BG/CH 0493

Environment and Sustainability

Chen Yuan
January 2015

Chapter 12: Food Production and the

Environment
12-1 What is food security and why is it difficult to
attain?
12-2 How is food produced?
12-3 What environmental problems arise from
industrialized food production?
12-4 How can we protect crops from pests more
sustainably?
12-5 How can we improve food security?
12-6 How can we produced food more sustainably?
2

12-1 What Is Food Security and Why Is It

Difficult to Attain?
Many people in less-developed countries have
health problems from not getting enough
food, while many people in more-developed
countries suffer health problems from eating
too much
The greatest obstacles to providing enough food
for everyone are poverty, war, bad weather,
climate change, and the harmful environmental
effects of industrialized food production

Poverty Is the Root Cause of Food

Insecurity
Food security
All or most people in a country have daily access
to enough nutritious food to lead active and
healthy lives

Food insecurity
Chronic hunger and poor nutrition
Causes:
Political upheaval, war, corruption, and bad weather

Many People Suffer from Chronic Hunger

and Malnutrition
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Fats

Micronutrients
Vitamins
Minerals

Chronic undernutrition
Not enough food to meet basic energy needs

Chronic malnutrition
Not enough protein or other key nutrients

Famine
Severe shortage of food
Result in mass starvation, many deaths, economic chaos, and social
disruption

Many People Do No Get Enough Vitamins

and Minerals
Most often vitamin and mineral deficiencies in
people in less-developed countries
Vitamin A
Blind

Iron
Anemia

Iodine
Essential for thyroid function

Many People Have Health Problems from

Eating Too Much
Overnutrition
Excess body fat from too many
calories and not enough exercise

Similar health problems to

those who are underfed
Lower life expectancy
Greater susceptibility to disease
and illness
Lower productivity and life
quality

12-2 How Is Food Produced?

We have used high-input industrialized
agriculture and lower-input traditional agriculture
to greatly increase food supplies
Three systems produce most of our food
Croplands 77% on 11% worlds land area
Rangelands, pastures, and feedlots 16% on 29% of
worlds land area
Aquaculture 7%

Three main grain crops wheat, rice, and corn

Irrigation supply of water to crops

Industrialized Crop Production Relies on

High-Input Monocultures
Industrialized agriculture
Heavy equipment
Large amounts of financial capital, fossil fuels, water,
commercial fertilizers, and pesticides
Single crop

Goal is to steadily increase crop yield

Plantation agriculture cash crops
Primarily in less-developed countries

Increased use of greenhouses to raise crops

Industrialized Agriculture
Uses synthetic inorganic fertilizers
and sewage sludge to supply plant
nutrients
Makes use of synthetic chemical
pesticides
Uses conventional and genetically
modified seeds
Depends on nonrenewable fossil fuels
(mostly oil and natural gas)
Produces significant air and water
pollution and greenhouse gases
Is globally export-oriented
Uses antibiotics and growth hormones
to produce meat and meat products
Fig. 12-7a, p. 283

Traditional Agriculture Often Relies on

Low-Input Polycultures
Traditional subsistence agriculture
Human labor and draft animals for family food

Traditional intensive agriculture

Higher yields through use of manure and water

Polyculture
Crop diversity
Benefits over monoculture

Slash-and-burn agriculture

Subsistence agriculture in tropical forests

Clear and burn a small plot
Grow many crops that mature at different times
Reduced soil erosion
Less need for fertilizer and water

Organic Agriculture Is on the Rise

Crops grown with ecologically sound and
sustainable methods
No synthetic pesticides or fertilizers
Has a number of environmental advantages
Usually produces less than conventional
agriculture

Organic Agriculture
Emphasizes prevention of soil erosion
and the use of organic fertilizers such as
animal manure and compost, but no
sewage sludge to help replace lost plant
nutrients
Employs crop rotation and biological
pest control

Uses no genetically modified seeds

Reduces fossil fuel use and increases use
of renewable energy such as solar and
wind power for generating electricity
Produces less air and water pollution
and greenhouse gases
Is regionally and locally oriented
Uses no antibiotics or growth hormones
to produce meat and meat products
Fig. 12-7b, p. 283

A Closer Look at Industrialized Crop

Production
Green Revolution increase crop yields
Monocultures of high-yield key crops
Rice, wheat, and corn

Large amounts of fertilizers, pesticides, water

Multiple cropping

Second Green Revolution

Fast growing dwarf varieties

World grain has tripled in production

Crossbreeding/Genetic Engineering
Produce New Varieties of Crops/Livestock
First gene revolution
Cross-breeding through artificial selection
Slow process
Amazing results

Genetic engineering second gene revolution

Alter organisms DNA
Genetic modified organisms (GMOs) transgenic
organisms

Meat Production Has Grown Steadily

Animals for meat raised in:
Pastures and rangelands
Feedlots

Meat production increased more than sixfold between

1950 and 2010
Increased demand for grain
Demand is expected to go higher

Fish and Shellfish Production Have

Increased Dramatically
Fishery
Concentration of a particular species suitable for
commercial harvesting
30% are overfished
57% harvested at full capacity

Aquaculture, blue revolution

Worlds fastest-growing type of food production
Dominated by operations that raise herbivorous
species

140
120
Production
(millions of metric tons)

100

80

Wild catch

60
40
Aquaculture

20
0
1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Year
Total World Fish Catch

Fig. 12-12, p. 287

Industrialized Food Production Requires

Huge Inputs of Energy
Grow, store, process, package, transport,
refrigerate, and cook (10 times of the food
energy)
Mostly nonrenewable energy oil and natural
gas
Agriculture uses 20% of all energy use in the U.S.
Amount of energy per calorie used in the U.S. has
declined 50% since the 1970s

12-3 What Environmental Problems Arise

from Food Production?
Future food production may be limited by soil
erosion and degradation, desertification,
irrigation water shortages, air and water
pollution, climate change, and loss of biodiversity
Producing Food Has Major Environmental
Impacts. Agriculture has harmful affects on:

Biodiversity
Soil
Water
Air
Human health

Natural Capital Degradation

Food Production

Biodiversity Loss
Conversion of
grasslands, forests,
and wetlands to
crops or rangeland
Fish kills from
pesticide runoff
Killing wild predators
to protect livestock

Soil
Erosion
Loss of fertility
Salinization
Waterlogging

Loss of genetic
Desertification
agrobiodiversity replaced
by monoculture strains

Water
Aquifer depletion
Increased runoff,
sediment pollution, and
flooding from cleared
land
Pollution from
pesticides and
fertilizers
Algal blooms and
fish kills caused
by runoff of
fertilizers and
farm wastes

Air Pollution
Emissions of
greenhouse gas CO2
from fossil fuel use
N2O from inorganic
fertilizer use, and
methane (CH4) from
cattle

Human Health
Nitrates in drinking
water (blue baby)
Pesticide residues in
drinking water, food,
and air

Livestock wastes
in drinking and
Other air pollutants
from fossil fuel use and swimming water
Bacterial
pesticide
contamination of
sprays
meat

Fig. 12-13, p. 288

Topsoil Erosion Is a Serious Problem in

Parts of the World
Soil erosion
Movement of soil by wind and water
Natural causes
Human causes

Two major harmful effects of soil erosion

Loss of soil fertility
Water pollution

Serious concern
Some concern
Stable or
nonvegetative
Stepped Art
Fig. 12-16, p. 289

Drought and Human Activities Are

Degrading Drylands
Desertification
Productive potential of topsoil falls by 10% or more
Prolonged drought, human activities

Human agriculture accelerates desertification

Dust bowl
Severe wind erosion of topsoil

Excessive Irrigation Has Serious

Consequences
Soil salinization
Gradual accumulation of salts in the soil from
irrigation water
Lowers crop yields and can even kill plants
Affects 10% of world croplands

Waterlogging
Irrigation water gradually raises water table
Can prevent roots from getting oxygen
Affects 10% of world croplands

Fig. 12-18, p. 292

Agriculture Contributes to Air Pollution and

Climate Change
Clearing and burning of forests for croplands
One-fourth of all human-generated
greenhouse gases
Livestock contributes 18% of gases
Methane in cow belches

Food and Biofuel Production Systems Have

Caused Major Losses of Biodiversity
Biodiversity threatened when:
Forest and grasslands are replaced with croplands
tropical forests

Agrobiodiversity threatened when

Genetic diversity used on farms to produce food

What is the importance of seed banks?

There Is Controversy over Genetically

Engineered Foods
Potential to solve world food problems
So far genetically modified crops have failed to
provide extensive benefits
Potential environmental effects of genetically
modified populations in the wild
Creating hybrids with natural organisms

Trade-Offs
Genetically Modified Crops and Foods
Projected
Advantages

Projected
Disadvantages

May need less

fertilizer, pesticides,
and water

Have unpredictable
genetic and ecological
effects

Can be resistant to
insects, disease, frost,
and drought

May put toxins in

food

Can grow faster

Can promote pesticideresistant insects,

herbicide-resistant
weeds, and plant diseases

May tolerate
higher levels of
herbicides

Could disrupt seed

market and reduce
biodiversity
Fig. 12-19, p. 293

There Are Limits to the Expansion of the

Green Revolutions
Usually require large inputs of fertilizer, pesticides, and
water
Often too expensive for many farmers

Industrialized Meat Production Has Harmful

Environmental Consequences
Pros:
Increased meat supply
Reduced overgrazing
Kept food prices down

Cons:
Uses large amounts of water
Harmful environmental costs

Trade-Offs
Animal Feedlots
Advantages

Disadvantages

Increased meat
production

Large inputs of grain,

fish meal, water, and
fossil fuels

Higher profits
Less land use
Reduced
overgrazing
Reduced soil
erosion
Protection of
biodiversity

Greenhouse gas (CO2

and CH4) emissions

Concentration of
animal wastes that
can pollute water
Use of antibiotics can
increase genetic
resistance to microbes
in humans
Fig. 12-20, p. 294

Aquaculture Can Harm Aquatic Ecosystems

Several environmental problems
Fish are caught to feed to other fish
Inefficient process
Environmental toxins

Spread invasive plant species

Fish farms produce waste

Trade-Offs
Aquaculture
Advantages

Disadvantages

High efficiency

Large inputs of land,

feed, and water

High yield

Large waste output

Reduced
overharvesting
of fisheries

Loss of mangrove forests

and estuaries

Jobs and profits

Dense populations
vulnerable to disease
Fig. 12-21, p. 295

12-4 How Can We Protect Crops from Pests

More Sustainably?
We can sharply cut pesticide use without
decreasing crop yields by using a mix of:
Cultivation techniques
Biological pest controls
Small amounts of selected chemical pesticides as
a last resort (integrated pest management)

Nature Controls the Populations of

Most Pests
Pests
Interfere with human welfare

Natural enemies control pests

Predators, parasites, disease organisms
In natural ecosystems
In many polyculture agroecosystems

Pesticides
Chemicals used to kill or control populations of pests

Biopesticides
Produced by plants to ward off insects and herbivores

We Use Pesticides to Help Control Pest

Populations
First-generation pesticides
Borrowed from plants

Second-generation pesticides
Lab produced
DDT and others

Broad-spectrum and narrow-spectrum agents

Persistence varies

Synthetic Pesticides Have Several

Advantages

Save human lives

Increases food supplies and profits for farmers
Work quickly
For many, health risks are very low relative to
benefits
New pest control methods: safer and more
effective

Synthetic Pesticides Have Several

Drawbacks
Accelerate rate of genetic resistance in pests
Expensive for farmers
Some insecticides kill natural predators/
parasites that help control pests
Pollution in the environment
Some harm wildlife
Some are human health hazards

Trade-Offs
Conventional Chemical Pesticides

Advantages

Disadvantages

Expand food
supplies

Promote genetic
resistance

Raise profits

Can kill pests natural

enemies and harm wildlife
and people

Work fast
Are safe if
used properly

Can pollute air, water, and

land
Are expensive for farmers

Fig. 12-23, p. 297

Fig. 12-24, p. 298

Case Study: Ecological Surprises: The Law

of Unintended Consequences
DDT used to kill malaria-carrying mosquitoes
Have also killed other insects

Flies/cockroaches
Lizards
Cats
Wasps

New problems
Sylvatic plague caused by rat fleas
Roofs fall in (caterpillars eat roofs)

There Are Alternatives to Synthetic Pesticides

Fool the pest
Crop rotation; changing planting times

Provide homes for pest enemies

Use polyculture

Implant genetic resistance genetic engineering

Bring in natural enemies
Predators, parasites, and diseases

Use insect perfumes

Pheromones

Bring in hormones
Interfere with pest life cycle

Alternative methods of weed control

Crop rotation, cover crops, and mulches

IPM Is a Component of More Sustainable

Agriculture
Integrated pest management (IPM)
Coordinate cultivation, biological controls, and
chemical tools to reduce crop damage to an
economically tolerable level
Reduces pollution and pesticide costs

Disadvantages
Requires expert knowledge
High initial costs
Government opposition

12-5 How Can We Improve Food Security?

We can improve food security by reducing poverty and
chronic malnutrition, relying more on locally grown
food, and cutting food waste
Use Government Policies to Improve Food Production
and Security
Control prices to make food affordable
Provide subsidies to farmers
Let the marketplace decide (working in New Zealand and
Brazil)

Immunizing children against childhood diseases

Prevent dehydration in infants and children
Preserve diverse gene pool

We Can Grow and Buy More Food Locally

and Cut Food Waste
Community-supported agriculture
Buy shares of a local farmers crops

Reduce fossil fuel energy costs

Vertical farms
Potential for the future

12-6 How Can We Produce Food More

Sustainably?
We can produce food more sustainably by:
Using resources more efficiently
Sharply decreasing the harmful environmental
effects of industrialized food production
Eliminating government subsidies that promote
such harmful impacts

Many Farmers Are Reducing Soil Erosion

Soil conservation
Terracing
Contour planting
Strip cropping with cover crop
Alley cropping, agroforestry
Windbreaks or shelterbelts
Conservation-tillage farming

Identify erosion hotspots

Fig. 12-28, p. 305

We Can Restore Soil Fertility

Organic fertilizer
Animal manure
Green manure
Compost

Manufactured inorganic fertilizer

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and calcium

Crop rotation
Legumes (root nodules add nitrogen to the soil)

We Can Reduce Soil Salinization and

Desertification
Soil salinization
Costly solutions

Desertification
Decrease:

Population growth
Overgrazing
Deforestation
Destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and mining

Some Producers Practice More Sustainable

Aquaculture
Open-ocean aquaculture
Choose herbivorous fish

Recirculating aquaculture
Polyculture

We Can Produce Meat and Dairy Products

More Efficiently

Shift to more grain-efficient forms of protein

Beef from rangelands and pastures, not feedlots
Develop meat substitutes
Eat less meat

Kg of grain required for each Kg of meat

We Can Shift to More Sustainable Food

Production
Sustainable agriculture
Uses fewer inputs
Creates less pollution
Contributes less to global warming

Organic farming
Has many benefits
Requires more labor

Strategies for more sustainable agriculture

Research on organic agriculture with human nutrition in mind

Education of how organic agricultural systems work
Subsidies and foreign aid
Training programs; college curricula
Increased use of hydroponics
Greater use of alternative energy

Solutions

More Sustainable Agriculture

More

Less

High-yield polyculture

Soil erosion

Organic fertilizers
Biological pest
control
Integrated pest
management
Efficient irrigation
Perennial crops

Soil salinization
Water pollution
Aquifer depletion
Overgrazing
Overfishing
Loss of biodiversity
and agrobiodiversity

Crop rotation
Water-efficient crops

Fossil fuel use

Soil conservation

Greenhouse gas
emissions

Subsidies for
sustainable farming

Subsidies for
unsustainable
farming
Fig. 12-33, p. 309

Solutions
Organic Farming
Improves soil fertility
Reduces soil erosion

Retains more water in soil

during drought years
Uses about 30% less energy
per unit of yield

Lowers CO2 emissions

Reduces water pollution by
recycling livestock wastes
Eliminates pollution from
pesticides
Increases biodiversity above
and below ground
Benefits wildlife such as birds
and bats
Fig. 12-34, p. 309

Fig. 12-36, p. 312

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 12

About 1 billion people have health problems because
they do not get enough to eat and 1.6 billion people
face health problems from eating too much
Modern industrialized agriculture has a greater harmful
impact on the environment than any other human
activity
We should switch to more sustainable forms of food
production
Greatly reduce harmful environmental impacts of
industrialized food production systems
Will likely increase food security

Chapter 13: Water Resources

13-1 Will we have enough useable water?

13-2 Is groundwater a sustainable resource?
13-3 Can surface water resources be expanded?
13-4 Can water transfers be used to expand water
supplies?
13-5 Is desalination a useful way to expand water
supplies?
13-6 How can we use freshwater more
sustainably?
13-7 How can we reduce the threat of flooding?
59

Case Study: The Colorado River Story

The Colorado River
Flows 2,300 km through seven U.S. states
Includes 14 dams and reservoirs
Water supplied mostly from snowmelt of the Rocky
Mountains
Supplies water and electricity for about 30 million
people
Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego

Responsible for irrigation of crops that help feed

America

Issues

Very little water is reaching the Gulf of California

The southwest has recently been recent droughts

The Colorado River Basin

13-1 Will We Have Enough Usable Water?

We are using available freshwater
unsustainably by wasting it, polluting it, and
underpricing what is an irreplaceable natural
resource
Freshwater supplies are not evenly
distributed, and one of every six people on the
planet does not have adequate access to clean
water

Freshwater Is an Irreplaceable Resource

That We Are Managing Poorly
Water covers 71% of the earths surface
Poorly managed resource
Global health issue
Economic issue
National and global security issue
Environmental issue

Most of the Earths Freshwater Is Not

Available to Us
Freshwater availability 0.024%
Groundwater, lakes, rivers, and streams

Hydrologic cycle
Movement of water in the seas, land, and air
Driven by solar energy and gravity
Distributed unevenly

Humans can alter the hydrologic cycle

Withdrawing water, polluting, climate change

Fig. 13-4, p. 320

Groundwater and Surface Water Are

Critical Resources
Zone of saturation
Spaces in soil are filled with water

Water table
Top of zone of saturation

Aquifers
Natural recharge
Lateral recharge

Surface water
Surface runoff
Watershed (drainage) basin

We Are Using Increasing Amounts of the

Worlds Reliable Runoff
2/3 of the surface runoff lost by seasonal floods
Reliable runoff
Remaining 1/3 on which we can rely

Worldwide averages
Domestic: 10%
Agriculture: 70%
Industrial use: 20%

Agriculture counts for 92% of humanitys water

footprint
Virtual water
Not consumed; used to produce food and other products

Fig. 13-6, p. 322

Freshwater Shortages Will Grow

Main factors that cause scarcity:
Dry climates
Drought
Too many people using a normal supply of water
Wasteful use of water

U.N. 2010 study

By 2025, three billion people will likely lack access
to clean water

Fig. 13-9, p. 324

Fig. 13-10, p. 324

There Are Ways to Increase Freshwater

Supplies
Accurate information about water shortages
Approaches:
Withdrawing groundwater
Building dams and reservoirs
Transporting surface water
Converting saltwater to freshwater

13-2 Is Groundwater a Sustainable

Resource?
Groundwater used to supply cities and grow
food is being pumped from aquifers in some
areas faster than it is renewed by precipitation
Most aquifers are renewable
Unless water is contaminated or removed

Aquifers provide drinking water for half the

world
Water tables are falling in many parts of the
world, primarily from crop irrigation

Trade-Offs
Withdrawing Groundwater
Advantages

Disadvantages

Useful for drinking and

irrigation

Aquifer depletion from

overpumping

Exists almost
everywhere

Sinking of land
(subsidence) from
overpumping

Renewable if not
overpumped or
contaminated

Cheaper to extract than

most surface waters

Some deeper wells are

nonrenewable

Pollution of aquifers lasts

decades or centuries

Fig. 13-11, p. 326

Overpumping Aquifers Has Several Harmful

Effects
Limits future food production
Bigger gap between the rich and the poor
Land subsidence
Mexico City
San Joaquin Valley in California

Groundwater overdrafts near coastal regions

Contamination of groundwater with saltwater

Fig. 13-15, p. 329

Solutions
Groundwater Depletion
Prevention

Control

Use water more

efficiently

Raise price of water to

discourage waste

Subsidize water
conservation

Tax water pumped

from wells near
surface waters

Limit number of
wells

Build rain gardens in

urban areas

Stop growing waterintensive crops in dry

areas

Use permeable paving

material on streets,
sidewalks, and
driveways
Fig. 13-16, p. 329

Deep Aquifers Might Be Tapped

May contain enough water to provide for
billions of people for centuries
Major concerns
Nonrenewable
Little is known about the geological and ecological
impacts of pumping deep aquifers
Some flow beneath more than one country
Costs of tapping are unknown and could be high

13-3 Can Surface Water Resources Be

Expanded?
Large dam-and-reservoir systems have greatly
expanded water supplies in some areas, but have
also disrupted ecosystems and displaced people
Main goal of a dam and reservoir system
Capture and store runoff
Release runoff as needed to control:

Floods
Generate electricity
Supply irrigation water
Recreation (reservoirs)

Use of Large Dams Provides Benefits and

Creates Problems
Advantages
Increase the reliable runoff available
Reduce flooding
Grow crops in arid regions

Disadvantages

Displacement of people
Flooded regions
Impaired ecological services of rivers
Loss of plant and animal species
Fill up with sediment
Can cause other streams and lakes to dry up

Provides
irrigation water
above and
below dam

Flooded land
destroys forests or
cropland and
displaces people

Large losses of
water through
evaporation
Provides water
for drinking

Reservoir useful
for recreation and
fishing

Can produce
cheap electricity
(hydropower)

Reduces downstream flooding of

cities and farms

Deprives
downstream
cropland and
estuaries of
nutrient-rich silt

Risk of failure
and devastating
downstream
ooding

Disrupts migration
and spawning of
some fish

Fig. 13-17a, p. 330

Powerlines

Reservoir
Dam
Intake

Powerhouse
Turbine

Fig. 13-17b, p. 330

13-4 Can Water Transfers Be Used to

Expand Water Supplies?
Transferring water from one place to another has
greatly increased water supplies in some areas,
but has also disrupted ecosystems
China
South-North Water Diversion Project
Divert six trillion gallons of water

California central valley

Aqueducts

Water loss through evaporation

Ecosystem degradation

84

Fig. 13-19a, p. 332

13-5 Is Desalination a Useful Way to

Expand Water Supplies?
We can convert salty ocean water to freshwater,
but the cost is high, and the resulting salty brine
must be disposed of without harming aquatic or
terrestrial ecosystems
Desalination
Removing dissolved salts
Distillation evaporate water, leaving salts behind
Reverse osmosis, microfiltration use high pressure to
remove salts

More than 15,000 plants in 125 countries

Removing Salt from Seawater Is Costly and

Has Harmful Effects
Problems
High cost and energy footprint
Keeps down algal growth and kills many marine
organisms
Large quantity of brine wastes

13-6 How Can We Use Freshwater More

Sustainably?
We can use freshwater
more sustainably by:
Cutting water waste
Raising water prices
Slowing population growth
Protecting aquifers, forests,
and other ecosystems that
store and release freshwater

Reducing Freshwater Losses Can Provide

Many Benefits

One-half to two-thirds of water is wasted

The cost of water to users is low
Subsidies mask the true cost of water
Raising prices will hurt lower-income farmers
and city dwellers
Solution: establish lifeline rates

We Can Improve Efficiency in Irrigation

Flood irrigation
Wasteful

Center pivot, low pressure sprinkler

Low-energy; precision application sprinklers
Drip or trickle irrigation, microirrigation
Costly
Less water waste

Center pivot
Drip irrigation
(efficiency 9095%)

(efficiency 80% with low-pressure

sprinkler and 9095% with LEPA
sprinkler)

Above- or below-ground
(efficiency 60% and 80% with surge valves) pipes or tubes deliver water
to individual plant roots.
Water usually comes from an
aqueduct system or a nearby river.

Gravity flow

Water usually pumped from

underground and sprayed
from mobile boom with
sprinklers.
Stepped Art
Fig. 13-22, p. 337

Fig. 13-25, p. 338

Poor Farmers Conserve Water Using LowTech Methods

Human-powered treadle pumps
Harvest and store rainwater
Use tensiometers
Measure soil moisture

Use polyculture to create canopy vegetation

Reduces evaporation

Fig. 13-24, p. 338

We Can Cut Freshwater Losses in Industry

and Homes

Recycle water in industry

Fix leaks in the plumbing systems
Use water-thrifty landscaping: xeriscaping
Use gray water
Pay-as-you-go water use

Solutions: Reducing Water Waste

Fig. 13-27, p. 340

Fig. 13-26, p. 339

We Can Use Less Water to Remove Wastes

Use human sewage to create nutrient-rich
sludge to apply to croplands
Use waterless composting toilets

We Can Each Help Out in Using Water

More Sustainably
Protect water supplies
Apply strategies at local, regional, national,
and international levels
Also apply strategies at a personal level

Fig. 13-28, p. 341

13-7 How Can We Reduce the Threat

of Flooding?
We can lessen the threat of flooding by:
Protecting more wetlands and natural vegetation in
watersheds
Not building in areas subject to frequent flooding

Flood plains

Highly productive wetlands

Provide natural flood and erosion control
Maintain high water quality
Recharge groundwater

Benefits of floodplains
Fertile soils; nearby rivers for use and recreation
Flatlands for urbanization and farming

Some Areas Get Too Much Water from

Flooding
Human activities make floods worse
Levees can break or be overtopped
Paving and development increase runoff
Removal of water-absorbing vegetation
Draining wetlands and building on them
Rising sea levels from global warming means more
coastal flooding

Tree plantation
Diverse
ecological
habitat

Evapotranspiration
Trees reduce soil
erosion from heavy
rain and wind
Agricultural
land

Tree roots
stabilize soil

Roads
destabilize
hillsides

Evapotranspiration decreases
Overgrazing accelerates soil
erosion by water and wind
Winds remove
fragile topsoil
Agricultural
land is flooded
and silted up

Gullies and
landslides
Heavy rain erodes topsoil

Vegetation releases water

slowly and reduces flooding

Forested Hillside

Silt from erosion fills

rivers and reservoirs

Rapid runoff
causes flooding

After Deforestation
Stepped Art

Fig. 13-29, p. 343

Case Study: Living Dangerously on

Floodplains in Bangladesh

Dense population on coastal floodplain

Moderate floods maintain fertile soil
Increased frequency of large floods
Destruction of coastal wetlands
Mangrove forests cleared
Increase damages from storms

We Can Reduce Flood Risks

Rely more on natures systems
Wetlands
Natural vegetation in watersheds

Rely less on engineering devices

Dams
Levees
Channelized streams

Solutions
Reducing Flood Damage
Prevention

Control

Preserve forests on
watersheds

Straighten and
deepen streams
(channelization)

Preserve and restore

wetlands in
floodplains
Tax development on
floodplains

Build levees or
floodwalls along
streams

Increase use of
floodplains for
sustainable agriculture
and forestry

Build dams
Fig. 13-30, p. 344

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 13

One of the major global environmental problems is the
growing shortage of freshwater in many parts of the
world
We can expand water supplies in water-short areas
Most important to reduce overall water use and use water
much more efficiently

We can use water more sustainably

Cut water losses
Raise water prices
Protect aquifers, forests, and other ecosystems that store
and release water

Chapter 14: Nonrenewable Mineral

Resources
14-1 What are the earths major geological
processes and what are mineral resources?
14-2 How long might supplies of nonrenewable
mineral resources last?
14-3 What are the environmental effects of using
nonrenewable mineral resources more
sustainably?
14-4 How can we use mineral resources more
sustainably?
14-5 What are the earths major geological
hazards?
107

14-1 What Are the Earths Major Geological

Processes/Mineral Resources?
Dynamic processes within the earth and on its
surface produce the mineral resources on
which we depend
Mineral resources are nonrenewable
Produced and renewed over millions of years
mostly by the earths rock cycle

The Earth Is a Dynamic Planet

Geology
Study of dynamic processes taking place on
earths surface and in earths interior

Three major concentric zones of the earth

Core
Mantle, including the asthenosphere
Crust
Continental crust
Oceanic crust: 71% of crust

Spreading center

Oceanic crust

Oceanic crust

Continental
crust

Continental
crust
Cold dense
Material cools as
material falls back
it reaches the
through mantle
outer mantle

Mantle
convection cell

Two plates move towards

each other. One is
subducted back into the
mantle on a falling
convection current.

Hot
material
rising
through
the
mantle

Asthenosphere

Mantle

Hot outer
core
Inner
core
Fig. 14-3, p. 351

What Are Minerals and Rocks?

Mineral
Naturally occurring compound that exists as a
crystalline solid

Mineral resource
Concentration that we can extract and process
into raw materials

Rock
Solid combination of one or more minerals

What Are Minerals and Rocks?

Sedimentary rock
Made of sediments
Dead plant and animal remains
Tiny particles of weathered and eroded rocks

Igneous rock
Intense heat and pressure

Metamorphic rock
Existing rock subjected to high temperatures,
pressures, fluids, or a combination

Fig. 14-5, p. 353

Rocks
Sedimentary rock (shale, sandstone, dolomite, limestone)

Igneous rock (granite)

Metamorphic rock (slate, marble)

114

Earths Rocks Are Recycled Very Slowly

Rock cycle
Rocks are recycled over millions of years
Erosion, melting, and metamorphism
Slowest of earths cycle processes

We Depend on a Variety of Nonrenewable

Mineral Resources
Ore
Contains profitable concentration of a mineral
High-grade ore
Low-grade ore

Metallic mineral resources

Aluminum
Iron for steel
Copper

Nonmetallic mineral resources

Sand, gravel, and limestone

Reserves
Estimated supply of a mineral resource

14.2 How Long Might Supplies of

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Last?
Nonrenewable mineral resources exist in finite amounts
Can become economically depleted when it costs more than it is
worth to find, extract, and process the remaining deposits

There are several ways to extend supplies of mineral

resources
But each of these is limited by economic and environmental
factors

Reserves
Identified deposits from which we can extract the mineral
profitably

Depletion time
Time to use a certain portion of reserves

Nonrenewable Mineral Resources Can Be

Economically Depleted
When a resource becomes economically
depleted:
Recycle or reuse existing supplies
Waste less
Use less
Find a substitute
Do without

Global and U.S. Rare-Earth Supplies

Rare-earth elements arent really rare
China (50%), Russia (15%), US (13%)
China produces 97% of the worlds rare-earth
metals and oxides
The U.S. produces none

Market Prices Affect Supplies of

Nonrenewable Minerals
Subsidies and tax breaks to mining companies
keep mineral prices artificially low
Scarce investment capital hinders the
development of new supplies of mineral
resources

Can We Expand Reserves by Mining LowerGrade Ores?

Factors that limit the mining of lower-grade
ores
Increased cost of mining and processing larger
volumes of ore
Availability of freshwater
Environmental impact

Improve mining technology

Using microorganisms biomining
Slow process

Can We Get More Minerals from the

Ocean?
Mineral resources dissolved in the ocean
Low concentrations

Deposits of minerals in sediments along the

shallow continental shelf and near shorelines
Hydrothermal ore deposits
Hot water vents in the ocean floor

Metals from the ocean floor

Manganese nodules

What is the effect of mining on aquatic life?

Black
smoker

White
smoker

Sulfide
deposits

Magma
White
crab

White clam
Tube worms

Fig. 14-8, p. 356

14-3 What Are The Environmental Effects

From Using Nonrenewable Minerals?
Extracting minerals from the earths crust and
converting them into useful products can:

Disturb the land

Erode soils
Produce large amounts of solid waste
Pollute the air, water, and soil

Metal product life cycle

Mining, processing, manufacture, and disposal

Environmental impacts
Determined by an ores grade
Percentage of metal content

Mining

Metal
ore

Separation
of ore from
waste
material

Smelting

Melting
metal

Conversion to
product

Discarding of
product

Recycling

Fig. 14-9, p. 357

Removing Mineral Deposits Has Harmful

Environmental Effects
Surface mining
Removes shallow deposits
Overburden deposited into spoils waste material

Open-pit mining
Strip mining
Contour strip mining
Mountaintop removal

Removing Mineral Deposits Has Harmful

Environmental Effects
Subsurface mining
Deep deposits

Potential problems
Subsidence
Acid mine drainage

Case Study: The Real Cost of Gold

At about 90% of the worlds gold mines
Mineral extracted with cyanide salts
Cyanide is extremely toxic

Mining companies declare bankruptcy

Allows them to avoid environmental remediation

Removing Metals from Ores Has Harmful

Environmental Effects
Ore extracted by mining
Ore mineral
Tailings waste material
Smelting using heat or chemicals causes:
Air pollution
Water pollution

14-4 How Can We Use Mineral Resources

More Sustainability?
We can:
Try to find substitutes for scarce resources
Reduce resource waste
Recycle and reuse minerals

Materials revolution
Silicon replacing some metals for common uses

New technologies:
Nanotechnology, ceramics, and high-strength plastics

Substitution doesnt always work

Platinum industrial catalyst

We Can Use Mineral Resources More

Sustainably
Recycling and reuse
Lower environmental impact than mining and processing
metals from ores
Adequate supplies of rare-earth elements in the shortterm
Substitutes for rare-earth elements

14-5 What Are the Earths Major Geologic

Hazards?
Dynamic processes move matter within the earth
and on its surface and can cause volcanic
eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, erosion, and
landslides

The Earth Beneath Your Feet Is Moving

The earths crust is broken into tectonic plates
Float on the asthenosphere

Much geological activity takes place at the

plate boundaries

Volcanoes Release Molten Rock from the

Earths Interior
Volcano
Magma rising through the lithosphere reaches the
earths surface through a crack
Eruption release of lava, hot ash, and gases into
the environment
What are the benefits and hazards of volcanoes?

Extinct volcanoes

Eruption cloud

Ash flow

Ash
Acid rain

Lava flow
Mud flow
Landslide

Central vent
Magma
conduit

Magma
reservoir

Fig. 14-20, p. 367

Fig. 14-20, p. 367

Earthquakes Are Geological Rock-and-Roll

Events
Earthquake
Breakage and shifting of rocks
At a fault

Seismic waves
Vibrations in the crust

Focus origin of earthquake

Magnitude severity of earthquake
Amplitude size of the seismic waves

Earthquakes Are Geological Rock-andRoll Events (contd.)

Richter scale
Insignificant: <4.0
Minor: 4.04.9
Damaging: 5.05.9
Destructive: 6.06.9
Major: 7.07.9
Great: >8.0

Largest recorded: 9.5 in Chile, 1960

Fig. 14-19, p. 366

Liquefaction of recent
sediments causes buildings
to sink
Landslides may
occur on hilly
ground

Two adjoining plates

move laterally along the
fault line
Earth movements
cause flooding in
low-lying areas

Shock waves
Epicenter

Focus
Fig. 14-21, p. 367

Earthquakes on the Ocean Floor Can Cause

Huge Waves Called Tsunamis
Tsunami
Series of huge waves generated when ocean floor
suddenly rises or drops
Travels several hundred miles per hour

December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami

Magnitude 9.15 and 31-meter waves at shore

2011 Japan tsunami

Damaged nuclear reactors

Detection of tsunamis
Buoys in open ocean

Earthquake in seafloor swiftly

pushes water upwards, and starts a
series of waves

Waves move rapidly in

deep ocean reaching
speeds of up to 890
kilometers per hour.

As the waves near land they

slow to about 45 kilometers per hour
but are squeezed upwards and
increased in height.

Waves head inland

causing damage in
their path.

Undersea thrust fault

Fig. 14-22a, p. 368

Upward wave

Earthquake

Fig. 14-22b, p. 368

Three Big Ideas for Chapter 14

Dynamic forces that move matter within the earth:
Recycle the earths rocks
Form deposits of mineral resources
Cause volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis

The available supply of a mineral resource depends on:

How much of it is in the earths crust

How fast we use it
The mining technology used to obtain it
Market prices
Harmful environmental effects of removing and using it

We can use mineral resources more sustainably by:

Trying to find substitutes for scarce resources
Reducing resource waste
Reusing and recycling nonrenewable minerals