PROBLEM 1.

5
KNOWN: Inner and outer surface temperatures of a glass window of prescribed dimensions.
FIND: Heat loss through window.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the x-direction, (2) Steady-state

conditions, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: Subject to the foregoing conditions the heat flux may be computed from
Fouriers law, Eq. 1.2.
T T
qx = k 1 2
L

W (15-5 ) C
qx = 1.4
m K 0.005m
qx = 2800 W/m 2 .
Since the heat flux is uniform over the surface, the heat loss (rate) is
q = q x A
q = 2800 W / m2 3m2
q = 8400 W.
COMMENTS: A linear temperature distribution exists in the glass for the prescribed
conditions.

<

PROBLEM 1.15
KNOWN: Long, 30mm-diameter cylinder with embedded electrical heater; power required
to maintain a specified surface temperature for water and air flows.
FIND: Convection coefficients for the water and air flow convection processes, hw and ha,
respectively.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Flow is cross-wise over cylinder which is very long in the direction
normal to flow.
ANALYSIS: The convection heat rate from the cylinder per unit length of the cylinder has
the form
q = h ( D ) ( Ts T )
and solving for the heat transfer convection coefficient, find
h=

q
.
D (Ts T )

Substituting numerical values for the water and air situations:

Water

hw =

Air

ha =

28 103 W/m


0.030m (90-25 ) C
400 W/m

0.030m (90-25 ) C

= 4,570 W/m 2 K

= 65 W/m 2 K.

<
<

COMMENTS: Note that the air velocity is 10 times that of the water flow, yet
hw 70 ha.
These values for the convection coefficient are typical for forced convection heat transfer with
liquids and gases. See Table 1.1.

PROBLEM 1.28
KNOWN: Length, diameter, surface temperature and emissivity of steam line. Temperature
and convection coefficient associated with ambient air. Efficiency and fuel cost for gas fired
furnace.
FIND: (a) Rate of heat loss, (b) Annual cost of heat loss.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steam line operates continuously throughout year, (2) Net radiation
transfer is between small surface (steam line) and large enclosure (plant walls).
ANALYSIS: (a) From Eqs. (1.3a) and (1.7), the heat loss is

4
q = qconv + q rad = A h ( Ts T ) + Ts4 Tsur

where A = DL = ( 0.1m 25m ) = 7.85m 2 .

Hence,

q = 7.85m2 10 W/m2 K (150 25) K + 0.8 5.67 108 W/m2 K 4 4234 2984 K 4

q = 7.85m2 (1, 250 + 1, 095) w/m 2 = (9813 + 8592 ) W = 18, 405 W

<

(b) The annual energy loss is

E = qt = 18, 405 W 3600 s/h 24h/d 365 d/y = 5.80 1011 J
With a furnace energy consumption of Ef = E/f = 6.45 1011 J, the annual cost of the loss
is
C = Cg Ef = 0.01 $/MJ 6.45 105MJ = $6450

<

COMMENTS: The heat loss and related costs are unacceptable and should be reduced by
insulating the steam line.

PROBLEM 1.44
KNOWN: Radial distribution of heat dissipation in a cylindrical container of radioactive
wastes. Surface convection conditions.
FIND: Total energy generation rate and surface temperature.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Negligible temperature drop across thin
container wall.
ANALYSIS: The rate of energy generation is

r

 o o 1- ( r/ro )2 2 rLdr
E g = qdV=q

0
E g = 2 Lq o ro2 / 2 ro2 / 4

or per unit length,

q r
E g = o o .
2
2

<

Performing an energy balance for a control surface about the container yields, at an instant,
E g E out
=0
and substituting for the convection heat rate per unit length,

q o ro2
= h ( 2 ro )( Ts T )
2
Ts = T +

q o ro
.
4h

<

COMMENTS: The temperature within the radioactive wastes increases with decreasing r
from Ts at ro to a maximum value at the centerline.

PROBLEM 1.72(a)
KNOWN: Solar radiation is incident on an asphalt paving.
FIND: Relevant heat transfer processes.
SCHEMATIC:

The relevant processes shown on the schematic include:

q S

Incident solar radiation, a large portion of which q S,abs

, is absorbed by the asphalt
surface,

q rad

Radiation emitted by the surface to the air,

q conv
Convection heat transfer from the surface to the air, and

Conduction heat transfer from the surface into the asphalt.

q cond

Applying the surface energy balance, Eq. 1.12,

q S,abs
q rad q conv
= q cond

.
COMMENTS: (1) q cond
and q conv
could be evaluated from Eqs. 1.1 and 1.3, respectively.

(2) It has been assumed that the pavement surface temperature is higher than that of the
underlying pavement and the air, in which case heat transfer by conduction and convection
are from the surface.
(3) For simplicity, radiation incident on the pavement due to atmospheric emission has been
ignored (see Section 12.8 for a discussion). Eq. 1.6 may then be used for the absorbed
solar irradiation and Eq. 1.5 may be used to obtain the emitted radiation q rad .
(4) With the rate equations, the energy balance becomes

qS,abs
Ts4 h ( Ts T ) = k

dT
.
dx s

PROBLEM 1.72(b)
KNOWN: Physical mechanism for microwave heating.
FIND: Comparison of (a) cooking in a microwave oven with a conventional radiant or
convection oven and (b) a microwave clothes dryer with a conventional dryer.
(a) Microwave cooking occurs as a result of volumetric thermal energy generation throughout
the food, without heating of the food container or the oven wall. Conventional cooking relies
on radiant heat transfer from the oven walls and/or convection heat transfer from the air space
to the surface of the food and subsequent heat transfer by conduction to the core of the food.
Microwave cooking is more efficient and is achieved in less time.
(b) In a microwave dryer, the microwave radiation would heat the water, but not the fabric,
directly (the fabric would be heated indirectly by energy transfer from the water). By heating
the water, energy would go directly into evaporation, unlike a conventional dryer where the
walls and air are first heated electrically or by a gas heater, and thermal energy is subsequently
transferred to the wet clothes. The microwave dryer would still require a rotating drum and
air flow to remove the water vapor, but is able to operate more efficiently and at lower
temperatures. For a more detailed description of microwave drying, see Mechanical
Engineering, March 1993, page 120.

PROBLEM 1.72(c)
KNOWN: Surface temperature of exposed arm exceeds that of the room air and walls.
FIND: Relevant heat transfer processes.
SCHEMATIC:

Neglecting evaporation from the surface of the skin, the only relevant heat transfer processes
are:
q conv

Convection heat transfer from the skin to the room air, and

q rad

Net radiation exchange between the surface of the skin and the surroundings
(walls of the room).

You are not imagining things. Even though the room air is maintained at a fixed temperature
(T = 15C), the inner surface temperature of the outside walls, Tsur, will decrease with
decreasing outside air temperature. Upon exposure to these walls, body heat loss will be
larger due to increased qrad.
COMMENTS: The foregoing reasoning assumes that the thermostat measures the true room
air temperature and is shielded from radiation exchange with the outside walls.

PROBLEM 1.72(g)
KNOWN: Fireplace cavity is separated from room air by two glass plates, open at both ends.
FIND: Relevant heat transfer processes.
SCHEMATIC:

The relevant heat transfer processes associated with the double-glazed, glass fire screen are:
q rad,1

Radiation from flames and cavity wall, portions of which are absorbed and
transmitted by the two panes,

q rad,2

Emission from inner surface of inner pane to cavity,

q rad,3

Net radiation exchange between outer surface of inner pane and inner surface
of outer pane,

q rad,4

Net radiation exchange between outer surface of outer pane and walls of room,

q conv,1

Convection between cavity gases and inner pane,

q conv2

Convection across air space between panes,

q conv,3

Convection from outer surface to room air,

q cond,1

Conduction across inner pane, and

q cond,2

Conduction across outer pane.

COMMENTS: (1) Much of the luminous portion of the flame radiation is transmitted to the
room interior.
(2) All convection processes are buoyancy driven (free convection).

PROBLEM 2.3
KNOWN: A spherical shell with prescribed geometry and surface temperatures.
FIND: Sketch temperature distribution and explain shape of the curve.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in radial (spherical

coordinates) direction, (3) No internal generation, (4) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS: Fouriers law, Eq. 2.1, for this one-dimensional, radial (spherical coordinate) system
has the form

qr = k Ar

dT
dT
= k 4 r 2
dr
dr

where Ar is the surface area of a sphere. For steady-state conditions, an energy balance on the system

 = E , since E = E = 0. Hence,
yields E
in
out
g
st
qin = q out = q r q r ( r ) .

That is, qr is a constant, independent of the radial coordinate. Since the thermal conductivity is
constant, it follows that

dT
r 2 = Constant.
dr
This relation requires that the product of the radial temperature gradient, dT/dr, and the radius
2
squared, r , remains constant throughout the shell. Hence, the temperature distribution appears as
shown in the sketch.
COMMENTS: Note that, for the above conditions, q r q r ( r ) ; that is, qr is everywhere constant.
How does q r vary as a function of radius?

PROBLEM 2.21
KNOWN: Diameter D, thickness L and initial temperature Ti of pan. Heat rate from stove to bottom
of pan. Convection coefficient h and variation of water temperature T(t) during Stage 1.
Temperature TL of pan surface in contact with water during Stage 2.
FIND: Form of heat equation and boundary conditions associated with the two stages.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in pan bottom, (2) Heat transfer from stove is
uniformly distributed over surface of pan in contact with the stove, (3) Constant properties.
ANALYSIS:
Stage 1

2T

Heat Equation:

x 2

Boundary Conditions:

Initial Condition:

1 T
t

qo
T
= qo =
x x = 0
D2 / 4

T
= h T ( L, t ) T ( t )
x x = L

T ( x, 0 ) = Ti

Stage 2
Heat Equation:

Boundary Conditions:

d 2T
dx 2
k

=0

dT
= qo
dx x = 0

T ( L ) = TL
COMMENTS: Stage 1 is a transient process for which T(t) must be determined separately. As a
first approximation, it could be estimated by neglecting changes in thermal energy storage by the pan
bottom and assuming that all of the heat transferred from the stove acted to increase thermal energy
storage within the water. Hence, with q Mcp d T/dt, where M and cp are the mass and specific
heat of the water in the pan, T(t) (q/Mcp) t.

PROBLEM 2.46
KNOWN: Plane wall, initially at a uniform temperature, is suddenly exposed to convective heating.
FIND: (a) Differential equation and initial and boundary conditions which may be used to find the
temperature distribution, T(x,t); (b) Sketch T(x,t) for these conditions: initial (t 0), steady-state, t
, and two intermediate times; (c) Sketch heat fluxes as a function of time for surface locations; (d)
3
Expression for total energy transferred to wall per unit volume (J/m ).
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Constant properties, (3) No internal heat
generation.
ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional conduction with constant properties, the heat equation has the
form,

2T
x

and the
conditions are:

1 T
t

%KInitial, t 0: T1x,06 = Ti
&KBoundaries: x = 0 T / x)0 = 0
K' x = L k T / x) L = h T1L, t6 T

uniform
adiabatic
convection

(b) The temperature distributions are shown on the sketch.

Note that the gradient at x = 0 is always zero, since this boundary is adiabatic. Note also that the
gradient at x = L decreases with time.

1 6

(c) The heat flux, q x x, t , as a function of time, is shown on the sketch for the surfaces x = 0 and x
= L.

Continued ..

PROBLEM 2.46 (Cont.)

1 6

1 6

For the surface at x = 0, q x 0, t = 0 since it is adiabatic. At x = L and t = 0, q x L,0 is a

maximum

1 6

1 6

q x L,0 = h T L,0 T
where T(L,0) = Ti. The gradient, and hence the flux, decrease with time.
(d) The total energy transferred to the wall may be expressed as

E in =

q conv
A sdt

E in = hA s

I2

1 67

T T L, t dt

Dividing both sides by AsL, the energy transferred per unit volume is

1 6

E in h
T T L, t dt
=
V
L 0

J / m3

COMMENTS: Note that the heat flux at x = L is into the wall and is hence in the negative x
direction.

PROBLEM 3.2
KNOWN: Temperatures and convection coefficients associated with air at the inner and outer surfaces
of a rear window.
FIND: (a) Inner and outer window surface temperatures, Ts,i and Ts,o, and (b) Ts,i and Ts,o as a function of
the outside air temperature T,o and for selected values of outer convection coefficient, ho.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Negligible radiation
effects, (4) Constant properties.
PROPERTIES: Table A-3, Glass (300 K): k = 1.4 W/mK.
ANALYSIS: (a) The heat flux may be obtained from Eqs. 3.11 and 3.12,

40$ C 10$ C
T,i T,o
q =
=
1 L 1
1
0.004 m
1
+ +
+
+
2
ho k hi
65 W m K 1.4 W m K 30 W m2 K
q =

50$ C

(0.0154 + 0.0029 + 0.0333) m

K W

= 968 W m 2 .

Hence, with q = h i T,i T,o , the inner surface temperature is

Ts,i = T ,i

q
hi

= 40 C

968 W m 2
2

30 W m K

<

= 7.7$ C

Similarly for the outer surface temperature with q = h o Ts,o T,o find
Ts,o = T,o

= 10$ C

968 W m 2
2

= 4.9$ C

<

65 W m K
(b) Using the same analysis, Ts,i and Ts,o have been computed and plotted as a function of the outside air
temperature, T,o, for outer convection coefficients of ho = 2, 65, and 100 W/m2K. As expected, Ts,i and
Ts,o are linear with changes in the outside air temperature. The difference between Ts,i and Ts,o increases
with increasing convection coefficient, since the heat flux through the window likewise increases. This
difference is larger at lower outside air temperatures for the same reason. Note that with ho = 2 W/m2K,
Ts,i - Ts,o, is too small to show on the plot.
ho

Continued ..

Surface temperatures, Tsi or Tso (C)

PROBLEM 3.2 (Cont.)

40
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-30

-25

-20

-15

-10

-5

Outside air temperature, Tinfo (C)

Tsi; ho = 100 W/m^2.K
Tso; ho = 100 W/m^2.K
Tsi; ho = 65 W/m^2.K
Tso; ho = 65 W/m^2.K
Tsi or Tso; ho = 2 W/m^.K

COMMENTS: (1) The largest resistance is that associated with convection at the inner surface. The
values of Ts,i and Ts,o could be increased by increasing the value of hi.
(2) The IHT Thermal Resistance Network Model was used to create a model of the window and generate
the above plot. The Workspace is shown below.
// Thermal Resistance Network Model:
// The Network:

// Heat rates into node j,qij, through thermal resistance Rij

q21 = (T2 - T1) / R21
q32 = (T3 - T2) / R32
q43 = (T4 - T3) / R43
// Nodal energy balances
q1 + q21 = 0
q2 - q21 + q32 = 0
q3 - q32 + q43 = 0
q4 - q43 = 0
/* Assigned variables list: deselect the qi, Rij and Ti which are unknowns; set qi = 0 for embedded nodal points
at which there is no external source of heat. */
T1 = Tinfo
// Outside air temperature, C
//q1 =
// Heat rate, W
T2 = Tso
// Outer surface temperature, C
q2 = 0
// Heat rate, W; node 2, no external heat source
T3 = Tsi
// Inner surface temperature, C
q3 = 0
// Heat rate, W; node 2, no external heat source
T4 = Tinfi
// Inside air temperature, C
//q4 =
// Heat rate, W
// Thermal Resistances:
R21 = 1 / ( ho * As )
R32 = L / ( k * As )
R43 = 1 / ( hi * As )

// Convection thermal resistance, K/W; outer surface

// Conduction thermal resistance, K/W; glass
// Convection thermal resistance, K/W; inner surface

// Other Assigned Variables:

Tinfo = -10
// Outside air temperature, C
ho = 65
// Convection coefficient, W/m^2.K; outer surface
L = 0.004
// Thickness, m; glass
k = 1.4
// Thermal conductivity, W/m.K; glass
Tinfi = 40
// Inside air temperature, C
hi = 30
// Convection coefficient, W/m^2.K; inner surface
As = 1
// Cross-sectional area, m^2; unit area

PROBLEM 3.37
KNOWN: Inner and outer radii of a tube wall which is heated electrically at its outer surface
and is exposed to a fluid of prescribed h and T. Thermal contact resistance between heater
and tube wall and wall inner surface temperature.
FIND: Heater power per unit length required to maintain a heater temperature of 25C.
SCHEMATIC:

ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Constant

properties, (4) Negligible temperature drop across heater.
ANALYSIS: The thermal circuit has the form

Applying an energy balance to a control surface about the heater,

q = qa + qb
To Ti
T T
q =
+ o
ln ( ro / ri )
(1/h Do )
+ R t,c
2 k
$
$
25 ( 10 ) C
25-5 ) C
(
q=
+
ln (75mm/25mm )
m K 1/ 100 W/m 2 K 0.15m
+ 0.01

2 10 W/m K
W

q = ( 728 + 1649 ) W/m

q=2377 W/m.
COMMENTS: The conduction, contact and convection resistances are 0.0175, 0.01 and
0.021 m K/W, respectively,

<