill string is used exclusively for
intermediate and shallow depth reverse circulation operations.
1. Standard drill string

A drill string would be used on large drilling rigs. At the bottom of the drill string is
the drill bit. The drill bit is threaded to a bit sub. The drill bit has a male thread or
threaded pin pointing up. The bit sub is a short thick wall pipe that has a female
thread or threaded box on both ends.
FIGURE 1: SCHEMATIC DRILL STRING
122
Above the bit sub are the drill collars. Each of the drill collars and most of the
remainder of the components in the drill string are designed with a threaded pin
down and a threaded box up.
Figure2:slick, spiral and non-magnetic drill collers
Generally the drill collars in a drill string have the same thread design. Above the
drill collars are the drill pipe joints. The threads of the drill collar connections are
usually not the same as the threads of the drill pipe joint connections (tool joints).
Therefore, a special crossover sub must be used to mate the drill collars to the
drill pipe. The crossover sub is a short thick walled pipe with a threaded pin down
(with the drill collar threads) and a threaded box up (with the drill pipe threads).
The bit sub is used to protect the bottom threads of the bottom drill collar from the
wear caused by the frequent drill bit changes that are typical for all deep drilling
operations.
A drill collar is a thick wall pipe that provides the weight or vertical axial force on
the drill bit allowing the drill bit to be advanced as it is rotated. Usually there are a
number of drill collars in a drill string. The number of drill collars in a drill string
depends on how much weight-on-bit (WOB) is required to allow the drill bit to be
advanced efficiently.
123
FIGURE 3 DRILL COLLERS AND HEAVY WEIGHT DRILL PIPES
At the top of the drill pipe section is the Kelly cock (or saver) sub. The Kelly cock
sub is another crossover sub. But this sub is used to protect the bottom threads
of the Kelly.
FIGURE 4: KELLY COKE
2. Dual Wall Pipe Drill String:

Intermediate and shallow depth large diameter wells can be drilled with direct
circulation techniques. But reverse circulation techniques are more efficient and
are the preferred techniques. The drilling industry has developed some very
unique down hole tools for reverse circulation air drilling operations
Reverse circulation techniques are not restricted to air drilling operations.
Reverse circulation techniques often use standard drill string like that
124
FIGURE 5:DUAL W ALL P IPE DRILL S TRING
Drilling Bits
There are three basic types of rotary drill bits. These are drag bits, roller cutter
bits, and air hammer bits
.
FIGURE 6:
TYPES OF DRILL BITS
bits
Fixed Cutter Bits
Natural
Diamond
Insert
PDC
Insert
TSP
Rotary dual wall pipe reverse circulation operations must be used on drilling rigs
equipped with hydraulic rotary top drive systems (for single drilling rigs) or with
hydraulic power swivel systems (for double and triple drilling rigs) to rotate the
drill string. Dual wall pipe is quite rigid and has a much higher weight per unit
length than standard single wall drill pipe. Thus, dual wall pipe can be used like
drill collars (the lower portion of the drill string can be placed in compression).
Roller Cone Bits
Steel
Mill
Tungsten
Carbide
Inserts
125
1. Drag Bits (fixed cutter blades)
Drag bits have fixed cutter blades or elements that are integral with the body
of the bit. The earliest drag bits were simply steel cutter blades rigidly
attached to a steel body that is made up to the bottom of the drill string. Later
natural diamonds were used as the cutter elements. A diamond drill bit has
natural diamonds that are embedded in a tungsten carbide matrix body that
is made up to the bottom of the drill string. The most recent development in
drag bit technology is the polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC) bit.
FIGURE 7: ANATOMY OF DRAG BIT
126
Steel Body
Matrix Body
Dual Diameter
1.1 Diamond Bits
natural diamonds plow the rock to fail it

proper selection of the bit for the formation
direct understanding of the formation for bit style, diamond size, and
diamond quality
the harder the formation the easier it is to clean a diamond bit
expected performance is referenced to roller cone offset
Special features
low pressure drop for PDM and Turbine applications

shallow cone, short gauge used for sidetracking with PDMs
and Turbines
deep cone enhances bit stability
core ejector diamond bits
Natural Diamond Bits

The hardness and wear resistance of diamond made it an obvious material to
be used for a drilling bit. The diamond bit is really a type of drag bit since it
has no movingcones and operates as a single unit. Industrial diamonds
have been used for many years in drill bits and in core heads The cutting
action of a diamond bit is achieved by scraping away the rock.
The
diamonds are set in a specially designed pattern and bonded into a matrix
material set on a steel body. Despite its high wear resistance diamond is
sensitive to shock and vibration and therefore great care must be taken when
running a diamond bit.
Effective fluid circulation across the face of the bit is also very important to
prevent overheating of the diamonds and matrix material and to prevent the
face of the bit becoming smeared with the rock cuttings (bit balling).
The major disadvantage of diamond bits is their cost (sometimes 10
times more expensive than a similar sized rock bit). There is also no
guarantee that these bits will achieve a higher ROP than a correctly selected
roller cone bit in the same formation.
They are however cost effective when drilling formations where long rotating
hours (200-300 hours per bit) are required.
Since diamond bits have no moving parts they tend to last longer than
roller cone bits and can be used for extremely long bit runs. This results in a
reduction in the number of round trips and offsets the capital cost of the bit.
This is especially important in areas where operating costs are high (e.g.
offshore drilling). In addition, the diamonds of a diamond bit can be extracted,
so that a used bit does have some salvage value
Applications
127
Impregnated
Impregnated with GHIs

FIGURE 8: NATURAL DIAMOND
1.2 PDC Bits

A new generation of diamond bits known as polycrystalline diamond compact (PDC)
bits were introduced in the 1980s These bits have the same advantages and
disadvantages as natural diamond bits but use small discs of synthetic diamond to
provide the scraping cutting surface. The small discs may be manufactured in any size
and shape and are not sensitive to failure along cleavage planes as with natural
diamond. PDC bits have been run very successfully in many areas around the world.
They have been particularly successful (long bit runs and high ROP) when run in
combination with turbo drills and oil based mud.
SHORT PDC
BIT
MEDIUM PDC
BIT
LONG PDC BIT
NATURAL
DIAMOND BIT
TSP BIT
FIGURE 9:P OLYCRYSTALLINE C OMPACT (PDC) B ITS
128
1.3 TSP Bits

Thermally Stable Polycrystalline (TSP) diamond bits. These bits are manufactured in a
similar fashion to PDC bits but are tolerant of much higher temperatures than PDC bits.
Roller cutter bits use a crushing action to remove rock from the cutting face and
advance the drill bit. The weight or axial force that is applied to the drill bit is
transferred to the tooth or teeth on the bit. These teeth are pointed (mill tooth bit)
or rounded (insert tooth bit) and the force applied is sufficient to fail the rock in
shear and tension and cause particles of the rock to separate from the cutting
face. The drill bits are designed to remove a layer of rock with each successive
rotation of the bit.
Roller cone bits (or rock bits) are still the most common type of bit used world
wide. The cutting action is provided by cones which have either steel teeth
or tungsten carbide inserts. These cones rotate on the bottom of the hole
and drill hole predominantly with a grinding and chipping action. Rock bits
are classified as milled tooth bits or insert bits depending on the cutting surface
on the cones
The major advances in rock bit design since the introduction of the Hughes rock
bit include:
Improved cleaning action by using jet nozzles
Using tungsten carbide for hardfacing and gauge protection
Introduction of sealed bearings to prevent the mud causing premature
failure
due to abrasion and corrosion of the bearings.
FIGURE 10:M ILLED TOOTH BIT
2. Roller Cone Bits
FIGURE 11: I NSERT BIT
129
Bottom Hole Profile
PDC
ROLLER CONE
Elements of a Rock Bit
130
FIGURE 12: ANATOMY OF CONE BIT
The Conical insert is

used primarily in
Medium/Medium- Hard
rock. It is designated in
the bit nomenclature with
a suffix of C.
The Chisel insert is used

in Soft/Medium-Soft rock.
It is the standard insert in
soft bits (40s & 50s) and
has no suffix in the bit
nomenclature.
The Trimmer is used

specifically in the MAG
product line. It
enhances the gage
rows ability to cut the
bore hole wall. The
MAG feature is used in
Soft to Medium brittle
rock formations.
The Give insert is used in

areas were the
aggressiveness of the
conical insert is required
with additional toughness.
The Give is designated as
a G in the bit
nomenclature.
The Super-Scoop is
used in very soft rock.
With the patented offset
tip, digging and gouging
help penetrate in sticky
materials. The Super-
The Ovoid is use in the

hardest formations. Its
blunt geometry gives it
the most fracture
resistant design. The
ovoid is the standard
insert in hard bits (60s,
70s & 80s) and has no
suffix in the bit
nomenclature.
FIGURE 13: TOOTH PROFILE OF ROLLER CONE
3. Air Hammer Bits

Percussion air hammers have been used for decades in shallow air drilling
operations. These shallow operations have been directed at the drilling of water
wells, monitoring wells, geotechnical boreholes, and mining boreholes. In the
past decade, however, the percussion air hammers have seen increasing use in
drilling deep oil and natural gas wells. Percussion air hammers have a distinct
advantage over roller cutter bits in drilling abrasive, hard rock formations
Inserts tooth assembly
131
FIGURE 14: AIR HUMMER BITS
To prevent the air hammer from coming unscrewed while going in the hole, make
each connection up drill collar tight. Also, the air hammer should be tested on the
rig floor, using the air volume normally used for drilling. Note the pressure at
which the air hammer operates at the normal drilling air volume. This will allow
any malfunction in the operation of the air hammer to be detected while drilling.
The operation of the air hammer should be checked periodically. Stop drilling,
leave weight on the bit and air in the hole, place a steel object against the Kelly
and near the ear and listen; a faint buzzing sound will be heard if the air hammer
is working properly. Air hammer manufactures recommend pouring a small
amount of oil down the drill pipe periodically to lubricate the moving parts of the
air hammer. With proper care and handling, an air hammer can run 150 to 300
hours.
Hammer Designs
Conventional Air Hammers

New Oilfield Air Hammer FAM-Us
Economics of Bit Applications

The cost of the bit is not the concern!
Performance is more important
projected ROP
projected footage
Relevant cost parameter is Cost per Foot
daily operations cost
trip time
bit cost
Cost per Foot (CPF)

CPF = bit cost + rig rate (rotating hours + trip hours) / footage drilled
CPF
132
B R(T t )
F
Where
bit cost, B, is in dollars
rig rate, R, is in dollars per hour
rotating time, T, and trip time, t, are in hours
footage drilled, F, is measured in feet
Drilling jars
The use of drilling jars in underbalanced drilling with jointed pipe is not a
straightforward decision. In underbalanced drilling, drilling jars can be used and
they are just as effective as in overbalanced drilling. Differential sticking does not
occur during underbalanced drilling. The one issue with jars that needs to be
considered is tripping jars using a snubbing unit.
Drilling Jars
The purpose of these tools is to deliver a sharp blow to free the pipe if it becomes
stuck in the hole. Hydraulic jars are activated by a straight pull and give an
upward blow. Mechanical jars are preset at surface to operate when a given
compression load is applied and give a downward blow. Jars are usually
positioned at the top of the drill collars.
A mechanical device used down hole to deliver an impact load to another down
hole component, especially when that component is stuck. There are two primary
types, hydraulic and mechanical jars.
FIGURE 15: MECHANICAL AND HYDROLIC JARS
133
Stabilizers
Stabilizers and rolling cutter reamers are special thick-walled drill collar subs that
are placed in the BHA to force the drill collars to rotate at or near the center of the
borehole. By keeping the drill collars at or near the center of the borehole the drill
bit will drill on a nearly straight course projected by the center axis of the rigid
BHA.
Stabilizers and rolling cutter reamers have blades or rolling cutters that protrude
from the sub wall into the annulus to near the borehole diameter. The space
between blades or rolling cutters allows the air or natural gas flow with entrained
rock cuttings to return to the surface nearly unobstructed.
FIGURE 16: STABLIZERS
Reamers
The rolling cutter reamer is a special type of stabilizer tool that provides blades,
which are cylindrical roller cutter elements that can crush and remove rock from
the borehole wall as the drill bit is advanced. Often the reamer is placed just
above the drill bit.
Reamers are available in a three-point rolling cutter reamer as shown in figure
(A) These reamers have the roller cutters 120 0 apart on the circumference and
are also available in a four-point rolling cutter reamer where These reamers have
the rolling cutters 90_ apart on the circumference such rolling cutter reamers are
used when drilling in abrasive, hard rock formations
134
FIGURE 17: REAMERS
Shock Sub
Mechanical shock sub
Hydraulic shock sub
Figure 18: Mechanical &HYDROLIC shock SUB
Bottom hole assembly

The BHA is the section of the drill string below the drill
pipe. This section of the drill string is the most rigid length
of the string. It determines how much weight can be placed
on the drill bit and how straight a vertical borehole will be
drilled with the drill string. It is composed of a drill bit at the
bottom, drill collar tubular, a near bit stabilizer directly
above the bit, a stabilizer at the middle of the assembly,
and a stabilizer at the top of the assembly. The addition of
stabilizers to the drill collar string generally improves the
straight drilling capability of the drill String.
In general, air drilled boreholes can have more deviation

than mud drilled boreholes (assuming same rock
formations). However, most of the increased deviation from
vertical is due to the fact that air drilling penetration rates
are significantly higher than a mud drilling operation and
drillers tend to take advantage of that increased drilling rate
and let the deviation get away from them. To correct this
tendency, it is good practice to utilize a more stabilized
BHA when drilling an air drilled borehole than would be
used in a comparable mud drilled borehole.
FIGURE 19: STANDARD BHA FOR

MOST AIR HAMMAR OPER ATION
A shock sub is normally located above the bit to reduce the stress due to
bouncing when the bit is drilling through hard rock. The shock sub absorbs the
vertical vibration either by using a strong steel spring, or a resilient rubber
element There are two types of shock subs:
135
Down hole motor

The main issue with motors arises when drillstring gas injection is used and a
compressible mixture drives the motor or turbine. Gas will increase the speed of
the motor but will decrease the torque output from the motor. Multiphase fluids
will reduce the operating window of a motor or turbine. One of the major
problems with motors in compressible fluids is the ability to detect a motor stall.
When pumping a compressible fluid during a motor stall, the pressure increase
will be masked by the gas compressibility. Once the driller notices that the motor
has stalled he will pick up off bottom. This often results in the gas pressure being
released from the drill string and the result is that the motor will exceed its
maximum flow rate and overspeed, causing damage.
Down hole motors designed for the use with a conventional drilling fluid as a
power source, for lubrication and for heat dissipation have limitations when used
with air, mist or foam as the circulating medium. Because of the lower drill
cuttings lifting capacity of air, mist and foam, much higher volumes have to be
circulated to allow for adequate hole cleaning. These high flow rates can result in
premature tool failure
FIGURE 20:D OWN HOLE MOTOR
136
Measurment while drilling (MWD)
The most common technique for transmitting MWD data uses the drilling fluid
pumped down through the drill string as a transmission medium. Mud-pulse
telemetry transmits data to the surface by modifying the flow of mud in the drillpipe in such a way that there will be changes in fluid pressure at surface. It
involves the sequential operation of a down hole mechanism to selectively vary
or modulate the dynamic flowing pressure in the drillstring and thereby sends the
real-time data gathered by the down hole sensors. This variation in the dynamic
pressure is detected at the surface where it is demodulated back into the real
measurements and parameters from the down-hole sensors.
As directional drilling has become commonplace, so has the industrys need for
cost-effective, measurement-while-drilling (MWD) systems that can deliver
accurate directional survey and toolface data in all types of drilling environments.
FIGURE 22: MWD SCHEMTIC
137
Figure 21: MWD components
Electromagnetic MWD
Electromagnetic telemetry transmits data to the surface by pulsing low-frequency

waves through the earth. There are essentially two ways of doing this: one that
induces an axially symmetric electric field around the drill-pipe, and a second that
drives current directly from one part of the drill-pipe to another. The former is
referred to as Imag and the latter as Emag.
Imag transmission is typically used for short-hop systems, e.g. across a motor. It
has an advantage in that its transmission is essentially independent of mud
properties and layering within the rock formation. Signals are generated by
wrapping solenoid coils around the drillpipe to create a magnetic dipole. The
contrast in magnetic properties of metal versus rock is only about 100 to 1, but
the dipole efficiency can be increased somewhat by adding ferrite cores to the
coils.
Emag transmission is typically used to send data over longer distances. Signals
are generated from a voltage difference on the drill-collar, which is either induced
from toroidal coils wrapped around the collar or created directly by adding an
insulating gap to the drillpipe. This creates an electric dipole with one long end
(to the surface) and one short end (to the bit). The metal drillpipe acts as a long
focusing antenna because of the large conductivity contrast between it and the
rock (10,000,000 to 1).
138
FIGURE 23: ELECTROMAGNETIC MEASUREMENT WHILE DRILLING
Pressure while drilling sensors have proved invaluable in every underbalanced

drilling operation to date where they have been included in the drillstring and
operated without downtime. However, quite a number of these sensors have
proved problematic because of the vibration problems and fast drilling rates
encountered with underbalanced drilling. Adding a down hole gauge or sensor in
the drillstring will definitely enhance the underbalanced drilling operation and help
the team optimize the drilling process and increase the knowledge of the reservoir.
FIGURE 24: MPD STRING
Heavy weight drill pipe

Heavyweight drill pipe is an intermediate weight per unit length drill string
element. This type of drill pipe has a heavy wall pipe body with attached extra
length tool joints. Heavyweight drill pipe has the approximate outside dimensions
of standard drill pipe to allow easy handling on the drill rig. The unique
characteristic of this type of drill pipe is that it can be run in compression in the
same manner as drill collars.
Heavyweight drill pipe elements are used in a number of applications in rotary
drilling. Because this drill pipe can be used in compression, this drill pipe can be
used in place of drill collars in shallow wells with small single or double rotary
drilling rigs. This drill pipe is also used in conventional drill string for vertical
drilling operations as transitional stiffness elements between the stiff drill collars
and the very limber drill pipe. Their use as transitional stiffness elements reduces
the mechanical failures in the bottom drill pipe elements of the drill string
Pressure While Drilling (PWD)
Heavyweight drill pipe is used in directional drilling operations where drill collars
can be replaced by the heavyweight pipe. Using heavyweight drill pipe in place of
drill collars reduces the rotary torque and drag and increases directional control.
139
140
FIGURE 25: H EAVY WEIGHT DRILL PIPE
Float valves
These are also known as non return valves. Non return valves are necessary for
underbalanced drilling to prevent influx of reservoir fluids up inside the drillstring
either when tripping or making connections. It must be recognized that there is
pressure below non-return valves.
The positions of the float valve in the drillstring depend on the tools in the BHA
and the policy of the operating philosophy underpinning the safety management
of the operation. The number of float valves in the BHA and the drillstring is also
a matter of company policy consistent with perceived risks and management
thereof.
Using a float valve is another primary difference between drilling with air and with
fluid. It is not common to run a float valve when drilling with fluid. A float valve is a
requirement when drilling with air. In an air hole, the drillstring should not be run
without a float valve near the bit. Air in the annulus contains cuttings, making it
much more dense than the air inside the drillstring. When air is vented from the
drillstring to make a connection, air and cuttings will U-tube into the drillstring
from the annulus. As the differential pressures equalize, air will stop moving and
the cuttings will fall to the bottom. Inside the drillstring, the cuttings will settle on
top of the bit and plug the drillstring.
The pipe will most likely have to be tripped out of the hole in order to unplug the
drill string. Installing a float valve above the bit eliminates the possibility of
plugging the drill string with cuttings while bleeding pressure off the drill string.
While the best place for the float valve is immediately above the bit, sometimes it
may have to be run immediately above a down hole tool (such as a motor, MWD
tool or stabilizer). In general, a double float valve is installed just above the BHA
and a further double float valve is installed above the bit so that there is
redundant service.
dart type
Float
valves
Flapper type
There are two types of float valves; these two types are the dart type and
the flapper Type.
The dart type valve is spring activated, which opens to allow the direct circulation
flow to pass around the dart. This type of valve provides a more secure shutoff
against high and low pressure back flows.
The flapper type valve opens fully during circulation to provide an unrestricted
bore through the valve and closes when back flow pressure is applied. These
valves are used in nearly all deep rotary air and gas drilling operations. The dart
valve is used in the bit sub just above the drill bit. In practice, at least one flapper
valve is placed just above the drill collars or above a down hole motor. A second
is often placed about 1000 ft. below the surface. It is not unusual for a long drill
string to have three or four float valves.
If the drilling float valve(s) should all fail, the well may have to be circulated to kill
weight fluid and a string trip undertaken to replace or repair the float valves.
141
FIGURE 26: THE DART TYPE AND THE FLAPPER T YPE
The fire stop is a special type of flapper valve. It is essentially an upside-down

float valve. It is usually placed just above the drill bit. These valves have a zinc
ring that holds back a spring-loaded flapper mechanism to allow the compressed
air or gas to be circulated directly from the surface through the inside of the drill
string. Wire line equipment can be run through these valves when the fire stop is
in the normal open position. In the event of a down hole fire, the zinc element
melts, releasing the spring-loaded flapper. This shuts down the flow of air or gas
into the bottom of the well, thus shutting off the source of fuel for the fire. Fire
stop valves are rarely used in present drilling operations.
String floats can hinder wire line operations such as inclination surveys. The
string float can cause the survey tool to become stuck in the hole. The survey
tool is heavy enough to open the flapper style float and pass through it. When the
survey tool is pulled from the hole, the float is held partially open by the wire line
but it is not open enough to pass the tool. The survey tool will encounter the
flapper and push it closed, causing the tool to become stuck. To prevent
problems with surveying, the string float is usually tripped out of the hole, laid
down and the drill string is run back to bottom before surveying. After surveying,
the string float is reinstalled in the drill string near the surface and drilling
continues until the next survey. Each time the well is surveyed, the string float is
tripped out of the hole
Wire line Retrievable Float Valves

Wire line retrievable float valves are normally run in the upper section of the drill
string. The purpose of the wire line retrievable valve is to allow the gas in the drill
string to be bled off rapidly and allow connections to be made. The valve
prevents the entire drill string gas volume having to be bled off every connection
and the valve also adds another well control barrier to the upper part of the drill
string.
FIGURE 27:WIRE LINE R ETRIEVABLE FLOAT V ALVES
The valve can be retrieved if wire line operations through the drill string are
required or if the valve has to be moved to a higher position in the string. The
valves are positioned in a locking profile sub that is part of the drill string.
142
Down Hole Isolation Valves
In underbalanced drilling, there are a number of options

when tripping the string. The well can be allowed to flow,
the well is shut in and a snubbing unit is used to trip the
pipe, or the well is killed and tripping is conducted
overbalanced. Killing the well is not an option if reservoir
productivity improvement is the objective for underbalanced
drilling. To avoid the use of a snubbing unit, two types of
down hole isolation valves have been developed.
The down hole valve or deployment valve is run as an
integral part of the casing program, allowing full bore
passage for the drill bit when in the open position.
When it becomes necessary to trip the drill string, the string
is tripped out until the bit is above the valve, at which time
the deployment valve is closed and the annulus above the
valve bled off. Now the drill string can be tripped out of the
well without the use of a snubbing unit and at conventional
tripping speeds, thus reducing rig time requirements and providing improved
personnel safety. The drill string can then be tripped back into the well until the
bit is just above the deployment valve, at that point the pressures are equalized
and the valve can be opened and the drill string run in to continue drilling
operations.
The down hole deployment or down hole isolation valves

have been designed to eliminate the need for snubbing
operations, or the need to kill the well in order to trip the
drill string during underbalanced drilling operations.
143
FIGURE 28: D OWN H OLE ISOLATION VALVES
Drill pipe
Conventional drill pipe can be used in underbalanced drilling operations. Torque

and drag friction factors in underbalanced drilling are often double of what they
are in overbalanced drilling operations. So more torque is required to turn the
pipe and this has a direct impact on the connections as well as on the maximum
reach with the given surface equipment.
144
It is also important that drill pipe being used for underbalanced drilling not be
plastic coated. In a gasified fluid, the plastic coating is likely to be stripped off and
plug the string. The new abrasion-resistant, liquid-applied, modified epoxyphenolic or the ceramic particle loaded epoxy resin coated systems for drill pipe
can be used for underbalanced drilling operations.
Hard banding:
Any hard banding on the drill pipe must be reviewed carefully. Hard banding on
the Pipe will wear out the rotating diverter rubbers much more quickly than pipe
without hard banding. If hard banding is required, then it must be as smooth as it
can be.
Drill pipe Rubbers
Drill pipe protection rubbers cannot be run when drilling underbalanced. There
are two reasons for this.
1- They suffer from gas impregnation when run deeper into the well and will
explosively de-compress when pulling out of the hole.
2- Is running the drill pipe rubbers through the rotating diverter will cause
blow-by when tripping and drilling.
FIGURE 29: DRILL PIPE
References
o API Recommended Practices for Drill String Design and Operating Limits, API
RP7G, Sixteenth Edition, August1998.
o Drilling Assembly Handbook, Smith Services, Division of Smith International, 2006.

o Roscoe Moss Company, Handbook of Ground Water Development, Wiley, 1990.
o Bourgoyne, A. T., Millheim, K. K., Chenevert, M. E., and Young, F. S., Applied
Drilling Engineering, SPE, First Printing, 1986.
o Durrett, E., Rock Bit Identification Simplified by IADC Action, Oil and Gas
Journal, Vol. 76, May 22, 1972.
o Wilson G. E. (1979) "How to Select Bottomhole Drilling Assemblies". Petroleum
Engineering International. March Issue.
o Drilling Manual, International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC), Eleventh

Edition, 1992.
145
146
Coiled Tubing is a service used for Well Intervention in the Oil,

Gas, and Geothermal industries. It is widely accepted as one
of the Safest, fastest, and most economical means of
performing well stimulation, work over, and drilling operations.
Contents
1- Origin of coiled
tubing
2- Coiled tubing
equipment
3- Surface equipment
4- Downhole
equipment
5- Coiled tubing
drilling
6- Coiled tubing
perforation
147
Introduction:
Coiled Tubing is a service used for Well Intervention in the Oil, Gas, and Geothermal
industries. It is widely accepted as one of the Safest, fastest, and most economical
means of performing well stimulation, work over, and drilling operations.
Well Intervention technique using continuous length of thin-walled tube into
pressurized well by means of a mechanically driven belt. Its Common sizes range
from 1 - 1 due to current economic changes & CT advance technology larger size
range from 2 - 3.
Coiled tubing is manufactured from low carbon steel that has both strength and
ductility where:
Strength: is to bear its own weight and that of down hole tools in the well.
Ductility: it can wrap around the reel and gooseneck.
The alloy used has very low sulfur content to make it resist attack of H2S, Chromium,
Copper, Nickel to give it ductility.
It can be easily transported, rigged up & unrigged in a shortest period of time.
(Offshore - 3 hrs & Onshore - 1 hrs). Currently max working depth 25K ft at 250
ft/min. CT is cheaper & quicker alternative to perform down hole works compare to
conventional methods.
CT, as a well service tool, was originally developed in the early 1960s and has
become a key Component of many well service and work over operations. Well
service or work over applications still account for over three-quarters of CT work.
However, the recent and more advanced Use of CT technology for completion and
drilling applications is rapidly gaining popularity.
148
FIGURE 1: C OILED TUBING TECHNOLOGY
What is coiled tubing?

CT as a device is hydraulically powered service system which is designed to inject
and retrieve a continuous string of tubing.
CT as a string is continuous Lengths of tubular small diameter steel pipes spooled
onto a take-up reel. The tube is nominally straightened prior to being inserted into the
wellbore and is recoiled for spooling back onto the reel.
FIGURE 2:THE MAIN COMPONENT OF CT UNIT
Features of CT technology:
Speed and economy are key advantages of applying CT technology. Also, the
relatively small Unit size and short rig-up time compare favorably with other well
drilling and work over Options. Beneficial features of CT technology include the
following:
Safe and efficient live well intervention.

Capability for rapid mobilization, rig-up, and well site preparation.
Ability to circulate while RIH/POOH.
Reduced trip time, hence less production downtime.
Lower environmental impact and risk.
Reduced crew/personnel requirements.
Relatively low cost.
149
Uses of coiled tubing in oil industry:

A. Drilling:
It is used for directional and non-directional drilling. Can drill more than 3100ft in
19 hr where No pressure surge & rapid drilling in pay zone.
B. Used in perforation:
The flexibility of CT can be conveyed to run perforation gun into highly deviated
intervals.
C. Logging:
Stiffness of Coiled can used as benefit to convey logging tools over long Distances
Continuous logging in each direction.
D. Fracturing:
Fracturing operations can be performed through Coiled Tubing or down the
annulus of the production casing and the Coiled Tubing. It can be used to set
plugs and Jet Cut perforations for multiple stage fracturing operations.
E. Fluid placement:
Accurately place acid, cement and other chemicals at any point in the well bore.
F. Well Cleanout
Clean out sand, scale and wellbore debris in and around from perforation in
producing zones
150
FIGURE 3: COILED TUBING APPLICATION ( FRAC JOB )
Advantages of coiled tubing:

Coiled tubing drilling presents several advantages over conventional drilling
Operations:
Smaller footprint
Safer drilling operations while drilling underbalanced, especially with
Multiphase fluids (foam and nitrified fluids)
Continuous circulation
faster tripping operations (continuous pipe, no connections required)
ability to monitor and subsequently control down hole pressures more
efficiently
real-time down hole measurements of surveys, logging data (GR, CCL), and
pressure data at high-data rates using integral wire line inside the coiled tubing
superior directional control due to steering at BHA (reduced reactive torque
effects)
improved pipe reliability for slim hole operations
Disadvantages of coiled tubing
No pipe rotation possible.

Fatigue (from bending at surface).
WOB limitations / Buckling onset is earlier.
Strength limitations.
Diameter size limited.
Heavy system.
Hydraulics limitations.
151
Coiled Tubing Equipment

Coiled tubing equipment can be divide into:
1. Surface equipment
2. Downhole equipment
1. Surface equipment
FIGURE 4: SMALL ENVIRONMENTAL F OOTPRINT
It consists of:
152
1.
2.
3.
4.
coiled tubing & coiled tubing reel

injector head
power pack
control cap
1.1 Coiled tubing and coiled tubing reel

Basic functions of the reel or equipment normally mounted on the reel include:
Storing and protecting the CT string (drum)

Maintaining proper tension between reel and injector head (reel drive system)
Efficiently spooling the CT string on to the reel drum (level wind system)
Circulating fluids with the drum rotating (swivel)
Back-up depth measurement (reel mounted counter)
FIGURE 5: E FFICIENT R IG M OBILIZATION
1.2 Injector head and guide arch

Basic functions of the injector head or equipment normally mounted on the
injector head include:
Injecting and retrieving the CT string

Holding the CT string static
Guiding the CT to the reel (gooseneck)
Tension/compression measurement
Depth/speed measurement (depth system sensor)
Mounting place for primary pressure barrier (stripper)
To provide the trust required to snub the tubing into the well against
pressure or to overcome wellbore friction
153
2.
Bottom hole equipment:
Bottom hole assemblies for coiled tubing drilling application include;

1Motor assembly for non steered drilling applications.
2Directional drilling assembly for directional drilling.
3Bottom hole assembly for window-milling operation.
4Bottom hole assemblies, such as those used for running liners, whip
stocks, scrapers, fishing, etc.
2.1.
Motor assembly for non steered drilling applications:
The Motor Head Assembly (MHA) is basically the combination of a coiled tubing
connector, check valve and a disconnect which is incorporated into a single tool
to minimize the tool length the tools are arranged in the following order to provide
maximum safety and functionality:
CT Connection (Top).
Check Value.
Disconnect (Bottom).
Circulation Sub.
Burst Disc (optional).
2.2.
Bottom hole Assembly for Directional Drilling
From the bottom up, a typical directional-drilling bottom

hole assembly could include the following:
bit
drilling motor with bent housing
FLOAT SUB ( CHECK VALVES )
UBHO (universal bent housing orienting) sub (if

required)
release tool (optional)
orienting tool
Down hole instrumentation (e.g., Down hole
pressures, GR, CCL)
Coiled tubing connector.
154
2.3.
Bottom hole assembly for window-milling operation:
Window milling refers to cutting casing to begin directional drilling. This can be done
conventionally or through tubing. In most cases it is done with a
whip stock.
Cement plug.
Whip stock/cement plug combination.
2.4.
Special Purpose Bottom hole Assemblies:
1- drilling and fishing jars:

(Give extra pull by means of a hammer-type action when stuck or fishing)
2- accelerators:
(Accelerate or increase the force of jarring effect in either direction while absorbing
the shock to the BHA or coiled tubing)
3- underreamers:
(Have expandable cutting arms to create a hole with a wider diameter than the
inside diameter of the tubing or casing string that must be passed through)
4- float subs:
(Which are check valves in the BHA)
5- overshots or spears:
(Which are used for fishing)
Drilling
Coiled Tubing
Sand
control
Cementing
Applications
Application
of CT
WORK
OVER
stimulation
155
Completion
Logging
Coiled tubing drilling

Underbalanced drilling
Is drilling with a bottom hole pressure below that of the pore pressure of the rock
surrounding the wellbore. Reservoir fluids are allowed to enter the wellbore and
are separated at the surface from the drilling fluid.
The underbalanced technique is used to:
prevent formation damage caused by entry of damaging drilling fluids to the

formation
minimize many drilling-related challenges, such as loss of circulation and
differential sticking
increase rates of penetration
minimize completion costs
increase hole-cleaning efficiency (due to reservoir inflow)
reduce mud costs
improve economics by providing early reservoir production.
Disadvantages of coiled tubing are:

The inability to rotate the string.
Limited pulling or pushing power (surface equipment limitations).
Limited coil life due to fatigue cycles (bending / straightening).
Depth control limitations (depends on equipment selected).
Limitations in reach and hole size (3 6).
Logistical limitations relative to the coil (especially critical offshore).
Comparison between coiled tubing & jointed pipe
156
Generally, coiled tubing has several advantages and disadvantages over jointed pipe
systems. For jointed pipe systems, drill string properties and tripping under pressure
will need to be considered. The installation of a rotating head or snubbing system on
a platform or rig with a fixed distance between rotary table and wellhead may cause
severe challenges in rig up. Several previous operations on land rigs had to be
redesigned to accommodate rotating control devices and rig assist snubbing
systems.
T ABLE 1: GENERAL COMPARISON B ETWEEN CT & JP
Coiled tubing
No connections made during drilling
Jointed pipe
Connections require gas injection shut
down causing pressure peaks
Higher pressure containment
Pressure of Rotating Diverters limited to

5000 psi static pressure.
Stiff wire line makes MWD systems simpler in
MWD systems unreliable in gasified
gasified fluids
systems
No snubbing system required
Pressure deployment requires snubbing

unit
Maximum hole size 6
No hole size limit
Hole cleaning more critical
Hole cleaning can be assisted by rotation
Potential for pipe collapse in high pressure
Special drill string connections required for
wells
gas fields
Through tubing drilling work possible
Through tubing work requires special rig

floor
tools on conventional rigs
BOP stack smaller
BOP stack up requires rotating diverter

system.
Lower costs
Higher costs as a result of rig.
Limited with drag for outreach
Ability to drill long horizontal sections
157
TABLE 2: TIMING BETWEEN CT AND JOINTED PIPE
Rig/D.P.
Action
158
M/U BHA
Trip in
Displace to Mud
Drill Shoe
Drill 200m
Short trip (200m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
Change out BHA
Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (200m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (400m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
Change out BHA
Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (400m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (600m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
Change out BHA
Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (600m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (800m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
CTD
Time
(hours)
0
6
7
3
1
22
2
4
8
12
4
12
8
1
2
22
4
4
8
12
4
12
8
1
4
22
6
4
8
12
4
12
8
1
6
22
8
4
8
12
Action
R/U & test CTD Equipment
M/U BHA
Trip in
Displace to Mud
Drill Shoe
Drill 100m
Perform wiper trip ea 25m
Short trip
Circulate
POOH
Deploy tool out of hole
Change out BHA & cut CT
Deploy toolstring in hole
Trip in to shoe
Trip in through OH (100m)
Drill 100m
Short trip (200m)
Circulate
POOH
Trip in to shoe
Drill 100m
Short trip (300m)
Circulate
POOH
Trip in to shoe
Drill 100m
Short trip (400m)
Circulate
POOH
Time
(hours)
60
6
5
3
3
15
4
0.8
3
5
2
6
2
5
0.8
15
4
1.5
3
5
2
6
2
5
1.5
15
4
2.3
3
5
2
6
2
5
2.3
15
4
3
3
5
Change out BHA

Snub in
Trip in
Circulate
Trip in OH (800m)
Drill 200m
Short trip (1000m)
Circulate
POOH
Snub out
L/D BHA
Total Time (hours)

(days)
4
12
8
1
8
22
10
4
8
12
4
401
16.7

Trip in to shoe
Drill 100m
Short trip (5000m)
Circulate
POOH
L/D BHA
R/D CTD Equipment
Total Time (hours)
(days)
Total Time w/o R/U inc.
(hrs)
Total Time w/o R/U inc.
(days)
2
6
2
5
3
15
4
3.8
3
5
2
3
48
344.0
14.3
236.0
9.8
159
TABLE 3:C OST COMPARISON BETWENN UB-CTD OPERATIONS AND UBD JOINTED PIPE OPERATIONS
Item
Mobilisation
Days/U
nit
1
Sum
Rig
Days/Unit
Sum
1,000,0
00
200,000
20,000
17
340,000
Rig Up
1,000,0
00
40,000
Daily Rate
40,000
10
400,000
Standby Rate
20,000
Top Drive
1,500
17
25,500
BHA
12,500
17
212,500
Mud Equipment
4,000
15
60,000
17
Mud
40,000
40,000
100,000
100,000
15,000
17
255,000
140,000
140,000
1,000,000
1,000,000
2,000
17
34,000
10,000
15
150,000
10,000
17
170,000
BOP
1,500
17
25,500
RCH/RBOP
17
Snubbing/PPM
0 (inc. in
cost)
2,500
17
42,500
40,000
80,000
Separation
Equipment
Drill Pipe/Coiled
Tubing
DAQ
Nitrogen Generation
Rig Down
160
CTU
Total Cost for one well
2,070,0
00
Total Cost for one well
2,205,000
Cost for two wells
3,140,0
00
Cost for two wells
3,410,000
TABLE 4: COMPARISON BETWEEN CTU,

Coiled Tubing Drilling
Unit
Unit
Cost
Availability
Well Control
Equipment
Size
Pressure
Stripper
Drill String
Size
Comments
Reel
HYBRID CTU AND JP RIG
Hybrid CTD Unit
Conventional Rig
15-20k USD/day
40k USD/day depending

on inclusion of separation
package
20k USD/day
Available
Possible standby charges
Not in Country
Possible standby charges
incurred
EDC41
No standby between wells
4-1/16" Stack
6-3/8" or 7-1/16" Stack
13-3/8" Stack. 11" stack

possible to reduce height
5kpsi
Integral
5kpsi
Integral. For high
pressure gas wells
tandem strippers are
used. Upper one as
primary, lower stripper as
back-up in case top
leaks.
5kpsi
Need RCH/RBOP which
are available up to 5kpsi
WP
Up to 2-7/8". Limited length
Up to 3-1/2". Larger reel.
E-line & hydraulic line

reliability issues. Size of
reel needed for 5000m of 23/8" coil needs to be large.
If 2-5/8" coil or larger is
required, the size and
weight of the reel and
transporter will be
prohibitive. Installation
costs and logistics to be
accounted. Additional reels
required on location for
each operation (work &
drilling).
Will need to be specially
designed/constructed for
the project. Dependant on
costs/time for spooling
operations, a second
dedicated unit would be
required for the second
drilling reel.
E-line & hydraulic line

reliability issues. Size of
reel needed for 5000m of
2-3/8" coil needs to be
large. If 2-5/8" coil or
larger is required, the
size and weight of the
reel and transporter will
be prohibitive. Installation
costs and logistics to be
accounted. Additional
reels required on location
for each operation (work
& drilling).
Will need to be specially
designed/constructed for
the project. Dependant
on costs/time for spooling
operations, a second
dedicated unit would be
required for the second
drilling reel.
Up to 4" DP dependant on
connection type/size
Connections should be
gas tight. Gas wells have
been drilled with IF
connections without
incident. Identification
grooves need to be filled
in.
NA
161
Pipe Life
Tripping pipe
162
Limited to certain number

of cycles into & out of well.
High pressures resulting
from depths >4500m will
result in very low life (less
than one job).
Not possible
Limited to certain number

of cycles into & out of
well. High pressures
resulting from depths
>4500m will result in very
low life (less than one
job).
Singles possible with
some units, though
limited lift capacity
Needs to be monitored.
Corrosion to be monitored
and controlled.
20". Trip in triples.
Conventional
Max Pipe
Size
Not possible to run jointed

pipe.
Snubbing Unit
Max of 40-60klbs in hole.

Maximum 60-100klbs out of
hole depending on the
injector head size.
7" possibly depending on

the unit. Generally run in
singles.
Max. 60-100klbs in hole.
Maximum 80-200klbs out
of hole depending on
injector head provided.
Training
Training possibly
required, though crew
should be experienced in
UBD operations.
Associated crew
members and 3rd Party
members to be trained.
As part of package
All rig crew need training

for UBD opeations
Insurance
Training possibly required,

though crew should be
experienced in UBD
operations. Associated
crew members and 3rd
Party members to be
trained.
As part of package
Top Drive
NA
NA
Deployment
Valve
Not required
Not required unless long

BHAs are deployed
Needs to be installed.
One year contrqact at
$1500/day. Training
requried by crew prior to
use on UBD well
Simplifies tripping
procedures. Reliability to
be determined prior to
use. Well design needs to
incorporate this.
Tie-back
string
Needs 5" or 5-1/2" tie-back

to surface. Complications
due to internal profiles
allowable. Retrievable at
end of the operation or
install final completion prior
to commencing UBD
operations.
7" tie-back string possibly

required, though this has
impact on the torque and
drag imposed on the
drillstring. Completion run
after drilling operations
complete
Interfaces
Possibly fewer interfaces if

the package is supplied
with separation capability.
Needs 5" or 5-1/2" tieback to surface.

Complications due to
internal profiles
allowable. Retrievable at
end of the operation or
install final completion
prior to commencing UBD
operations.
Possibly fewer interfaces
if the package is supplied
with separation capability.
HSE Case
CTU designed for live well

interventions - HSE case
simpler for UBD
CTU designed for live

well interventions - HSE
case simpler for UBD
More complex HSE case
Push-Pull machine limited

to 60klbs in-hole.
Snubbing unit required if
forces exceed this.
Still waiting from EDC

since Oct 2001
Various interfaces
depending on the UBD
contractor used.
Mobilisation
Expensive to mobilise CTD

units: $1-2mm
Expensive. +/- $2mm
Rig equipment available.

Some UBD equipment in
country. Some would
need to be sourced
externally.
Can be less than 24hrs.
Can be less than 24hrs.
Can be in excess of 48hrs
Tripping quicker than

jointed pipe. More time
required for wiper trips.
Tripping quicker than

jointed pipe. More time
required for wiper trips.
Completion
Running
Required prior to unit on

location. CTU not possible
to run completion.
Fishing
Operations
Possible to fish both OB

and UB. Less pull available
and no rotational ability)
Hole Size
Length of
Section
WOB
Risk of HC
Release
Up to 4-3/4"
Maximum 300m
2-5klbs
Low but severe
consequenses for well.
Possible depending on
the unit and the weight
cpabilities. Generally 5"
completion string too
heavy for hybrid unit to
handle.
Possible to fish both OB
and UB. Less pull
available and no
rotational ability)
Up to 6-1/8"
Maximum 600m (3-3/4"
OH)
3-8klbs
Low but severe
consequenses for well.
Trips are generally slower

than for CTD. Stalls less
frequent and less
requirement for wiping
back to ensure cuttings
removal.
Possible after drilling
section.
Corrosion
Inhibitor
Fluids System
Required if generated
nitrogen is used.
Smaller system required
due to smaller overall
system volume when using
5" tie-back. Ideally kill mud
weight should be available
on location during the
operation in case of
problems with the coiled
tubing. May not be
available in country.
nitrogen is used.
Smaller system required
due to smaller overall
system volume when
using 5" tie-back. Ideally
kill mud weight should be
available on location
during the operation in
case of problems with the
coiled tubing. Part of
hybrid CTD unit.
Operations
Round Trip
Speed
On Bottom
Time
Conventional fishing
possible
6-1/8" (through 7" liner)

1000m plus (6" OH)
10-20klbs
Higher, but with sufficient
control and mitigation
measures this can be
reduced. Sufficient back
up measures can be
introduced to the system
and training implemented.
nitrogen is used.
Large system available on
the rig as part of the
package. Requires kill
mud weight system on
location.
163
Separation
Pumps
Availability
Rate
Pressure
Nitrogen
Equipment
Data
Acquisition
Environmental
Sidetrack
Options
164
System to be determined.
Weatherford/Northlands
package available for the
operation if required.
Standalone testing package
can be used. Cost estimate
at between $1025kUSD/day depending on
package specifications and
nitrogen requirements.
May be part of package.

Smaller capacity will
result in the well being
drilled to the system
limitations not to the ideal
parameters determined
by the well. Some units
are restricted to
4mmscf/day which will
limit the drilling
parameters. Higher rates
will require different
separation equipment.
Cost estimate $10kUSD.
If nitrogen pumping is
required for the
operation, estimate per
day with additional
separation capacity at
$25kUSD/day.
System to be determined.
Weatherford/Northlands
package available for the
operation if required. Units
rated for 60-80mmscf/day.
Cost estimated at
$25kUSD/day. This
includes nitrogen
generation/pumping
capability.
Stimulation pumps
generally used. Reliability
less than conventional mud
pumps for extended drilling
operations.
Generally low rate. Can be
specified for rates expected
during operation
Pump type to be
confirmed. Either rig
pump or stimulation type.
Available as part of rig

package
Generally low rate. Can

be specified for rates
expected during
operation
Generally 6-8kpsi
Liner size to be
determiend by DP size
and rates/pressures
required.
Generally less than
4000psi
Cryogenic or generated
can be used. Generated
nitrogen requires
corrosion additives
Conventional separation
data acquisition systems
available to integrate rig,
mud, separation and
nitrogen injection.
Can be up to 10kpsi if
required
Cryogenic or generated can
be used. Generated
nitrogen requires corrosion
additives
System needs to be
adapted for use with all
components: CT, mud,
separation and nitrogen.
Interface between CT and
separation/mud can be
complex.
Complex hydraulic circuits
involved. Pad size required
generally less than half that
of conventional drilling unit
Openhole or cased hole.
Slow, complex tools. Not as
reliable as conventional
sidetrack.
Cryogenic or generated
can be used. Generated
nitrogen requires
corrosion additives
System part of package
unless separation
package is not part of
unit.
Complex hydraulic
circuits involved. Pad size
required generally half
that of conventional
drilling unit
Openhole or cased hole.
Slow, complex tools. Not
as reliable as
conventional sidetrack.
Conventional drilling
operation. Needs to be
controlled.
Conventional.
Stuck Pipe
Restricted to slide drilling.

Chances increased of
sticking due to insufficient
hole cleaning and
mechanically sticking. No
tool joints removes OD
changes.
Restricted to slide drilling.

Chances increased of
sticking due to insufficient
hole cleaning and
mechanically sticking. No
tool joints removes OD
changes.
Conventional. Rotation
capability reduces
chances. Better hole
cleaning.
Freeing Stuck
Pipe
Low tesile capacity. Low

circulating rates. Reduced
chance of freeing stuck
pipe. No rotational
capability. Weak point at
top and/or bottom of BHA.
If tubing stuck, need
chemical cutter.
High pull capbility. High

circulating rates possible.
Rotating capability.
Possibility to back-off and
fish pipe.
Gas Injection
No connections. Pumping
can be maintained
throughout tripping pipe.
Low tesile capacity. Low

circulating rates.
Reduced chance of
freeing stuck pipe. No
rotational capability.
Weak point at top and/or
bottom of BHA. If tubing
stuck, need chemical
cutter.
No connections. Pumping
can be maintained
throughout tripping pipe.
MWD/Drilling
Assembly
Electric and hydraulic

options. For UBD
operations mud pulse tools
are not recommended due
to pressure cycling/surging.
Electric and hydraulic

options. For UBD
operations mud pulse
tools are not
recommended due to
pressure cycling/surging.
Connections to be made.
Drillstring needs to be
bled off to floats each
time. Time consuming.
BHP varies each time.
Surface pressure varies
and slugs occur if using
two-phase fluid.
Conventional tools can be
used if single phase fluid
is utilised. EM-MWD tools
required for two-phase
fluids. These can be time
consuming to trip.
Motor
Selection
ADM motors - 2-3/8" to 31/8"
ADM motors - 2-3/8" to 31/8"
ADM to 4-3/4" (depending

on hole size) or turbines
Finally:
Coiled tubing drilling represents what many feel is the future in UBD due to our ability
to maintain a relatively continuously underbalanced condition and MWD using a less
problematic internal wire line approach. Current CT technology is limited with respect
to depth and horizontal outreach capability for extended reach well applications.
Pressure pulses during connections with a conventional jointed pipe can be
minimized by using double pipe stands, rapid connections and appropriate circulation
practices prior to breaking for connections to minimize the degree of degradation of
under balance pressure that occurs during or after the connection is made. Top drive
rigs offer the advantage of drilling with triple pipe stands which further reduces the
number of connections required.
Coiled tubing drilling allows the well to be maintained in an underbalanced state
throughout the drilling and completion operations, virtually eliminating any wellbore
damage and possibly reducing the need for well stimulation afterwards.
In obayed D-2 the descision was to use jointed pipe conventional drilling but the
precaution was taken to consider CTD operation in obayed D-4 at the same field
165
References
Adams, N.J., Mack, S.K., Fannin, V.R., and Rocchi, Thierry, 1996: Coiled-Tubing
Applications for Blowout-Control Operations, Journal of Petroleum Technology, May.
Allbee, James D., 1999: Coiled Tubing Hang-offs: A Simple, Yet Effective Tool for the
Future, SPE 52121, presented at the 1999 SPE Mid-Continent Operations Symposium
held in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, March 28-31.
Atherton, G.M. and Davis, M., 1996: Coiled Tubing Drilling of Horizontal Re-Entry Wells,
UK Land, SPE 35546, presented at SPE (location unknown).
Beckman, Jeremy, 1997: Coiled Tubing, Reamer Shoes Push Through Barriers in North
Sea Wells, Offshore, February.
166
166
Directional Drilling
This chapter introduces the fundamentals of directional drilling in

underbalanced drilling operation.
Directional drilling is a means of reaching otherwise inaccessible
targets not only offshore, but on land as well. Reservoirs often
underlie mountainous terrain, urban developments or other surface
obstacles where building a rig location would be impractical.
Its the science and art of deviating a wellbore along a planned course
from a starting (surface) location to a target (subsurface) location,
both defined with a given coordinate system, in such a way that the
hole can then be used for its intended purpose
IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
Contents
1-Directional Drilling (D.D)

2- APPLICATIONS
3-DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUE
4- Geo-Pilot
5- Turbodrill
6- SURVEY TOOLS
7- HORIZONTAL WELLS
167
Directional Drilling (D.D)

ts the science and art of deviating a wellbore along a planned course from a
starting (surface) location to a target (subsurface) location, both defined with a
given coordinate system, in such a way that the hole can then be used for its
intended purpose
In another word the science of deviating a wellbore along a planned course to
subsurface target whose location is at a given lateral distance and direction from
the vertical, at a specified vertical depth. Drilling a wellbore with planned
deviation from vertical to pre-determined target(s)
Directional Wells:
Slant
Build and Hold
S-Curve
Extended Reach
Horizontal
Reasons for D.D

1-Sidetracking
Side-tracking was the original directional drilling technique. Initially, sidetracks
were blind". The objective was simply to get past a fish. Oriented sidetracks are
most common. They are performed when, for example
168
FIGURE 1SIDETRACKING
2-Inaccessible Locations:
FIGURE 2 INACCESSIBLE L OCATIONS :
3-Fault Drilling
If a well is drilled across a fault the casing can be damaged by fault slippage. The
Potential for damaging the casing can be minimized by drilling parallel to a fault
and Then changing the direction of the well to cross the fault into the target.
FIGURE 3 FAULT DRILLING
Targets located beneath a city, a river or in environmentally sensitive areas make it

necessary to locate the drilling rig some distance away
169
4-Multi-well Platform Drilling
Multi-well Platform drilling is widely employed in the North Sea. The development
of these fields is only economically feasible if it is possible to drill a large number
of wells (up to 40 or 60) from one location (platform). The deviated wells are
designed to intercept a reservoir over a wide a real extent. Many oilfields (both
onshore and offshore) would not be economically feasible if not for this technique.
5-Salt Dome Drilling:
FIGURE 4M ULTI -WELL P LATFORM DRILLING
Salt domes have been found to be natural traps of oil accumulating in strata beneath the
overhanging hard cap. There are severe drilling problems associated with drilling a well
through salt formations. These can be somewhat alleviated by using a salt-saturated mud.
Another solution is to drill a directional well to reach the reservoir
.
170
FIGURE 5SALT D OME DRILLING
6-Relief Well:
FIGURE 6R ELIEF W ELL:
7-Horizontal Wells:
Reduced production in a field may be due to many factors, including gas and water
coning or formations with good but vertical permeability. Engineers can then plan
and drill a horizontal drain hole. It is a special type of directional well Horizontal
wells are divided into long, medium and short-radius designs, based on the buildup
rates used. Other applications of directional drilling are in developing geothermal
fields and in mining.
The objective of a directional relief well is to intercept the bore hole of a well which
is blowing and allow it to be killed". The bore hole causing the problem is the size
of the target. To locate and intercept the blowing well at a certain depth, a carefully
planned directional well must be drilled with great precision
171
FIGURE 7H ORIZONTAL WELLS
Advantages of horizontal drilling
increasing formation exposure
improving well deliverability
eliminating water and gas coning
reducing overall development costs
APPLICATIONS
The most common applications of directional drilling
Offshore Multi-well Drilling

Relief Wells
Inaccessible Locations
Fault Controlling
Salt Dome Drilling
Sidetracking Horizontal Wells
Controlling Vertical Wells
Horizontal Wells
Offshore development is the most common application of directional drilling. In fact,

controlled directional methods got their start in the coastal areas of California. With
the costs and logistics involved in setting up an offshore platform, the ability to drill
multiple wells from a single surface location is essential to any development project's
success. As horizontal and extended-reach drilling capabilities increase, the time
may come when an operator will be able to develop an entire offshore field from one
surface location.
Directional drilling is a means of reaching otherwise inaccessible targets not only
offshore, but on land as well. Reservoirs often underlie mountainous terrain, urban
developments or other surface obstacles where building a rig location would be
impractical.
172
Directional drilling is also a valuable well control tool. When a blowout occurs and
surface control methods are impractical, an alternative is to drill a relief well and
pump kill fluids directly or indirectly into the blowout well's annulus.
1. DEVIATION IN VERTICAL WELLS

CAUSES OF WELLBORE DEVIATION
Rotary drilling involves the use of an elastic drill string, which tends to buckle under
axial forces, and which tends not to withstand lateral forces. Therefore, the drill string
has long been recognized as a key to controlling wellbore deviation. The role of the
drill bit has not been as obvious, although it's been known for a long time that there
exist forces at the bit that can affect its path, and that these forces vary among
different bit types even in the same formation, indicating that bit design and geometry
relate to wellbore deviation.
The exact causes of wellbore deviation are unknown. We can say, however, that the
following are all contributing factors:
Formation
Type, lithology
anisotropy
dip
Bottomhole assembly size, configuration
stabilizer types, size, positioning
drill collars
reamers and other tools
Drilling parameters
Weight on bit
Hydraulics
Hole angle
Annular clearance
Bit type, design features
FIGURE 8:FORMATION TYPE AND LITHOLOGY
173
FIGURE 9:FORMATION ANTICLINE
Wellbore deviation results from forces acting at the bit. We can separate a study of
these forces into two parts:
Bit/rock interaction -- the study of bit behavior in various rocks under the action
of applied bit loads
Drill string mechanics -- the analysis of drill string behavior under the action of
imposed forces
1.1 Bit/rock interaction

We can break down the mechanical actions of drilling a rock into three categories
(Parameters affecting hole deviation that are due to rock/bit interaction):
Percussive action
Drag-rotary action
Combined percussive/drag-rotary action
FIGURE 10:B IT/ROCK INTERACTION
Rolling cutter bits fall into the combined percussive/drag-rotary classification, while,
fixed cutter PDC and diamond matrix bits fall into the drag-rotary action category.
174
1.2 Drill string mechanics

The deviating forces that the drill string imparts to the bit relate directly to the string's
Configuration, the hole geometry, and the weight on the bit.Structurally speaking, a
drill string is a flexible, elastic member, unable to resist lateral loads and subject to
buckling under axial loads.
The shape of this buckling depends on how much weight is applied at the bit
(a) and drill sting bucking effect on hole deviation
(b). Once buckling occurs, the bit is no longer vertical, and hole deviation results.
FIGURE 11:DRILL STRING MECHANICS
The extent to which buckling occurs depends on the drill string's rigidity and length.
Techniques that have been used to minimize buckling include
Reducing weight-on-bit to a value less than that of the critical weight which
induces first order buckling
Adding stabilizers to the drill string at points of maximum deflection in the
predicted buckling mode
Using large-diameter drill collars
175
From the standpoint of reducing buckling, the ideal bottom hole assembly (BHA)
would have a diameter equal to the hole diameter. Of course, this is a practical
impossibility, so we instead use stabilizers, which have larger diameters than drill
collars, to limit the BHA's lateral movement.
FIGURE 13: S TABLIZING TOOL
FIGURE 12: TYPES OF STABLIZING TOOLS
176
Types of Directional Wells
2- Build, Hold and Drop -- after a relatively shallow deflection, this pattern holds
angle until the well has reached most of its required horizontal displacement. This
pattern is most applicable to wells exposing multiple pay zones, or wells subject to
target or lease boundary restrictions.
1-Build and Hold -- this pattern employs a shallow initial deflection and a straightangle approach to the target. It's used to reach single targets at moderate depths,
and sometimes for drilling deeper wells with large horizontal departures.
177
3- Continuous Build -- unlike the Type 1 and 2 patterns, this trajectory has a
relatively deep initial deflection, after which angle is maintained to the target. The
continuous build pattern is well-suited to salt-dome drilling, fault drilling, and
sidetrack sand redrills.
178
4- Build, Hold and Build -- this is the general pattern describing horizontal wells.
The decision to drill horizontally is primarily based on reservoir engineering and
reservoir management considerations.
179
DEVIATION CONTROL METHODS

Along with minimizing well costs and maintaining a safe operation, a primary
objective of drilling is to obtain a usable hole. A key to meeting this objective is to
reach the target zone with minimal abrupt changes in hole angle, so as to allow for
setting casing and successfully producing the well.
There are three basic techniques for controlling wellbore deviation:
We may use a pendulum assembly, consisting of the bit, drill collars and
strategically positioned stabilizers, to decrease hole angle (i.e., straighten
the hole).
We may use packed hole assemblies, consisting of reamers, short collars
and Stabilizers, or square drill collars, to "lock in" the bit and maintain a
constant hole angle.
We may use directional drilling tools (e.g., downhole motors with bent
housings).
The use of directional drilling tools more properly falls under the category of
controlled directional drilling. We mention it here, however, to emphasize its use
as a "straight hole" drilling method, and to point out that it is the most effective of
these three techniques for controlling hole angle and direction. In fact, in many
drilling applications, it has superseded the other techniques. Still, there are
situations that call for the exclusive use of pendulum or packed hole assemblies to
control deviation (e.g., at some land locations where drilling characteristics are
well known, it may not be economical to use directional drilling tools for deviation
control).
2.1 bottomhole assembly

123-
180
Pendulum assembly (dropping angle)

Fulcrum assembly (buildup angle)
Packed hole (hold angle)
2.
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
2.1 DOWNHOLE MUD MOTORS
The distinguishing feature of downhole motors is that they are designed to turn the
bit without rotating the drill string. Thus, it's possible to orient the bit in a desired
direction, and maintain it in this direction throughout the bit run. Moreover, drilling
in this "oriented" mode reduces the rig's power requirements and reduces wear on
both surface equipment and tubular.
Downhole motors come in two basic types:
positive displacement motors (PDM)

Turbine motors.
The positive displacement motor is easily the most versatile tool for building or
maintaining hole angle, or for minimizing crooked hole tendencies. It can be
run with a bent sub or eccentric stabilizer to initiate deflection. Or, in "crooked
hole "formations, it can be run without these accessories to serve as a
deviation control tool.
For maximum directional control with a minimum of trip time, we may use a
motor with a bent housing.
The heart of the positive displacement motor is the rotor-stator, consisting of a
helicoidally rotor that moves within a molded, elastomer-lined stator.
Downhole motors (commonly known as mud motors because they are

hydraulically driven by the circulating drilling fluid as it moves down the drill string)
have played an integral role in the advancement of directional drilling technology,
and in "straight hole" drilling as well. The flexibility and control that they provide is
far beyond that attainable with other wellbore deflection techniques, and their use
has become prevalent in an ever-widening range of applications, including slim
hole and coiled tubing operations.
181
FIGURE 14 DOWNHOLE MUD MOTORS
When circulating fluid is forced through this assembly, it imparts torque to the
rotor, causing it to turn eccentrically. A universal connection transfers this
rotation through a bearing and drive-shaft assembly to a rotating bit sub, which
turns the bit.
Positive displacement motors provide excellent steerability for deflecting or
straightening the well course. In addition, they allow us to increase the bit RPM
without increasing the drill string rotation, and to drill with less weight-on-bit.
This can result in higher penetration rates compared to drilling with a rotating
Kelly, and reduced drill pipe and casing wear--an important consideration,
especially when drilling high-angle holes.
Positive displacement motors are available in a wide variety of sizes, rotating
speeds, rotor/stator configurations and output characteristics, for a broad range of
downhole conditions.
Turbine motors operate at relatively high rotary speeds, and so are run
exclusively with fixed cutter (PDC or natural diamond) bits. Some operators see
this as an advantage in certain situations, in that these characteristics may help
eliminate "bit walk" to the right, allow for higher bit weight (and thus improved
drilling rates) and a smoother hole for logging and casing operations than a PDM
would provide
Turbine motors have narrower operating ranges than positive displacement
motors. The relatively small diameter of the turbines and resulting higher
rotational speeds translate into greater fluid flow requirements. They also tend to
be longer than PDMs, which limits their ability to make high angle directional
changes. Because of these limitations, which are inherent in the turbine motor
design, positive displacement motors are used much more commonly.
182
The operator and directional service company representative should consider the
following basic information when selecting a downhole motor :
Depths (kickoff point, target, etc.)

Hole size
Formation hardness
faulting
build rate
Bottomhole temperature
Conditions at the kickoff
hydraulics program
mud program
rig pump capabilities
2.3 DEFLECTION TOOLS

Although the mud motor is overwhelmingly the tool of choice for controlled
directional drilling, there are other tools that may be of some use in certain
areas. These include
directional wedges
jet bits with oriented nozzles
specialized Bottomhole assemblies
3.4.1 Whipestocks:
The wedge is attached to the Bottomhole assembly by means of a shear pin.
The assembly is lowered to bottom and oriented in the proper direction. The
driller applies weight to set the wedge and shear the pin, drills ten to fifteen feet
of under gauge hole, and then trips the tools so that a full-gauge hole opener
can be run. After drilling the section, a survey is made to assure proper
direction, and the process is repeated until the build section of the well is
completed.
183
The directional wedge technique is time-consuming, has limited applications,

and requires a high degree of technical expertise to properly implement. For
these reasons, it is seldom used.
FIGURE 15W HIPESTOCKS
3.4.2 Jet bits with oriented nozzles

The bit is lowered to bottom , the jet is oriented in the desired direction, and mud
flow is initiated with no drill string rotation. After hydraulically gouging a small pilot
hole (about 3 feet), the driller initiates conventional rotary drilling to open the
section to full gauge. The process is then repeated. Hole surveys are made after
drilling 10 to 15 feet of build section.
184
FIGURE 16J ET BITS WITH ORIENTED NOZZLES
3.4.3 Rotary Steerable System

Have proven their value over conventional mud-motor steerable systems in three ways:
By cutting drilling time and expense; extending the reach of horizontal

wells; and succeeding at temperatures and pressures where mud
motors cannot operate. This article provides a brief overview of the
technology, followed by three case histories that illustrate the value of
these systems.
RSS general layout
TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
Weatherfords Revolution rotary steerable system (RSS) uses point-thebit drilling technology and includes in the design both a non-rotating
sleeve stabilizer and a rotating near-bit pivot stabilizer to orient the drill
bit axis with the axis of the intended hole trajectory. A rotating drive
shaft runs through the center of the non-rotating sleeve to transmit
torque and weight through the tool to the drill bit. The bit is steered
through the formation by deflecting the drive shaft within the nonrotating sleeve stabilizer,. The drive shaft is deflected in a direction
opposite to the required trajectory, and the pivot stabilizer acts as a
fulcrum to point the bit in the required direction. The hydraulic force for
deflection is provided by a pump driven by relative rotation between the
center shaft and the non-rotating outer sleeve. Both the non-rotating
sleeve of the steering unit and the rotating pivot stabilizer are close to
the gauge of the hole to maximize the directional performance of the
RSS. The offset of the drive shaft the degree of steering is
controlled by the onboard navigation and control electronics of the RSS.
Tool face and deviation rates are programmed from the surface using
drillstring rotation, while mud pulse LWD provides uplink telemetry. The
entire system offers a very compact design to facilitate logistics and
deployment.
FIGURE 18R OTARY S TEERABLE SYSTEM
185
Advantages of RSS wells:
Greater bit efficiencies
Less shock and vibration
Reduced surface & down hole equipment attrition
Reduction in stuck pipe events.
Lower mud and cement volumes
Reduced back reaming and fewer tripping problems
Easier casing and completions installation
Greater efficiency of wireline and well servicing operations
System-Specific Requirements
Once the decision is made on which particular rotary steerable system is capable
of economically meeting the objectives of a given drilling program, the focus
immediately shifts to the drill bit that will make reaching the goal possible. Security
DBS offers a full range of flexibility in push-the-bit, as well as point thebit
options, each specifically designed for your drilling program. Push-the-bit
systems typically require a shorter gauge area than PDC bits used on motor
applications. This reduction in lateral area affords greater directional
responsiveness when a side force is applied by the steering unit. Bit designs can
be tailored specifically for applications requiring:
Laterally aggressive bits with little or no passive gauge area in high steerability
applications to yield the highest degree of dogleg severity
A combination of these features to reach a given set of designer well objectives
By contrast, point-the-bit systems make the bit more axially aggressive. This
feature allows the bit to penetrate at the same rate but with a lower weight on bit
and it can be used to increase ROP. Typically, point-the-bit systems increase
the gauge length for stability and use the internal shaft deflection for directional
changes.
186
Rotary steerable assemblies have the potential to reduce overall dogleg

severity
Rotary steerable can improve hole cleaning
187
Geo-Pilot Basic Operating Principle

By using a pair of cams mounted midway between two bearings, the center of the
drive shaft is deflected off center, thus causing the bit to be deflected in the
opposite direction. When the cams are oriented opposite each other, they cancel
out and the assembly will drill straight ahead.
[Notice in the picture that both cams are oriented in the same direction. Imagine
the inner cam rotating 180 degrees. It now shoves the drive shaft back to the
center.
This concept points the bit rather than trying to shove it sideways. Because of
this, we can take advantage of the benefits of long gauge bits - better hole follow
through (the bit has more of a tendency to drill ahead on a centerline instead of
spiraling around a centerline). The inherently more stable bit design reduces
vibration, which is already greatly reduced due to the elimination of the mud
motor. And by reducing hole spiraling, the resulting periodic troughs in the low
side of the hole that can act as cuttings traps, are reduced or eliminated. And
100% rotation keeps the well as clean as practical and greatly reduces the need
for short trips and back reaming.
[note: baker Hughes will not allow customers to back ream with their tool
Advantages of geo pilot Tools
Allows use of long gauge bits:
Long gauge bits promote reliability through smooth running
Initial GeoPilot reliability target 400 hours between services
2002 GeoPilot reliability target 1400 hours between services
188
FIGURE 17G EO-PILOT B ASIC OPERATING PRINCIPLE
Geo-Pilot Rotary Steerable System
Geo-Pilot design Concept
189
3.4.4 Specialized Bottomhole assemblies
In developed fields, where drilling tendencies and formation characteristics are

well known, it is often possible to build or drop hole angle with a reasonable
degree of control by using drill collars, stabilizers, reamers and other BHA
components, without having to resort to mud motors or other deflection tools.
FIGURE 18SPECIALIZED B OTTOMHOLE ASSEMBLIES
3.4.5. Turbodrill
This is another type of mud motor which turns the bit without rotating the drillstring.
Unlike a PDM a turbodrill can only be powered by a liquid drilling fluid.
The Turbodrill motor consists of bladed rotors and stators mounted at right angles
to fluid flow. The rotors are attached to the drive shaft, while the stators are
attached to the outer case. Each rotor-stator pair is called a stage; a typical
turbodrill may have 75-250 stages. The stators direct the flow of drilling fluid onto
the rotor blades, forcing the drive shaft to rotate clockwise . Turbodrills can be
used for directional drilling in much the same way as PDMs. Turbodrills are also
used in straight-hole drilling as an alternative to rotary drilling. Such a technique
has the following advantages:
190
String and casing wear reduced

Lower torque applied to string
Higher RPM at bit (better penetration rates).
FIGURE 19TURBODRILL
191
3.5 SURVEY TOOLS

3.5.1 Magnetic Single Shot
The oldest and simplest type of directional survey tool is the mechanical drift indicator
This device works on a pendulum, or plum-bob principle. It gives no indication of

azimuth, but measures only a well's inclination from vertical. It is used today for
surface hole drilling, shallow vertical wells and other applications where dog-leg
severity and horizontal departure are not likely to become significant problems.
192
Magnetic survey tools record the inclination, azimuth and tool-face orientation at
various points, or stations, along the well course. Two basic types of tools are
available: single-shot devices, which record one measurement (usually near the
bottom of the well), and multi-shot devices, which can record a number of survey
measurements in one running. Tools can be dropped or pumped to bottom,
lowered on slick line or wireline, or run as part of a measurement-while drilling
(MWD) package. When tools are dropped to bottom--typically before tripping
pipe--they can be recovered when the pipe is pulled, or else by means of an

overshot.
The basic components of a conventional magnetic survey tool
A magnetic compass and angle-indicating unit
A camera unit for recording measurements on a photographic
A timer or motion sensor, which activates the device at a desired time or
depth interval
3.5.2. WIRELINE STEERING SYSTEMS
3.6 MWD AND LWD SYSTEMS

One of the most important advances in modern petroleum technology has been the
development of real-time Measurement-While-Drilling systems to transmit drilling and
directional information, and Logging-While-Drilling systems to provide formation
evaluation data.
MWD and LWD systems have made it possible to monitor and control operations
even as drilling is taking place, by allowing operators to:
Measure drill bit position and trajectory,
Monitor penetration rate, actual weight-on-bit, downhole torque and drag,
vibration and other drilling parameters,
Compute pore pressures and get an early warning of potential overpressure
zones,
Detect and correlate geologic markers and formation tops,
Evaluate formations even as they're being drilled.
A wireline steering system consists of a Bottomhole assembly that accommodates a

Measurement probe run on wireline. The probe employs magnetometers to
measure direction, and accelerometers to measure hole angle. It also measures the
orientation of the tool face, and other parameters such as time, depth and tool
temperature.
Systems are modular in design, and can be run with various sensor combinations to
fit the requirements of the well plan.
MWD tools operate by creating pressure pulses in the mud column, in response to
inputs from the various sensors. Depending on the type of tool, the pulses may be
positive, negative or continuous. These pulses are converted into electronic signals,
which are processed and displayed at the surface.
193
Logging-While-Drilling, or LWD tools, operate on basically the same principles as

conventional wireline logging tools. The dual resistivity contains a gamma ray tool,
and two sets of transmitters and receivers to provide shallow and deep resistivity
readings.
The compensated density-neutron tool measures density and neutron porosity in a
manner similar to that of analogous wireline tools.
When drilling with a mud motor, these particular tools are run above the motor
assembly--in other words, about 30 or 40 feet above the bit. In some applications,
such as drilling in very thin, dipping pay zones, even this small "information gap"
between the bit and the tool could lead to problems. For this reason, systems have
now come into use that allow "at-the-bit" measurements to be taken within a few feet
of bottom.
Although LWD tools work in generally the same manner as conventional logging
tools, tool responses will most likely be different in highly deviated wells from what
they would be in vertical wells. These responses require special methods of
interpretation.
FIGURE 20MWD
194
3.8 GEOLOGIC STEERING

Until relatively recently, it was easy to make a distinction between planning a well
trajectory and actually following it. We would develop a directional profile as part of
the well plan, and then go out and drill the well along this pre-assigned course, taking
periodic surveys and making corrections as necessary. This process is referred to as
geometric steering.
At the same time, improved directional drilling technology has presented the industry
with new challenges. As companies have begun drilling longer horizontal and
extended-reach wells, it has become clear that even the most precise geometric
steering capabilities may not be adequate once a well approaches the pay zone.
Horizontal and high-angle directional wells often have as their objectives thin,
heterogeneous, and sometimes steeply dipping reservoirs. In such formations, a preassigned trajectory may lead right out of a productive interval. Even if the difference
is only a matter of a few feet, the result may be an unsuccessful well .
Fortunately, integrated MWD and LWD capabilities have provided the option of
geologically steering wells as they approach their respective pay zones----of using
real-time formation measurements to stay within target intervals. In a growing number
of instances, operators have been able to geologically steer wells away from zone
boundaries or fluid contacts and execute successful well completions.
Geometric steering has served the industry well, and it remains an important aspect
of directional drilling. With a bent-housing positive displacement motor, a welldesigned bottomhole assembly, and MWD capabilities, it's possible to minimize
wellbore deviation and follow a planned course simply by changing the tool face
orientation as needed.
195
4 HORIZONTAL WELLS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Horizontal drilling is the process of directing part of a well course through a reservoir
such that its inclination angle is approximately 90 from vertical. This horizontal
section may be anywhere from a few feet to thousands of feet in length.
Horizontal wells can trace their roots back to at least the 1930s (Ranney, 1939). But it
is only since the 1980s that advances in directional drilling and formation evaluation
have brought theminto the mainstream of oil and gas operations. Since then, in a
number of fields, they have significantly outperformed conventional wells in terms of
increased productivity, improved ultimate recovery and lower overall development
costs.
There have also been disappointments along the way, which have shown that the
benefits of horizontal drilling are largely contingent on reservoir characteristics.
4.1.1 Horizontal Drilling Applications

Horizontal wells work to best advantage in thin reservoirs having a relatively high
ratio of vertical to horizontal permeability (vertically fractured formations are prime
candidates) and a potential for drawdown-sensitive production problems like water
and gas coning.
Other common candidates for horizontal drilling are:
Reservoirs that would otherwise be economically inaccessible

Heavy oil reservoirs
Channel sand and reef core reservoirs
Hoal bed methane reservoirs
196
FIGURE 21 HORIZONTAL WELLS
4.2 WELL CONFIGURATIONS
Horizontal drilling begins with a more-or-less vertical surface section (except in the
case of slant drilling rigs, where this section is pre-inclined), followed by a bend
section, which progresses from approximately 0 to 90 inclination with depth, and
finally by a horizontal or lateral section. The transfer of weight to the drill bit during
the horizontal drilling phase involves different concepts, which translate into different
well configurations. We may generally distinguish these configurations based on
radius of curvature as follows:
FIGURE 22WELL CONFIGURATIONS
Long turn radius (LTR)

Ledium turn radius (MTR)
Lhort turn radius (STR)
Ultra-short turn radius (USTR)
The considerations that enter into selecting one of these well configurations
include
cost
well spacing and lease restrictions
conditions of re-entry wells
reservoir rock characteristics
production methods
well objectives
problem-causing lithologies above the pay zone
amount of total horizontal departure
completion methods
197
Long Radius
Medium Radius
Short Radius
Build rate
Build radius (ft)
Hole size
Up to 6 per 100 ft
1000 - 3000
No limits
6 - 20 per 100 ft
300 - 700
4 3/4, 6 1/8, 8 1/2, 4 3/4,
6 1/2, 9 7/8
1.5 - 3 per one ft

20 - 40
4 3/4, 6 1/2
Drilling Method
Rotary or steerable
motor systems for
curve and horizontal
sections
Specially designed
motors for angle build
section; rotary or
steerable motor
systems for horizontal
sections
.
Tubulars used
Conventional
tubulars.
Heavy wall drill pipe for

build rates of up to 15
per 100 ft; special
service drill pipe for
higher build rates.
No limits
Specially designed
deflection
tools or articulated
motors for
angle build section;
rotary tools and
special drill pipe for
horizontal sections.
Special articulated
tubulars;
special drill pipe
with short
articulated motors.
Rotary: No limits
Motor: Diamond or
PDC
No limits
Special
Drill bit
No limits
Drilling fluids
Surveying
No limits
No limits
Coring
Selective completion
capabilities
Multiple pay zones
Artificial lift capabilities
Workover capabilities
Typical productivity index
increases in non-fractured
zones
Typical productivity index
increases in fractured zones
Production enhancement
ratio
(horizontal/vertical well)
Conventional
coring, no limits
No limits
MWD capabilities
limited for hole sizes
smaller
than 6 1/8 inches
Conventional coring, no
limits
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
All types
All types
Yes
3.5
Yes
2.5
Rod pumps in
vertical
portion
Yes
2.5
>10
>10
3-foot core barrel,

1-inch diameter
core
Depends on
fracture
distribution
Varies widely; can
be
from 1 to 100
TABLE 1 COMPARE THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF LONG, MEDIUM AND SHORT RADIUS WELLS .
198
4.2.1 Long Turn Radius Drilling

A long turn radius well is a well having at least one section with a build rate of
between 1 and 6 per 100 ft, and a build radius of 1000 ft or more. Long radius
applications include:
The advantages of long radius drilling over other horizontal drilling methods
include minimal dogleg severity, attainment of horizontal departure while drilling
the build section, and the ability to employ either conventional rotary bottomhole
assemblies or steerable drilling systems. In addition, long radius methods impose
no restrictions on hole diameter, bit type, coring or MWD capabilities, and they
permit various options with respect to completion, stimulation and artificial lift.
4.2.2 Medium Turn Radius Drilling

A medium turn radius well has at least one section with a build rate angle of
between 6 and 20 per 100 ft in the rotary mode, and as much as 30 per 100 ft
in an oriented mode, in reaching horizontal. The radius of curvature ranges from
about three hundred up to a thousand feet.
Medium-radius wells are appropriate for areas that could benefit from horizontal
drilling, but where long-radius methods are either unnecessary or impractical, as
would be the case when lease boundary restrictions limit the well course. They
are particularly applicable for re-entry wells, reef reservoirs, fractured reservoirs
and reservoirs with potential for gas or water coning.
drilling multiple, extended-reach wells from offshore platforms or other single

surface locations
reaching otherwise inaccessible locations
drilling exploratory wells over long intervals
drilling wells that require zone isolation and selective completion/stimulation
The primary advantage of medium radius over long radius drilling is that the well
profile is shorter. A medium-radius well can reach the lateral section with greater
precision at a shallower depth, with less departure from vertical, and in less time
than it takes to drill the curved section of a long radius well. Torque and drag
tendencies are also less than in long-radius wells. The vertical portion of the well
can be drilled deeper and casing set deeper before beginning the directional
drilling phase, and upon completion, production equipment can be set in the
vertical section, closer to the pay interval.
199
4.2.3 Short Turn Radius Drilling
The build rate angle on a short radius well may range from 1 to 3 degrees per
foot. The radius of curvature may be 50 feet or less, with a hole size of between
4 3/4 inches and 6 1/2 inches.
FIGURE 23SHORT TURN R ADIUS DRILLING
Short-radius applications include infill drilling in depleted reservoirs, drilling shaly

intervals or other trouble-prone formations and drilling multiple drainholes from
one vertical wellbore. They are also proving useful for enhanced oil recovery,
particularly steam flooding.
Short-radius wells are relatively inexpensive. They provide easy, precise entries
to the horizontal sections, and can reach lateral displacement at a minimum
measured depth. This makes them particularly appropriate, and sometimes
necessary, for shallow reservoirs.
Disadvantages of short radius wells include special drilling equipment
requirements such as articulated tubulars, limits on hole size and reach, limited
azimuth control, and an inability to run logging tools or casing. Coring abilities
are limited to 3-foot sections of 1-inch diameter core, and diamond or PDC bits
must be used when drilling with a short, articulated motor.
4.2.4 Ultra-Short Turn Radius Drilling
200
A special class of short-radius wells is the ultra-short radius well, which effectively
has no bend section. Ultra-short drilling methods employ jetting techniques and
coiled tubing to eliminate angle build sections, and are used in soft,
unconsolidated formations to drill multiple drainholes from existing vertical wells.
FIGURE 24R ADIUS DRILLING
201
References
Geotechnical Engineers Handbook, Robert W. Day, McGraw-Hill, 2000
Horizontal Directional Drilling, Good Practices Guidelines, HDD

Consortium, May 2001
J. D. Hair & Associates, Louis J. Capozzoli & Associates, and Stress

Engineering Services (1995).Installation of Pipelines by Horizontal
Directional Drilling, An Engineering Design Guide, prepared for the
Offshore and Onshore Design Applications Supervisory Committee of
the Pipeline Research Committee
202
Horizontal Directional Drilling, Good Practices Guidelines, HDD

Consortium, May 2001.
202
Drilling
Problems
In Underbalanced Drilling
This
chapter introduces the main problems in

conventional, deviated and underbalanced holes. Problems
associated with the drilling of oil and gas wells are largely
due to the disturbance of earth stresses around the
borehole caused by creation of the hole itself and by
drilling mud formation interaction.
Earth stresses, together with formation pressure attempt to
re-establish previous equilibrium by forcing strata to move
toward the borehole.
Content
1.
2.
3.
4.
Lost Circulation
Well Kicks
Other Hole Problems
Problems Encountered
during Underbalanced
Drilling
5. Problems Encountered
during Drilling Obayed
Field
203
Anticipated Problems
An event which causes the drilling operation to stop is described as a NonProductive Time (NPT) event. Pipe sticking and lost circulation are the two main
events which cause NPT in the drilling industry. Well kicks, of course, require
operations to stop and when they occur can result in a large NPT. The average
NPT in the drilling industry is 20%.
Events such as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Pipe Sticking
lost circulation
Well Kicks
Other Problems
Pipe Sticking
The sticking of drill pipe inside the borehole is one of the main Hole problems
associated with drilling Operations.
Mechanisms:
1. Differential Pipe Sticking
2. Mechanical Pipe Sticking
1. Differential Pipe Sticking
204
Drill String comes in contact with filter cake of

a permeable zone subjected to a lower
pressure.
The pressure differential across the filter cake
enables the drill string to be embedded.
Drill string further differentially stuck if side
load and over balance is higher on other side.
Pipe is differentially stuck if it cannot be moved
up, down or sideward.
Differential Sticking Force = (Mud Hydrostatic-Formation Pressure) x

(effective area of contact) x (friction factor)
Warning:
Prognosed low pressure sands
Long / unsterilized BHA.
Increasing overpull, slack off weight or torque to start string movement.
First action:
Apply torque and jar down with maximum trip load.
Spot a pipe releasing pill if the string does not jar free.
Preventing Action
Maintain minimum required mud weight.
Keeps string moving when BHA is
opposite suspected zones.
Minimize seepage loss in low pressure
zones.
Minimize unsterilized BHA & use spiral
DC.
Control drill suspected zones
Freeing Differential Pipe Sticking

1. Reduction of Hydrostatic Pressure
2. Spotting Pipe Release Agents
3. back off operation
FIGURE 1: DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
1.1 Reduction of Hydrostatic Pressure

Reducing the Hydrostatic pressure will enable the freeing of the pipe. The
lowering of hydrostatic pressure reduces the side loading forces on the
pipe and frees the pipe.
Considerations:
Are there pressurized zones in the open hole.

Will exposed zones kick if hydrostatic pressure is reduced.
Mechanical stability of formation
Confidence level in pore pressure estimates
Volumes of fluids required to carry out operations.
1.1 Spotting Pipe Release Agents

It is blend of Surfactants, emulsifiers, diesel oil and water. It used to
Penetrate filter cake and reduce surface tension between pipe and filter
cake. A mixture of surfactant and diesel oil is the most widely used fluid
thereby creating a thin layer between pipe and mud cake to decrease the
value of friction coefficient and increasing the effectiveness of mechanical
attempts to pull free.
205
For effective freeing of stuck pipe, a minimum volume of 150 bbl of

organic fluid is suggested and should be left for a minimum of 8 hrs to
work through the filter cake properly
1.2 Back-off operation
Back-off operations involve the removal of the free portion of the drill string
from the hole. Before a back-off operation can be attempt; the position of
the stuck pipe should be determine as accurately as possible. The back of
procedures start with running A back-off shot to be positioned against a
drill pipe tool joint that is found to be free (back-off point). Then, a lift hand
torque and slight positive tension above the back-off weight (pre-stuck
hook load minus stuck pipe weight are applied. The back-off shot is
detonated and The pipe should come free which will indicated by a sudden
decrease in hook load. The pipe is rotated to lift and picked up to confirm
back-off. Finally, POOH The drill string section lift in the hole is discribed
as fish
2-Mechanical Sticking
Pipe is completely stuck with little or no circulation unlike differential
sticking where circulation takes place.
Causes
Bridging or Hole Packing off

Formation and BHA (Wellbore Geometry
Understanding the problem is the key to solution!!
1. Hole Pack off (bridging)
Shale Instability
Unconsolidated formations
Settled cuttings due to inadequate
hole cleaning
Junk in well
Cement blocks
Fractured or faulted formations
2. Formation & BHA
206
Key Seating
Under gauge hole
Ledges & Micro doglegs
Mobile formations
FIGURE 2: MECHANICAL STUCK
HOLE PACK OFF (BRIDGING)

1.1 Hole Pack Off-Settled Cuttings
Cuttings settle as a result of inadequate

hole cleaning.
In horizontal and highly deviated wells,
good hole cleaning is usually around
the larger Drill collar OD, however
cuttings can settle on smaller OD Drill
pipe higher up.
Cutting beds develop on the lower side
of boreholes with 30 degree or greater
inclinations depending upon suspension
and flow rates of drilling mud.
Settled Cuttings can also result in slow
ROP, excessive over pull, increased
torque and formation break down due to
increase ECD.
Hole cleaning can be controlled by:
FIGURE 3: CUTTING SETTLING
Mud rheology modifications

Flow rate
Hole angle
Mud weight
ROP
Drill pipe rotation
Hole diameter
1.2 Hole Pack Off- Shale Instability

A naturally over-pressured shale
It is one with a natural pore pressure
greater than the normal hydrostatic
pressure gradient.
Naturally over-pressured shales are
most commonly caused by geological
phenomena such as undercompaction, naturally removed
overburden (i.e. weathering) and
uplift. Using insufficient mud weight in
these formations will cause the hole
to become unstable and collapse.
207
FIGURE 4: NATURALLY OVERPRESSURED SHALE
Induced over-pressured shale

Induced over-pressure shale occurs
when the shale assumes the
hydrostatic pressure of the well bore
fluids after a number of days
exposure to that pressure.
When this is followed by no increase
or a reduction in hydrostatic pressure
in the well bore, the shale, which now
has a higher internal pressure than
the well bore, collapses in a similar
manner to naturally over-pressured
shale.
Brittle Shale
Caused by tangential stresses around
the wellbore.
Tends to break free and sloughing into
hole.
FIGURE 5: INDUCED OVERPRESSURED SHALE
FIGURE 6: BRITTLE SHALE
Swelling Shale
Caused by hydration processes or
osmotic potential between pore fluid of
shale and drilling fluid salinity.
Degree of clay hydration depends upon
clay type and cat ion exchange capacity
of clay.
208
Prevention
Use inhibited mud or displace to OBM.
Addition of various salts will reduce
chemical attraction between shale and water.
Reduce exposure time.
Good hole cleaning.
FIGURE 7: SWELLING
SHALE
1.3 Hole Pack Off- Unconsolidated Formations
Unconsolidated formations have low cohesive

strength and therefore collapse easily.
Usually occur near the top hole where there is
loose sand, gravel and silts.
Indicated by increasing pump pressure, torque
and drag.
Remedy: control filtration properties of the mud
( thin filter cake) and reduce of flow rate.
1.4 Hole Pack Off- Fractured & Faulted formations
FIGURE 8: UNCONSOLIDATE
FORMATIONS
Common problem in limestone and chalk.

Caused when stresses holding are released.
Drill string whipping can dislodge rock fragments
when drilling fractured zones.
If Drill string is stuck and cannot be freed by
jarring, then inhibited HCL Pill may be spotted
around the stuck neck.
Formation and BHA (Well Geometry)

2.1 Key Seating
Caused by rotational drill string coming in

contact with soft formations. Erodes a
narrow groove in the formation equal to
the diameter of drill pipe tool joint.
Groove created is smaller in size than
BHA components below. When POOH,
the BHA may be pulled into narrow sized
key seat and getting stuck.
Often seen in soft formations and in wells
with doglegs.
Doglegs and ledges provide points of
contact between tool joints and walls of
hole.
Key seats can be easily recognized by :
Hole tight when tripping out.
Circulation is free when pipe is
stuck.
FIGURE 9: FRACTURED
FORMATION
FIGURE 10: KEY SEATING
209
Warning:
High angle doge leg in upper hole section.
Long drilling hours with no wiper trips through the dogleged section
Cyclic over pull at tool joint intervals on trips.
Indications:
Occurs only while POOH.
Sudden over pull as BHA reaches dogleg depth.
Unrestricted circulation.
Free string movement below key seat depth.
First action:
Apply torque and jar down.
Attempt to rotate with low over pull to work through dogleg.
Preventive Action:
Minimize dog leg severity to 3deg/100 or less.
Limit over pull through suspected intervals.
Run string reamer or key seat wiper if suspected.
2. Lost Circulation
Uncontrolled flow of whole mud into a formation. Can occur in naturally
cavernous, fissured, or coarsely permeable beds, or can be artificially
induced by hydraulically or mechanically fracturing the rock, thereby giving
the fluid a channel to travel.
Induced Lost Circulation:

o
Result of excessive overbalanced condition, where the formation is

unable to withstand the effective load imposed upon it by the drilling
fluid.
Naturally Occurring Losses:

o Circulation lost into open fractures which are pre-existing. Can be
lost into large openings with structural strength such as large pores
or solution channels.
Induced lost circulation
210
o The key to preventing it lies in controlling static and dynamic

pressures.
o Drilling fluid properties must be maintained within acceptable
ranges.
o Abnormal surge and swab pressures must be reduced.
o All bridges must be drilled and not drove through them
o Circulation must be broken cautiously
o Pumping equipment must be keep in perfect conditions
o The intermediate casing must be set in a consolidated shale

formation as deep as practical to ensure the highest possible fracture
limit at the casing shoe
Materials have been used in attempts to cure lost circulation:
Fibrous materials, such as shredded sugar cane stalks, cotton fibers,

wood fibers, and paper pulp. These materials have relatively little rigidity,
and tend to be forced into large openings.
Flaky materials, such as mica flakes, plastic laminates or wood chips.
These materials lie flat across the face of the formation and thereby cover
the openings.
Granular materials, such as ground nutshells, or vitrified, expandable
shale particles. Materials with strength and rigidity that when used in the
correct size, seal by jamming just inside the openings.
Slurries whose strength increases with time after placement, such as
hydraulic cement and high-filterloss muds.
FIGURE 11: LOSS OF CIRCULATION
211
3. Well Kicks
It is the entering of the formation fluid to the wellbore. This occurs when the
formation pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure. A blowout is uncontrolled
kick
Causes:
Insufficient Mud Weight.

Swabbing.
Gas cut mud.
Failure to keep the hole full.
Lost circulation
1. Insufficient Mud Weight
The formation pressure is higher than the hydrostatic pressure.
Penetration of geo pressured zone.
Accidental dilution of mud by fluid addition at surface
Dilution of mud by influx from aquifer exposed to open hole.
Gradual decrease in mud density due to gas cut and failure to
degas.
Poor quality control
2. Swabbing
A negative hydrostatic pressure causing reducing bottom hole pressure
The speed of the drill pipe pulling.

Mud flow properties; yield point and gel strength.
Hole geometry.
Balled up string.
3. Gas cut mud
212
When gas enters the mud from the formations being drilled, the mud is
said to be Gascut. It is almost impossible to prevent any gas entering the
mud Colom but when it does occur it should be considered as an early
warning sign of a possible influx. The mud should be continuously
monitored and any significant rise above low background levels of gas
should be reported. Gas cutting may occur due to:
Drilling in a gas bearing formation with the correct mud weight
Swabbing when making a connection or during trips
Influx due to a negative pressure differential (formation pressure
greater than borehole pressure).
4.
Failure to keep the hole full & Lost circulation

Effect of displacement: In the process of POOH the drilling
string, the mud level into the well bore drops down results in
the hydrostatic pressure decrease which may be followed by
a flow of formation fluids into the well. Accordingly; regular
filling the well in process of a round trips
Lost of Circulation: Drilling fluid could be lost while RIH the
string if the pressure surges caused by string movement are
high enough to create fractures. An abrupt drop of the mud
level results in decrease of hydrostatic pressure followed by
the flow of formation fluids into the well bore.
FIGURE 12: INDONESIA GAS BLOW OUT LOCATION , 2006
213
(Well Control Procedures Will be discussed in Well Control Chapter)
Other Hole Problems

Other problems also arise which may not cause the pipe to stick but are
important, such as:
Bit balling
Tight Hole
Hole Wash out and erosion
Hole collapse and Hole Fracture
Bit Balling
Occurs while drilling reactive shale exhibiting plastic properties and in

poorly inhibited WBM when shale particles adhere to the BHA.
Can be recognized by reduced ROP as Bit cutting face is covered with
cake, blocked shaker screens with clay and Overpull on trips.
Remedies
Using inhibited mud systems which prevent dispersion of clay
particles.
Small percentages of glycol.
Using OBM and increasing salinity.
Tight Hole
The upward pulling force (drag) is greater than the buoyant weight of drill
string.
Increase in drag is a clear indication of a tight hole.
Tight holes are usually be observed in reactive clays or salt.
Remedies
Symptoms
Increased torque
High pump pressures.
214
FIGURE 13: BIT BALLING
Directional drilling problems

The maximum inclination of the well is in high range and no major
difficulties are expected by the directional drilling, if cleaning considered by
low viscosity follow by high viscosity, the use of steerable system will be
helpful to follow the direction and avoid severe dogleg in inclination and
direction. The trajectory of the well should be carefully monitored in order to
avoid risks of collision with existing wells of the same field especially in first
500-m
Drilling problems associated with direction well drilling and their remedy
There are five main problems during drilling horizontal wells and drain holes,
namely:
Delivering weight to the bit.

Reducing torque and drag forces.
Hole cleaning.
Protection of water sensitive shale.
Directional control
1. Delivering weight to the bit:Applying sufficient bit weight for optimum drilling rate that is often a
problem, especially at higher angles and while drilling a horizontal section.
Conventional bit weight for efficient drilling is a bout 2000-5000 lbf. Per inch of
bit diameter. Motor assemblies drill efficiency with less bit weight then rotary
assemblies, they compensate for bit weight with higher rotational speed of
turbines and motors.
Remedy:Bit weight may be increased by reducing drag and torque by using the
split assembly, including the bit, motor, directional control tools, and the nonmagnetic collars, which left at the bottom of the drill string.
215
2. Reducing torque and drag forces:Drag is a force restricting the movement of the drill tools in directions
parallel to the well path. Torque is the force resisting rotational movement. Drag
and torque are measurements of this frictional resistance to the movement of the
drill tools.
Excess drag and torque cause directional drilling problems, especially in the
turning and horizontal sections of horizontal well often very severe in this well.
The drill string can be failed from tension due to excess drag or twist off duo to
excess torque.
REMEDY:Eliminating all drag and torque is not practical , but preventive actions
reduce them to an acceptable levels , it is best to design the well pattern for a
minimum number of changes of angle and a low angle of build or drop . Excess
drag and torque is reduced pipe placing casing in the hole. Reaming reduces
drag and torque caused by key seats and rough wellbore, reducing drill string
weight reduces drag and torque at high quality of mud with good chemical and
physical properties.
Oil base mud should be considered for more demanding situations because of
its good lubricating qualities.
3. Hole cleaning or cutting removal:A particular problem that arises in the drilling horizontal wells is the difficulty of
removing rock cuttings from the horizontal section of the well.
The source of the problem is that cuttings tend to settle in the bottom of the
hole and increase the friction in the hole, produce poor cement bonds.
216
REMEDY
A great improvement in removing cuttings has been an achieved by using top
drive drilling rigs. In these rigs, the drill string is rotated by a large, geared
electric or hydraulic drive motor rather than by the conventional rotary table
and Kelly.
With this arrangement, it is possible to rotate the drill string and to circulate
mud as removed from the hole. This tends to keep the drill cutting in
suspension and to provide a cleaner hole, the removal of cuttings reduces
friction between the drill pipe and the hole and reduces the tendency for
sticking.
4. Protection of water sensitive shale:Shale layer frequently tend to collapse in contact with fresh water, this can
be prevented by using oil based drilling fluid, which usually consist of an
invert emulsion of water in diesel oil together with other additives
REMEDY:Water -base mud can be inhibited to reduce the attack on water- sensitive
shale by addition of NaCl or CaCl2 . These additives reduce the chemical
activity of water and its tendency to penetrate into the water-sensitive
shale .
5. Directional control:Overcoming the force of gravity is a fundamental problem in directional

and horizontal drilling. The bottom hole assembly (BHA) is a heavy weight
hanging on the bottom of the drill string. The BHA must overcome the force
of gravity with a strong side force for directional drilling.
REMEDY:A adjustable assemblies are more flexible for use in various situations,
specially the steerable versions (the term steerable has a special meaning
in the oil industry), the steerable BHA consists of bit, down hole motor with
build in dog-leg tendency, measurement-while drilling (MWD).
217
Problems Encountered during Underbalanced

Drilling
FIGURE 14: PROBLEMS OF UBD WELLS
Here are some of the general problems of UB drilling. All of them are not
always found in every hole:
1. Well Bore Collapse
218
Two general categories of wellbore instability may be encountered while drilling:

Mechanical instability
Chemical instability.
Mechanical instability includes situations where the fluid density is not sufficient
to keep the formation in question from falling or caving into the hole. The
formation is driven into the borehole by pressure trapped in the formation.
The pressure may be the result of tectonically induced stress or abnormal
pressure. It also may simply be due to poor cementation of the rock particles
(e.g., unconsolidated sandstone).
Chemical instability is the result of a chemical reaction between the formation
and the fluid in the wellbore. A good example is the reaction between waterbased drilling fluids and a water sensitive shale or clay in the formation.
The surface indications of wellbore instability are very much the same, regardless
of the type of instability. They include:
High torque
Increased drag
Fill on connections
Difficulty in pulling off bottom, or in pulling the first few stands
Pressure increases when circulation begins, then decreases once
circulation is well underway
If the problem is mechanical in nature, for example, large cuttings in the wellbore,
the problem may seem to move around or be encountered in a different place
each time.
There may be no difficulty in circulating.
Movement downward may be possible, while upward movement of the
pipe is not, and the tight spot may appear in a different place each time it
is encountered.
Prevention of mechanical instability may mean that underbalanced drilling
cannot continue.
Drilling fluid density may have to be increased to the point where formation
pressure is lower than wellbore pressure, as in conventional drilling.
The first solution to implement when a mechanically unstable formation is
encountered is to increase the circulation rate. Large cuttings require high air
rates for removal. If the cuttings are very large, air or gas will not lift them from
the wellbore. They will have to be ground until they are small enough to be lifted
out. Working the pipe will help grind these cuttings. The problem of instability
may be mitigated by adjusting the liquid injection rate to ensure the fluid is in the
stable foam regime. Foam will lift cuttings much better than either pure gas or
pure liquid.
Prevention of chemical instability will require a good knowledge of the mineralogy
of the formations being drilled. Inhibitive or nonreactive fluids can be used for
drilling. Fortunately, probably the most non-reactive fluid available is air.
219
2. Corrosion Problem
Corrosion is the destruction of metal by chemical or electrochemical action
between the metal and its environment.
i.e.: Corrosion occurs as a result of interaction between iron steel of drill string
and water base mud.
Four conditions must be met ,however , before wet corrosion:
1. Anode and cathode must exist.
2. The anode and cathode must be immersed in electrolytic medium.
3. A potential difference between anode and cathode exists.
4. There must be a coupling to complete the electrical circuit.
o The anode and cathode exist on the drill pipe itself.
o The drilling mud may serve as electrolytic medium.
o The coupling is creating by the drill pipe steel.
o The potential difference is due to the crystalline structure
and different metal used in the drilling pipe alloy.
Factors affecting corrosion rate
1. Oxygen:
Oxygen reacts with metal of drill string forming (Fe2O3 & Fe3O4), which
accelerates corrosion on metal.
Oxygen acts to remove protective films on drill string which accelerate
corrosion action and increase pitting deposits (reddish brown rust of
Fe(OH)3 .
Oxygen scavengers, passivating inhibitors and filming inhibitor treatments
are used to mitigate oxygen corrosion attack.
2. H2S:
Fe + H2S
FeS + 2H+
The increase of H+ atoms in mud will result in retaining acidic medium which will
increase corrosion effect. H2S, cause severe pitting embattlement and stress
cracking also a black sulfide coating.
Treat with sulfide scavenger as ZnO. Also Film-forming inhibitors are

used.
Keep pH between 8-9.
3. CO2:
220
CO2 is an acidic gas that results in pH reduction and thus increases corrosion
effect and pitting attack.
CO2 + + H2O
H2CO3 (Carbonic acid).
H2CO3 + Fe
FeCO3 +H2.
i.e.: FeCO3 deposits indicate CO2 attack.
Increase Mwt to stop gas influx.

Keep pH between 8-9.
Add filming amine
4. Bacteria:
The by-product of bacteria are CO2, H2S and SO4(leads to H2SO4).

Microiobacids are used to control bacterial effect in drilling environments.
5. Dissolved Salt:
As salt concentration increases, conductivity between charge poles raises also
electrical resistance of drilling fluid decreases.
6. Velocity of Drilling Fluid:

The higher the mud velocity the higher the rate of erosion of films around the drill
string and thus the higher the rate of corrosion (Treat with oil mud, amines).
7. Temperature:
Rule of thumb : Corrosive rate doubles with every 55 ft increase. As the increase
of temperature increases the solubility of corrosive gases (O2, H2S & CO2).
8. Pressure:
The increase of pressure causes an increase in trapping effect of gases in mud
such as O2 and thus causes increase in corrosion effect.
9. pH:
Corrosive is much slower in alkaline medium than in acidic medium. So corrosive
rate decreases as pH increases.
NB: The best medium of pH to minimize corrosion rate is a pH between 8.5-10.
10. Solids:
Increase of abrasive solids in mud accelerates removal of protective film around
drill string due to increase of friction action causing pipe washout.
221
Also removal of protective film helps corrosive elements attack to drill string steel
and thus accelerate corrosion rate.
Corrosion Control
Keep pH above 9
Steel becomes passive above pH = 11
Dont use air.
Oxygen corrosion is the most common type of corrosion.
There are other types of corrosion and scaling.
Corrosion Inhibitors
3. Problems with Gas Drilling
Water.
Washouts, especially in coal.
Corrosion.
Crooked hole.
Vibration
Water
The big problem with air drilling is water in the formations. Some of the worst
shales will drill dry very well, but once water is added will slough. Water
generally also means increased gas or air volume.
Washouts
Washouts, which make it difficult to lift the cuttings out of the hole, are very
common in fractured or broken coal beds
Corrosion
With the addition of water comes the problem of corrosion

Down hole fires occur when drilling into light oils with air
222
TABLE 1: PROBLEMS OF UBD SYSTEMS
Drilling Method
or Fluid System
Problems and/or Potential Expenditures

Possible problems if water flow is encountered
Hole erosion, if poorly consolidated.
Air
Possibility of downhole fire, if hydrocarbons are encountered.

Supplementary equipment rental.
Is not suitable for H2S
Problems if water flow is encountered.
Gas (Nitrogen or
Natural Gas )
Cost is high if a market for the gas exists.

Rig safety.
Supplementary equipment rental If H2S is expected, consider
a closed system.
Problems if substantial water flow is encountered. Gas Cost if air
not used.
Mist
Shale stability.
Disposal of waste water/gas and supplementary rental cost.

Air-mist not suitable if H2S is present
Stiff Foam
Fluid degradation possible if oil, salt water or calcium
Gasified Liquids
Corrosion potential (and requirement for inhibitors 62) is air is

used.
223
Problems Encountered during Drilling Obayed

Field
1. Drilling 17 1/2 Surface hole
Potential Problems and Drilling Issues
Partial/Total losses in Moghra (40 70 bbl's/hr)

Heaving / swelling clay in bottom of Moghra
Unstable shale in Dabaa (a lot and repeatedly caving shale), possible
stuck pipe and high tendency of hole pack off.
Hole filling by accumulation of drilled cuttings
Difficulty running casing
Losses with cement displacement during 13 3/8 cement job (130 bbl)
May be Top hole cement fill is required.
Formation erosion below cellar (confirm to drill mouse hole and fill
conductor with betonies mud not water)
Bit and Stabilizer balling up.
2. Drilling 12 1/4 Hole

Partial losses in ABOU ROASH A-F.

Hole filling by accumulation of the drilled cuttings
Losses with cement displacement during 9 5/8 cement job
3. Drilling 8 hole
224
Insufficient kick tolerance: Leak-off test at 9 5/8 shoe must be

conducted to confirm the shoe strength is sufficient to drill.
Losses: total losses have been experienced due to depletion in the lower
safa
4. Drilling 6 Hole Section

Problems with hole cleaning may be expected. Frequent sweeping of the

well with low/high viscous pills will be required. Careful monitoring of drag
during tripping is required to identify the presence of cutting beds.
Uncontrollable losses to open fractures

Poor hole cleaning. Insufficient flow rates, poor mud properties
5. Drilling 3 7/8 Hole section

Potential Problems and Drilling Issues (full description)
3 7/8 hole was drilled from 4185 to 4190 m. Damage was noted to the 2
7/8 NRVs (rubber seal) and to the MWD tools. The probe centraliser
had de-bonded and worn and the impeller bearing rubber was 90%
eroded. It was assumed that the rubber goods were reacting with the
amine in the fluid system (This has not been proved at the time of writing).
The amine was subsequently removed for future runs.
the well was re-logged from 4200 to 4208 m. Drilling continued from 4208
to 4210 m, Drilling recommenced (45 minutes NPT) from 4210 to 4221 m at
2 -3 m / hr: The LWD / MWD failed at 4221 m (dynamic bottom hole
temperature measured at 147 degrees Celsius).
LWD / MWD after trouble shooting continued to pulse, slide drilling

continued to 4224 m (ROP 0.8 m / hr). Turbine wear was measured at 2
mm and was found to have a damaged crossover (downhole over
torquing). LWD / MWD rubber elements were again found to be
damaged.
The BHA was run into the well and washed down from 4079 to 4224 m. A
survey attempt failed and the pulsar would only transmit temperature data.
Drilling commenced (blind) from 4224 to 4243 m. A gradual drop in
standpipe pressure (1500 psi) was observed; surface checks
confirmed the pressure loss was down hole. Torque increases, poor
225
ROP and high torque and drag were noted. It was decided to end the
bit run. On surface it was noted that the Bit had experienced
significant wear.
On surface it was observed that the MWD pulser sub had washed out in
two places.
The BHA was picked up and tested on surface (new MWD / LWD, rerun
Turbine). The BHA was run into the well to 670 m and an attempt was
made to circulate. The SPP had to be brought up to 1800 psi to achieve
circulation. The trip in hole continued (filling the string every twenty stands).
The BHA was picked up and tested on surface (new MWD / LWD, rerun
Turbine). The BHA was run into the well to 670 m and an attempt was
made to circulate. The SPP had to be brought up to 1800 psi to achieve
circulation. The trip in hole continued (filling the string every twenty stands),
to 4000 m where 20 klbs drag was seen and an attempt to circulate was
made. Due to the inability to circulate, the line up of the choke was
rechecked and was found to be closed in downstream. The geolograph
showed that the weight of the string had been decreasing for the previous
four stands prior to breaking circulation. Therefore it is presumed that it
is at this stage the choke was closed (or downstream valve) and the
well was then over pressured to 2000 psi. The cause of this was due
to human error, due to a lack of detailed job specific procedures (in
our own opinion that is what lead to the failure of the project)
The trip continued after breaking circulation to 4209 m, the well was
unloaded (200 scf / m N2 and 80 gpm inhibited water). During the
unloading of the well the data acquisition system failed again (7.5
hours NPT).
226
After repairing the system the trip continued from 3355 to 4142 m, the BHA
was then washed down to 4180 m where the well was unloaded (200 scf /
m N2 (increased to 300 scf / m) and 80 gpm inhibited water). After
unloading, the trip continued to 4243 m (washing down) and drilling
continued (300 scf / m and 90 gpm inhibited water). Drilling continued from
4243 to 4266 m at which point the MWD / LWD tool failed (highest
temperature recording 152 degrees Celsius).
As it was clear from the previous drilling that no hydrocarbons were being
produced from the reservoir, the risk of drilling without the PWD to monitor
BHP was deemed acceptable. The run was primarily to prove the viability of
the whole system, without considering the shortcomings caused by the
MWD / LWD failures.
The BHA was picked up and tested on surface (no MWD / LWD), two BHA
NRVs were replaced and the assembly was run in the well. Circulation was
broken every 20 stands. The BHA was run to 4185 m, no pressure was
seen below the DDV (NB. The DDV open control line would not hold
pressure). The well was unloaded (400 scfm / 80 gpm inhibited water).
The trip continued to 4347 m where resistance (15 klbs) was noted, the
BHA was washed down from this point to 4277 m. Rotary drilling
commenced from 4277 to 4375 m ( 650 scfm / 85 gm). A slide drilling test
was done from 4375 to 4378 m. At this point the turbine stalled and the
SPP increased to 3600 psi. Attempts to bleed off pressure and regain
circulation were unsuccessful; therefore it was decided to trip out of
the well.
Returns from the string were seen throughout the trip out of the well. Upon
inspection at the surface it was found that the two NRVs above the
turbine had failed. TD of the well was called at this point due to MWD /
LWD unavailability.
227
Corrosion plan for UB Obayed filed

Corrosion is a major concern every time that gasified fluids are utilized in
oil and gas wells drilling. It is particularly a concern when oxygen in small
or big volumes is injected in salt based fluids. One of the aims of any
drilling project should be to minimize corrosion. This is first defined by
setting goals for drill string corrosion rates, defined in mils of metal lost or
dissolved per year (mpy) as measured by ring coupons and/or
corrosometers. (1 mil = 1/1000 inch)
Drilling wells underbalanced in the Obaiyed field, challenged Weatherford
engineering to design an effective fluid system able to control corrosion
over steel components downhole. In Obaiyed wells, all conditions are
given to create a highly corrosive environment. Conditions such high
depth, high temperature, high salinity in the produced waters, the
utilization of fresh water as drilling fluid, significant presence of H2S and
CO2 and membrane Nitrogen injection yields an explosive corrosive
cocktail. This document contains a corrosion plan designed to minimize
corrosion levels given the demanding conditions of the upcoming wells in
Obaiyed.
Different companies have different levels of tolerance with
respect to corrosion. For the present application corrosion rate less than
50 mpy or 2 lbs/ft2 per year with no pitting is considered to be acceptable.
The Primary corrosion control system consists of:
228
Adjust pH-to-pH 9.9 + with caustic soda (sodium hydroxide).

Use CorrFoam 1 @ 7200 ppm or 7.2 gallons per 1000 gallons or 0.3
gallons per barrel of water.
Use WFT C-100 @ 7200 ppm or 7.2 gallons per 1000 gallons or 0.3
gallons per barrel of water.
NOTES:
Batch mix the C-100 based on fluid volume
Batch mix CorrFoam 1 initially at recommended concentration and keep
continuous injection while drilling using chemical pumps at rates
recommended by corrosion Engineer on site.
Maintain a minimum of 50 ppm as PO4 by standard Taylor phosphonate
kit.
Monitor chlorides carefully.
Monitor corrosion rate with rings to < 2 lbs/ft 2/year.
As CO2 is encountered add lime as needed to control pH, near or about
1% of weight or about 3.5 ppb.
As produced water is encountered or any heavy CO2 returns, watch the
chlorides level.
Secondary Corrosion control system:

If salinity approaches the formation water of 180,000 ppm as NaCl, consider the
following:
Start additions of WTF 9812 at 1% (10000 PPM)
Maintain the C-100 and the CorrFoam-1 rates.
Alternative system:
If corrosion levels are still above permitted level (< 2 lbs/ft 2/year) Alternatively
switch the system to:
CorrFoam 1(corrosion inhibitor): 0.5%(5000 ppm)

WTF 9368 (corrosion inhibitor): 05% (5000 ppm)
WTF 9812 (H2S scavenger): 1.0% (10,000 ppm)
Conclusions:
The systems recommended are based on Weatherfords experience of

proven chemical techniques.
The concentrations recommended follow this success for the C-100 and
the CorrFoam 1.
The additional process of using the CorrFoam 1, WTF 9368, and WTF
9812 generating an insitu complex are patent pending developed for high
temperature systems, containing air, CO2, and H2S.
It is still being determined to use WTF 9812 with C-100/CorrFoam 1 for similar
effect at temperatures lower than 450F
229
Chemicals
Added
Gas rate
Fluid Rate
Corrosion Rate
Phosphate
Sulphide
Iron
SG
Alkalinity
CL
BS&W
ph
Date
Fluid Summary
7/26/05
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
1 x C100-9386
2 x Ai6009368
7/27/05
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
1 x C100-9386
2 x Ai6009368
7/28/05
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
1 x C100-9386
2 x Ai6009368
2 x CorrFoam
1-9323
7/29/05
1 x C100-9386
9.8
N/D
7500
350
N/D
3000
110
2 x Ai6009368
2 x Alpha 19812
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
7/30/05
1 x C100-9386
9.8
N/D
7000
400
N/D
1500
N/D
110
2 x Ai6009368
230
7/31/05
1 x Alpha 19812
1 x Caustic
Soda
1 x Lime
9.2
N/D
8000
>500
8.4
40
200
2.6 /
1.52
3000
0.38
/
0.44
600
0.23
/
0.07
5 x CorrFoam
1-9323
110
500
3 x C100-9386
8/5/05
8/4/05
8/3/0
5
8/2/05
8/1/0
5
1 x Alpha 19812
9.6
11
N/D
N/A
15000
1000
>500
>501
8.5
8.4
10
1 x CorrFoam
1-9323
5 x CorrFoam
1-9323
2 x CorrFoam 19323
8/8/05
8/9/05
8/10/05
10 x CorrFoam
1-9323
Chemicals
Added
400
Gas rate
85
Fluid Rate
4000
4.38
/
4.22
Corrosion Rate
Alkalinity
Phosphate
CL
8.4
Sulphide
>500
Iron
3700
SG
N/A
BS&W
ph
9.4
800 /
25
8/7/05
Date
8/6/05
Built 1000 bbls of new fluid at request of Bapetco. Bapetco had concerns about potential incompatibilities b/w the Elastomer
components of the MWD / NRV and the amine component. New fluid only contains WFT 9323 with lime to PH 10.5 (10 sx lime).
No activity
9.6
N/A
4000
>500
8.4
80
6000
4.68
/
0.05
90
300
4 x CorrFoam 19323
No activity
231
8/11/05
4 x CorrFoam 19323
2 x Alpha 1-9812
8.4
25
6000
90
300
4 x Alpha 2325
(defoamer)
2 x CorrFoam 19323
1.91
/
2.54
90
1.91
/
2.54
90
300
1 x CorrFoam 19323
90
300
2 x CorrFoam 19323
8/13/05
>500
9.1
8/14/05
5000
10.1
N/A
4800
>500
8.4
100
4000
8/15/05
N/A
1 x CorrFoam 19323
9.25
N/A
3240
>500
8.4
75
5000
8/16/05
9.85
4.68
/
0.05
9.7
N/A
4050
>500
8.4
75
4000
1.38
/
0.61
80
650
5 x CorrFoam 19323
8/17/05
8/12/05
WFT 9323 corrosion inhibitor added while circulating. Emec lubricant was added, no incompatibilities were noted in bottle
tests. The EMEC lube is derived from sulphur chemistry. And therefore R&D recommended the use of WFT-9812 H2S
Scavenger to prevent potential H2S generation.
9.8
N/A
3800
>500
8.4
10
6000
0.27
/
2.35
80
650
2 x CorrFoam 19323
4800
>500
8.4
100
4000
300
4 x WFT Alpha
1-9812
8/18/05
N/A
232
8/19/05
9.8
N/A
4000
>500
8.4
3800
2.26
50
1000
2 x CorrFoam 19323
8/20/05
No sample
taken
9.8
N/A
4000
>500
8.4
3800
2.26
50
1000
No sample
taken
References
Weatherford Catalogue (2000) "Drilling & Intervention Services".
Baker catalogue (2000) "Fishing Services".
Bourgoyne et al (1986) "Applied Drilling Engineering" SPE Text books
Adam, N. (1977). How to control differential pipe sticking. Petroleum Engineer,

Oct. Nov. Dec.
Brouse, M. (1982, 1983). How to handle stuck pipe and fishing problems. World
Oil,
Nov. Dec. 1982, Jan. 1983.
Schlumberger (1977). Sit-back off. Schlumberger Publication
233
234
WELL
CONTROL
T
his
chapter
will
introduce
the
procedures
and
equipment used to ensure that fluid (oil, gas or water) does

not flow in an uncontrolled way from the formations being
drilled, into the borehole and eventually to surface in
conventional
drilling,
coiled
tubing drilling
and
underbalanced drilling. This flow will occur if the pressure
in the pore space of the formations being drilled (the
formation pressure) is greater than the hydrostatic
pressure exerted by the column of mud in the wellbore (the
borehole pressure). It is essential that the borehole
pressure, due to the column of fluid, exceeds the formation
pressure at all times during drilling.
CONTENT
WELL CONTROL IN UNDERBALANC ED DRILLING
In Underbalanced Drilling
1- WELL Control
PRINCIPLES
2- Causes of Primary
control loss
3- WARNING INDICATORS
OF A KICK
4- SECONDARY CONTROl
5- Blowout Prevention
(BOP) EQUIPMENT
6- Coiled tubing BOP
stack arrangements
235
Well control definition
A kick is defined as an unwanted influx of formation fluids into the wellbore

A blowout is defined as an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids to the
surface or to another formation underground (underground blowout). It is
Loss of control of a kick. It can be at surface or underground and caused by
equipment failure or human error.
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by the column of mud at rest
or in static condition.
Pressure gradient express the pressure exerted by the fluid in terms of
psi/ft of depth
Formation pressure it is the pressure contained in the pore space of the
formation or the pressure contain in the formation fluid.
Normally pressured formation is one in which the formation pressure is
equal to the hydrostatic pressure of fluid above the zone of interest.
Abnormal pressure formation is a formation of greater gradient due to the
trapping of formation fluid in place during compaction (not allowed to be
escaped)
Overburden pressure is the pressure exerted on formation by weight of
the rock and fluids above the zone of interest.
Fracture pressure is the pressure required to fracture a given formation.
Or the pressure required causing the formation to fail and split.
Surge or swap pressure: pressure result from the movement of drill string
in or out of the hole.
Shut in drill pipe pressure is measure of the difference between the
pressure downhole and HSP in the drillpipe when shut in the well.
Shut in casing pressure is measure of the difference between formation
pressure and HSP in the annulus when shut in the well.
236
FIGURE 1: PRESSURE DISCRIPTION
WELL Control PRINCIPLES

There are basically two ways in which fluids can be prevented from flowing, from
the formation, into the borehole:
Primary Control
Secondary Control
Secondary control is required when primary control has failed (e.g. an
unexpectedly high pressure formation has been entered) and formation
fluids are flowing into the wellbore. The aim of secondary control is to stop
the flow of fluids into the wellbore and eventually allow the influx to be
circulated to surface and safely discharged, while preventing further influx
downhole.
The first step in this process is to close the annulus space off at
surface, with the BOP valves, to prevent further influx of formation
fluids.
The next step is to circulate heavy mud down the drillstring and up the
annulus, to displace the influx and replace the original mud (which
allowed the influx in the first place).
Causes of Primary control loss
Primary control over the well is maintained by ensuring that the pressure due to
the column of mud in the borehole is greater than the pressure in the formations
being drilled i.e. maintaining a positive differential pressure or overbalance on
the formation pressures.
Reduction in Mud weight
The mud weight is generally designed such that the borehole pressure
opposite permeable (and in particular hydrocarbon bearing sands) is
around 200-300 psi greater than the formation pore pressure. This
pressure differential is known as the overbalance. If the mud weight is
reduced the overbalance becomes less and the risk of taking a kick
becomes greater.
237
The mud weight will fall during normal operations because of the following:
Solids removal: If the solids removal equipment is not designed properly a

large amount of the weighting solids (Barite) may also be removed.
Excessive dilution of the mud: When the mud is being treated to improve
some property (e.g. viscosity) the first stage is to dilute the mud with water
(water-back )in Gas cutting of the mud: If gas seeps from the formation into
the circulating mud (known as gas-cutting) it will reduce the density of the
drilling fluid.
Reduced Height of Mud Column

During normal drilling operations the volume of fluid pumped into the borehole should be
equal to the volume of mud returned and when the pumps are stopped, the level of the
mud fall below the mud flowline. If the top of the mud drops down the hole then the
height of the column of mud above any particular formation is decreased and the
borehole pressure at that point is decreased
The mud Colum height may be reduced by;
Tripping: The top of the column of mud will fall as the drillpipe is pulled from
the borehole when tripping.
Swabbing: is the process by which fluids are sucked into the borehole, from
the formation, when the drillstring is being pulled out of hole. This happens
when the bit has become covered in drilled material and the drillstring acts
like a giant piston when moving upwards (The opposite effect is known as
Surging)
Lost circulation: occurs when a fractured, or very high permeability, formation
is being drilled. Whole mud is lost to the formation and this reduces the
height of the mud colom in the borehole.
238
FIGURE 2: TRIP TRANK CONNECTED TO BOP STACK TO CLOSELY MONITOR THE VOLUME OF THE MUD
REQUIRED FOR FILL UP
WARNING INDICATORS OF A KICK

Types of kick
Rapid expansion as gas circulated through choke
Mud gas separators and flare lines used to kick off the well.
Gas migration problems
Higher SICP than others
Barite settling in OB mud
Solubility of gas masks kick indicators
Flammability of gas
Slugging of gas at choke
Oil Kicks
Flammable but not as explosive as gas
Density greater than gas-lower SICP
Very little expansion as kick reaches surface
But, there is almost always some gas present
Water kicks
not flammable
very little expansion
lower SICP than gas or oil
But, there is still usually some gas present.
Primary Indicators of a Kick

The primary indicators of a kick are as follows:
Flow rate increase
FIGURE 3: KICK OCCURANCE
Pit volume increase
Rate of penetration increases
Change in shape and size of cuttings
Increase in rotary torque and drag
Increase in flow line temperature
Decrease in shale density
Increase in chloride content
Flowing well with pumps shut off
Improper hole fill up during trips
Gas Kicks
Shut in Procedure
When a kick is detected while tripping:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Set the slips below the top tool joint

Stab a full opening safety valve(e.g. TIW valve), and close it
Open the HCR valve and close the BOPs and choke.
Pick up and stab the Kelly or a pump-in line
239
5. Open the safety valve

6. Notify the supervisor
7. Read & record SIDPP, SICP, pit gain and time
8. Prepare to implement kill procedures
When an influx has occurred and has subsequently been shut-in, the pressures
on the drill pipe and the annulus at surface can be used to determine:
The formation pore pressure
The mud weight required to kill the well
The type of influx
240
FIGURE 4: SHUT IN THE WELL OPERATION
Well killing procedures

The driller Method:
The method procedures are:
1. Shut the well in after a kick is recognized
2. Record the shut in drill pipe and shut in casing pressures
3. Circulate the kick out of the hole
4. Shut the well in a second time to build the mud weight up to the kill
mud weight
5. Circulate the well with the heavier mud
FIGURE 5: SIX WELL KNOWN COMMON METHODS
Wait and weight Method:

It is widely used in hard rock area and in some cases it can cause lost circulation
and formation breakdown
The method procedures are:
1. Shut the well in after a kick is recognized
2. Record the shut in drill pipe and shut in casing pressures till
stabilization condition
3. Calculate the kill mud weight required as the following:
Pdp
k m
0.052 d
4. Adopt the existing mud weight with adding barite until the kill weight
is achieved
5. Calculate the total volume of the drill string and all annuli
6. Calculate the number of pump strokes required to pump down the
calculated new mud volume
The method involved circulating the kick out of the hole, then second and third
circulation of kill weight mud.
241
= mud volume (bbl) / stroke capacity (bbl/stroke)

7. Calculate the pumping time = No of strokes/ 30 spm
8. Pump the mud down hole to control the formation pressure
9. When the new mud is pumped down hole it is heavy enough to
replace the shut-in pressure
Circulate and weight method

The circulate and weight method utilizes the advantages of both the wait and
weight method and the driller's method. Instead of shutting in the well long
enough to weight up to kill weighted Mud (KWM), the well is shut in only long
enough to measure the shut in pressures and pit gain. Next circulation is started
from the suction pit with the original weight mud, at initial circulating pressure, as
in the driller's method. While circulating with original weight mud, a separate pit of
mud is being weighted up to KWM. As soon as the KWM is reached, we begin to
circulate from the pit of KWM following the procedure set out for the wait and
weight method starting at step number 4. This procedure has the advantages of a
short shut in period, lower casing pressures, and fast kill times.
Reverse circulation method

Reverse circulation procedures are most often used during workover and
completion operations. Reverse circulation requires lining the pumps up on the
annulus, circulating down the casing side, and up the drill pipe, work string, or
tubing. This method is sometimes used when killing a producing well where the
production choke is used instead of an adjustable choke. If the packer fluid is of
sufficient density to control formation pressure, reversing out the tubing volume is
all that is required to kill the well.
Bullheading
Bullheading is the term used to describe pumping the wellbore fluids back into
the formation. Pumps are tied in at the surface, and kill fluid is pumped into the
well until the well if full of the proper kill weight fluid. Often times during
Bullheading, the formation is fractured, and it becomes difficult to keep the well
full of fluid. Bullheading is most often used during workover operations, mainly
because it is simple and requires little or no planning.
242
With a high fluid loss fluid (brine waters, or formation fluids) it is possible to pump
into open formations without fracturing the formation, if there is a relatively
permeable formation and care is taken while pumping. Low fluid loss fluids such
as drilling mud or frac fluids will tend to develop a filter cake and seal off the pore
spaces (as they are designed to do), which means that the formation will have to
be fractured in order to pump fluid into it.
A pressure decline schedule can be developed for a Bullheading procedure

by the following:
Initial pump in pressure= (frac gradient, ppg-Mud weight ppg)*0.052*TVD
Final pump in
ppg)*0.052*TVD
pressure=(frac
gradient,
ppg-kill
weight
mud,
FIGURE 6: CONSIDERATION FOR BULLHEADING
Volumetric method
The volumetric method is utilized in the event of gas migration in a shut in well,
usually when we cannot circulate for some reason, whether it is due to power
failure, plugged drillstring, or the pipe is out of the hole. With the volumetric
method, we allow the gas bubble to expand as it migrates up the wellbore, to
avoid excessive surface pressures associated with gas migration. We calculate
the annular capacity in bbl/ft at the depth of the gas bubble, and determine the
HSP imposed per barrel of mud. As the bubble migrates toward the surface the
shut in pressures will increase, since the BHP is also increasing we can bleed off
the excess surface pressure. If we bleed off too much mud, we will allow an
additional influx into the well. As we bleed mud from the wellbore, the HSP is
decreasing resulting in an increase in required surface pressure. By calculating
the HSP per barrel of mud, we know how much the surface pressure will increase
for each barrel of mud bled from the well. The surface pressure increase will be
equal to the HSP of the mud that was bled off.
Theoretically, the pressure will decline from the initial pump in pressure to the
final pump in pressure in the time it takes to pump kill weight fluid from the
surface to the zone of interest.
243
FIGURE 7: VOLUMETRIC TECHNIQUE
Blowout Prevention (BOP) EQUIPMENT

The blowout prevention (BOP) equipment is the equipment which is used to shut
in a well and circulate out an influx if it occurs. The main components of this
equipment are the blowout preventers or BOP's
There are 2 basic types of blowout preventer used for closing in a well:
Annular (bag type) or
Ram type.
It is very rare for only one blowout preventer to be used on a well. Two, three or
more preventers are generally stacked up, one on top of the other to make up a
BOP stack.
Annular Preventers
It is a high tensile strength, circular rubber packing unit. The rubber is moulded
around a series of metal ribs. The packing unit can be compressed inwards
against drillpipe by a piston, operated by hydraulic power.
The advantage of such a well control device is that the packing element will close
off around any size or shape of pipe. An annular preventer will also allow pipe to
be stripped in (run into the well whilst containing annulus pressure) and out and
rotated, although its service life is much reduced by this operation
244
Ram Type Preventers

Ram type preventers derive their name from the twin ram elements which make
up their closing mechanism. Three types of ram preventers are available:
Blind rams - which completely close off the wellbore when there is no pipe in
the hole.
Pipe rams - which seal off around a specific size of pipe thus sealing of the
annulus. In 1980 variable rams were made available by manufacturers.
These rams will close and seal on a range of drillpipe sizes.
Shear rams which are the same as blind rams except that they can cut
through drillpipe for emergency shut-in but should only be used as a last
resort. A set of pipe rams may be installed below the shear rams to support
the severed drillstring.
Slip ram which can hold full weight without damage and allow pulling up of
string to the surface, it is usually applicable in coiled tubing drilling.
FIGURE 8: ANNULAR PREVENTOR
245
FIGURE 9: RAM PARTS
Drilling Spools
A drilling spool is a connector which allows choke and kill lines to be attached to
the BOP stack.
Casing Spools
The wellhead, from which the casing strings are suspended are made up of
casing spools.
Tubing Spool
It is double flange spool from which the tubing strings are suspended.
Choke and Kill Lines

When circulating out a kick the heavy fluid is pumped down the drillstring, up the
annulus and out to surface. Since the well is closed in at the annular preventer
the wellbore fluids leave the annulus through the side outlet below the BOP rams
or the drilling spool outlets and pass into a high pressure line known as the
choke line.
The choke line carries the mud and influx from the BOP stack to the choke
manifold.
The kill line is a high pressure pipeline between the side outlet, opposite the
choke line outlet, on the BOP stack and the mud pumps and provides a means of
pumping fluids downhole when the normal method of circulating down the
drillstring is not possible.
Choke Manifold
The choke manifold is an arrangement of valves, pipelines and chokes designed
to control the flow from the annulus of the well during a well killing operation. It
must be capable of:
246
Controlling pressures by using manually operated chokes or chokes

operated from a remote location.
Diverting flow to a burning pit, flare or mud pits.
Having enough back up lines should any part of the manifold fail.
The mud/gas separator

The mud/gas separator is designed to provide effective separation of the mud
and gas circulated from the well by venting the gas and returning the mud to the
mud pits. Small amounts of entrained gas can then be handled by a vacuum-type
degasser located in the mud pits. The mud/gas separator controls gas cutting
during kick situations, during drilling with significant drilled gas in the mud returns,
or when trip gas is circulated up.
FIGURE 10: CHOKE MANIFOLD
247
FIGURE 11: MUD - GAS SEPARATOR
Choke Device
A choke is simply a device which applies some resistance to flow. The resistance
creates a back pressure which is used to control bottomhole pressure during a
well killing operation. Both fixed chokes and adjustable chokes are available. The
choke can be operated hydraulically or manually if necessary.
FIGURE 12: REMOTE ADJUSTABLE CHOKE
Hydraulic Power Package (Accumulators)

The opening and closing of the BOPs is controlled from the rig floor. The control
panel is connected to an accumulator system which supplies the energy
required to operate all the elements of the BOP stack. The accumulator consists
of cylinders which store hydraulic oil at high pressure under a compressed inert
gas (nitrogen).
When the BOPs have to be closed the hydraulic oil is released (the system is
designed to operate in less than 5 seconds). Hydraulic pumps replenish the
accumulator with the same amount of fluid used to operate the preventers
248
FIGURE 13: KUMMY UNIT
ACCUMULATOR
Internal Blow-out Preventers
A float valve installed in the drillstring will prevent upward flow, but allow normal
circulation to continue. It is more often used to reduce backflow during
connections. One disadvantage of using a float valve is that drill pipe pressure
cannot be read at surface. A manual safety valve should be kept on the rig floor
at all times. It should be a full opening ball-type valve so there is no restriction to
flow. This valve is installed onto the top of the drillstring if a kick occurs during a
trip. Kelly cock valve installed at one or both ends of the Kelly. When a highpressure backflow occurs inside the drill stem, the valve is closed to keep
pressure off the rig floor.
FIGURE 14: KELLY COCK & DROP IN CHECK VALVE
An example of the API code (API RP 53) for describing the stack arrangement is:
There are a variety of tools used to prevent formation fluids rising up inside the
drillpipe. Among these are float valves, safety valves, check valves and the Kelly
cock.
5M - 13 5/8" - RSRdAG
Where,
5M refers to the working pressure = 5000 psi
13 5/8" is the diameter of the vertical bore
RSRdAG is the order of components from the bottom up
G = rotating BOP for gas/air drilling

A = annular preventer
Rd = double ram-type preventer
S = drilling spool
R = single ram-type preventer
249
Blow out preventer equipment for coiled tubing

drilling
Stripper
It is Pressure containment device Primary Barrier in well control system which
installed above BOP & below injector head. It is Hydraulic activated from control
cabin and can be redressed during operation with pressure isolated.
There are many types of CT stripper:
Conventional Stripper
Tandem Stripper
Side Door Stripper
Radial Stripper
Conventional stripper: is operated hydraulically since hydraulic pressure

applied through Pack Port moves Lower Bushing upward and energize
stripping element against Well pressure. It can be redressed in period
between 45 min to 1 hr and working over CT range from 1 - 1.
Side door stripper: it is mounted closer to injector head. It is also easier
and safer access for Seals inspection. Side door stripper is operated
hydraulically since Hydraulic pressure applied Closing Port moves Upper
Bushing downward and energize stripping element. Well pressure
provides gives no impact in energizing element. It can be redressed in
period between 5 min to 10 min and working over CT range from 1 - 1
Tandem stripper: it is used in conjunction with fixed Stripper (Back up
Stripper system) and it similar in principle with Side Stripper. It allows
operation to continue without delay.
FIGURE 15: STRIPPER TYPES
250
Coiled Tubing Blowout Preventer

Its serve to provide a mean of securing the CT & isolate well pressure during
Normal, Unusual or Emergency operating situations. Its a Mechanical Closable
Type of Secondary Barrier. It is Function & pressure test is compulsory before
used.
BOP Rams are hydraulically & mechanically activated only during CT in
stationary position.
Shear & Seal BOP

Its serve to provide a Tertiary Barrier. It is mounted directly above the Xmas
Tree. Always function test the ram before executing the CT operation & the
blade/cutter is only good for one-time use.
FIGURE 16: CT BOP TYPES
CT BOP available in various configurations: SINGLE, COMBI, TRIPLE COMBI &

QUAD BOP
251
Coiled tubing BOP stack arrangements

High pressure wells:
Low pressure wells:
FIGURE 17: CT BOP STACK ARRANGEMENTS
Well control for underbalanced drilling (UBD)

Primary well control
In conventional drilling, primary well control is obtained by creating a
hydrostatic pressure with the mud column, which exceeds the pressure in the
formation being drilled. In underbalanced drilling, the primary well control
function of the mud column, has been replaced by flow and pressure control.
The bottom-hole pressure and consequently the reservoir influx is monitored
and controlled. Flow control is achieved by means of a closed loop surface
system.
The main components of the closed surface system are:
A sealing mechanism around the drill string
252
Surface safety valve (ESD valve)

Choke manifold
Surface fluids / solids handling system
Sealing mechanism around the drill string
The passive system depends on a friction fit between the drill pipe and the
rotating pack-off and well bore pressure to effect a seal. Examples of the passive
system are the Weatherford-Williams RCH, Drilco Grants low-pressure heads
and Stacys medium pressure heads.
The active system uses hydraulic pressure to effect and maintain the seal
around the drill pipe. Some examples of RCD that have been used on Shells
operations are:
1. Rotating Control Head (RCH Weatherford-Williams Tool Company Inc.)
2. Rotating Blowout Preventer (R-BOP Northland Energy.)
3. Pressure Control While Drilling (PCWD Shaffer Pressure Control)
It is also worth noting that an RCD is not a diverter although it diverts flow as
one of its functions. Diverters refer to a specific piece of equipment and are
used in low-pressure applications only.
1. Passive system - Weatherford-Williams Rotating Control Head (RCH)

The Williams RCH uses one or two stripper rubbers, which are designed typically
for 0.5 inches of interference between the inside diameter of the rubber and the
drill pipe. The initial seal comes from this interference fit and is supported by wellbore pressure, not by active pressure. Low-pressure leakage may occur when
worn rubbers are in place.
At surface, well-bore pressures are contained by means of a sealing mechanism

around the drill string. Well-bore pressure should be continuously restrained
while allowing drill string rotation and pipe movement. Pipe strippers in CT drilling
and a snubbing annular or a rotating control devise (RCD) in jointed pipe UBD
operations provide the sealing mechanism around the pipe. There are two types
of RCD systems, passive systems and active systems.
This unit is rated for 5000 psi in static (non-rotating / non-stripping) mode. The
unit is rated for 2500 psi in dynamic mode (stripping and rotating).
A disadvantage of the RCH is that staging large diameter tools through the
stripper rubber is not possible. Therefore, the bearing assembly must be
removed which eliminates the primary well control device from the system during
the staging operation.
253
FIGURE 18: WEATHERFORD -WILLIAMS R OTATING CONTROL HEAD
2. Schaffers PCWD and Northlands R-BOP

To reiterate, RCDs should always be used in conjunction with the conventional
blowout preventer stack, even if the name implies that it is a rotating blowout
preventer. These devices are used to control and divert the flow from the well in
an underbalance drilling operation, secondary well control however, is still
provided by the conventional stack. One of the obvious differences between
these units and the RCH is the active system. RCD uses hydraulically actuated
packing elements to seal around the drill pipe. The hydraulic closing pressure
can be varied automatically as the well-bore pressure varies. The packing
elements are able to close on open hole. When the packing element is open,
these devices allow full access to the well-bore (up to a max. of 11). The packoff elements on both devices remain closed at all times when in underbalanced
drilling mode.
The Shaffer PCWD Rotating BOP is rated to 5000 psi working pressure in static
(non-rotating) mode. The working pressure in dynamic mode varies from 3500
psi at 50 RPM to 2000 psi while rotating up to 200 RPM.
Northlands RTI 11-3 R-BOP can handle a maximum static pressure of 2000 psi
and a maximum pressure while drilling of 1500 psi. The maximum rotational
speed is 100 RPM. The working pressure while stripping is 1000 psi .
254
FIGURE 19: SHAFFER PCWD R OTATING BOP
Surface safety valve
In an Underbalanced Drilling operation, the rigs kill system remains tied per
normal drilling operation. If the ESD system is activated, the driller (and crew)
must ensure that the rigs HCR valve to the choke manifold remains closed since
opening the HCR valve will bypass the closed in ESD valve and allow well-bore
fluids to enter the UBD surface system.
FIGURE 20: ESD V ALVE L OCATION
A surface safety valve (fail close) provides an additional barrier between wellbore pressure and the surface separation equipment. A surface safety valve is
usually installed between the wellhead and the choke manifold and controlled by
an emergency shutdown system (ESD). The ESD system used in UBD
operations is usually a combination Manual/Automatic system.
255
UBD BOP stack arrangement

Wellheads used in underbalanced drilling vary from crude, very simple equipment
for very low pressure operations to expensive, redundant systems designed for
very high pressure operations.
Low pressure oil wells

Gas, mist, and foam drilling are normally utilized on low pressure wells. For such
extremely low pore pressure drilling applications, a simple annular preventer
alone might suffice to contain wellbore pressures; however, a principal
manufacturer of such equipment strongly cautions that such use exceeds the
design criteria of this equipment. Therefore, the minimum setup for an
underbalanced drilling system should consist of:
1. Rotating head
2. Two ram set of manually-operated blowout preventers, consisting of a pipe
ram and a blind ram.
An improvement to this basic system would be installing the rotating head
above a set of hydraulically-operated blowout preventers.
For slightly higher pressure operating conditions, a system consisting of
1. Rotating head
2. Annular preventer
3. A two ram set of manually operated preventers will probably work
adequately.
For added safety, hydraulically operated preventers with a manual backup should
be provided
These basic systems all use a rotating head with a 400 psi (sometimes 500 psi)
MWP (Maximum Working Pressure) capability.
256
FIGURE 21: LOW PRESSURE UBD BOP STACK
High pressure gas or oil well
Blind rams should be installed in the bottom set of rams (when a two ram system
is used). Sometimes a third set of rams (pipe rams) is utilized. In this case the
RBOP is installed atop an annular preventer. The blind ram is placed between
the two sets of pipe rams. So the arrangement would be as follow;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
RBOP
Annular preventer
variable Pipe ram
blind ram
Pipe ram
The lowermost set of rams should be installed directly atop the wellhead (or an
adapter spool if necessary). You should never place any choke or kill lines below
the lowest set of rams because if one of these lines cuts out, there is no way to
shut in the well.
Care must be taken to utilize a rig with a substructure high enough so that
the wellhead is not below ground level, with space enough to put the entire
desired BOP stack below the rig floor.
Gasified liquids, flow drilling, mud cap drilling are utilized on high pressure wells.
Rotating heads on top of conventional hydraulically operated BOP usually suffice.
Nitrified liquids are often used with an RBOP installed atop a conventional BOP
stack.
257
FIGURE 22: UBD BOP S TACK CONFIGURATION FOR OIL WELL
258
FIGURE 23: UBD BOP STACK CONFIGURATION FOR GAS WELL
Critical Sour gas well:
If hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas is expected or if formations with even higher pore pressure
are drilled, wellhead equipment design might call for either coiled tubing drilling (CTD) or
snub drilling operations.
cubic meters per second (m3/s) or greater and less than 0.1 m3/s and which is
located within 500 meters (m) of the boundaries of an urban center;
m3/s or greater and less than 0.3 m3/s and which is located within 1.5 km of the
boundaries of an urbancenter;
m3/s or greater and less than 2.0 m3/s and which is located within 5 km of the
boundaries of an urban center;
Snub drilling and CT drilling have BOP stacks that also allow tripping at much higher
pressures than other forms of UBD (routinely up to 10,000 psi). The BOP stack
arrangement will be as follow
1.
2.
3.
4.
Stripper assembly (optional)

Hydraulic connector
Flow spool
Quod BOP stack
a. Blind ram
b. Shear ram
c. Slip ram
d. Pipe ram
5. Annular BOP
6. Seal pipe ram
7. Riser pipe
8. kill spool
9. shear/blind ram
10. slip/pipe ram
11. kill spool
12. Xmass tree
Critical sour well is any gas well from which the maximum potential H2S release rate is
greater than:
259
FIGURE 24: UBD BOP STACK CONFIGURATION FOR CRITICAL

SOUR GAS WELL
BOP schematic of obaiyed D-2
FIGURE 25:BOP SCHEMATIC
260
OF OBAIYED
D-2
References
Rehm B and McClendon R (1971) "Measurement of formation pressures

from drilling
data" SPE 3601, AIME Annual Fall Meeting, New Orleans.
Snyder, R. and Suman G (1978, 1979) "World Oil's Handbook of High

Pressure Well
Completions World Oil".
Schlumberger (1972). "Log Interpretation Principles". Vol 1. Schlumberger

Publication.
Exlog Applications Manual (various prints) "Theory and evaluation of

formation
Pressures" Exploration Logging Inc.
261
WELL COMPLETION
FOR UNDERBALANCED DRILLING
262
Well completion in underbalanced drilling
Well
Completion
Wells are one of the main investment items in the development of
a field and must be completed setting the goal of maximum
production rates obtainment Well Completion is a very important
activity in the upstream part of the hydrocarbon exploitation
which interfaces the reservoir with the Topside Facilities to the
Production Network.
The completion design is a part of the well design and sequentially
follows the drilling engineering side of it.
Contents
In Underbalanced Drilling operation
1- Completion
objective and
functions
2- Vertical well
completion
3- Horizontal well
Completion
4- UBD completion
5- Obaiyed D2-c/d
263
Completion
Completion objective and functions.

The fundamental objectives for a completion are:
Achieve the optimum production or injection rates at the lowest capital and
operating costs.
Be as simple as possible to increase reliability.
Provide adequate safety in accordance with legislative or company

requirements and industry common practices.
264
Be as flexible as possible for future operational changes in well

function.
The main function of a completion is to produce hydrocarbons to surface

or deliver injection fluids to formations.
This is its primary function; however a completion must also satisfy a great
many other
These main functional requirements must be built into the conceptual
design and include:
Protecting the production casing from formation pressure.
Protecting the casing from corrosion attack by well fluids.
Preventing hydrocarbon escape if there is a surface leak.
Inhibiting scale or corrosion.
Producing single or multiple zones.
Completion Types
There are several ways of classifying or categorizing completion types. The most
common criteria for the classification of completions include the following:
Wellbore/reservoir interface, i.e., open-hole or cased hole, horizontal
completion
Producing zones, i.e., single zone or multiple zone production
Production method, i.e., natural flowing or artificially induced production
There are three reservoir-wellbore interface options which can be further

classified into seven major alternatives in completion architecture.
RESERVOIR-WELLBORE INTERFACE
265
1. Vertical or highly deviated well Completion

1.1Open Hole Completions

Their use is predominately in thick carbonate or hard sandstone reservoirs that
produce from fracture systems or thin permeable streaks which are difficult to
identify on logs and are easily damaged by drilling and cementing operations.
They maximize the fracture intersections and inflow potential due to the large
surface area if drilling and completion damage is avoided. However they provide
little or no selectivity in reservoir management to reduce unwanted water or gas
production. An open hole completions can subsequently be converted to a liner
completion to overcome the selectivity problem.
1.2Uncemented Liner Completions

Uncemented liners are used to overcome production problems associated with
open hole completions and to extend their application to other types of
formations. The formation is supported by a either a slotted liner, sand screen or
is gravel packed.
First: Slotted Liner
This type of completion entails a liner with flow slots machined throughout
its length installed below the production casing. The slot widths can range
between 0.254 - 1.016mm.
A slotted liner is used where there is a risk of wellbore instability to
maintain a bore through the formation which otherwise might collapse and
plug off all production. It also helps in liquid lift due to the smaller flow
area.
266
FIGURE 1 S LOTTED LINER
Second: Wire Wrapped Screen
FIGURE 4: WIRE WRAPPED S CREEN
Third: External Gravel pack

An open hole gravel pack is used where the sands are too fine or abrasive for
screen. The open hole is under-reamed to remove drilling damage and to create
annulus for the filter sized gravel to pack against the formation wall. When
installed, it is the most effective sand control measure for weak sandstones
unconsolidated rocks, however carries more risk than a cased hole gravel pack.
A plain wire wrapped screen is used either as a simple filter to strain out
small amounts intermittently produced sand from a relatively stable formation
or as a sand retention where high permeability, coarse sands would readily
flow onto the screen forming zone.
FIGURE 5: E XTERNAL GRAVEL PACK
267
1.3 Perforated Completions
This type of completions are the most common world-wide due to the selectivity,
flexibility, lower costs, increased safety and convenience that they provide. There
are three subdivisions, standard, fracture stimulation and cased hole gravel pack
The key issues in cased hole completion design are:
Perforated interval selection, gun type, shot density, underbalanced or
Overbalance and perforating method, i.e. casing guns, through tubing
guns or TCP.
Completion fluids program selection with regard to fluid quality and
formation damage.
Type of formation and if special perforating techniques are required, e.g.
high shot density, ultra deep penetration or stimulation treatments.
Effective zonal isolation due to cement quality and distance between

zones .
1.4Standard Perforated Casing Completions

These are used when the rock is reasonably stable and permeable. Deep
penetrating perforating charges are generally used especially in hard rock, with
the shot density dependent upon the vertical permeability and layer frequency,
the deliverability requirements and method of perforating.
The deep penetrating charges are desired to perforate through the damage zone
cause by the drilling or completing process. Perforating underbalance may also
improve perforation clean-up.
Horizontal well Completion

1.5Open hole
Open-hole completion is inexpensive But is limited to competent rock formation.
Additionally, it is difficult to stimulate open hole Wells and control either
injection or production Along the well length.
268
FIGURE 9:: OPEN HOLE COMPLETION FOR HORIZONTAL WELL
1.6Slotted liner completion

The main purpose of inserting a slotted liner in a horizontal well is to guard
against hole collapse. Additionally, a liner provides a convenient path to insert
various tools such as coiled Tubing in horizontal well.
Three types of liner have been used:
a. Perforated liners, where holes are drilled in the liner.
FIGURE 10 SLOTTED LINER
1.7Liner with partial isolation:

Recently external Casing Packers (ECPS) have been installed outside The
slotted liner to divide a long horizontal wellbore Into several small sections (as
shown in figure). This Method provides limited zone isolation, which can Be used
for stimulation or production control along The well length.
b. slotted liner, where slots of various width and depth Are milled along the
liner length.
269
FIGURE 11 PARTIAL CASING ISOLATION
1.8Cemented and perforated liner:
It is possible to Cement and perforate medium and long radius wells. At the present
time it is not economically possible to Cement short radius Wells. Cement using
horizontal Well completion should have significantly less free Water content than that
used for vertical well Cementing. This is because in a horizontal will, due to Gravity,
free Water segregates near the top portion of The well and heavier cement settles at
the bottom. This Results in a poor cement job.
270
FIGURE 12 CEMENTED & PERFORATED LINER
UB Completion
One of the primary advantages of drilling wells underbalanced is the elimination
or minimization of formation impairment. In overbalanced situations, drilling fluid
and Solids can penetrate and damage matrix porosity or fractures, reducing the
permeability.
If a well is properly drilled under underbalanced Conditions, but is completed
using over balanced methods, much if not all of the impairment-reducing benefits
might be permanently lost.
Even if this completion-related damage can be removed or bypassed, the
associated expenses can be avoided if the operator uses proper underbalanced
completion procedures.
These procedures, sometimes called live well, underbalanced completion
techniques, are described in this section.
They include:
Running production casing, liners, slotted liners and other tools

underbalanced,
Controlled cementing of production casing or liners,
Running production Tubing and down hole completion assemblies, and,
Perforating underbalanced
Running Casing and Liners Underbalanced

Before drilling operations are completed, and the bottom hole assembly (BHA) is
removed from the wellbore under pressure, completion protocol must be
determined.
For example, will the completion be barefoot (open hole) or will some type of
casing or liner be run.
To run production casing or an un slotted production liner in a live well, a float

shoe and float collar are usually used. The shoe and float collar are often
separated by two joints of pipe, in order to isolate contaminated cement and to
prevent it from surrounding the lower portion of casing in the open hole.
Depending on the surface pressures, it may be necessary to flow the well
through the choke manifold while running pipe, to reduce the shut-in surface
pressure.
Even flowing the well might not sufficiently reduce this pressure to permit
passage of the pipe into the well against underbalanced forces.
If this is the case, a snubbing unit or a coiled tubing injector head might be
required to push the casing until it becomes pipe heavy.
On the other hand, a slotted liner does not restrict the flow of fluids into the liner
(through the slots).
The slotted liner and liner hanger are run on the bottom of drill pipe or some other
work string. A drill float is generally run above an on/off tool, located immediately
above the liner hanger. Once the hanger is set, the on/off tool is released and the
drill pipe or work string is tripped out of the hole. The drill float provides back flow
protection.
It may be necessary to flood the backside with drilling fluid to reduce the
surface Pressure and enable tools or pipe to be run into the hole. Fluid is
continuously pumped down the annulus to overcome pressure resistance. If
necessary, the rubber element or packer, inside a rotating head or RBOP, can be
removed to allow larger diameter pipe to be run through the wellhead stack.
If the completion is not barefoot, it becomes necessary to run the casing or liner
without Killing the well. In this scenario, surface pressures are usually increased
to subdue exposed down hole Formations, without exceeding their pore
pressures. This is done by replacing the lighter annular fluid by bull heading a
heavier fluid down the back Side before tripping out of the hole.
271
Cementing Pipe Under pressured

Presuming that casing has been run underbalanced, underbalanced cementing
should also be considered. Formation impairment from the cement and
associated filtrate fluids can be equally or more damaging than drilling.
Underbalanced cementing is not substantially different from underbalanced
drilling.
The hydrostatic head of the slurry can be reduced by entraining gas, usually
nitrogen, or reduced density additives. These technologies were originally
developed to avoid breakdown in weak formations.
Running Tubing in Underbalanced Wells
272
Whether or not a well is designed as an open hole completion, a slotted liner

completion or a perforated casing completion, production tubing is generally
required to protect production casing against excessive or concentrated
pressures and to minimize corrosion and/or erosion.
Most regulatory agencies enforce the use of tubing in well completions, to protect
shallow freshwater aquifers against hydrocarbon or salt invasion and pollution.
If the underbalanced well above is an open hole or slotted liner (completion, there
will generally be pressure at the surface. Cemented casing completions will have
zero pressure until they are perforated.
Methods have been developed to run completion assemblies and tubing
downhole under pressured, in open hole and slotted liner wells. Un perforated,
cased wells present no problem and tubing is run into the well without special
equipment.
If a well has surface pressure, it should preferably not be Killed (formation
impairment from cornpletion fluids and solids might occur).
Since it is not possible to use permanent tubing string floats similar to drill floats,
temporary float systems have been developed. By placing a tubing sub,
containing a custom glass disk in the string, pipe and tools can be run in the
well under pressure without backflow of wellbore fluids. The glass or other
similar material isolates the inside of the tubing from pressure while it is run in
the well along with a retrievable packer or seal bore assembly for a permanent
packer installation.
Once the packer is set and the system pressure tested, this glass disk is broken
by dropping a sinker bar down the tubing and breaking the disk. A catcher
assembly is usually positioned inside a mud anchor, located below a perforated
nipple underneath the packer, to keep the sinker bar from falling out of the
tubing g into the casing. This is a simple and effective technique.
There are other methods to isolate surface pressure and trip into a well.
For example, a wire line-set permanent packer can be run with a pump-out or
push-out plug assembly. Once the packer is run and set in place, pressure
above the packer can be bled off to zero to run the tubing.
Another method to protect against surface pressure while running tubing into
the well Involves the use of a pressure rupture disk located inside the tubing
string. Again, after setting and hydrostatic testing of the packer, this pressure
disk is ruptured by pressuring up the tubing to a preset limit. Of all of these
methods, the most commonly used is the shear glass disk sub because of its
reliability and simplicity.
Completing Underbalanced Drilled Wells

The majority of early wells drilled underbalanced could not be completed
underbalanced. The majority of the early UBD wells were displaced to an
overbalanced kill fluid prior to running the liner or completion. Depending on the
completion fluid type, some formation damage would take place. The damage
may not have been as severe for completion brine as it might have been with
drilling mud, but significant reductions in productivity of underbalanced drilled
wells have been encountered after the installation of the completion.
If the purpose of underbalanced drilling is for reservoir improvement, it is
important that the reservoir is never exposed to overbalanced pressure with a
non-reservoir fluid.
If the well has been drilled underbalanced for drilling problems, and productivity is
not impaired, then the well could possibly be killed and a conventional completion
approach can be taken.
Alter the tubing is stung into the packer and pressure tested, either pump
pressure or a sinker bar is used to "open" the well to the surface;
communicating the formation below the packer with the surface through the
production tubing.
A number of completion methods are available for underbalanced drilled wells:
Liner and perforation

Slotted liner
Sand screens
Barefoot (open hole)
All of the above options can be deployed in underbalanced drilled wells. The use
of cemented liners in an underbalanced drilled well is not recommended if the
gains in reservoir productivity are to be maintained. It is generally not possible to
cement a liner in an underbalanced mode, although the use of foamed cements
may provide some solutions in certain circumstances. The completion
273
requirements for a UBD well must be reviewed and analyzed as part of the
feasibility study prior to commencing an underbalanced operation
Irrespective of the completion lining required for the reservoir, the installation
process for a completion will have to be carefully reviewed during the planning
process to ensure that underbalanced status is maintained during the completion
installation.
If a packer type completion is installed. The production packer and tailpipe are
run and set on drill pipe with an isolation plug installed in the tailpipe. If the well is
maintained underbalanced, well pressure will normally require the production
packer and tailpipe to be snubbed into the well against well pressure.
If a liner top completion is used in a monobore well drilled underbalanced, the
use of a float collar may have to be considered to maintain well control.
FIGURE 2: UBD COMPLETION TYPES
274
Obaiyed D2-c/d Completion

Running completion
1. Install THS and N/U BOP and test both to 5,000 psi.
2. Retrieve RTTS packer.
3. R/U for running 5 completion string with the redressed KC-22 S anchor
seal assembly and 4 AF nipple, SC-SSSV.
4. RIH with completion string as per program and pressure test 5 tubing as
per completion program.
5. Make up the SC-SSSV, connect the control to the safety valve, open the
flapper and start RIH with tubing to surface as per sketch.
6. Sting into the Premier packer seal head with the KC-22S anchor seal
assembly, space out the completion string to land in the tubing hanger.
Set down 10,000 lbs.
7. Pooh and install pup joints as required, re-sting in the packer head and
latch the KC-22S anchor seal assembly in the head, pull test the anchor
seal assembly by 10 klbs.
8. Set tubing hanger, with 10,000 lbs. compression, in place and tie down
connect control line.
9. Install BPV in tubing hanger.
10. N/D BOP
Steps:
275
Installing wellhead
A 5K FMC wellhead (Bapetco standard) will be installed. Follow FMC detailed
procedure for installing, function and pressure testing the X-mas tree. An
FMC representative will need to be available at the well site.
Bringing the well on-line
Outline procedure (detailed procedures will be provided by the user-departments)
276
Steps:
1) Hook-up production flow lines and control panel and test same
2) Rig up coiled tubing on the wellhead and lift the column of kill fluid from the
well using nitrogen
3) Record fluid returns in order to calculate the potential differential pressure
across the WL plugs
4) Rig up slick line and recover the top and bottom No-Go plugs
5) Rig up well test package for short well test
6) Bring well on production and monitor flow rates
7) Shut-in well for build up
8) Rig down all equipment and bring well on stream to OBA production facilities
Completion equipment list
277
Thread
Weight / Material
OD/ID (in)
Item description
278
Tubing
5 New VAM Box x Pin
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
Flow coupling
5 New VAM Box x Pin
15 ppf / S13Cr
(819-24)
5.563/4.276
TR-Safety valve
5 New VAM Box x Pin
Incoloy 825
5.5 / 4.125
Flow coupling
5 New VAM Box x Pin
15 ppf / S13Cr
(819-24)
5.563/4.276
Tubing
5 New VAM Box x Pin
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
AF no-go nipple
5 New VAM Box x Pin
S13Cr
5.0 / 4.0
Tubing
5 New VAM Box x Pin
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
K-22 Anchor seal
5 New VAM Box x Pin
S13Cr (443-38)
5.0 / 4.2
Packer head
4.5 New VAM Box x

Pin
13.5 ppf / S13Cr
5.8 / 3.9
Spacer Joint
4.5 New VAM Box x

Pin (LH)
13.5 ppf / S13Cr
4.5 / 3.9
Premier
Production Packer
4.5 Box x 5 Pin New

VAM
29-32 ppf / S13Cr
7.0 / 3.9
Pup Joint
5 VAM Box x Pin
15 ppf / S13Cr
5.0 / 4.4
Crossover Sub
5 Box x 4.5 Pin New

VAM
S13Cr
3.958
F-top No-Go
Nipple
4.5 VAM Box x Pin
S13Cr
4.5 / 3.81
Tubing
4.5 New VAM Box x

Pin
13.5 ppf / S13Cr
4.5 / 3.9
R-bottom No-Go
Nipple
4.5 New VAM Box x

Pin
S13Cr
4.5 / 3.81
Seal Assembly
SI/SO
4.5 New VAM Box
12.6 ppf / S13Cr
3.958
Wellhead configuration items and stress check
THA 11 x 5 VAM
THS 11 10Ksi x 11 5Ksi Internal Latch
DDV Wellhead penetration spool 11 10Ksi

modified CHS
Tree 11 x 5 1/8 5Ksi
279
Casing Head Spool 13 5/8 5ksi x 11 10ksi
Weatherford
DDV
procedures
Mandrel Hanger
11operating
x 7
Note: another valve will be installed behind the existing one.

Reference is made to WFT document: DDV OM 001 Rev F, V03-26-05, for all DDV operations.
References
Snyder, R. and Suman G (1978, 1979) "World Oil's Handbook of High
Pressure Well Completions World Oil".
Schlumberger (1972). "Log Interpretation Principles". Vol 1. Schlumberger

Publication.
Fertl W.H. (1976) "Abnormal Formation Pressures". Elsevier, Amsterdam.
280
280
This chapter outlines the steps and methods used to plan a

successful aerated fluids drilling operation. This chapter
also illustrates the application of these steps and methods
to typical deep drilling operations. The objective of these
steps and methods is to allow engineers and scientists to
cost effectively plan their drilling operations and ultimately
select their drilling rig, compressor, and other auxiliary air
and gas equipment. The additional benefit of this planning
process is that the data created by the process can be later
used to control the drilling operations as the actual
operations progress.
Contents
1- Minimum volumetric flow
rate theory
2- Injection pressure
calculation approximation
models
3- Injection pressure
calculation
With major and minor
losses
4- compressor selection
281
Introduction
Aerated drilling operations use a variety of incompressible fluids and compressed
gases to develop a gasified drilling fluid. The majority of the operations use
standard fresh water based drilling mud with injected compressed nitrogen. More
recently inert atmosphere has been used as the injected gas to reduce the
corrosion of the drill string and the borehole casing. In this chapter a standard
drilling mud and nitrogen will be used as the example aerated drilling fluid.
The basic direct circulation drilling program goes through two models:
The minimum volumetric flow rate model
The injection pressure calculation model
Minimum Volumetric Flow Rates

Most aerated drilling operations are planned with a constant volumetric flow rate of
incompressible drilling fluid and only the volumetric flow rate of the compressed
gas is allowed to vary. The volumetric flow rate of gas is usually increased as the
depth is increased in order to maintain the same aerated fluid properties in the
annulus column. The drill pipe injection technique requires that both the
incompressible drilling fluid injection and the compressible gas injection be
suspended when connections and trips are made. Similarly, the annulus injection
technique requires that the incompressible drilling fluid injection be suspended
when connections and trips are made. Further, the cleaning, lifting, and suspension
capabilities of the incompressible drilling mud is in general independent of the
depth of drilling. Conversely, the cleaning and lifting capabilities of compressed gas
are dependent of the depth of drilling. Also, it must be noted that compressed gas
drilling fluids have little or no suspension capabilities.
Therefore, when designing an aerated drilling fluid, the injected compressed gas
should not be assumed to contribute to bottomhole cleaning, lifting, and
suspension of rock cuttings in the annulus. The additional cleaning and lifting
properties of the compressed gas to the aerated drilling fluid should be considered
as a bonus. This argument requires that the incompressible drilling fluid properties
and circulation characteristics be designed to provide the aerated drilling
operations with stand-alone cleaning, lifting, and suspension capabilities of the
rock cuttings in the annulus.
282
The critical concentration velocity is the additional velocity needed to

distribute the rock cuttings through the incompressible drilling fluid at a
predetermined concentration factor. The usual concentration factor is 0.04.
Therefore, the critical concentration velocity, Vc, is
Vc
k
3600 C
Where,
K is the drilling rate of penetration (ft/hr, or m/hr)
C is the concentration factor (usually assumed to be 0.04)
The drilling cuttings particle average diameter can be estimated using the following
expression:
Dc
k
(60) N
Where,
Dc is the average diameter of drill bit cuttings (ft, or m)
N is the average drill bit rotary speed (rpm(
Terminal Velocities
For direct circulation operations the terminal velocity of the rock cutting particle is
assessed in the annulus section of the borehole where the cross-sectional area is
the largest. The terminal velocity will depend on the actual flow conditions in the
annulus section (i.e., whether the flow is laminar, transitional, or turbulent).
The fluid flow regions are classified as Laminar, transitional, or turbulent. These
flow regions can be approximately defined using the non-dimensional Reynolds
Number. The Reynolds Number is
NR
DV
where
D is the diameter of the flow channel (ft, or m).
V is the velocity of the flow (ft/sec, or m/sec)
is the kinematic viscosity of the flowing fluid (ft 2/sec, or m2/sec)
283
The generally used empirically derived terminal velocity expressions in English

Units are given below. For the laminar region, the expression is
s f
Vt1 0.0333Dc2
e
0<NR<2100
For the transition region, the expression is
( s f ) 2 / 3
Vt 2 0.492 Dc
( )1 / 3
e
f
0<NR<4000
For the turbulent region, the expression is
Vt 2
s
5.35 Dc
f

1/ 2
NR>4000
Where,
Vt1, Vt2, Vt3 are terminal velocities (ft/sec).
s
f
e is the effective absolute viscosity (lb-sec/ft2).
is the specific weight of the solids (lb/ft 3).

is the specific weight of the fluid (lb/ft 3).
Obayed Minimum volumetric flow rate study
284
D/P 14987 ft, OD2.375, ID1.185, N.W.=6.65lb/ft
D/C 330 ft, OD3.125, ID1.5, N.W.=20 lb/ft
Hole=3.875 in
The drilling is to be carried out at a surface location of 67 ft above sea level

where the actual atmospheric temperature is 60F.
The regional geothermal gradient is approximately 1.54 F/100 ft
The drilling mud is to have a specific weight of 10.05 lb/gal drilling
Mud with a plastic viscosity of 30 cps and a plastic yield stress of 5 lb/100 ft2.
Drill pipe injection technique will be used and the drilling operation will be
carried out to maintain a Bottomhole pressure of 5900 psia while drilling the
interval from the 13727 ft to 14360 ft (md).
Average rate of penetration=3.12 m/hr=10.23 ft/hr=0.00284 ft/sec
The critical concentration velocity is

Vc
k
10.23
=0.071 ft/sec
3600 C 3600 0.04
The specific weight of the sedimentary rock (Safa sandstone) to be drilled is

approximately
s 2.65( gm / cc) 62.4 =165.36 lb/ft3

The specific weight of the 10 lb/gal drilling mud in consistent units is
f 10.5( ppg ) 7.48 =78.54 lb/ft3

The absolute plastic viscosity of the drilling mud in consistent units is
e 300.0010.02089 =0.0006267 lb.sec/ft2

The approximate average diameter of the rock cuttings particle in consistent
units is
Dc=0.198/12=0.0165 ft
Assume the flow is laminar
The terminal velocity for laminar flow conditions
s f
Vt1 0.0333Dc2
e
165.36 78.54
0.0333 0.0165 2
=1.256 ft/sec
0.0006267
The total velocity of the fluid is

V f Vt VC =0.071+1.256=1.33 ft/sec
The above total velocity of the fluid must be the minimum average velocity of the
incompressible fluid in the borehole annulus section where the cross-sectional area
is the largest.
The largest cross-sectional area of the annulus is in the cased section of the well
where the inside diameter of the casing is 4.09 inch and the outside of the
diameter of the drill pipe is 3.875 inch.
285
Thus, this annulus cross-sectional area, Aa, is
Aa
6.184 2 3.875 2
0.1266 ft2
144
The volumetric flow rate in the above annulus section is

Qa Aa V f 0.1266 1.33 =0.168 ft3/sec=0.168*7.48*60=75.8 gal/min
The hydraulic diameter for this annulus cross-section, is

Dhy
(6.184 3.875)
=0.192 ft
12
The drilling mud density
f
g
78.54
=2.439 lb.sec2/ft4
32.2
The general equation for kinematic viscosity
e 0.0006267
=0.0002569 ft2/sec
m
2.439
Reynolds number for the volumetric flow rate derived from the laminar flow
terminal velocity equation.
NR
DV
0.192 1.33
=994
0.0002569
Assume the flow is turbulent

The terminal velocity for turbulent flow conditions
s f
Vt 2 2.95 Dc
f

1/ 2
165.36 78.54
5.35 0.0165

78.54
1/ 2
=0.78 ft/sec
The total velocity of the fluid is

V f Vt VC =0.071+0.78=0.9 ft/sec
The volumetric flow rate in the above annulus section is

Qa Aa V f 0.1266 0.9 =0.114 ft3/sec=0.168*7.48*60=51.14 gal/min
286
For turbulent flow conditions, the effective absolute viscosity of a drilling mud
with a plastic viscosity must to be modified before it is used in the Reynolds
number equation
e
3.2
0.0006267
=0.000196 lb.ft/sec2
3.2
The effective kinematic viscosity for the drilling mud with plastic properties
is
t 0.000196
=0.000080 ft2/sec
m
2.439
Reynolds number for the volumetric flow rate derived from the turbulent flow
terminal velocity equation.
NR
DV
0.192 0.9
=2160
0.000080
The Reynolds number above is greater than 2,000. This indicates that the
volumetric flow rate of 51.14 gal/min produces turbulent flow conditions in the
largest cross-section of the annulus.
The turbulent flow analysis result is inconsistent with the result of the laminar flow
analysis. Also, since the turbulent flow analysis indicates turbulent flow conditions
exist at a lower volumetric flow rate than the laminar flow analysis, then the laminar
flow analysis is considered valid and the turbulent flow analysis invalid
Therefore, the minimum volumetric flow rate of the incompressible drilling fluid (the
drilling mud) is assumed to be approximately 76 gpm (says 80 gpm)
287
Injection Pressure and Selection of Compressor

Equipment
The analyses of aerated fluid vertical drilling problems have been carried out by
two distinct analytic methodologies.
1. Non-Friction Approximation
The simple non-friction methodology allows straight forward deterministic
approximate solutions of aerated drilling problems. However, the practical
applicability of these non-friction solutions is limited to shallow (generally less than
3,000 ft of depth) wells with simple geometric profiles
Obayed non-friction approximation model calculation

An average atmospheric pressure of 12.685 psia for a surface location of
4000 ft above sea level
Pat=12.685 psia=1826.6 lb/ft2 abs
The actual atmospheric temperature of the air at the drilling location
Tat=60 oF=60+459.57=519.67 oR
Thus, Pg and Tg become
Pg=Pat=1872 lb/ft2 abs
Tg=Tat=519.67 oR
The temperature of the rock formations near the surface (geothermal surface
temperature) is estimated to be the approximate average year round temperature
at that location on the earths surface. It gives 535R for average year round
temperature for a surface elevation location of 4,000 ft above sea level. Therefore,
the absolute temperature of the rock formations at the surface, Tr, is
Tbh Ts G H =535+0.0154*14370=756R
The borehole average temperature, Tav, is
Tav
288
Tbh Ts
=645R
2
The bottomhole pressure, Pbh

Pbh=5900*144=849600 lb/ft2 abs
the specific weight of the gas entering the compressor is
Pg S
R Tg
S=0.05*32+0.95*28/28.97=0.973
Pg S
R Tg
1872 0.973
=0.0656
53.36 519.67
The volumetric flow rate of drilling mud, Qm, in consistent units is

Qm
80
=0.178 ft3/sec
7.48 60
The weight rate of flow of the drilling mud is

.
w m m Qm 78.54 0.178 =13.98 lb/sec
The openhole diameter, Dh, is

Dh=3.875 inc=3.875/12=0.323 ft
Weight rate of flow of solids from the advance of the drill bit is
.
ws
Dh2 w S s k
0.3232 62.4 2.65
10.23
=0.0385 lb/sec
3600
The gas volumetric flow rate
( w wm ) H Qm Pbh Pe
Qg s
T P
Pg av ln bh g H
T
g Pe
(0.0385 13.98) 14370 0.168849600 1826.6

=4.54ft3/sec=4.54*60=273 scfm
Qg
645 849600
1826.6
ln
0.0656 14370
519.67 1826.6
The volumetric flow rate of compressed air determined above which is rounded up
to 300 scfm is the flow rate to be injected into the incompressible fluid volumetric
flow rate of 80 gal/min. This gas flow rate has been determined with the non-friction
method.
289
2. Major and Minor Losses and Injection Pressure

Surface Return Flow Line
Obayed Major and minor losses approach

Assume Qg=19.47 ft3/sec
An average atmospheric pressure of 12.685 psia for a surface location of
4000 ft above sea level
Pat=14.685 psia=1872 lb/ft2 abs
The actual atmospheric temperature of the air at the drilling location
Tat=60 oF=60+459.57=519.67 oR
Thus, Pg and Tg become
Pg=Pat=1872 lb/ft2 abs
Tg=Tat=519.67 oR
The specific weight of the gas entering the compressor is
Pg S
R Tg
S=0.05*32+0.95*28/28.97=0.973
Pg S
R Tg
1872 0.973
=0.0656
53.36 519.67
The weight rate of flow of the nitrogen,

.
w g Qg g 19.47 0.0656 =1.28 lb/sec

The volumetric flow rate of drilling mud, Qm, in consistent units is
Qm
80
=0.178 ft3/sec
7.48 60
The weight rate of flow of the drilling mud is

.
w m m Qm 78.54 0.178 =13.98 lb/sec
The openhole diameter, Dh, is
290
Dh=3.875 inc=3.875/12=0.323 ft
Weight rate of flow of solids from the advance of the drill bit is
ws
Dh2 w S s k
0.3232 62.4 2.65
10.23
=0.0385 lb/sec
3600
The total weight rate of flow in the annulus is

.
.
wt wg wm ws =1.28+13.98+0.0385=15.29 lb/sec
The absolute viscosity of the drilling mud, e=0.0006267 lb.sec/ft2

The drilling mud density
f
g
78.54
=2.439 lb.sec2/ft4
32.2
The general equation for kinematic viscosity
e 0.0006267
=0.0002569 ft2/sec
m
2.439
The inside diameter of the surface return flow line, Dsr , is

Dsr=5.625 inches=5.625/12=0.469 ft
The length of the surface return flow line, Lsr , is
Lsr =100 ft
The absolute viscosity of the gas (Nitrogen) at atmospheric conditions
g=0.012 cps=0.012*0.001*0.02089=0.000000251
the density of the gas
0.0741
=0.0023 lb.sec2/ft4
32.2
the kinematic viscosity of the gas
g 0.000000251
=0.000109 ft2/sec
g
0.0023
The kinematic viscosity of the aerated drilling fluid (the mixture of the drilling mud
and the compressed air) can be approximated with an average kinematic viscosity
term. This average kinematic viscosity term can be approximated by weight
averaging the separate viscosities with the weight rates of flow of the separate
fluids.
.
sr
wg g wm m
.
wg wm
1.28 0.000109 13.98 0.0002569

=0.000244 ft2/sec
1.28 13.98
291
The average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid (the mixture of the drilling
mud and the compressed air) as the mixture exits the end of the surface
return flow line into the atmosphere, Vsr
Vsr
Qm Q g
0.178 19.47
D sr2
=113.73 ft/sec
0.469 2
Thus, the Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits the surface
return flow line, NRsr, is
N Rsr
Vsr Dsr
sr
113.73 0.469
=219507.49
0.000244
The Reynolds number calculation above is greater than 4,000. This indicates that
the flow condition is turbulent.
Therefore, the empirical von Karman equation must be used to determine the
Fanning friction factor for the aerated fluid flow inside the return flow line.
The surface roughness of the inside of the steel surface return flow line is
the absolute surface roughness of commercial steel pipe, ep
ep=0.00015 ft
The Fanning friction factor, fsr , for flow inside the return flow line is
2
1
1
=0.015
f
Dsr
0.469
2 log 10 e 1.14
2 log 10 0.00015 1.14
For the surface return flow line increment can be solved for the pressure at the
entrance end of the line, Psr . This involves selecting this upper limit of the left side
intergal by a trial and error procedure. The magnitude of the upper limit pressure
on the left side of the equation is selected to allow the left side integral to equal the
right side integral.
292
100
Since the right side= dl
dl =100 ft
Assume, Psr= 16.53 psia= 18.91/144=2381 lb/ft2 abs
Pen
dP
P Bs ( P) 0 dl
ex
Bs ( P )
Pg
P
f
wt
2 gD
Tav
sr
Q g Qm

Tg

2381
1826.6
Pg

P
Q g Qm
Dsr
4
Tr
Tg
dP
2

45260

P 0.178
15.29
0.000497

45260
0.1726

P 0.178
100
The integration can be carried out on the computer using one of the commercial
analytic software programs (e.g., Mathcad).
The aerated drilling fluid flows from the top of the annulus into the entrance of the
surface return flow line. The friction flow loss of the turn and of the two valves at
the entrance of the surface return flow line must be included. The approximate
specific weight of the aerated drilling fluid just after it passes through the Tee and
the valves at the top of the annulus is determined using the above determined P sr
.
tee
wt
Pg
Psr
tee
Tr
Q g Qm
Tg
15.29
=0.983 lb/ft=7.4 ppg
1826.6
535
19.47 0.178
2381 519.67
293
The approximate velocity of the aerated fluid flow just downstream of the Tee
and valves is
Pg
Vtee
Vtee
Psr
Tr
Q g Qm
Tg
/ 4 Dsr2
1826.6
535
19.47 0.178
2381
519
.
67
=90 ft/sec
/ 4 0.469 2
The approximate pressure change, PTee , through the two valves and Tee is
Vtee2
Ptee tee K tee 2 K v
2
g
Where,
KTee is the minor loss flow resistance coefficient for the Tee,
Kv is the minor loss flow resistance coefficient for a valve.
Using the dimensions of the Tee, to obtain the approximate minor loss resistance
coefficient of the Tee. This is assumed as
KTee= 27
The approximate minor loss resistance coefficient for the valve is
Kv= 0 2
By Substituting
90 2
=3348.85 lb/ft2
Ptee 0.983 27 2 0.2
2
32
.
2
The pressure upstream of the Tee at the top of the annulus, P Tee
Ptee Psr Ptee =2381+3348.85=5729.85 lb/ft2=5729.85/144=39.8 psia
294
GEOMETRY IN THE ANNULUS

Major and minor friction losses must be included in order to obtain accurate
bottomhole and injection pressures. Therefore, it is necessary to include the
geometric dimensions of the drill pipe tool joints. For the calculations that follow,
the drill pipe tool joint lengths will be lumped together as a continuous length to
approximate their contribution to the overall major (wall friction) loss in the flow
system.
DS specification
D/P 9184 ft (do not exceeds 3400 m), OD 3.5 , ID 2.6, N.W.=14.63lb/ft
Approximately every 30 ft there are tool joints which are about 1.5 ft in
length. The outside diameter of these tool joints (XT-M39) is 4.66 inches
with an inside diameter of 3.4 inches
D/P 5803 ft, OD2.375, ID1.185, N.W.=6.65lb/ft
D/C 330 ft, OD3.125, ID1.5, N.W.=20 lb/ft
The outside diameter of these tool joints (WT-23) is 3.125 inches with an
inside diameter of 1.5 inches
These lumped approximations for the drill pipe tool joints are somewhat rough
approximations, but will give quite accurate bottomhole and injection pressures.
Using this lumped approximation, the pressure terms along the annulus around the
drill pipe and inside the drill pipe are in error by a few percent. However, this
shortcoming can obviously be relieved by calculating a short 1 1/2 ft long tool joint
every 30 ft along the entire drill pipe length of the drill string. This can easily be
accomplished with a sophisticated computer program. But these lumped
approximations are very useful in demonstrating the calculation technique steps.
These lumped approximations are very easy to incorporate in an engineering

calculation program and it has been found that these approximations are quite
adequate for most engineering practice applications.
295
FIGURE 1: OBAYED WELL SKETCH
The calculation sequence for this illustrative example is divided into seven depth
increments. The increments start at the top of the borehole with the first increment
at the top and the seventh increment at the bottom.
The first cased section from the surface to 11175 ft
CSG dimensions OD/ID= 7''/6.184''
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body increment (first), H1, in the
cased section of the borehole is
H1=11175-1.5*11175/30=10616 ft
The inside diameter of the casing along this length of the cased section of
the borehole is
D1=6.184/12=0.515 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipes body along this length is
296
D2=3.5/12=0.292 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints increment (second), H2, in
the cased section of the borehole is
H2=1.5*11175/30=558.75 ft
the borehole is
D1=0.515
And the outside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints along this length is
D3=4.66/12=0.388 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body increment (third), H3, in the
cased section of the borehole is
H3=2506-1.5*2506/30=2381 ft
the borehole is
D4=4.09/12=0.341 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipes body along this length is
D2=0.198 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints increment (fourth), H4, in
the cased section of the borehole is
H4=1.5*2506/30=126 ft
the borehole is
D4=0.341 ft
D3=3.125/12=0.26 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body increment (fifth), H5, in the
openhole section of the borehole is
H5=1307-1.5*1307/30=1242 ft
The inside diameter of the openhole along this length of the openhole
section of the borehole is
Dh=3.875/12=0.323 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill pipe body along this length is
D2=0.198 ft
297
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints increment (sixth), H6, in
the openhole section of the borehole is
H6=1.5*1307/30=66 ft
Dh=0.323 ft
D3=0.26 ft
The total length of the drill collar increment (seventh), H7, in the openhole
H7=330 ft
Dh=0.323 ft
And the outside diameter of the drill collars along this length is
D5=3.126/12=0.261 ft
TABLE 1: SEVENTH DEPTH INCREMENT
298
H1 (ft)
10616
D1 (ft)
0.515
D2 (ft)
0.292
H2 (ft)
558.75 D1 (ft)
0.515
D3 (ft)
0.388
H3 (ft)
2381
D4 (ft)
0.341
D2 (ft)
0.198
H4 (ft)
126
D4 (ft)
0.341
D3 (ft)
0.26
H5 (ft)
1242
Dh (ft)
0.323
D2 (ft)
0.198
H6 (ft)
66
Dh (ft)
0.323
D3 (ft)
0.26
H7 (ft)
330
Dh (ft)
0.323
D5 (ft)
0.261
1. Cased Section of the Annulus (Surface to 11175 ft)

The first annulus section increment is denoted by the length H1. The temperature
at the bottom of the length H1 in the cased annulus section of the borehole (bottom
of the drill pipe body lumped geometry), T1, is
T1=Tr+GH1=535+0.0154*10616=698.486 OR
The average temperature of this cased annulus section H1 is

Tav=
Tr T1
=616.74 OR
2
The approximate specific weight of the gas as it exits this cased annulus
section and starts into the Tee is determined from PTee
ga1
Ptee S
=0.1141
R Tr
The density of the gas as it exits this annulus section
ga1
ga1
g
=0.1141/32.2=0.0035447 lbsec2/ft4
The kinematic viscosity of the gas at this location
ga1
gas
=0.000000251/0.0035447=0.0000708 ft 2/sec
ga1
The kinematic viscosity of the aerated drilling fluid mixture can be approximated
with an average kinematic viscosity term. This average kinematic viscosity term
can be defined by weight averaging the separate viscosities with the weight rates
of flow of the separate fluids. Therefore, the kinematic viscosity term can be
modified to determine the average kinematic viscosity of the mixture as it exits this
annulus section. This is
.
.
ava1
wg ga1 wm m
.
=0.0002413 ft2/sec
wg wm
The approximate average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this
annulus section
299
Pg
Va1
Ptee
Tg
Tav
Q g Qm
( D12 D22 )
1826.6 616.74
19.67 0.178
=53.4 ft/sec
5729.89 519.67
2
2
(0.515 0.292 )
4
The Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this annulus
section
N Ra1
53.4 (0.515 0.292)

=49863.504
0.0002413
the flow condition is turbulent. Therefore, the empirical von Karman equation is
used to determine the approximate Fanning friction factor for the aerated flow in
this annulus section.
Both annulus section surfaces are commercial steel with the surface roughness
ep=0.00015 ft
2
f a1
=0.02484
0.515 0.292
2 log 10 0.00015 1.14
For the first increment in the annulus can be solved for the pressure at bottom of
the increment, Pbh1. This involves selecting this upper limit by a trial and error
procedure. The magnitude of the upper limit pressure on the left side of the
equation is selected to allow the left side integral to equal the right side integral.
analytic software programs. The trial and error magnitude of the upper limit
pressure that satisfies Equation for this annulus section is
Pbh
5729.85
300
dP
2

1826.6 588.08

P 519.67 19.47 0.178
15.29
0.02484
2
2
1826.6 616.74 19.47 0.178 2 32.2(0.515 0.292)

(
0
.
515
0
.
292
)
P 519.67

So, Pbh1= 249876 lb/ft2
10616
dh
0
The second annulus section increment is denoted by length H2. The temperature at
the bottom of the length H2 in the cased annulus section of the borehole (bottom of
the drill pipe tool joints lumped geometry), T2, is
T2=Tr+G(H1+H2)=535+0.0154*(10616+558.75)=707.0912 OR
The average temperature of this cased annulus section H2 is

Tav=
Tr T2
=616.74 OR
2
The approximate specific weight of the gas as it exits this cased annulus
section and starts into the annulus section above is determined from Pbh1
Pbh1 S
=8.51663 lb/ft3
R Tr
ga2
The density of the gas as it exits this annulus section
ga2
ga2
=8.51663/32.2=0.264492 lbsec2/ft4
ga2
gas
=0.000000251/0.26449=0.000000949 ft 2/sec
ga2
The
average
kinematic
viscosity
of
the
mixture
at
this
position
.
.
ava2
wg ga1 wm m
.
=0.0002354 ft2/sec
wg wm
The approximate average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this
annulus section
Pg
Va 2
Pbh1
Tav
Q g Qm
Tg
( D12 D22 )
1826.6 621.045
19.67 0.178
249876
519
.
67
=3.8667 ft/sec
2
2
(0.515 0.388 )
4
The Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it exits this annulus
section
N Ra 2
3.8667 (0.515 0.388)

=2085.79
0.0002354
301
The Reynolds number calculation above is greater than 2,000 and less than 4,000.
This indicates that the flow condition is transition. Therefore, the empirical
Colebrook equation is used to determine the approximate Fanning friction factor in
this annulus section
Both annulus section surfaces are commercial steel with the surface roughness
ep=0.00015 ft
By assuming =0.029
1
f a2
e

Dh D p
2 log 10
3.7
2.51
N R f a2
This equation is solved by trial and error to find the value of fanning friction factor in
this section
a2=0.02909
For the second increment in the annulus can be solved for the pressure at the
bottom of the increment, Pbh2. This involves selecting this upper limit by a trial and
error procedure. The magnitude of the upper limit pressure on the left side of the
analytic software programs. The trial and error magnitude of the upper limit
pressure that satisfies Equation for this annulus section is
Pbh
249876
302
dP
2

1826.6 621.045

P 519.67 19.47 0.178
15.29
0.02909
1826
.
6
621
.
045
2
32
.
2
(
0
.
515
0
.
388
)
2
2
(0.515 0.388 )
P 519.67 19.47 0.178
So, Pbh2= 276302 lb/ft2
558.75
dh
0
T HE CALCULATION IS REPEATED SIMILARLY FOR EACH SECTION TO DETERMINE THE

PRESSURE AT THE BOTTOM OF IT
TABLE 2: GEOMETRY IN THE ANNULUS AT FIRST SECTION (H1=10616')

First Cased section of annulus (surface to 11175 ft)
Section increment H1=10616 ft
T1
698.4864
Tav
616.7432
Specific weight of gas as it exit this cased annulus, lb/ft3

0.195298
the density of the gas as it exits this annulus section, lb.sec2/ft4
0.0060652
the kinematic viscosity of the gas at this location, ft2/s
4.138E-05
the average kinmetaic viscosity As it exit from the annulus, ft2/s
0.0002388
the average velocity as it exit from the annulus, ft/s
53.401496
Reynolds number at this section
49863.504
surface roughness (ep)
0.00015
Fanning friction factor in this annulus section
0.0248411
bottomhole pressure at this section, lb/ft2
249876
TABLE 3:GEOMETRY IN THE ANNULUS AT FIRS T SECTION (H2=558.75')

Section increment H2=558.75 ft
T2
707.0912
Tav
621.0456
8.51663
0.2644916
9.49E-07
the average kinematic viscosity As it exit from the annulus, ft2/s
0.0002354
3.8666187
2085.7942
0.00015
0.0290963
276302
TABLE 4:GEOMETRY IN THE ANNULUS AT SECOND SECTION (H3=2381')
303
Second cased section of annulus (11175 to 13682 ft)

T3
743.7586
Tav
639.3793
9.4173187
0.2924633
8.582E-07
0.0002354
5.5592341
3376.7697
0.00015
0.0281243
403860
TABLE 5:GEOMETRY IN THE ANNULUS AT SECOND SECTION (H4=126')

304
T4
745.699
Tav
640.3495
13.764932
0.4274824
5.872E-07
0.0002354
7.4973875
2579.8079
0.00015
0.0334201
bottomhole pressure at this section, lb/ft
411667
TABLE 6:GEOMETRY IN THE ANNULUS AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H5=1242')

Open hole section (13682 to 15320 ft)
T5
764.8258
Tav
649.9129
Specific weight of gas as it exit this open annulus, lb/ft3
14.031022
0.435746
5.76E-07
0.0002354
5.5951501
2971.0904
0.00015
Open hole roughness (eoh)
0.01
Average roughness (eav)
0.0073096
0.1641604
491427

T6
765.8422
Tav
650.4211
16.749516
0.5201713
4.825E-07
0.0002354
9.3151502
2493.0959
0.00015
0.01
0.0061271
0.2435745
514670
305

T7
770.9242
Tav
652.9621
17.541717
0.5447738
4.607E-07
0.0002354
9.3171588
2454.0711
0.00015
0.01
0.0061091
0.2463172
633405
2. Drill Bit Orifices and Nozzles

The mixture of incompressible fluid and the compressed gas passing through the
drill bit orifices or nozzles can be assumed to act as a single phase incompressible
fluid. However, this assumption is valid only when the friction losses in the flow
through the bit orifices are also assumed to be higher. Thus, borrowing from mud
drilling technology,
It is assumed that the 3 7/8 inch impregnated drill bit is equipped with six 8/32 inch
diameter jet nozzles
dn=0.25 inches=0.02083 ft
The equivalent single diameter for this drill bit
306
De nDn2 6 0.020832 =0.051 ft
The approximate specific weight of the aerated fluid at the bottom of the
annulus
.
.
mixbh
wg wm
1.28 13.98
=58.41 lb/ft3
Pg T7
1826.6 770.4942
19.47 0.178
Q g Qm
633405 519.67
Pbh7 Tg
The pressure change in the aerated fluid through the drill bit, Pb, can be
approximated by
2
.
.
w g wm
2
1.28 13.98
Pb
=22610.256 lb/ft2
2
2
2 g mixbhC 2 / 4 De4 2 32.2 58.41 0.812 / 4 0.0514
The pressure in the aerated fluid just above the drill bit inside the drill string,
Pi7
Pi 7 Pbh Pb =633405+22610.256=656015.26 lb/ft2=4556 psia
GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILLSTRING

Starting at the bottom of the drill string,
the total length of the drill collars increment, H7, in the openhole section of
the borehole is
H7=330 ft
The inside diameter of the drill collars in this openhole section is
D8=1.5/12=0.125 ft
The total length of the drill pipe tool joints lumped geometry increment, H6,
in the openhole section is
H6=66 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe tool joints lumped geometry in this
openhole section is
D9=1.5/12=0.125 ft
The total length of the drill pipe body lumped geometry increment, H5, in the
openhole section is
H5=1242 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe body lumped geometry in this openhole
section is
307
D10=1.185/12=0.09875 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints geometry increment, H4,
in the second cased section is
H4=126 ft
cased section is
D9=0.125 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body geometry increment, H3, in the
second cased section is
H3=2381 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe body lumped geometry in this cased
section is
D10=0.09875 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe tool joints geometry increment, H2,
in the first cased section is
H2=558.75 ft
cased section is
D11=3.4/12=0.283 ft
The total length of the lumped drill pipe body geometry increment, H1, in the
first cased section is
H1=10616 ft
The inside diameter of the drill pipe body lumped geometry in this cased
section is
D12=2.6/12=0.217 ft
TABLE 9:TABLE 1: SEVENTH DEPTH INCREMENT INSIDE DRILLSTRING
308
H7 (ft)
330
D8 (ft)
0.125
H6(ft)
66
D9 (ft)
0.125
H5 (ft)
1242
D10 (ft)
0.09875
H4 (ft)
126
D9 (ft)
0.125
H3 (ft)
2381
D10 (ft)
0.09875
H2 (ft)
558.75 D11 (ft)
0.283
H1 (ft)
10616
0.271
D8 (ft)
Inside the Drill String (15320 ft to 13682 ft)

The seventh drill string section increment is denoted by the length H7. The
temperature at the bottom of the drill collars (bottomhole temperature) in the
openhole section is
T7=770.9242 oR
The average temperature of the drill collar length H7 and, thus, the
temperature of the aerated fluid flow inside the drill collars is
Tav=652.9621 oR
The approximate specific weight of the gas as it enters this drill collar
section is determined as
Pi 7 S
=18.32 lb/ft3
R Tr
gi7
The density of the gas as it enters this drill collar section
gi7
gi7
=0.5689 lb.sec2/ft4
gi7
gas
=0.000000251/0.5689=0.0000004412 ft 2/sec
gi7
The
average
kinematic
viscosity
of
the
mixture
at
this
position
.
.
avi7
wg gi7 wm m
.
=0.0002354 ft2/sec
wg wm
The approximate average velocity of the aerated drilling fluid as it enters this
drill collar section
Pg
Vi 7
Pi 7
Tav
Q g Qm
Tg
=20.0656 ft/sec
2
8
(D )
The Reynolds number of the aerated drilling fluid as it enters this drill collar
section
309
N Ri 7
20.0656 (0.125)
=10655.578
0.0002354
the flow condition is turbulent. Therefore, the empirical von Karman is used to
determine the approximate Fanning friction factor for the aerated fluid flow inside
drill collars.
The inside surface of the drill collars is commercial steel with the surface
roughness
ep=0.00015
2
1
=0.02052
f i7
0.125
2 log 10 0.00015 1.14
For the seventh increment inside the drill string can be solved for the pressure at
the top of the increment, Pi6. This involves selecting this lower limit by a trial and
error procedure. The magnitude of the lower limit pressure on the left side of the
analytic software programs. The trial and error magnitude of the lower limit
pressure is
656015.26
Pi 6
dP
2

1826.6 588.08

19
.
47
0
.
178
P 519.67

15
.
29
0
.
0205157
1826.6 652.96
2 32.2(0.125)

(0.125 2 )
P 519.67 19.47 0.178
So,
Pi6=634600 lb/ft2
The calculation is repeated similarly for each section to determine the
injection pressure at the surface.
310
330
dh
0
T ABLE 10:GEOMETRY IN SIDE THE DRILL STING AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H7=330')
Open hole section of annulus (13682 to 15320 ft)
T7
770.9242
Tav
652.9621
Specific weight of gas as it enter this drill string section,

lb/ft3
18.319895
the density of the gas as it enter this drillstring section,

lb.sec2/ft4
0.5689408
4.412E-07
the average kinmetaic viscosity As it enters this

drillstring section, ft2/s
0.0002354
the average velocity as it enters this drillstring, ft/s
20.065593
10655.578
0.00015
Fanning friction factor in this drillstring section
0.0205157
pressure at the top of the increment (injection), lb/ft2
634600
TABLE 11:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H6=66')
T6
765.8422
Tav
650.4211

lb/ft3
17.791086

lb.sec2/ft4
0.5525182
4.543E-07

0.0002354
20.230661
10743.185
0.00015
0.0205157
630329
311
TABLE 12:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT OPEN HOLE SECTION (H5=1242')
T5
764.8258
Tav
649.9129

lb/ft3
17.685166

lb.sec2/ft4
0.5492288
4.57E-07

0.0002354
32.470615
13621.977
0.00015
0.021774
546990
TABLE 13: GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT SECOND SECTION (H4=126')
Second cased section of annulus (13682 to 11175 ft)
312
T4
745.699
Tav
640.3495

lb/ft3
15.576122

lb.sec2/ft4
0.4837305
5.189E-07

0.0002354
20.180259
10716.172
0.00015
0.0205157
539142
T ABLE 14:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT SECOND SECTION (H3=2381')

T3
743.7586
Tav
639.3793

lb/ft3
15.375938

lb.sec2/ft4
0.4775136
5.256E-07

0.0002354
33.854981
14202.395
0.00015
0.021774
389542
T ABLE 15:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT FIRST SECTION (H1=558.75')

First cased section (11175 to surface ft)
Section increment H2=558.75 ft
T2
707.0912
Tav
621.0456

lb/ft3
11.437413

lb.sec2/ft4
0.3551992
7.066E-07

0.0002354
4.5666805
5489.856
0.00015
0.016904
361580
313
TABLE 16:GEOMETRY INSIDE THE DRILL STING AT FIRST SECTION (H1=10616')

T6
698.4864
Tav
616.7432

lb/ft3
12.323885

lb.sec2/ft4
0.3827293
6.558E-07

0.0002354
5.1122938
5885.2763
0.00015
0.0170707
30129
The injection pressure while drilling at 15320 ft of depth is approximately 210 psia.
This is the approximate injection pressure for both the compressed gas and the
drilling mud as they enter the surface flow lines that lead to the top of the drill
string. When drilling at a depth of 15320 ft, the corresponding injection pressure
above is a air volumetric flow rate of 1,168 acfm (with a drilling mud volumetric flow
rate of 80 gal/hr). This compressed air injection pressure is the pressure the
compressor output must match.
TABLE 17: SUMMERIZE THE PRESSURE PROFILE INSIDE THE ANNULUS & DS
314
H0
Pbh
39.8
Pi
209.2292
H1
10616
Pbh1
1735.25
Pi1
2510.972
H2
11175
Pbh2
1918.764 Pi2
2705.153
H3
13556
Pbh3
2804.583 Pi3
3744.042
H4
13682
Pbh4
2858.799 Pi4
3798.542
H5
14924
Pbh5
3412.688 Pi5
4377.285
H6
14990
Pbh6
3574.097 Pi6
4406.944
H7
15320
Pbh7
4398.646 Pi7
4556
Pressure profile
pressure (psi)
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
0
2000
4000
depth (ft)
6000
8000
in annulus
in drill string
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
FIGURE 2: PRESSURE PROFILE INSIDE THE ANNULUS AND DRILL STRING
Figure 2: shows the aerated drilling fluid (both air and mud) pressures in the
annulus and inside the drill string as a function of depth for this illustrative example
(while drilling at the depth of 15320 ft). The figure shows the pressure at the bottom
of the annulus is approximately 4399 psia (Ph7 above). If a target oil or natural gas
rock formation pore pressure at the bottom of the borehole is above this value, the
oil or natural gas will flow into the borehole as the drill bit is advanced into the
315
producing rock formation. This would be underbalanced drilling. If the pore

pressure is less than this value, rock cuttings from the advance of the drill bit will
be forced into the exposed pores around the bottom of the borehole resulting in
formation damage.
To drill this borehole with an aerated drilling fluid from 13682 ft to 15320 ft and
maintain a constant bottomhole pressure in the annulus of 4300 psig will require
that volumetric flow rate of the compressed air be varied as the drilling progresses.
Compressor selection
Product Specifications
compressor
4-stage reciprocating
driver
Caterpillar d398TA V-12, turbocharged

diesel engine
Driver rating
Rated 750 HP @ 900 RPM
Volume output
1250 SCFM @ 1150 PSIG discharge

w/booster;
1200 SCFM @ 2100 psig discharge
w/booster
cylinders
Cylinder 1:21'' bore

Cylinder 2: 13-1/2 '' bore
Cylinder 3: 8-1/4'' bore
Cylinder 4: 4-3/4'' bore
Compressor dimensions/ weight
39' L X 13'11'' H/ weigh=84000 lbs.
Booster dimensions/ weight
39' L X 10' W X 13'11'' H/weight=84000

lbs+/-.
The compressor is a four-stage reciprocating piston compressor

ns=4
316
The theoretical shaft horsepower, Ws , required by the compressors is

obtained from

ns k Pi qi Po
Ws

k 1 229.17 Pi
K 1
ns k
Where,
K= specific heat ratio (equals 1.4 for nitrogen)
Qi= the input volumetric flow rate (acfm)
Pi=the input pressure (psia)
Po=the output pressure (psia)
1.4 1
4 1.4 12.685 1200 420 41.4
Ws

1 =264.1
0.4
229.17
12.685
The mechanical efficiency (em)=0.9

The first stage compressor ratio is
P
rs o
Pi
1 / ns
420
12.685
1/ 4
=2.4
The volumetric efficiency (only for the reciprocating piston compressor), ev,
is
ev 0.96 1 C rs1 / k 1
Where;
C is the clearance volume ratio and equal 0.06
ev=0.91
The actual shaft horsepower required by each compressor
.
.
.
W as
Ws
em ev
=322.5
At this surface location, the input horsepower available from the Caterpillar Model
D398 prime mover is a derated value (derated from the rated 760 horsepower
available at 900 rpm). In order for the compressor units to operate, the derated
input power available must be greater than the actual shaft power needed.
317
FIGURE 3: RIME MOVER PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN POWER AS A FUNCTION OF ELEVATION ABOVE SEA LEVEL
W i 7601 0.1 =684

.
Prime Mover Fuel Consumption

To estimate the total diesel fuel needed by the compressor unit it is necessary to
estimate the fuel consumption of the compressor units Caterpillar Model D398,
diesel fueled, turbocharged, prime mover.
The prime mover power ratio is

.
PR
Was
.
=322.1/684=0.471=47.1%
Ws
With the power ration percent, the approximate fuel consumption rate can be read
on the ordinate using the diesel fuel curve. The approximate fuel consumption rate
at this power level is 0.650 lb/hp-hr. The total weight of diesel fuel consumption per
hour is
.
318
W i 0.65 =209.4 lb/hr
The diesel consumption rate

q 'f
209.4
=30.8 gal/hr
0.8156 8.33
Where 0.8156 is the specific gravity of diesel fuel and 8.33 is the specific weight of
fresh water (lb/gal)
FIGURE 4:FUEL CONSUMPTION FOR GASOLINE, PROPANE/BUTANE, AND DIESEL
319
References
1. Bobo, R. A., and Barrett, H. M., Aeration of Drilling Fluids, World Oil, Vol 145,
No. 4, 1953.
2. Graves, S. L., Niederhofer, J. D., and Beavers, W. M., A Combination Air and
Fluid Drilling Technique for Zones of Lost Circulation in the Black Warrior
Basin, SPE Drilling Engineering, February 1986.
3. Allan, P. D., Nitrogen Drilling System for Gas Drilling Applications, SPE
28320, Presented at the SPE 69th Annual Technical Conference and
Exhibition, New Orleans, Louisiana, September 2528, 1994.
4. Underbalanced Drilling Manual, Gas Research Institute Publication, GRI
Reference No. GRI-97/0236, 1997.
5. Gatlin, C., Petroleum Engineering: Drilling and Well Completions, Prentice-Hall,
1960.
6. Bourgoyne, A. T., et al, Applied Drilling Engineering, SPE, First Printing, 1986.
320
320
Overview of Bader El Din Petroleum Company

The Badr El Din Petroleum Company (BAPETCO), is a joint venture serving the oil sector in. It
was formed in the early 1980s, as joint venture between Shell and the Egyptian General
Petroleum Cooperation. BAPETCO is responsible for the development and production of Shells
fields in the Western Dessert.
BAPETCO is involved in the exploration and development of many concessions including Badr el
Din, North East Abu Gharadig, Obaiyed, Sitra, Matruh and others
BAPETCO most important fields are:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Badr 1 with volume production of 1800 barrels / day

Badr 2 and produces about 70 million cubic feet gas per day
Badr 3 located in the desert region about 250 km south of El Alamein
Obaiyed
Sitra
The Badr El Din Petroleum Company (Bapetco), ranks amongst Egypt's 10 largest
joint venture operators. Daily production averages some 25 000 STB of oil and
condensate and some 300 MMSCF of gas. The company aims to continuously
increase value of its operations on behalf of the shareholders, by pursuing the
following targets:
increase ultimate recovery and production rates;
reduce costs of developing hydrocarbon assets;
improve staff competence and efficiency;
Conduct a safe and environmentally friendly business .
321
FIGURE 2: BADR EL DIN
PETROLUM ACTIVATES
Obaiyed D-2 overview

Concession: Obaiyed
Well Name: Obaiyed D2ST Field DeirelSitta
Well Type: UBD horizontal gas / condensate development well.
Objectives: To prove the suitability of UBD as a technology that will unlock reserves
in Obaiyed. To prove technique selected for drilling UBD in Obaiyed. To provide
available +/-20 MMscf/day with drilling exposure of 1000m 3-7/8" hole.
Background and Strategy: The well Oba D2 was drilled and completed in 1998.
The well had penetrated the L. Safa formation at 3735mss, finding 19m of waste
zone, 29m of Unit 3, 50m of Unit 4 and 15m of Unit 5 siliciclastics. The well was
perforated in 2000, without recording any significant flow. The well was hence not
tested, the conclusion is that the reservoir found in D2 does not produce due to
tightness.
The phase 2 FDP of May 2002 identified the D2 well as a key trial candidate to prove
the feasability of underbalanced drilling in Obaiyed.
The target of the well is Unit 3 in the area between D2 and JB 16-3SDT. This area
has the following characteristics:
Reservoir quality of Unit 3 is good at the JB 16-3SDT location, but

deteriorates towards D2
he top reservoir structure is flat
To benefit from the increase in reservoir properties towards JB16-3SDT the D2 well
is proposed to be sidetracked towards this well (to NW). Pending the reservoir quality
found the well design is kept flexible to allow the well to be delivered with the
optimum drain hole completion and geometry. The following case is based on the
identification of poor reservoir during the initial OB drilling into the reservoir section:
Poor (kh<0.01mD) reservoir means that the well will not flow after setting
liner/perforating. UBD is a must to be able to flow the well. It is planned to test the
well prior to handing over to production.
322
Geology of target horizon (Lower Safa): The D2ST well is targeting the Mesozoic
Lower Safa reservoir in the northern part of the Western Block where Obaiyed 163/SDT, D7, D12 and 4H are located. The Lower Safa comprises a high N/G
sequence of estuarine deposits, with a total thickness of some 90m in the area where
D2ST is planned , although only 29m of these are considered productive. The
sequence is made up of low permeable sandstone with some thin higher perm
intervals. The sequence is subdivided into 5 distinct reservoir units, numbered from
top to bottom and a 6th non-reservoir unit (called waste zone) which uncomformably /
erosively overlies the sequence. Units 1-3 are the main reservoir units on which the
bulk of the Obaiyed wells have been completed. They are composed of low to
medium permeable (1-500 mD) micaceous sandstone deposited in a strongly tidally
influenced estuary. Unit 4 is a non-reservoir unit composed of very fine to fine very
micaceous sandstones, siltstones and mudstones which forms a seal between the
deeper unit 5 and the other Lower Safa reservoir units. Unit 5 is composed of
medium grained sandstones deposited under limited tidal influence. At the target
location units 1 and 2 are eroded, leaving only relatively low quality unit 3
sandstones.
The Base Kabrit Mb/ top Lower Safa (Top prospective sequence) map shows a
consistent fault pattern (predominant NW-SE en-echelon fault pattern) with the
overburden horizons, which dissected the older deep seated NNE-SSW fault system.
Petrophysical evaluation
The reservoir pressure at the liner shoe and throughout the openhole sections will
affect the ability to remain UB throughout. The current reservoir pressure estimate is
????psi (with a tolerance of +/- ???psi). If the BHP is less than this, maintaining UB
conditions throughout the wellbore will be compromised and as such the drilling
phase may have to be terminated earlier than initially planned.
Porosity
o Upper safa: The log porosities as determined by using the density log
(10% porosity in D2), no cores were taken in U. Safa in wells D2 and
Jbl6-3.
o Lower safa The log porosities as determined by using the density log in
D2 & JM6-3 were corrected using porosity measurements from cores
which have been taken in D2 and JM6-3 in L.safa formation. Stress
corrections were applied for cores porosity. Fig. 9 gives the complete
evaluation of the cored wells OB A D2 and JB 16-3SDT.
Permeability
o Lower Safa: Extensive core data allowes a good calibration with
transform (permeability vs porosity relationship). The original D2 well
found core permeabilities in the range of (0.25 : 1.5md ).
323
324
FIGURE 3: LOWER SAFA FORMATION TOPS
COO RDIN ATES
OBAIYED - D2
S U R FA C E
TARG ET
Lat.
Long.
Lat.
Long.
31 06' 56.13"
26 34' 27.54"
PROGNOSIS
DEPTH
mbdf
(mss)
FMS.
323 756
659 394
ELEVATIONS
GL.
203.77 m
m
m
DF.
213.87 m
ACTUAL
REMARKS
LITHOLOGY
N.
E.
N.
E.
MARMARICA
DEPTH
mbdf LITHOLOGY
(mss)
FMS.
REMARKS
MARMARICA
164
Partial Total
Losses
MOGHRA
173(-40)
MOGHRA
AP
O
AP
O
LL
ON
500
LL
O
NI
A
332(118)
IA
333
793 + 30
819(605)
I
1000
KHOMAN
1073+ 30
KHOMAN
13 3 /8 "
1095 m
1092 m
Heaving Swelling
Shales
1500
ABU ROASH
"A-F"
1583 + 30
ABU ROASH
"A-F"
F
1600
(1386)
ABU ROASH
"G"
Tight hole
ABU ROASH
"G"
1830
(1620)
1843 + 30
MIDIEWAR
BAHARIYA
2000
BAHARIYA
13 3/8 "
1070
(856)
2073
+ 30
2098 + 30
MIDIEWAR
KHARITA
2083
2109(1895)
2500
KHARITA
2623 + 30
2638 + 30
DAHAB
DOL.
2753 + 30
ALAMIEN
CL.
Caving
2843 + 30
2918 + 30
9 5 /8 "
3000
2965m
Caving
D1
2753
2843
D2
9 5 /8 "
2942
(2728)
2972m
MASAJID
3500
K.O.P @
3480
ZAHRA
3668 + 30
DARDUMA@3676(3456)
3758 + 30 F
KHATATBA@3760(3530)
UM A
DA RD T
LS
L. SAFA
3744
(3530)
3945
(3731)
3945
+ 30
4000
KABRIT
3670
(3456)
KHATATBA
U. SAFA
L. SAFA
SHIFAH ??
SHIFAH ??
L.SAFA@4102(3735)
Drilling Endded :-7.4.98

Core # 1
F/3941-T/3950 mbdf
Rec. 8.2 m, 86%
Core # 2
F/3950-T/3956.5 mbdf
Rec. 6.5 m, 100%
Core # 3
F/3956.5-T/3960.6 mbdf
Rec. 3.8 m, 83%
Core # 4
F/3960.6-T/3988.6 mbdf
Rec. 28 m, 100%
Core # 1,2,3,4
D1
3398
(3184)
3403 + 30
KHATATBA
CL.
MASAJID
ALAM EL BUIEB
D2
ALAM EL BUIEB
ALAMIEN
2639
2654
DAHAB
DOL.
3997
(3783)
T.D.
4115mbdf
T.D.
4125 mbdf
Schl. Run : 1) NGT / APS / LDL / AIT

2) GR / DSI / UBI / GPIT
Seismic Reflector
Planned Core Interval
T.D.
4413
(3974)
Author : XGO
Date : 22.9.2002
Expected Gas Bearing Sand
Drawn by : XDF
FIGURE 4: OABYED D -2 FORMATION LITHOLOGY
Expected Oil Zone
325
Determination of the derrick load

Derrick must be designed to carry safely all loads which ever be used while drilling,
these loads are either:
Vertical loads:
o Dead load of derrick itself.
o Dead load of the load supported by the C/B.
o Live and impact load
Horizontal loads:
o Hz. component of pipe set back.
o Wind load .
Wind load Lw = 0.004V 2 A , lb and V = 50 mph
Where: V is the wind velocity and A is wind load area
Note:
Use maximum dead load capacity of a derrick equal to the heaviest casing column,
an additional length (from 25 50 % of casing) is added for friction
Onshore well:
Use Jack knife rig.
From its API specification:
Determine the maximum casing weight
From the casing design
For 13-3/8
Wc1=243559.68 lb
For 9-5/8
Wc2=459138.336 lb
For 7
Wc3=108722.16 lb
For 4.5
Wc4=1680 lb
It is obvious that 9-5/8'' casing has the maximum casing weight

Buoyancy factor: BF== 1 m / steal =1-68.82/487.5=0.866
W c= 459138.336 * 0.866 = 397613.83 lb
326
By adding length 35%

Maximum derrick load= 1.35 459138.33 =397613.83 lb 400,000 lb
Note:
For wind load,
Wind load = 0.004 * (50)2 * 510 ft2 (for rig class 8A) = 5100, lb
The derrick specifications are:
from A Complete Well Planning Approach N. J. Adams
Derrick size No.
18 A
Height
136
ft
Base square
30
ft
Casing capacity
400,000 lbs
Pipe size
5 in
Total length
8900 ft
Pipe weight
22.5 lb/ft
Wind load area
510 ft2
Swivel selection
Maximum swivel rated dead load capacity = (Max. Drill string weight) +( Kelly weight )
= 295706+1055.5=296762 lb
From the drilling data handbook
we can select the appropriate design
Depth capacity
15000 ft
Main bearing diameter
19.5 in
Fluid passage diameter
3 in
Hook clearance
22 in
Net approximate weight
3960 lb
327
Kelly selection
From the drill string design, we can calculate the maximum drill string weight as
follow;
Max. Drill string weight = (weight of drill pipe+ weight of BHA+ weight of bit)max
After considering the buoyancy factor and the safety factor
Max. Drill string weight = (258745 170) 0.866 1.35 =295706 lb
From the drilling data handbook we can select the appropriate design at maximum
tensile yield of 322000 daN
Square 3.5
Lower pin connection (size & style)
Hexagonal 4.5
NC 38 C
3.5 IF
Lower pin connection (size & style)
NC 38 C
3.5 IF
Inside diameter
2.25
Inside diameter
2.25
Outside diameter
Outside diameter
Minimum recommend casing OD.
6 5/8
Minimum recommend casing O. D.
6 5/8
Internal pressure @ yield stress.
153.1
Internal pressure @ yield stress.
172.4
322000
daN
Tensile yield.
Then, the Kelly weight

Note:
Tensile yield.
322000
daN
3.5 2 2.25 2
144
* 55 * 489.5 1055.5 lb.
Most of rotating head are driven by a kelly driver. This attaches to the kelly and is
mated to a machined piece on top of the bearing assembly. The kelly driver transfers
rotation of the drillstring to the sealing element in the rotating head. The bearing
assembly provides a seal and allows rotation of the stripper rubber while the bowl
remains stationary. The stripper rubber is designed to rotate with the kelly since
rotating the kelly within the stripper rubber would cause the stripper rubber to wear jut
much faster.
328
Hexagonal kellys allow for a better seal than do square kellys. These should be used
whenever possible for air drilling applications.
Hoisting system selection:

Assume we select N = 8,
Where : N is the number of lines strung over the block system.
From the drilling data handbook
we can determine the reeving efficiencies (E)
Plain bearing
K = 1.09
Friction factor = 0.692
Roller bearing
K = 1.04
Friction factor = 0.842
For hook load design

Total hook load during drilling
Total hook load= Max. drill string weight+ Kelly weight+ swivel weight
H. L = 295706 + 1055.5 + 3960 =301777 lb= 134.96 ton.
Total hook load during casing
H. L = wt. of heaviest casing (9 5/8) = 459138.336 lb (from csg design)
205 ton
From the composite drilling catalogue
Model
Max. Hook load

(ton)
Major hook opening

(in)
Dimensions, L X W X H
(in)
weight
(lb)
H-250
250
7.5
100 X 30.7 X 29.5
4806
For traveling block load:

Max. T/B weight = max total hook load +Hook weight
= 459138.336+4806=463944.336 lb=207 ton
Data for maximum hook load from Rotary Drilling Handbook at working load say 140
tons
329
API working load strength
450 tons
No. of sheaves
Sheave diameter
54 inch
Approximate weight
16105 lbs
Line size
1 3/8 inch,
1 1/4 inch
Overall length
119 3/8 inch
Overall weight
56 inch
Thickness
33 inch
Clevis width
8 1/2 inch
Length with hook
204,314 inch
Weight with hook
19,500 lbs
Hook length
101 1/2 inch
Hook width
33 inch
For Crown block design

Total crown block load = T.H.L + D.L. tension+ F.L. tension
Since, T.H.L=T.B. load + T.B. weight =215 ton

The sheave efficiency can also determine from: Es=1/K=1/1.04=0.9615
D.L. tension= (H.L. /n) x (Esn /E) = (215/8) x (0.96158/0.842)=23.31 ton
F.L.tension=31.82 ton
So, total crown block load=215+23.31+31.82=270.13 ton

From Rotary Drilling Handbook page 140, select the following specification,
API working load strength
325 tons
No. of sheaves
Sheave diameter
54 inch
Approximate weight
330
13995
lbs
Length I beam
108 inch
Diameter of sand line

sheaves
24 inch
Drilling line
1 inch
Length shaft, width block
49 inch
Cat line
1 1/2 inch
Diameter of cat line sheaves
15 inch
For Drawing work design:

Draw work horsepower input
D/W H.P = Brake H.P./ EB

= W m * Vmin / (33000 * EB )
Where:
33000 = (ft . lb / min) / h.p

EB = Average efficiency factor for block and tackle system = 0.842
Vmin = Minimum expected velocity of the hook, assumed = 150 ft / min.
W m = The total hook load, lb
D/W H.P = 480049.36* 150 / (33000 * 0.842)

= 2591.49 hp 2592 hp.
At this work horsepower input and from drilling data handbook select the following
specification:
Nominal Depth
16,000 ft
Drum diameter (D)
32 ,in
Drum length (B)
57 ,in
Drum Height
25 ,in
Approximates shaft diameter
1.2 ,ft
Length of skid (A)
25 ,in
Drope
2.625 ,in
Brake horsepower
1930.8, HP
331
For fast line

Max. Velocity = Brake.H.P./ Tf.l.
= 1930.8*33,000 / (71266.24)
= 894 ft/sec
Where:
Tf.l. = 71266.24 lb
Total length of the rope for wrapping N layers
L N l n
Where:
n=no. of coils in one layer

l=average length of one coil
So , L
Aa
B
( D A) *
d 4
d
L=K*(A + D) *A*B
A, B and D can be determine from the above table

K: constant depending on the rope diameter, equal to
K
12 * d 2
0.04
L=0.04*25*57*(32+25)=3119 ft
Calculation of derrick efficiency factor.
332
Line
H.L
Leg A
Leg B
n T
4
n T
4
F.L
T
2
Leg C
Leg D
Position
n T
4
n T
4
Between
A,B,C,D
T
2
T
2
Between C,D
T
2
1
2
D.L
T
2
T
2
For position 1:
DEP=
CB load
T ( N 2)
=
=100%
4 Max eq Derrick leg T ( N 2)
For position 2:
DEP=
CB load
T ( N 2)
( N 2)
=
=
4 Max eq Derrick leg 4.( NT / 4 T ) ( N 4)
N=8 so, DEP= 83.3%

For position 3:
333
DEP=
CB load
T ( N 2)
=
4 Max eq Derrick leg T ( NT / 4 T )
N=8 so, DEP= 83.3%

For position 4:
DEP=
N=8
CB load
T ( N 2)
N 2
=
=
4 Max eq Derrick leg 4.( NT / 4 3T / 2) N 6
so, DEP= 71.4%
Selection of mud pump

Operating data:
D/P
D/C
OD
4.5 inch
ID
3.826
inch
Length
12611.6ft
OD
6.5 inch
ID
3.5 inch
Length
270 ft
Hole
8.5 inch
ud
Viscosity
30 cp
10.05
ppg
YP ( yield
point)
18lb/100
ft
Pressure drop calculation

Assume for fast drilling in soft formation, V = 180 ft/min
Q: flow rate, gpm can be calculated as following,
334
Q = Annular area * Velocity
(8.5) 2 (4.5) 2
ft
gal.
180
7.48
=381.86 gpm
min
cu. ft
144
For pressure loss

Pt=Ps+ Pp+ Pc+Pp*+ Pc*+ Pb
Where :
Pt
Ps
Pp
Pc
Pb
Pc*
Pp*
: total pressure loss, psi

: total pressure loss in surface connection, psi
: total pressure loss in d/p, psi
: total pressure loss in d/c, psi
: total pressure loss in bit, psi
: total pressure loss in annulus outside d/c, psi
: total pressure loss in outside d/p, psi
1. Ps : total pressure loss in surface connection:

Ps =150 psi
2. Pp : total pressure loss in d/p:
Calculate the critical velocity
Vc
1.08 p 1.08 p 2 9.3 m d 2 Y .P
12
md
Where :
Vc: critical velocity, ft / sec.

p: mud viscosity= 30 c.p
m: mud density = 10.04 ppg
d: inside diameter d/p(ID) = 3.826 inch
Y.P: yield point =18 lb/100ft
Vc
1.08 30 1.08(302 9.3 10.04 3.8262 18)0.5 = 5.33 ft/sec.

10.04 * 3.826
335
Calculate the actual velocity

V
Q
2.45 d 2
Where :
V : Actual velocity (average velocity), ft/sec.

Q : flow rate, gpm
d : inside diameter of d/p, inch.
V
381.86
= 10.65 ft/sec
2.45 3.826 2
While V VC ,
Then, turbulent flow.
Re
Re
2970 mV d
2970 10.04 10.65 3.826

= 40500
30
Then, from chart Gatlin Page ( 96 )

= 0.006
So,
Pp
f m LV 2
25.8d
0.0062 10.04 12612 10.65 2

Pp
= 872 psi
25.8 3.826
C- Pc: total pressure loss in d / c:

C.1, using the following calculation
Pressure loss inside d/c (Pc):

2-1 calculates the critical velocity,
Vc
336
1.08 p 1.08 p 2 9.3 m d 2 Y .P
Where :
d : inside diameter d/c, ft
md
12
Vc
1.08 30 1.08(30 2 9.3 10.04 3.5 2 18) 0.5

=5.43 ft/sec
10.04 3.5
2-2 calculates the actual velocity,

V
Q
2.45 d 2
Where :
d : inside diameter of d/c, inch
V
381.86
=12.7 ft/sec
2.45 3.5 2
While V VC ,
Then, flow is turbulent.
Re
2970 mV d
Where :
d : inside diameter of d/c, inch
Re
2970 10.04 12.7 3.5

=44181.52
30
2-3 Then, from chart Gatlin Page (96 )

= 0.0058
f m L V 2
Pc
25.8d
Where :
L : length of d/c ,ft
d : inside diameter of d/c
Pc
,inch
0.0058 10.04 270 12.7 2

= 28.1 psi
25.8 3.5
Pd/p* : total pressure loss in annulus outside d/p:

D-1
, using the following calculation

2-1 calculate the critical velocity,
337
Vc
1.08 p 1.08 p 2 9.3 m d 2 Y .P
12
md
Where :
d: clearance between open hole and D/P = 8.5 4.5 = 4 inch
1.08 30 1.08(30 2 9.3 10.04 4 2 18) 0.5

=5.29 ft/sec
Vc
10.04 4
338
2-2 Calculate the actual velocity,

V
Q
2.45 d 2
Where d2 = (diameter of OH)2 - (outer diameter of D/P)2

V
381.86
=2.99 ft/sec
2.45 (8.5 2 4.5 2 )
While V VC ,
Then,
flow is laminar.
L p V L Y .P
1500 d 2 300 d
12612 30 3 12612 18

=203.73 psi
P
2
2
1500 (8.5 4.5 ) 300 (8.5 4.5)
E- Pc* : total pressure loss in annulus outside D/C:
2-1 calculate the critical velocity
Vc
1.08 p 1.08 p 2 9.3 m d 2 Y .P
12
md
Where :
d: the clearance between the open hole and OD of D/C=8.5-6.5=2 inch
Vc
1.08 30 1.08(30 2 9.3 10.04 2 2 18) 0.5

=6.31 ft/sec
10.04 2
2-2 Calculate the actual velocity,

V
Q
2.45 d 2
381.86
=5.195 ft/sec
2.45 (8.5 2 6.5 2 )
339
While V VC ,
Then, flow is laminar
L p V L Y .P
1500 d 2 300 d
270 30 5.195
270 18

=9.035 psi
P
2
2
1500 (8.5 6.5 ) 300 (8.5 6.5)
Pb : total pressure loss in bit:
Assume a cone bit has 3 nozzles 13/32, in with a bit nozzle coefficient C=0.95
Corrected value for multiple nozzle coefficient
d e n d 2 in
Where :
de : is the hydraulically equivalent single nozzle diameter, in.

n : number of nozzle
d : diameter of a nozzle, in
d e 3 13 / 32 =0.7036
2
The pressure drop in the bit calculated from the following equation Use the eqn.
Pb
Pb
q2 m
7430 C 2 d e
381.86 2 10.04
=890 psi
7430 0.95 2 0.7036 4
P 150 872 28.1 203.73 9.035 890 2153 psi
340
Selection of the wellhead for Obayed D-2

The safest procedure for designing preventer pressure ratings is to ensure that the preventer
can withstand the worst pressure condition possible. This condition occur when all drilling
fluids have been evacuated from the annulus and only low density from fluids such as gas
remain, so
1. Maximum formation pressure = P h 200 psi

Ph = 0.052*9.04*13000 =6110 psi.
Pfmax = 5910 psi
2. Determine minimum hydrostatic pressure assume only gas density = 1 ppg
Phmin = 0.052 * 1 * 13000 = 676 psi.
Also, the operators experience should dictate that 80 % design factor would be unexpected
eventualities.
3. Working pressure = resultant pressure * 0.8= (P fmax. Phmin) * 0.8 = 4350 psi
Using the API designations at 5000 psi working pressure and from the drilling data handbook
Selection of Flange
At the 5000 working pressure, there are two flanges types
Type
Nominal size, in
6B
2 1/16 11
6 BX
13 5/8 21.25
Select API type 6BX flange with nominal size of 13 5/8

Nominal Size
13 3/8 in
Outside diameter (OD)
26.5 in
Diameter of raised face

(K)
18 in
Total thickness (T)
4.94 in
Large diameter of hob

(J1)
18.94 in
Small diameter of hob

(J2)
16.69 in
Selection of bolts
341
Bolt circle diameter
23.25 in
Number of bolt
16
Diameter of bolt
1.625 in
Length
12.5 in
Ring joint
160
Selection of BOP rams

Operating data
CAMERON RAM TYPE "U" BLOW OUT PREVENTOR
Nominal
size (in)
fluid volume
(gallon)
working
prssure(psi)
To open
13 5/8
5,000
5.8
To
close
close
ratio
5.45
open
ratio
2.3
Dimensions & weight

Width bonnets closed locking rams
(scrwed)
112.125 in
Width bonnets open locking rams

(unscrwed)
171.5 in
Single BOP
Hight between
flanges (in)
33.812
Weight, lb
7700
Hight between
flanges (in)
55.875
Weight, lb
14800
Double BOP
342
Selection of HYDRIL rams
Operating data
CAMERON HYDRIL TYPE "MPL" BLOW OUT PREVENTOR
Nominal Size
(in)
Working pressure
(psi)
13 5/8
5000
Fluid volume
(gal)
To
open
To
close
5.2
5.9
Open
ratio
Close
ratio
5.2
2.1
Dimensions & weight
Width bonnets closed locking rams

(scrwed)
116 in
Width bonnets open locking rams

(unscrwed)
52.25 in
Single BOP
Hight between
flanges (in)
36.25
Weight, lb
8850
Hight between
flanges (in)
58 1/8
Weight, lb
16700
Double BOP
343
Design of drill string

First: drill collars:
Like drill pipe, drill collars are subjected to stresses due to:
1234-
Buckling and bending forces.

Tension.
Vibrations.
Alternate compression and tension.
Firstly: Drill collar selection:
1- Choose from the above table the recommended DC sizes ( ID, OD ).and
specify its nominal weight.
W f 2.67( D p2 Di2 )
Minimum collar OD 2 ( casing coupling OD) - (bit sub)
2- Calculate the length of drill collar used using:
WOB Ldc wt dc B.F 0.85

B.F 1
Ldc
mud
( steel 65.5 ppg )
steel
WOB
wt dc B.F 0.85
Where:
WOB= weight on bit, lb
Ldc= length of drill collar, ft
Wtdc= nominal weight of drill collar, ft
B.F.= buoyancy force
Safety factor=0.85
3- Calculate number of joints of drill collar used:
344
Ndc =Ldc / 30
Secondly: drill pipe selection:

Its Function is to transmit rotation and drill mud under pressure to bit where it is
subjected to different types of loading:
The drill pipe Grade:

"THE MOST COMMON USED IN OUR DESIGN IS GRADE G"
Length of DP:
Length of D/P= total length length of D/C (BHA)
Third: Bottom hole assembly design:
The lower portion of the drill string, consisting of (from the bottom up in a vertical
well) the bit, bit sub, a mud motor (in certain cases), stabilizers, drill collar, heavyweight drill pipe, jarring devices ("jars") and crossovers for various thread forms.
Calculations:
For hole size (17 1/2) @ MD = 1099 m & TVD = 3968.87 m
First drill collar design: For hole size (17 1/2) @ MD = 1099 m & TVD = 3968.87 m
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
Depth (m)
MW(ppg)
17.5
25
1099
8.8
OD (in)
ID (in)
3.5
N.W (lb/ft)
138.1725
BF
0.865649
WOB (lb)
25000
weight of DC in air
28880.07
Ldc (ft)
245.8995
Weight of D/C to get 85%(SF) of collars for WOB
33976.55
No. of joint of DC actually used
8.196651
new length of DC
rounded up to
270
Heavy weight drill pipe design (HWDP):

HWDP specification:
OD (in)
ID (in)
5
3-
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
49.3
300
It was decided to run 300 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for weight on bit then
the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
345
Weight of HWDP (lb)
14790
New weight of D/C after taking weight of HWDP
19186.55
New length of D/C in feet
138.8594
No. of joint of D/C
4.628647
new length according to the rounded value (ft)
150
length of BHA (ft)
450
weight of BHA (lb)
34623.65
Tension @ top of HWDP if max pull is applied=MOP+

BHA weight
134623.7
rounded up
to
Second drill pipe design:

Drill pipe selection:
Grade
OD
ID
G105
4.5
3.826
NW
16.6
EW
14.98
thickness
0.337
Collapse
resistance
9467
Internal
yield
12581
pipe body
yield
364231
torsional
yield
33795
1st: check for tensile:

Max. allowable design load in tension
327807.9
max. length of pipe (ft)
319698
length of DP (ft)
3154.72
No. of stands of DP
33.92172
new length of DP according to the rounded value (ft)
3162
new weight of DP (lb)
52489.2
The max. design tension load = DS weight * BF
75409.14
Tension design factor
4.347058
Since S.F is greater than 1.125 so it's accepted.
346
rounded up to
34
2nd: check for collapse:

The max. design collapse pressure
5956.988
Collapse design factor
1.589226
3rd: check for torsion:

Max. length of the hole
13017.89
Jar distance from the bit
100
Max. free point that could occur
12917.89
cross sectional area
4.405203
polar moment of yield inertia
19.21124
Minimum unit yield strength (psi)
82681.99
214437
Minimum yield strength (Lb-ft)

D/P torsion strength
27436.79
Torsion safety factor
1.23174
accepted
For bottom hole assembly design:

Item
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
length (m)
Length (ft)
bit
17.5
795.63
0.75
2.46
bit sub
9.5
217.48
3.28
DC
3.5
138.1725
9.14
235.0171
integral blade stabilizer
217.48
3.28
DC
3.5
138.1725
18.28
235.0171
jar
2.81
150.17
9.14
29.9792
DC
9.5
3.5
208.26
18.28
235.0171
10
cross over sub
2.81
150.17
0.75
2.46
11
10xHVWDP
49.3
91
298.48
No. of DC used
10
347
First drill collar design:

Depth (m)
2980
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
12 1/4
18
9.2
OD (in)
ID (in)
3.5
N.W (lb/ft)
138
0.859542
BF
18000
WOB (lb)
weight of DC in air
20941.39
Ldc (ft)
178.3056
Weight of D/C to get 85%(SF) of collars for

WOB
24636.92
5.943518
rounded up to
180
new length of DC

HWDP specifications:
OD (in)
ID (in)
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
49.3
300
It was decided to run 300 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for weight on bit
then the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
Weight of HWDP (lb)
9846.924
71.26544
No. of joint of D/C
2.375515
90
length of BHA (ft)
390
weight of BHA (lb)
27225.53
Tension @ top of HWDP if max pull is applied=MOP+ BHA weight
127225.5
Second drill pipe design:
348
14790
rounded up to
Drill pipe specification:

Grade
OD
ID
NW
EW
thicknes
s
Collapse
resistance
Internal
yield
pipe body yield
torsional
yield
G105
4.5
3.826
16.6
14.98
0.337
9467
12581
364231
33795
1st check for tensile:

327807.9
12083.28
9384.4
length of DP (ft)
100.9075
No. of stands of DP
rounded up to
101
9393
155923.8
the max. design tension load = DS weight * BF
157424.5
2.082318

the max. design collapse pressure
6227.76
1.520129

13017.89
226
12791.89
4.405203
19.21124
82681.99
212345.4
27579.71
1.225357
349
accepted

Item
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
Length (m)
Length (ft)
12.25
377.57
0.3
0.984
bit
NB stabilizer
147.22
1.5
4.92
DC
3.5
138.1725
9.14
29.9792
ST. stabilizer
2.81
150.17
6.56
DC
3.5
138.1725
18.28
59.9584
jar
2.81
150.17
9.14
29.9792
DC
3.5
138.1725
9.14
29.9792
cross over sub
2.81
150.17
0.75
2.46
10xHVWDP
49.3
91
298.48
No. of DC used
10

Depth (m)
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
4115
8 1/2
15
10.05
OD (in)
6.5
ID (in)
3.5
N.W (lb/ft)
80
BF
WOB (lb)
15000
weight of DC in air
17718.6655
Ldc (ft)
260.243306
20845.4888
8.67477685
new length of DC
350
0.84656489
270
rounded up to

HWDP specification:
OD (in)
ID (in)
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
49.3
240
It was decided to run 240 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for weight on bit
then the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
Weight of HWDP (lb)
11832
9013.48878
112.52795
No. of joint of D/C
3.75093166
120
length of BHA (ft)
360
weight of BHA (lb)
40668
140668
rounded up to
Second: Drill pipe design:

Drill pipe specifications:
Grade
OD
ID
NW
EW
thicknes
s
Collapse resistance
Internal yield
pipe body yield
torsional
yield
G105
4.5
3.826
16.6
14.98
0.337
9467
12581
364231
33795

327807.9
11273.488
13137.2
length of DP (ft)
141.260215
No. of stands of DP
rounded up to
142
13206
219219.6

220011.716
1.48995656
351

the max. design collapse pressure
6803.1512
1.39156102

13017.8936
104
Max. free point that could

occur
12913.8936
4.30965
10.2408058
Minimum unit yield strength

(psi)
81414.5
Minimum yield strength (Lbft)
200165.351
18814.7971
1.20144798
accepted

Item
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
Length (m)
bit
8.5
2.8
172.4
0.3
bit sub
7.5
58.3
4.12
drill collar
6.5
3.5
80.1
9.14
blade stabilizer
6.75
254.4
1.5
drill collar
6.5
3.5
80.1
9.14
jar
42.83
9.14
drill collar
6.5
3.5
80.1
18.28
cross over sub
6.75
254.4
0.3
8x HWDP
49.3
72
123.92
352
No. of DC used
For hole size (6) @ MD = 4115 m & TVD = 3968.87 m

Depth (m)
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
4,171
9.3
OD (in)
4.75
ID (in)
2.6
N.W (lb/ft)
42
BF
0.85801527
WOB (lb)
5000
weight of DC in air
5827.40214
Ldc (ft)
383.06267
Weight of D/C to get

85%(SF) of collars for WOB
6855.76722
No. of joint of DC actually

used
12.7687557
new length of DC
rounded up to
13
390

HWDP specifications:
OD (in)
ID (in)
N.W (lb/ft)
length (ft)
3.5
2.063
21.4
180
It was decided to run 180 ft of HWDP for transition purpose and to also be used for
weight on bit then the amount of drill collars used can be reduced.
Weight of HWDP (lb)
3852
3003.76722
71.1916753
No. of joint of D/C
2.37305584
90
length of BHA (ft)
270
weight of BHA (lb)
15244.0223
rounded up to
353

Drill pipe specifications:
torsional
yield
pipe body
yield
Internal
yield
Collapse
resistance
thickness
EW
NW
ID
OD
grad
e
22605
3580868
21552
20260
0.449
14.63
15.5
2.6
3.5
G105
1st: check for tensile:

315781.2
12937.8824
13410.88
146
rounded up to
length of DP (ft)
144.203011
No. of joints of stand
13578
210459
193656.639
the max. design tension load = DS weight * BF
1.63062419

6295.45334
3.21819556

13017.8936
91
12926.8936
4.30965
10.2408058
81414.5
354
accepted

200366.851
18805.652
1.20203224

Item
Description
OD (in)
ID (in)
Weight (lb/ft)
Length (m)
tri cone bit
2.8
75.37
0.3
Motor W/1.15 bent housing
5.25
3.5
40.99
9.06
MWD
4.75
DC
4.75
2.6
18.0225
9.14
Jar
4.75
36.3
9.14
DC
4.75
2.6
18.0225
18.28
8x HWDP
3.5
2.063
25.3
115.853659
No. of DC
9.14
2
170.913659

Depth (m)
Hole (in)
WOB (klb)
MW(ppg)
4670
3 7/8
8.4
OD (in)
3.125
ID (in)
1.5
N.W (lb/ft)
20
BF
WOB (lb)
0.87175573
2000
weight of DC in air
2294.22067
Ldc (ft)
317.095973
2699.08314
10.5698658
new length of DC
330
length of BHA (ft)
330
weight of BHA (lb)
6622.01719
106622.017
rounded up to
11
355

Drill pipe selection:
Grade
OD
ID
NW
EW
thickness
Collapse resistance
Internal yield
torsional yield
G105
2.375
1.185
6.65
6.62
0.28
18726
19806
6735
135595.8
4356.95982
length of DP (ft)
14987.6
No. of stands of DP
161.156989
rounded up to
162
15066
100188.9
93113.0286
1.45624949
Since S.F is greater than 1.125 so it's accepted

5686.21592
3.29322703

Clean out assembly for installing 7'' tie back string
Item
356
Description
Drill pipe
OD
ID
2.6
Top
Bottom
XTM-39 Box
XTM-39 Pin
X/O
XTM-39 Box
3 IF pin
X/)
3 IF Box
4 IF Pin
Top dress mill
4 IF box
4 IF box
Tandem Polish Mill
4 IF pin
Drilling horizontal section
8
7 7/16
Length
As rqd
item
Item
OD
ID
Top
Bottom
Length
2.6
XTM-39 Box
XTM-39 Pin
As rqd
XTM-39 Box
WT-23 Pin
WT-23 Box
WT-23 Pin
Drill pipe
X/O (cross over)
Drill pipe
2 7/8
X/O
3 1/8
WT-23 Box
2 7/8 PAC Pin
Drill collar
3 1/8
2 7/8 PAC Box
2 7/8 PAC Pin
Stabilizer
3 3/8
2 7/8 PAC Box
2 7/8 PAC Pin
Motor
3 1/8
2 7/8 PAC Box
2 3/8 Reg Pin
1.815
As rqd
+/- 60m
Drilling under balance assembly:

Item
Description
OD
ID
Top
Bottom
Length
Drill pipe
2.6
XTM-39 Box
XTM-39 Pin
As rqd
X/O
XTM-39 Box
WT-23 Pin
Drill pipe
2 7/8
WT-23 Box
WT-23 Pin
X/O
3 1/8
WT-23 Box
2 7/8 - 6SA Pin
MWD/GR/PWD
3 1/8
2 7/8 - 6SA Box
2 3/8 Reg Pin
NRV (2)
3 /18
2 3/8 Reg Box
2 3/8 Reg Pin
X/O
3 1/8
2 3/8 Reg Box
2 3/8 PAC Pin
Turbine
2 7/8
2 3/8 PAC Box
2 3/8 Reg Pin
Impreg Bit
3 7/8
2 3/8 reg Box
1.815
As rqd
48.33
BHA Summary Report

Top Side BHA Diagram
357
PBR Dressing BHA
3.5" XTM39 MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#
3 " XTM39 GTDP

Weatherford
3.5" XTM39 Pin MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#

3 " XTM39 Box
Crossover to
3 " IF Pin
EDC
3 " x 4 " IF
Crossover
Rig
3.5" XTM39 Box MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#
3 " IF Pin MU Torque 9,900#

3 " IF Box MU Torque 9,900#

8 " Top Dress Mill

7 7/16" Tandem Polish

Mill
358
Drilling BHA
3.5" XTM39 Box MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#
3 " XTM39 GTDP
3 " XTM39 NRV
Weatherford
Weatherford
3.5" XTM39 Pin MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#
3 " XTM39 Crossover

to 2 7/8" WT23
3.5" XTM39 Box MU Torque 14,700# - 23,300#
Weatherford
2 7/8" WT23 Pin MU Torque 2,200# - 8,300#
2 7/8" WT23 Box MU Torque 2,200# - 8,300#

2 7/8" WT23 GTDP
Weatherford
2 7/8" WT23 Pin MU Torque 2,200# - 8,300#
2 7/8" WT23 Crossover
to 2 3/8" Reg
Weatherford
2 7/8" WT23 Box MU Torque 2,200# - 8,300#
2 3/8" Regular Pin MU Torque 2,600#

2 3/8" Regular Torque 2,600#
2 3/8" Reg
MWD Tool
Sperry Sun
2 3/8" Regular Pin MU Torque 2,600#
2 3/8" Reg Box MU Torque 2,600#
2 x 2 3/8" NRVs
Weatherford
2 3/8" Reg Pin MU Torque 2,600#
2 3/8" Regular Cross Over 2 3/8" Pac
2 3/8" Reg Box MU Torque 2,600#

2 3/8" Pac Pin MU Torque 2,600#
Weatherford
2 3/8" Pac Box MU Torque 2600#
2 7/8" Turbine
Neyrfor
2 3/8" Regular Pin Torque 2,600#

3 7/8"
Smith / HCC
2 3/8" Regular Box Torque 2,600#
359
Casing and Tubing Design

Casing is the major structural component of a well. Casing is steel pipe that is run
into the wellbore and usually cemented in place.
There are several reasons For Using Casing:
To prevent the hole from caving in Or Collapse

Onshore - to prevent contamination of producing
To prevent water migration to producing formation
To confine production to the wellbore
To control pressures during drilling
To provide an acceptable environment for subsurface equipment
To enhance the probability of drilling to total depth (TD)
In addition, Casing provides locations for the installation of blowout preventers

(BOPs), wellhead equipment, production packers.
i.
Casing Type :
1 - Conductor.
2 - Surface.
3 - Intermediate.
360
4 - Production.
5 - Liner.
1) Conductor casing:
Is set below the drive pipe or marine conductor that is run to protect loose, near
surface formations and enable circulation of drilling fluid, it Prevents Washing-Out
around the base of the rig.
Function :
o
o
The conductor isolates unconsolidated formations and water sands

Protects against shallow gas.
2) Surface casing:
The surface casing is the first string of any sequence to be run into a well, after a
hole has been drilled. Diameter of the surface casing must obviously be less then
the diameter of the conductor, if a conductor was run. It ranges from (7 5/8)" to
20" commonly (13 3/8)". Attached to the surface Casing, after it has been
cemented, is the following pieces of equipment. Casing head from which part of
the suspended weight of subsequent strings are hang.
Functions :
o The surface casing is also designed to seal off fresh water aquifers and
prevent them from being contaminated by hydrocarbons or salt water,
which may be encountered in deeper drilling.
o Provides blowout protection, isolates water sands, and prevents lost
circulation
o In deviated wells, the surface casing may cover the build section to
prevent key seating of the formation during deeper drilling
3) Intermediate casing:
Isolates unstable hole sections, lost circulation zones, low pressure zones, and
production zones. The size ranges from (6 5/8)" to 20 "and commonly (9 5/8)".
4) Production casing:
Isolates production zones and contains formations pressures in the event of a
tubing leak. It may also be exposed to injection pressure from fracture jobs down
casing, gas lift, or the injection inhibitor oil.
5) A Liner:
Is a casing string that does not extend back to the wellhead, extending from the
bottom of a well to a point 100 feet-or more the lower end of the intermediate
string. Liners are used to reduce cost, improve hydraulic performance during deep
drilling, and allow the use of larger tubing above the liner top.
361
A Tieback string:
a casing string that provides additional pressure integrity from the liner top to the
wellhead. Used when it is necessary to extend an existing liner further up hole, with a
tieback casing string.Is
Reasons for running tieback string:
Cover casing above the top of liner.

Cementing of troubles intervals.
Selective testing of multiple zones to design future production assemblies and
production casing size.
i.
362
Effect of pressure in B or C annulus
ii.
properties of casing:
Casing is classified according to Six properties:
Outside diameter of pipe (e.g. 9 5/8)
Wall thickness
(e.g. 1/2)
Grade of material
(e.g. N-80)
Type to threads and couplings (e.g. API LCSG)
Length of each joint (RANGE) (e.g. Range 3)
Nominal weight (Avg. wt/ft incl. Wt. Coupling) (e.g. 47 lb/ft)

iii.
Determine the number of casing string needed and their setting depth
1) Determine the hydrostatic pressure :

Ph 0.052 * m * h,
psi
wher,
m is mud density,
ppg
h is depth, ft
2) Determine the formation pressure :
Pf Ph 200,
psi
3) Determine the fracture pressure :

Pfr
v Pf Pf ,
psi
where,
is poisson ratio 0.3

v is vertical overburden stress 1 psi / ft
4) Plot Hydrostatic, formation, and fracture pressure gradient against depth.
5) Plot another curve equal fracture pressure -0.5 ppg for safety.
363
6) From plotting we can find the number and setting depth of the casing string
364
Depth
Dept
h
Ph
Pf
Mud
Weight
ft
Psi
Psi
ppg
1305.4
4
398
596.
7
396.73
1
8.790598
29
1476
450
674.
7
474.69
6
8.790598
29
2476.4
755
119
6
996.30
8
9.290064
1
3562.0
8
1086
176
7
1567.0
4
4127.8
8
1258.
5
215
5
4127.8
8
1258.
5
4880.6
4
Mud
Type
Mud
gradient
Pore
gradient
frac
gradient
Kick
margin
psi/ft
psi/ft
psi/ft
psi/ft
0.4571111
11
0.3039060
61
0.5359373
74
0.3827323
25
0.4571111
11
0.3216097
56
0.5477398
37
0.4122384
82
0.4830833
33
0.4023209
36
0.6015472
91
0.5207848
94
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4399224
74
0.6266149
83
0.5704680
12
1954.9
3
10.03926
28
0.5220416
67
0.4735906
46
0.6490604
31
0.6006094
1
215
5
1954.9
3
10.03926
28
0.5220416
67
0.4735906
46
0.6490604
31
0.6006094
1
1488
233
2
2132.4
9.190170
94
0.4778888
89
0.4369106
57
0.6246071
04
0.5836288
72
6038.4
8
1841
291
7
2717.0
9
9.290064
1
0.4830833
33
0.4499624
15
0.6333082
77
0.6001873
59
6523.9
2
1989
313
5
2934.6
5
9.240117
52
0.4804861
11
0.4498296
96
0.6332197
97
0.6025633
82
6888
2100
329
2
3091.7
9.190170
94
0.4778888
89
0.4488528
84
0.6325685
89
0.6035325
85
7097.9
2
2164
337
4
3173.5
8
9.140224
37
0.4752916
67
0.4471143
98
0.6314095
99
0.6032323
3
7452.1
6
2272
354
2
3341.9
5
9.140224
37
0.4752916
67
0.4484538
1
0.6323025
4
0.6054646
84
7855.6
2395
371
3
3513.3
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4472349
0.6314899
33
0.6060303
88
8118
2475
383
7
3637.3
3
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4480578
34
0.6320385
56
0.6074019
46
8413.2
2565
397
7
3776.8
7
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4489222
77
0.6326148
51
0.6088426
84
8760.8
8
2671
416
4
3963.9
7
9.140224
37
0.4752916
67
0.4524629
1
0.6349752
73
0.6121465
16
9193.8
4
2803
439
4
4193.6
3
9.190170
94
0.4778888
89
0.4561351
93
0.6374234
62
0.6156697
66
9456.2
4
2883
420
0
3999.7
5
8.540865
38
0.444125
0.4229749
45
0.6153166
3
0.5941665
74
9882.6
4
3013
436
3
4163.4
6
8.490918
81
0.4415277
78
0.4212902
7
0.6141935
14
0.5939560
06
10230.
32
3119
483
6
4635.8
2
9.090277
77
0.4726944
44
0.4531447
14
0.6354298
09
0.6158800
79
Spud
Mud
Kclpolym
er
365
366
10489.
44
3198
512
2
4921.7
6
9.389957
27
0.4882777
78
0.4692109
83
0.6461406
55
0.6270738
61
10705.
92
3264
531
1
5110.8
8
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4773881
91
0.6515921
28
0.6329108
75
10791.
2
3290
535
3
5153.1
8
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4775358
24
0.6516905
5
0.6331569
3
10791.
2
3290
535
3
5153.1
8
9.539797
0.4960694
44
0.4775358
24
0.6516905
5
0.6331569
3
10837.
12
3304
540
4
5204.1
1
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4802115
79
0.6534743
86
0.6350192
98
10906
3325
543
8
5238.4
6
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4803281
37
0.6535520
92
0.6352135
62
11014.
24
3358
549
2
5292.4
3
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4805083
55
0.6536722
37
0.6355139
25
11076.
56
3377
552
4
5323.5
1
9.589743
6
0.4986666
67
0.4806105
19
0.6537403
46
0.6356841
99
11076.
56
3377
497
7
4776.9
1
8.640758
54
0.4493194
44
0.4312632
97
0.6208421
98
0.6027860
51
11338.
96
3457
518
4
4984.2
8.792357
92
0.4572026
12
0.4395643
1
0.6263762
07
0.6087379
05
11765.
36
3587
558
1
5381.4
4
9.122993
31
0.4743956
52
0.4573965
97
0.6382643
98
0.6212653
43
12113.
04
3693
591
6
5716.1
9
9.392588
33
0.4884145
93
0.4719034
61
0.6479356
41
0.6314245
09
12372.
16
3772
617
2
5972.0
1
9.593512
9
0.4988626
71
0.4826973
45
0.6551315
63
0.6389662
37
12588.
64
3838
639
0
6189.8
9
9.761373
94
0.5075914
45
0.4917041
05
0.6611360
7
0.6452487
31
12673.
92
3864
647
7
6276.7
5
9.827501
02
0.5110300
53
0.4952496
16
0.6634997
44
0.6477193
07
12673.
92
3864
647
7
6276.7
5
9.827501
02
0.5110300
53
0.4952496
16
0.6634997
44
0.6477193
07
12719.
84
3878
652
4
6323.7
7
9.863107
9
0.5128816
11
0.4971581
43
0.6647720
95
0.6490486
27
12788.
72
3899
659
5
6394.6
2
9.916518
23
0.5156589
48
0.5000201
67
0.6666801
11
0.6510413
3
12896.
96
3932
670
7
6506.7
2
10.00044
88
0.5200233
36
0.5045158
05
0.6696772
03
0.6541696
73
13497.
2
4115
704
6
6846.1
10.03926
28
0.5220416
67
0.5072237
79
0.6714825
19
0.6566646
31
14694.
4
4480
704
6
6846.1
10.03926
28
0.5072237
79
0.6714825
19
0.6566646
31
0.6566646
31
LTOB
M
Number Of Casing Strings Determination
From CSG Setting Depth Grap we Extract The Following Results

Casing
Measure Depth, ft
Casing
Length, ft
TVD
V. Length
Casing Bottom, ft
Casing Length, ft
13017.89
13017.89
From
To
4 1/2
13497.2
13684.16
186.96
7"
9748.16
13497.2
13497.2
9 5/8
0.00
9748.16
9748.16
9748.16
9748.16
13 3/8
0.00
3581.76
3581.76
3581.76
3581.76
30 "
Conductor
0.00
75.6
75.6
75.6
75.6
367
i.
Casing Design
When we design casing, it must be designed to withstand the maximum burst
pressure, collapse pressure, and tensile forces that we anticipate that the casing will
ever be exposed to. We then increase this by design factors. Casing is way over
designed. Why? It will be exposed to hostile treatment from rotation of the drillstring
inside it, pressures imposed on it from the inside and outside, and tension forces
from changing internal pressures, external pressures, and changing temperatures
during treatment and production. It will also be called upon to keep formation fluids in
place long after in the well is plugged and abandoned.
Casing Design for UBD drilling
Casing design for UBD is not significantly different than conventional.

With air drilling, the casing tension should always be design with no buoyancy
considered.
No difference in burst design usually
Collapse design should always be based on an empty casing string.
A collapse design factor for UBD should be ~1.2 for UBD instead of 1.125 (API
design factor).
Steps of design
The process of casing string design is divided into three stages:
368
1-
For collapse resistance:
2-
Checking for internal ( bursting ) pressure:
3-
for tensile strength ( upper part ):
4-
Checking for bending force:
First Casing Design According To Casing Availability In Badr Company
Design of 13 3/8 IN CSG:
pf max =
pc min =
1954.9 psi
1998.902 psi
select grade K55
nominal wt
pc selected
L1
Casing
68 lb/ft
1950 psi
3581.76ft
Measure Depth, M
13 3/8
Casing Length, M
From
To
3581.76
3581.76
TVD
V. Length
Casing Bottom, M
Casing Length, M
3581.76
3581.76
m, ppg
9.539797
Check
For tensile :
Section
Length, Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
Joint Strength , Ib
S.F
L1
3581.76
0 - 3581.76ft
68
243559.68
1069000
4.38906
8
For Brust :
GRADE
N.WT
P(I)
P(I)/Pf
case
K-55
68
3450
1.7647733
Safe

pf max =
pc min =
369
4163.46 psi
3679.989 psi
select grade N-80

nominal wt
pc selected
L
47.1 lb/ft
7030 psi
9748.16 ft
Check
For tensile :
ection
Length,
Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
Joint
Strength
, Ib
S.F
L1
9748.16
09748.16
47.1
459138.34
1100000
2.3957
GRADE
N.WT
P(I)
P(I)/Pf
case
N-80
53.5
7930
1.9046658
Safe
For Brust :
Design of 7
IN CSG:
pf max=
6846.100783 psi
select grade N-80
nominal wt
pc selected
L
29 lb/ft
7030 psi
3749.04 ft
Check
Section
Length,
Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
L1
13497.2
13497.29748.16
29
108722.16
Section
Length,
Ft
Depth ,Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
L1
13497.2
13497.2- 9748.16
29
108722.16
Joint
Strength
, Ib
676000
S.F
6.2176837
For tensile :
370
Joint
Strength
, Ib
676000
S.F
6.2176837
For Brust :
GRADE
N-80
N.WT
29
P(I)
8160
P(I)/Pf
1.1919194
case
Safe
Final Report
grade
Pc,psi
Wt, lb/ft
Length, ft
No.of joint
13 3/8''
K-55
1950
68
3570
85
9 5/8''
N-80
7030
53.5
9744
232
7''
N-80
3270
29
3738
89
4 1/5''
J-55
2270
20
84
casing
Design Of 4 1/5 '' pipe :

Choose High grade for Liner design because the collapse resistance is High
at Bottom. Select grade J-55 or N-80, and is set at point @ 4172 m.
Design of conductor pipe:
Choose low grade for conductor design because the collapse resistance is
very low at surface. Select grade J-55 or H-40, and is set at the refusal point
+/- 45m.
The design must meet all design criteria and should do so at the lowest
possible cost. All Casing grades weights of casing listed in the Halliburton
Cementing Tables are available. The string may have multiple grades if that
reduces cost.
371
Available Grades:
Grade
Weight, Ib/ft
Collapse,Psi
Tensile Strength,Ib
K-55
54.5
1130
636000
K-55
68
1950
1300000
L-80
72
2670
1693000
pf max =
Pi
=
1954.9 psi
1840.127209 psi
pc min =
select grade L80
2070.143 psi
nominal wt
pc selected
L1
select grade K55
72 lb/ft
2670 psi
204.26308 ft
nominal wt
pc selected
L2
select grade K55
68 lb/ft
1950 psi
1420.2808 ft
nominal wt
pc selected
L3
54.5 lb/ft
1130 psi
1957.2162 ft
Check
For Tensile :
372
Section
Grade
Length, Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
14706.94
Joint
Strength
, Ib
636000
L1
L-80
204.263078
72
L2
k-55
1420.2808
L3
K-55
1957.2162
S.F
43.24489
68
96579.09
130000
1.346047
54.5
106668.3
1693000
15.87163
For internal bursting pressure:
Grade
L-80
Length,
Ft
204.26308
N.Wt
Ib/ft
72
L1
P(I)/Pf
3.0909
L2
k-55
1420.2808
68
3.21876
L3
K-55
1957.2162
54.5
1.76477
Check
Above
1.1
Section
case
Safe
Safe
Safe

Available Grades :
Grade
Collapse,Psi
J-55
N-80
Weight,
Ib/ft
40
47
2570
4750
Tensile
Strength,Ib
630000
1086000
N-80
53.5
6620
1244000
pf max =
Pi
=
pc min =
select grade N-80
nominal wt
pc selected
L1
select grade N-80
nominal wt
pc selected
L2
4163.46 psi
4329.398831 psi
4870.574 psi
53.5 lb/ft
6620 psi
231.15323 ft
47 lb/ft
4750 psi
4367.8052 ft
select grade J-55

nominal wt
pc selected
L3
40 lb/ft
2570 psi
5149.2016 ft
373
Check
For Tensile :
Section
Grade
Length, Ft
N.Wt Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
10928.075
Joint Strength ,
Ib
1244000
L1
N-80
204.26308
53.5
L2
N-80
1420.2808
L3
J-55
L3'
J-55
L4
N-80
113.8352
47
66753.196
1086000
15.99923
1957.2162
40
78288.647
630000
8.047143
3308.661
40
132346.44
630000
4.760233
1840.54
53.5
98468.89
1244000
12.6334

Grade
N-80
Length,
Ft
204.26308
N.Wt
Ib/ft
53.5
L1
3.6876
L2
N-80
1420.2808
47
1.1998
L3
J-55
1957.2162
40
1.6335
L3'
L4
J-55
N-80
3308.661
1840.54
40
53.5
1.1511
1.4454
Design of 7 IN CSG:
Grade
Collapse,Psi
J-55
Weight,
Ib/ft
24
1370
Tensile
Strength,Ib
381000
H-40
24
2030
276000
N-80
29
7030
676000
Available Grades :
374
pf max =
Pi
=
pc min =
6846.100783 psi
1949.5008 psi
2193.188 psi
P(I)/Pf
Check
Case
Safe
Above 1.1
Section
Safe
Safe
Safe
Safe
S.F
select grade N-80

nominal wt
pc selected
L1
29 lb/ft
7030 psi
275.24321 ft
select grade H-40

nominal wt
pc selected
L2
24 lb/ft
2030 psi
1129.4118 ft
select grade J-55

nominal wt
pc selected
L3
24 lb/ft
1370 psi
2344.385 ft
Check
For Tensile :
Section
Grade
Length,
Ft
N.Wt
Ib/ft
Wt, Ib
7982.053
27105.88
Joint
Strength
, Ib
676000
276000
L1
L2
N-80
H-40
275.24321
1129.4118
29
24
L3
J-55
2344.385
24
S.F
84.68999
10.18229
56265.24
381000
6.77149
Check
Case
Section
Grade
N-80
Length,
Ft
275.24321
N.Wt
Ib/ft
29
L1
P(I)/Pf
1.24132
L2
H-40
1129.4118
24
1.15455
L3
J-55
2344.385
24
1.13467
Above
1.1
Safe
Safe
Safe
375
Final Casing Report :

casing
grade
Pc,psi
Wt, lb/ft
Length, ft
No.of joint
13 3/8''
L-80
2670
72
204.263078
K-55
1950
68
1420.280757
34
K-55
1130
54.5
1957.216165
47
N-80
6620
53.5
204.263078
N-80
4750
47
1420.280757
34
J-55
2570
40
1957.216165
47
J-55
2570
40
3308.661
79
N-80
6620
53.5
1840.54
44
N-80
7030
29
275.24321
H-40
2030
24
1129.4118
27
J-55
1370
24
2344.385
56
J-55
2270
20
84
9 5/8''
7''
4 1/5''
376
CEMENT PROGRAM
Cementing is one of the most important operation in drilling & producing a well
Cement operation is a one shot "process with no second chance , unlike mud is run
as a dynamic continuously changing process
Primary cementing is the initial step that seeks to seal the area between the casing
and the drilled hole, completing the isolation needed for form a pressure vessel and
appropriate barriers. Squeeze cementing is a technique to repair channels that may
remain after the primary cement job
Purpose of Primary Cementing
Provide zonal isolation, isolate porous formations

Support axial load of casing st rings and strings to be run later
Provide casing support and protection
Support the borehole, whether drilling or completion
Protecting the borehole in the event of problems
1. Pressure isolation
2. Pipe support and protection
3. Exterior corrosion
4. Pressure control
5. Load and force application support
6. Leakoff control prevents crossflow?
Cement job
secondary
primary
one stage
Multi
stage
Squeeze
cement
377
Primary cementing cost about 5% of well cost.

About 15% of primary cement jobs require squeezing
Total cost of cementing when squeezing is required is about 17% of well cost. Typical
number of squeezes required to fix a problem in a primary cement job = 3.
nine types of API cement

The American Petroleum Institute (API) has identified nine types of
cement according to chemical composition and physical properties.
These types range from standard construction cements to cements
designed for use thousands of feet below the surface.
API classification and properties of oil well cement
378
Type
depth
Tempera
ture
F
Water
Ratio
Gal/sk
Slurry
weight
Ib/gal
Volum
e
3
Ft /sk
Remarks
Class A
6000ft
60-170
5.2
15.6
1.18
Class B
Class C
6000ft
6000ft
60-170
60-170
5.2
6.3
15.6
14.8
1.18
1.32
Class G
8000ft
200
5.0
15.8
1.15
Class H
8000ft
12000ft
200
200
4.3
5.2
16.4
15.6
1.06
1.18
may be used when no special

properties are desired, no slufer
resistance
Moderate sulfer resistance
Available in regular and high sulfer
resistance
Basic cement ,compatible with
accelerators and retarders
Basic cement higher density ,higher
and lower water volume
Class A
Depth surface 6000 ft (1830 m)
No special properties
Similar to ASTM C 150,Type I
Class B
Moderate to high sulphate resistance
Similar to ASTM C 150 Types II
Class C
High early strength
Class D
Depth from 6000 ft 10,000 ft (1830 m - 3050 m)
Moderate and high sulphate resistance
Moderately high pressure and temperature
Class E
Depth from 10,000 ft 14,000 ft (3050 m - 4270 m)
Moderate and high sulphate resistance
High pressure and temperature
Class F
Depth from 10,000 ft 16,000 ft (3050 m - 4270 m)
Extremely high pressure and temperature
Class G
No addition other than calcium sulphate or water
Class H
Depth surface 8000 ft. (2440 m), as basic cement, course
Can be used with accelerators and retarders for other
Specifications
Class J
* Depth 12,000 16,000 ft. (3660 m - 4880 m)
* Extremely high pressure and temperature
* Can be used with accelerators and retarders for other
379
****Methods of cementing:
It is normally to cement conductor and surface pipes .A single batch of cement is

prepared and pumped down the casing .It should be noted that all The internal parts
of the casing tools including the float shoe, wipe plugs, etc are easily drillable.
It is employed in cementing long casing string in order to reduce the total pumping
pressure, reduce the total hydrostatic Pressure on weak formations There preventing
Their fracture, allow of selective cementing of formations and ensure effective
Cementing around the shoe of the previous casing string In multistage cementing a
stage cementer is installed at a selected position in the casing string, the position of the
stage cementer is dictated by the total length of the cement column and the strength of
formations.
The liner is a short string of casing, which does not reach to the surface .It is hung
from the bottom of the previous casing string by use of a liner hanger.
The liner is run on drill pipe and cemented by pumping the cement slurry through the
drill pipe and liner and finally displacing it behind the liner to Just above the liner
hanger.
380
CASING AND CEMENT HARDWEWRE
Component
Description
Guide Shoe
*Run on the bottom of the

casing
*Used to guide the casing
into the hole
*Hollow center allows mud
to flow into casing when run
in hole
photo
Generally placed
1 - 2 joints above the
shoe to 80 ft [13 to 26 m]
Float Collars
centralizes
scratchers
Centralize the casing

inside the hole
Used to remove mud cake

from the borehole wall
381
This is a solid plug used to clean

and
Bottom plug
separate between cement and

mud or dispersant
Description
Top plug
382
The black top plug has a deep

cup on its top and has a solid,
molded rubber core. It is dropped
after the cement slurry has been
pumped, to prevent
contamination with the
displacement fluid.
Chemical Washes
Chemical washes are fluids

containing surfactants and mud
thinners, designed to thin and
disperse the drilling fluid so that
it can be removed from the casing
and borehole. Washes are
available for water-based and oilbased drilling fluids. They are
designed to be used in turbulent
flow conditions.
Spacers
Spacers are fluids of controlled

viscosity, density and gel
strength used to form a buffer
between the cement and drilling
fluid. They also help in the
removal of drilling flui during
cementing.
<< Cement Program >>

* Casings setting depths:
Casing
Measure Depth, m
From
To
13 3/8"
1092
9 5/8"
7"
4.5"
Casing
Length,m
Casing ID"
Casing OD"
1092
13.375
12.415
2792
2792
9.625
8.861
2817
4115
1298
6.184
3407
4171
764
4.5
4.09
Cement of class "G" was used for well cementing as a result of its
properties for this high depth and salinity resistance
383
Annular area between casing string and bore-hole

(
D :Hole diameter, in
:Casing outside diameter, in
Slurry volume V
Excess :Safety factor, 60 %of the slurry volume
Slurry volume :V,

is the number cubic feet of slurry that produced from one
sack of dry cement,
The thickening time of a cement slurry is the time during which the cement
slurry can be pumped and displaced into the annulus (i.e. the slurry is
pumpable during this time). The slurry should have sufficient thickening time to
allow it to be:
Mixed
Pumped into the casing
Displaced by drilling fluid until it is in the required place
384
Because the surface casing is set at depth of 1092m the cement class that will
be used is (class G)that intended to be used at depth in range of 1000- to
8000 ft in conditions that require moderate strength, temperature, and
pressure with the ability of adding additives or can be used a manufactured
Properties of cement
component
Weight
Lb
Specific
gravity
Density
Lb/gal
Volume
Gal
Dry cement
94
3.14
3.14 8.34
3.5938
2 %bentonite
1.88
2.65
2.65 8.34
0.0852
Mix water for

cement 44%
Mix water for
bentonite 10%
41.36
1 8.34
4.9652
9.4
1 8.34
1.12845
385
386
387
388
389
Properties of Foamed Cement

Will the strength be adequate and will the sheath be destroyed by perforating?
Compressive strength of foamed cement is generally higher than a comparable nonfoamed cement of the same density.
Will there be gas migration through the cement itself?
Will the bond be different than for conventional cements?
Cement companies have additive in which the HSP of the cement can be reduced.
Example is hollow glass micro spheres.
Design Considerations
Foam quality.
PVT behavior.
Cement system.
Free water.
permeability.
Compressive strength.
Fluid Loss.
Lightweight Additives
Sometimes, a slurry weight needs to be reduced to protect formations that have a
low fracture gradient or for economics. To reduce the weight of cement slurries,
you can add water, low specific-gravity solids, or foam cement.
390
Foamed cements are also used to

reduce the density of the slurry In
foamed cement, nitrogen is added to
the cement mixture .Very low
densities can be obtained with
foamed cement but they are more
expensive.
Bentonite is the most common light weight additive

* Bentonite will tie up extra mix water reducing density
* Light weight, filler cements have as much as 12%

Bentonite
Adding Bentonite thickens the cement slurry
and it must be thinned by adding a thinner or friction reducer
Cement companies have additive in which the HSP of the cement can be reduced.
Example is hollow glass micro spheres.
Lightweight additives or extenders are used to decrease the density of cement
Excess mix water can be used to decrease the density to a limited extent
Excess water increases thickening time, increases free water and reduces
compressive strength
391
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL TRAJECTORY

1) Vertical section:
It is drilled from seabed (mud line) until kick-off point (KOP).
2) Turning or curved or angle build section:
It is drilled from kick-off point (KOP) to the end-of-curve (EOC). This section
includes the first build arc, the straight tangent, and the second build arc.
3) Tangent section:
It is drilled from the end of second build arc (EOC) to the end of proposed
distance
to be drilled horizontally in the pay zone, in accordance with the type
of horizontal
well to be drilled.
FIGURE 5: HORIZONTAL TRAJECTORY PLAN
392
The three sections may be designed as follows:

The build radius of the build arc:
R = 5730/
The height of the first-build arc:
D1 = R (Sin I2 - Sin I1)
The height of the straight tangent:
D2 = L2 Cos I2
The height of the second-build arc:
D3 = R (Sin I3 - Sin I2)
The length of the first section of horizontal well KOP:
KOP = TVD ( D1 + D2 + D3)
The displacement of the first-build arc:
H1 = R (Cos I1 - Cos I2)
The displacement of the straight tangent:
H2 = L2 Sin I2
The displacement of the second-build arc:
H3 = R (Cos I2 - Cos I3)
The length of the first-build arc:
L1 = 100 (I2 - I1) / BUR
The length of the second-build arc:
L3 = 100 (I3 I2) / BUR
The measured depth at the end of the first-build arc:
MD1 = KOP + L1
393
The measured depth at the end of straight tangent:

MD2 = MD1 + L2
The measured depth at the end of the first-build arc:
MD1 = MD2 + L3
The length of the horizontal section or third section = H
This length is selected according to the turning radius of the horizontal well to be
proposed
394
Design Of Horizontal Trajectory For Obaiyed-D2

Well information data
Well Name
Country // Area
D-2 A. Horizontal Development Gas / Condensate well

Egypt // Western Desert
Concession // Field
Obayied
Operator
Badr Petroleum Co.
Drilling Unit
EDC, Rig-41
Ground Elev.// RKB Elev.
203.77 m // 213.87 m
Surface Co-ordinates
Y = 323756 m N
& X = 659394 E m
Target Co-ordinates
Y = 323901 mN
& X = 658826 Em
Target Name
Khatatba formation (Lower Safa Sandstone Reservoir)

6 Build & Lateral section
Key Points
K.O.P Depth, m MD, (m
TVD)
3460
BUR, O/30 m
2-3
Azimuth, Degrees
279
Maximum inclination
90
Maximum Dog-Leg Severity
2-3
End of Build, m MD, (m TVD)
4257 (3968.87)
Landing Point Co-Ordinates

(Heel)
Y = 323866 m N
Landing Pont m MD, m

TVDBDF
4257 (3968.87)
Lateral Section Length, m
150 m (if required)
TD, m MD, (m TVD)
4407 (3968.87)
Target Tolerance
Circle with radius 50 m long.
Static Temp. Gradient
1.54 OF/100 ft
Offset wells
Obayied JB 16-3 and D2 original hole
X = 658895 E
395
Actual trajectory design
396
MD
(m)
MD (ft)
Inc.
Azimuth
TVD(ft)
TVD
(m)
DLS /30m
HD
1000
3280
3280
1000
2000
6560
6560
2000
3000
9840
9840
3000
3480
11414.4
11414.4
3480
3510
11512.8
3.5
30
11512.8
3510
3.5
3994
13100.32
60
30
12809.38
3905.3
3.5
88.7
4020
13185.6
60
30
12851.7
3918.2
101.8
4050
13284
64
30
12897.62
3932.2
117.8
4193
13753.04
83
30
13029.8
3972.5
220.5
4200
13776
83
30
13033.08
3973.5
226.5
4480
14694.4
83
30
13144.6
4007.5
472.5
4500
14760
85
30
13151.82
4009.7
490.3
4530
14858.4
88
30
13157.39
4011.4
518.6
5200
17056
88
30
13234.47
4034.9
1165.1
397
FIGURE 6: A CTUAL TRAJECTORY
Horizontal trajectory design:

Input Data
Surface coordinates
N m
323755.8
Em
659393.8
Nm
323901.6
Em
658826.1
Target Coordinates
Landing Point Coordinates
398
Nm
323866
Em
658895
Total Vertical Depth (TVD)
3968.87
I2
24
degree
L2
150
I1
degree
I3
87
degree
Calculations
All the calculated data are expressed in meters (m)
Calculations
Displacement @ landing point
486.4745
Raduis of curvature R1
448.9608
Build Up rate
12.76281
the height of the first build arc D1
182.6088
height of the straight tangent
61.0105
height of the second build arc
265.7367
KOP
3459.514
displacement of the first build arc (H1)
38.8147
displacement of the straight tangent (H2)
61.0105
displacement of the second build arc (H3)
386.6493
length of the first arc L1
626.8213
length of the second arc L3
34.49998
measured depth at the end of the first arc
4086.335
measured depth at the end of straight

tangent
4236.335
measured depth at the end of the second arc
4270.835
length of the horizontal section=
633
total horizontal measured depth=
4903.8
399
400
FIGURE 7: PLANNED WELL TRAJECTORY
FIGURE 8: COORDINATE EASTING AND NORTING
FIGURE 9: A CTUAL VS PLANNED
401
402
FIGURE 10: OBAIYED D2 DIRECTIONAL PLANNING USING COMPASS TM
Dog leg severity

Dogleg severity is a measure of the amount of change in the inclination, and/or
azimuth of a borehole, usually expressed in degrees per 100 feet of course length. In
the metric system, it is usually expressed in degrees per 30 meters or degrees per 10
meters of course length. All directional wells have changes in the wellbore course
and, therefore, have some dogleg severity. If not, it would not be a directional well.
The dogleg severity is low if the changes in inclination and/or azimuth are small or
occur over a long interval of course length. The dogleg severity is high when the
inclination and/or azimuth changes quickly or occur over a short interval of course
length.
The dog leg severity can be calculated from the dog log angle as follow;
I
2 A
sin
sin I 1 sin I 2 `
2
2
2 sin 1 sin 2
Where:
=dog leg Angle

I= the change in inclination
A= the change in Azimuth
The dog leg severity then expressed as;
100
MD

Where:
= Dog leg severity (DLS)
MD= change in the measured depth
403
From the deviation plot, we can conclude the following table:
MD
4086.335
284
4236.335
24
292.5
4270.835
87
334
MD1=150
The course length over which the change in inclination (m)
MD2=34.5
I1 =24
Change in the inclination
I2= 63
A1=8.5
Change in Azimuth
A2=41.5
100
24
8.5
1
o
sin 2 sin 2
2 sin
sin(0) sin(24) 0.0003 / 100'
150 * 3.28
2
2
100
63
41.5
1
o
sin 2 sin 2
2 sin
sin(24) sin(87) 0.122 / 100'
34.5 * 3.28
2
2
At all times high doglegs should be avoided (DLS < 6 deg/100ft) in order to reach the
total depth required, minimize torque and preventing sinusoidal / helical buckling of
the slim drill string.
404
Operations (Drilling Sidetrack 6 hole)

Objective
1. To ensure availability of some 10MM scf/d to allow a DCQ of 300 MMscf/d
2. To prepare the well for possible later coiled tubing under balance drilling
Formations to be drilled (3460 4407 m AHBDF)
Masajid
Khatatba
Lower Safa. TD at 4407 m
Potential Problems
High drilling torque and drill string failures
Casing wear in doglegs
Low ROP
Drill string stuck
Losses due to fracture in horizontal section
Mud type
LTOBM with CA
CO3
Density
0.46 - 0.48psi/ft
The use of LTOBM in this section eliminates the hole problems during the 6 hole
drilling and minimum mud weight required to drill the reservoir section, based on RFT
pressures in offset wells for upper safa formation is Hydrostatic plus the formation is
tight and lower safa formation is is 0.42 psi/ft.
To balance between ROP and borehole stability in the 6 hole section, we intend to
start drilling the section with 0.46 or 0.48 psi/ft mud and may be gradually raise it in
stages to 0.49 psi/ft in case of shale caving from Khatatba formation or high gas
reading
405
Operational Sequence
1.
Run 6 .059 gauge ring to depth +/-3480 m
2.
M/up & RIH 7 bridge plug on drill pipe to +/-3461m and set same (avoid to set it
against casing collar)
3.
P/U & M//U 7 Trip Saver WhipStock (Remember: while checking the alignment
with the MWD, the whipstock was dropped).
4.
RIH w/ the whipstock and tag the bridge plug.
5.
RIH w/ gyro and orient the whipstock in direction of 279 deg
6.
Set the Whipstock at +/-3460 m @ 279 azimuth and mill 7 window as per
operator recommendation and attached running procedures.
- If the melon mill is damaged or under gauge once retrieved. M/up a new
milling assembly and clean (smoothen) the window.
7.
M/U directional assembly with 1.15 deg bent housing, RIH and displace the well
to LTOBM mud system. Mud weight of 0.46 psi/ft will be used to start the
section. Whilst drilling, the mud weight will be raised in stages to 0.48 psi/ft if
required .
Recommended drilling assemblies:
Note : to decrease chance of stuck we are recommend to use Enhanced drill pipe
just after sidetrack to decrease the contact point of BHA and minimize no of
D/C in BHA
Kick Off: 6 Tri cone Bit - Motor W/ 1.15 bent housing MWD 4 D/Cs Jar - 2
D/C 30 HWDP
406
8.
Kick off as plan. Drill 5m of new formation. Condition mud and perform a casing
integrity test to 0.65 psi/ft. Continue kick off to end of build up section or until
the bit has been dulled. POOH.( LWD tool to be consider through Lower Safa
formation ), need to use the tandem pill to clean the hole to avoid the cutting
bed
9.
In the horizontal section of the well, the use of a turbine with impregnated bit will
be considered.
10.
Drill ahead to TD. The TD is defined in directional programme as 4407m ahbdf.
11.
When at TD, sweep the hole clean (150%) with viscous mud. Spot 50 bbls of
hi-vis pill at bottom. POH and rack BHA.
12.
Log well as per logging programme (separate issue)
13.
Make wiper trip after the logging programme (if required).

Prepare to run liner while logging. The combination liner hanger tie Back
packer and float equipment is NVAM connections. Hence have sufficient spare
NVAM couplings to Bakerlock the shoe track (although not planned to be
drilled out - the liner could get stuck way off bottom!). Prepare the shoe track
on the pipe racks to save time.
No X-overs will be necessary for below the hanger, again onto the shoe track
and to/from the Super 13% Cr which has N.Vam. The rest of the liner has
N.Vam, connections.
This well requires all 4 liner will be Super 13% Cr liner.
Two short pup joints are required as a marker at top and bottom of Lower Safa
payzone.
The exact depths shall be confirmed after TD logging.
The 4 1/2 combination liner will be run with a 100 m liner lap into the 7 liner.
If hole condition is good during the previous trip and while logging, no wipertrip is necessary after logging. Wiper-trip only if hole condition dictates.
Perform the liner cement job with a 30 m shoe track between float shoe and
landing collar. Use a batch mix tank to ensure a high quality and homogenous
tail slurry; flush lines before releasing pump down plug. Cement spacers for
the mud cake removal will be advised (ensure sufficient spacer is used behind
plug to avoid cement/mud interface when pulling back into planned excess
cement above TOL). Critical during this cementation is ECD which needs to
be below the frac gradient of the Shiffah sands (0.60 psi/ft).
Have 3 drillpipe pup joints on site for space out of the liner.
In an attempt to improve the quality of the cementation solid type centralizers
shall be used.
14.
Run 4 liner & tie back packer S 13 % chrome, p110 with a 100 m overlap
inside 7 casing,
15.
Cement 4 liner as per separate program.
407
References:
1- Farahat, M.S., Horizontal well drilling technology ,
Suez Canal University, Faculty of Petroleum & Mining Eng.
2- Bourgoyne, A. T., Applied drilling engineering ,
Society of Petroleum engineers Rechardson, TX 1991.
3- Economides, M. J., Petroleum well construction ,
John wiley & Sons, 1998.
4- Gatlin C., Petroleum engineering , Department of
Petroleum engineering, University
of Texas, 1960.
5- Rabia, L., Oil well drilling engineering ,
John Wiley & Sons, 1998.
6- Rotary drilling data handbook.
7- N. J. Adams, Complete Well Planning Approach .
408
410
For Underbalanced Drilling operation

.
This chapter introduces the main principle for risk assessment in

drilling underbalanced well.
The risk assessment forms an integral part of the underbalanced
selection process and ensuring that operators are made aware of
the potential risks, the risk assessment is carried out during the
candidate selection process.
Contents:
1. Introduction of risk
assessment
2-Risk Assessment
3-Risk Management and

Downhole Problem
4- Health Safety and
Environment
5- Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE)
Focus on the TRAp .. Not the chess!

411
Introduction of risk assessment

It is a requirement of legislation, and also good company practice and common
sense, that all work tasks should be subject to an assessment of their risks. This
is in order to identify the hazards present, assess the risks involved, and identify
the controls and precautions necessary to undertake the work safely.
This part of the document shows how TRA fits into the work management
process by describing the generic methodology that is followed when work is to
be undertaken. The main steps are illustrated figure and in more detail in the
inside cover.
When a task is identified, the first action is to establish what it will involve. This
initial appraisal should identify the need for any special safety studies or
assessments and identify at the outset if it is clearly obvious that the task cannot
be carried out safely. If the likely hazards cannot be reconciled at this stage, then
the task should be rejected or redefined.
The next stage represents the heart of the TRA process. It involves identifying the
hazards associated with the task, assessing the risks and identifying the
controls/precautions required to mitigate those risks.
Where a task comprises a number of separate activities, these should be broken
down into individual tasks and assessed separately. The extent of the controls
identified will depend upon the level of risk associated with the task. The higher
the risk, the greater the degree of control.
Risk Assessment
The risk assessment forms an integral part of the underbalanced selection
process and ensuring that operators are made aware of the potential risks, the
risk assessment is carried out during the candidate selection process.
The IADC well Classification form an essential fist step in the overall risk
assessment. The IADC classification for underbalanced wells should be assigned
to every well drilled underbalanced. This gives the first indication of the potential
risks.
The next step in the risk assessment is the review of the reservoir and the
produced Fluids
412
The risk assessment for the reservoir reviews the kind of fluids that are expected,
the gas rates and the production profile. It also reviews if any H2S is being
produced and of course it looks at the depth of the reservoir and the pressure in
the reservoir.
A deep high-pressure sour gas reservoir would obviously have a classification

with higher risk compared to a low-pressure oil producer.
The reasons and objectives for underbalanced drilling are also very much a part
of the risk assessment. A well drilled underbalanced to minimize skin damage will
need to be maintained underbalanced at all times, thus adding complexity to the
operation.
As part of the QHSE section of the risk assessment, the equipment required and
fluid systems to be used are also recorded as is the number of people on location
and the experience of the rig crew
The tripping method in an underbalanced drilled well is crucial. Avoiding pipe light
and snubbing can reduce the risk level significantly.
Finally the experience of the operator is taken into account together with a look at
how the job will be performed.
Risk Management and Downhole Problems
Risk Management
Risk Identification
Quantitative Risk Analysis
Risk Mitigation Planning
Downhole Problems and Troubleshooting
Wellbore Instability
Excessive Vibration
Fluid Influxes
Stuck Pipe and Fishing
Corrosion
Risk Management
Introduction
A major success factor in UBD is how effectively the designers and

implementers identify risks and develop an effective plan to deal with the
risks.
Before implementing the final design, the selected equipment and

operating procedures should be subjected to an exacting risk analysis
413
Stages
Risk
Identification
Quantitative
Risk
Analysis
Risk
Mitigation
Planning
Risk
Response
FIGURE 1: MAIN STAGES OF RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk Identification
Source of Risk.
Probability of Occurrence.
Potential Impact.
Action to Mitigate.
Cost to Mitigate.
Probability Mitigation Succeeds.
Source of Risk
Internal:
External:
risks that the designer can control.

risks that the designer cannot control.
Probability of Occurrence
Can be on a scale of:
1 to 10 or
High, Medium, and Low
Potential Impact
414
High, Medium, or Low.

May be referred to as Consequence
Can be defined by dollar amounts or other criteria, such as severity of
injuries or death, or any combination of dollar amount and injury.
Probability * Consequence = Risk
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

The safety of personnel on any oil and gas operating location is of primary
concern to all of the companies involved. The supply and use of appropriate PPE
is one of the tools used to make the work environment a safer place. The basic
PPE set includes coveralls, hard hat, steel toed boots, and safety glasses. In
addition, some tasks conducted on the work site may require the use of specific
PPE.
FIGURE 2: PERSONLA PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)
UBO Hazards and PPE Requirements.

An underbalanced drilling operation is basically a concurrent operation involving
conventional drilling equipment; equipment normally associated with well testing;
equipment normally associated with well stimulation work and all combined with
the sights and sounds of a production operation. The personnel that work in these
disciplines are quite familiar with the PPE requirements for their work. For an
UBO, we need to make others recognise hazards that may not normally be
associated with their disciplines and ensure the appropriate PPE is available and
is used.
Natural gas Leaking gas is a potential source for a flash fire or explosion.
Crews working around the natural gas compressors and gas separation
equipment should wear fire retardant coveralls.
415
Noise Hearing protection is required when working or passing through an area

with a noise level greater than 85dB. An underbalanced drilling operation will
have more noisy areas associated with it than a conventional one. Compressors,
flaring operations, high flow rates of gas through small
piping and additional pumps are the primary ones to consider. These areas must
be identified and well signed that hearing protection is required. Radio headsets
for communication will be also required. Figure 6 shows the universally accepted
graphic symbol for hearing protection required as well as written requirement in
English and Arabic
Formation fluid storage Hydrocarbon storage and associated hazards have
already been discussed. However, produced water can also contain toxic
products. Sour produced water will release H2S vapors and therefore must be
handled accordingly. The use of wind direction indicators (wind socks) on the
tanks is recommended and the storage area must be treated as a controlled entry
area. Personnel expected to work in the area must be trained in the use of
personal breathing air equipment. Breathing air equipment (cascade system) and
respirators must be available in a designated safe zone close to the storage
tanks. The Rules of Conduct must be clear to all and all personnel on location
must know the location of safety equipment.
Flare by-products SO2 is a by-product of the flaring process. It is extremely
toxic to living organisms. The area around a flare stack must be treated as a
hazardous area. The use of wind direction indicators (wind socks) at ground level
is recommended. Because of the heat generated, workers may want to hang
around the base of the stack during coffee breaks especially in colder climates.
This is not allowed and must be discouraged.
Environmental Aspects
The underbalanced drilling system is a fully enclosed system. When combined
with a cuttings injection system and an enclosed mud pit system, a sour reservoir
can be safely drilled using an underbalanced drilling system. The pressures and
flow rates are kept as low as possible. It is not the intention to drill a reservoir and
produce it to its maximum capacity.
A well test can be carried out during underbalanced drilling to provide some
productivity information. The hydrocarbons produced during the UBD process can
be routed to the platform process plant, exported or flared.
416
There is work currently being undertaken to reduce flaring and recover the
hydrocarbons for export. In a prolific well, a significant amount of gas can be
flared during the drilling process. Recovering this gas provides an environmental
benefit and an economic benefit. Oil and condensate recovered are normally
exported via stock tank into the process train.
Safety Aspects
Besides the full HAZOP, a significant amount of crew training is required for
underbalanced drilling. A drilling crew has been instructed during its entire career
that if a well kicks it must be shut in and killed. During underbalanced drilling, the
single item to be avoided is to kill the well. This may undo all the benefits of
underbalanced drilling. Working on a live well is not a normal operation for a
drilling crew and good training is required to ensure that accidents are avoided.
The underbalanced drilling process is more complex when compared to
conventional drilling operations. Gas injection, surface separation, and snubbing
maybe required on a well. If the hydrocarbons produced are then pumped into the
process train, it is clear that drilling is no longer a stand-alone operation.
The reservoir is the driving force in the UBD process. The driller must understand
the process and all the interaction required between the reservoir, the liquid pump
rate, the gas injection and the separation process system to safely drill the well.
When tripping operations start, the well must remain under control. Snubbing pipe
in and out of the hole is not a routine operation, and a specialized snubbing crew
is normally brought on to snub the pipe in and out of the hole.
The extra equipment also brings a number of extra crew to the rig. So besides a
more complex operation, a number of service hands are on the rigs that now
need to start working with the drilling crew. Yet the drilling crew will move back to
conventional drilling once the well is completed. The drilling crew will need to be
trained in this change of operating.
If a number of wells are to be drilled underbalanced in a field, it may be an option
to consider batch drilling of the reservoir sections. This saves mobilization and it
also sets a routine with the drilling crew.
References
Bieseman, T.,
RKER.95.071
Bourgoyne Jr., AT., et al 'Applied Drilling Engineering' SPE Textbook Series

1986, ISBN 1-55563-001-4
Stone, C.R. and Cress, L.A.: New Applications for Underbalanced Drilling
Equipment, paper SPE 37679, manuscript under review (1997).
417
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

CONCLUSIONS
This project was conducted to provide a literature review in candidate selection of
underbalanced drilling techniques and build a design system to achieve proper
planning for UBD operation.
UBD is being accomplished using a number of different techniques. The techniques

are defined by the wellbore objectives and the fluid to be used in the operation.
These include aerated (or gasified) fluid operations, foam operations, mist
operations, and air (or gas) operations. Aerated (or gasified) fluid operation was fully
described in our case study.
Gasified liquids can be used to achieve underbalance conditions, and damage will
result primarily when making connections, tripping, logging, choking and completing
the well.
A discussion of the economics of underbalanced drilling technology was presented. It

showed that UBD can be cost effective, when proper planning and design of the UBD
operation are utilized.
The key to success in applying underbalanced drilling lies in a good understanding of

the technology, careful planning (including full consideration of the risks), disciplined
execution, and effective dissemination of technological information.
This thesis presents the development of an UBD operation design system for
deciding whether to drill underbalanced or overbalanced, and for making a
preliminary selection of adequate UBD fluids..
Design level consists of three models:
Circulation rate program which determines the optimal circulation rate for the
selected technique to guarantee adequate hole cleaning, to ensure vertical
transport of cuttings in annular zones.
Pressure calculation model, which assures that the selected technique, is the
optimal selection, where the bottomhole pressure will be within the safe
operation limits during the UBD operation.
Economic study model, which assures that the sel ected technique, is the optimal
selection in term of economic benefits.
419
RECOMMENDATIONS
Real time field data is needed for different scenarios to guarantee that the system is
capable to be applied for field uses.
Technology is advancing rapidly. While this work focuses on predictive models for
design and supervision purposes, there are always opportunities to improve the
models for better calculation accuracy. In our case study, it was recommended to consider
a foam CTUBD scenario to eliminate the corrosion action take place and minimize the formation
damage. Changing the circulation technique should be also take into account in order to obtain a
correct reading of MWD/LWD equipment.
Future development in measurements while drilling (MWD) and telecommunications

technologies will make it possible to tune the models in a close loop and optimize
UBD hydraulics data from real time measurements.
Recent improvement in UBD technology such as the use of coiled tubing , parasite
string ,concentric string and non-mud pulsed electromagnetic measurement while
drilling have been useful in reducing the periodic overbalanced pressure phases
occurring during some drilling operation and that is what has to be considered from
the first planning of drilling Obaiyed D2 field
420

مشروع التخرج Underbalanced Drilling

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Underbalanced Drilling

Under supervision of/

Eng. Abd El Fatah Sharf

Under supervision of/ Eng. Abd-Elfatah Sharaf

Abdallah Magdy Darwish

El Sayed Amer Hassan

Sandy Mohamed Sherif

Mossad Mossad Dawood

We dedicate this book to all the

We also like to acknowledge our

uch UBD technology is still considered relatively new, and

probably just leaving the Early Adopters stage. The key to

Project Team Work

HISTORY OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING ............................................................................................... 3

UNDERBALANCED DRILLING TECHNIQUES

RESERVOIR CANDIDATES AND OPTUMIM SELECTION

SURFACE EQUIPMENT OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

DOWNHOLE EQUIPMENT FOR UNDERBALANCED

DRILL PIPE............................................................................................................................................ 144

WELL CONTROL IN UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

Completion for underbalanced drilling

DIRECT CIRCULATION OF AERATED FLUID

OBAIYED D-2 WELL ENGINEERING

RISK ASSESSMENT OF UNDERBALANCED DRILLING

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION................... 419

This chapter introduces the fundamentals of

Disadvantages of under balanced

History of Underbalanced Drilling

FIGURE 1:UBD IN THE UNITED S TATE

What is Underbalanced Drilling?

FIGURE 2: PERFORMANCE DRILLING D EFINITION

Underbalanced Versus Overbalanced

Overbalanced Operations "Conventional Drilling"

Figure 3:Conventional and uBD drillig

Benefits of underbalanced drilling

Increased penetration rate.

1-Increased Penetration Rate:

2-Increased bit life:

FIGURE 5: BIT AFTER BEING DAMANGED

3-Minimized Lost Circulation

FIGURE 6: LOSS OF CIRCULATION

4-Improved Formation Evaluation

5-Reduces Formation Damage:

FIGURE 7: SOLID INVASION INTO A HOMOGENOUS PORE SYSTEM

FIGURE 8: MECHANISM OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS ENTRAINMENT

6-Reduced probability of differential sticking.

FIGURE 10: DIFFERENTIAL STUCK PROBLEM

9-Less need for stimulation:

Disadvantages of under balanced drilling:

space requirements for additional equipment

2-Conventional Mud Pulse MWD is Ineffective when compressible

The alternative electromagnetic MWD data transfer is generally more

Wire line wet-connect steering tool result in slower connections and

3-Poorly Managed Multiphase Flow Regimes can Create Drilling

Insufficient cuttings removal from the wellbore.

Incorrect fluid mix can create in stationary drilling conditions and

4. Increased Daily Costs Due to Additional Equipment and

TABLE 1: UBD ADVANTAGES VS DISADVANTAGES

Decreased formation damage

Possible wellbore stability problems

Eliminate risk of differential sticking

Increased daily costs

Reduce risk of loss circulation