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Contents
CONTENTS
Part
Mathematics
Page No.
1 45
18
9 14
15 19
20 30
31 37
38 42
43 45
Structural Engineering
46 141
2.1 Mechanics
2.2 Structural Analysis
2.3 Concrete Technology
2.4 Steel Structures
46 59
60 79
80 100
101 141
Geotechnical Engineering
142 171
142 160
161 171
#4
172 239
#5
Environmental Engineering
243 264
243 245
246 253
254 256
257 264
Transportation Engineering
265 - 274
265 269
270 274
#7
Surveying
275 287
#8
Reference Books
288 289
#1
#2
#3
#6
172 218
219 225
226 242
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Page. I
Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1
Matrix
Definition: A system of m n numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
Thus,
A=[
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
Column Matrix
[1 ]
1
1
Number of columns
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Page 1
Mathematics
=A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric
Skew symmetric
a h g
h g
f]
[h b f ]
[h
g f c
g f
Symmetric Matrix
= A
1.1.1.11
1.1.1.12
)
Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I
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1.1.1.13
Mathematics
Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a
1.1.1.14
1.1.1.15
always real
Idempotent Matrix
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
1.1.1.17
Determinant:
n square matrix.
a
D = det A = |a
a
a |=a
-a
Determinant of order n
D = |A| = det A = ||
a
a
a
a
|
|
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Page 3
1.1.1.19
Mathematics
1.1.1.21
Inverse of a Matrix
| |
b
1
a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0,
(Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesnt mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
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Page 4
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Mathematics
Rank of Matrix
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i)
It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
r(A.B)
min { r(A), r (B)}
r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
r(A-B)
r(A) - r (B)
The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
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Page 5
Mathematics
1.1.1.24
x
x
a
a
Where, A =
,
[a
B =
[x ]
Inconsistent means:
No solution
Cramers Rule
Let the following two equations be there
a
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a
D = |b
a
b |
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Page 6
b
D =|
b
a
|
a
a
D =|
a
b
|
b
Mathematics
and x =
Characteristic equation: | A
I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
Eigen vectors: [
]X=0
For each Eigen value , solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there cant be different Eigen values.
Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its Eigen value.
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value 1.
10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12.
is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
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Page 7
13. If
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Mathematics
Vector:
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Mathematics
Probability
B =, P(A
B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
Odds in Favour of an Event =
Where m
n
.
.
P(A) P(A)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of at least one event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of both events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Addition Law of Probability:
a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A B)- P(B C)- P(C A)+ P(A B C)
b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A B)= P(A) P(B)
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
P(B/A)=
)
( )
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Page 9
Mathematics
P(B/A) = P(B)
[ P(A) 0]
= P(B). P(A/B),
[ P(B) 0]
Bayes theorem:
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B .
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then,
P. /=
(
(
). ( )
). ( )
Distribution
f(x ) = 1 (Discrete)
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Page 10
Mathematics
P(x ) =
f(x )
) ]
Var (X)= (x x
) f(xx )
(Discrete case)
)-,E(x)-
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx)
= C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
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Page 11
Mathematics
covariance=0,
2. Exponential distribution :
3. Uniform distribution:
4. Cauchy distribution :
f(x) = e
, x
, here
= , x
f(x)=
, b f(x) a
= , otherwise
f(x)= .(
)
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , . . , x )
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Mathematics
For a grouped data if x , x , . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
f , f ,.., f ,then, =
If is mean for n data; is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
=
If , be mean and SD of a sample size n and m ,
SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
(n
n )
D = m -m
( n)
=n
+n
+n D +n D
= (n
(n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about mean is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about median is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about mean is minimum.
Co-efficient of variation =
100
( , )
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y
The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x
y=
x) =
(x
x)
(y
y)
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Mathematics
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (
,
) =
2. F ( , ) = 1
3. F (
, ) =
{ F (
, ) = P(
y) = 0 x 1 = 0 }
) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
4. F (x, ) = P(
x
5. F ( , y) = F (y)
Joint Probability Density Function:
Defined as f(x, y) =
Property:
F(x, y)
f(x, y) dx dy
= 1
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Mathematics
1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points a and b.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
First approximation to the root is x1 =
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
Simplest iterative method
Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
This method cant be used for finding the complex roots.
Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)
( )
xn+1 = xn
(
This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f(x).
This method fails if f(x) = .
It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newtons method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x
=x
) (
f(x )
Page 15
Mathematics
, f(x ) =
( )
)
2.
+n -
Page 16
Mathematics
L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13
1 0 0
a21 b22 c23
L21 1 0
=
a31 b32 c33
L31 L32 1
Page 17
Mathematics
Numerical Integration
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(remaining terms)+
a) max |f ( )|
, , -
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
a) max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
f(x)dx =
h ( first term
{
last term)
a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
Page 18
Mathematics
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Page 19
Mathematics
1.4 Calculus
1.4.1
Limit of a Function
Let y = f(x)
Then lim
f(x)=
0< |x a|< , |f(x)
i.e, f(x)
|<
x) = 1
a
=x
a
nx
x
e =1+x+
log(1
x) = x
log(1
x) =
Sin x = x
n(n
1)(n
.........x
.........a
.........
+
.........
.........
.........
Cos x = 1
Sinh x = x
.........
.........
Cosh x = 1
.........
sinx
=
x
lim (1
lim(1
lim
lim
1
) =
x
x) =
1
x
1
x
= log a
=1
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Page 20
lim
lim
log(1
x
x
x
x)
Mathematics
=1
a
=
a
lim log|x| =
L Hospitals Rule
When function is of
limit.
or
f(x) = lim
Properties of Continuity
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b.
is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0
c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
Rolles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that
( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a
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Page 21
Mathematics
( )
= f (c).
(0< <1)
1.4.2
( )
=
( )
b
( )
( )
Derivative:
( ) = lim
( )
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Page 22
Mathematics
Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2
f(x,y) = xn
an yn
. /
1.4.3
+ 2xy
+y
= n(n
1)u
Total Derivative
u=
+
x+
.
y
f( )
f( )
b) Local
Find
at x = ,
If
If
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Page 23
If
Mathematics
If
But If
If
If
If
at x = .
= , proceed further
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i)
ii)
=0,
iii)
Taylor Series:
f(a
h)= f(a)
h f(a)
f(a)
.........
Maclaurian Series:
f(x) = f( )
x f( )
f ( )
f ( )
= 0,
2. (i) if rt
(ii) if rt
(iii) if rt
(iv) if rt
,s=
=
, t=
solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)
s
and r
maximum at (a, b)
s
and r
minimum at (a, b)
s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
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Page 24
1.4.4
Mathematics
1. x dx =
, n
2. dx = log x
3. e dx = e
4. a dx =
(prove it )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cos x dx = sin x
sin x dx = cos x
sec x dx = tan x
cosec x dx = cot x
sec x tan x dx = sec x
cosec x cot x dx = cosec x
dx = sin
12.
dx =
sec
13.
dx = sec x
x )
24.
dx = log(x
a ) = cosh ( )
25.
dx = log(x
a ) = sinh ( )
26. a
x dx =
27. a
x dx = x
log(x
a )
28. x
a dx = x
log(x
a )
29.
dx =
tan
30.
dx =
log (
) where x <a
31.
dx =
log (
) where x > a
32. sin x dx =
33.
34.
35.
36.
sin
sin x
sin x
cos x dx =
tan x dx = tan x x
cot x dx = cot x x
ln x dx = x ln x x
37. e
sin bx dx =
(a sin bx
b cos bx )
38. e
cos bx dx =
(a cos bx
b sin bx )
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Page 25
39. e ,f(x)
Mathematics
f (x)-dx = e f(x)
Integration by parts: u v dx = u. v dx
v dx)dx
I L A T E
E
Selection of U & V
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x)
Exponential
Logarithmic
Algebraic Trigonometric
x)dx
f(x)dx+
=0
4. f(x)dx =2 f(x)dx
=0
a<c<b
f(x)dx = f(a
x)dx
f(a x)dx
f(x)dx =
if f(a-x)=f(x)
if f(a-x)=-f(x)
if f(-x) = f(x), even function
if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
f(x)dx
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a
then it is called as improper integral.
b in case of f(x)dx,
1.4.6 Convergence:
f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i)
f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) g(x)dx converges , then f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x)
for all x and (ii) g(x)dx diverges, then f(x)dx also diverges
( )
( )
If lim
diverge.
is converges when p
The integral
The integral
dx and
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Page 26
1.4.7
Mathematics
Vector Calculus:
=.
Directional Derivative:
is the resolved part of f in direction N
.
The directional derivative of f in a direction N
= | f|cos
f. N
is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Where N
Direction cosine: l
n =1
Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f =
1.4.9
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
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Page 27
F=f +
div.F= . f = .
=
Mathematics
/ .( f +
. f is scalar
. =
is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
Curl F =
f =|
|
f
F is vector function
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function.
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
If
f=
curl grad f =
f=0
div curl F = .
F =0
curl curl F =
(
f) = ( . f) grad div F = ( . f)=
(
F) +
F
F
Page 28
(F
9.
G) = F(
G)
G(
Mathematics
F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f f g)/g
2. (F.G) = F.G F . G
3. (F G) = F G + F G
4.
(fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f
= (C
.A
)B
.B
- (C
)A
(A
B)
C
(B
) = (A
.C
)B
.B
C
- (A
)C
A
(A B ) C A (B C )
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
(x,y,z)
F dv = fdxdydz
dxdydz + dxdydz
Q dy) = .
/ dxdy
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Page 29
Mathematics
F .N ds
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Page 30
Mathematics
Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2
Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
1.5.3
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
f(x)dx
2. Homogenous Equation:
( ,
( ,
)
)
y=Y+k
=
=
=
(say)
(
(
)
)
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Page 31
Mathematics
d y
dx
P(x)
dy
dx
Q(x)y = R(x)
= Q. (I. F)dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex:
x . /
= 0.
.1 Bernoullis Equation:
+Py=Qy
Divide by y
y
Substitute, y
Py
=Q
=z
(1
n)Pz = Q (1-n)
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Page 32
Mathematics
M dx
= d [log (
4.
=-d( )
5.
= d [tan (
)-
6.
=d[
)-
log(
)]
1.5.4
0 then I.F. =
0 then I.F. =
( )
( )
y=X
D
-----
)y = X {Where, D =
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Page 33
(D
m ) (D
m ) - - - - - - (D
m )y=0
Mathematics
C e
-- - - - -+ C e
C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C
Case III:
C x +C x ) e
m =
i , m =
y = e (C cos x
Case IV:
i
C sin x)
1.5.5
i ,
C ) cos x
,(C x
i
(C x
C ) sin x ]
X=
( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. =
( )
P.I. = x
( )
P.I. =
( )
put D = a
[ ( )
0]
put D = a
[ ( )
0, ( ) = 0]
put D = a
[ ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( )
0]
Case II:
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
P.I. =
=x
=
)
(
put
)
=-
, (-
0]
put
=-
, (-
, (-
) = 0]
) put
=-
, (-
, (-
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Page 34
= , (-
Mathematics
) = 0]
Case III:
When X =
= [ ( )-
( )
(D) ,1
(D) [1
( )
( )
( )
( )
Case IV:
When X =
V where V is function of x
P. I. =
( )
V then evaluate
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
P.I. =
( )
( )
x V(x) = 0
( )
( )
V(x)
Case VI:
When X is any other function of x
P.I. =
Factorize f(D) = (D
( )
) (D
) - - - - - - - (D
X=
) and resolve
( )
on each terms.
Substitute
------ -
=X
x=e
x
= Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
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Page 35
Mathematics
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
1.5.7
ax + b =
- - - - -- -
=X
t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b)
=aDy
D(D-1)y
D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendres equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8
1.5.9
=q,
= r,
= s,
= f( x, y)
-------
) = f(x, y)
{ where D =
and D =
f (D, D) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
Where m =
2. CF = (y +
CF = (y +
CF =
(y +
----= 0,
and the roots are
,
---- x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
are distinct
x) + x (y +
x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
x) + x
(y +
x) +
(y +
x) + - - - -
,
,
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Page 36
Mathematics
( ,
f (x, y)
1. when F( ax +by ) =
, put [ D = a, = b]
2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( =
,
3. when F(x, y) =
, P. = ( , )
=[ ( ,
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P. =
( ,
=
))
f (x, y) , resolve
( ,
into partial
y + mx after integration.
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Page 37
Mathematics
is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
, Argument of
( )=
. /
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers w for every value of z in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
1.6.2
Continuity of f (z):
( ) = ( ).
A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if
Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at
every point of that region.
Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also
continuous at x= & y = .
1.6.3
Theorem on Differentiability:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
i)
ii)
1.6.4
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that
, ,
,
are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
=
=-
are both necessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u
iv to be analytic in R.
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
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Page 38
1.6.5
Mathematics
Harmonic Functions:
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are
satisfied.
=
=0
(Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
1.6.6
( , )
dz + c
( , )
dz + i . /
( , )
dz + c
dx +
dy
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Page 39
Mathematics
( )
=(
( )
= f( )
( ), i.e.
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
() = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchys theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) =
D
C
( )=
( ) =
( ) =
( )
( )
(
)
( )
.
( )=
( )
(
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Page 40
Mathematics
( )
= 0 around every
1.6.10 Taylors Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
f(z) = f(a)
f(z) =
where
( )
f(a) (z-a) +
(
=
(z-a) + - - - - - - -
( )
)
( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurents Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and (
) and with centre at a then for all z in R
(
f(z) =
where,
( )
)
where
if
f(z) =
=
=
( )
=------
Page 41
Mathematics
f(z) =
(
)
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) =
, then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series after
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.
( )
( )
,(
( )-3
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Page 42
Mathematics
Introduction
. ( )
, ( )- = ( )=
1.7.2
. ( )
J )
Frequency shift
L [e-at f(t) ] = F(s + a) and
Time shift
L [f(t to)] =
. F(s)
If initial conditions are zero (i.e. f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Similarly,
( )]=
F(s) s f(0) -
(0) where
( ) ] at t = 0
( ) 1=
( )
and
( ) 3=
( )
( )
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
L [ t f(t) ] =
( )
and
( )+ = ( 1)
(F(s))
( )
1 =
( )
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Page 43
Mathematics
1.7.3
( )=
( )
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
1.7.4
( )=
( )
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of
s- plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
axis also not allowed.
1.7.5
Convolution theorem
L, ( ). ( )- = ( )
( )
L, ( )
( )
( )- =
( ).
(s) where
(s) =
( )
S. No
1.
2.
Function, f(t)
( )
u(t)
4.
5.
u(t)
6.
t.u(t)
8.
3.
7.
. ()
. ()
f(t).
1
1
()
F(s-a)
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Page 44
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
f (t)
f (t)
16.
19.
20.
f(ta)
f(at)
21.
f1 (t) f (t)=
e
22
23
24
25
s . F(s) s. f(o ) f (o )
1 F(s)
s
1
S
F(s)
u)du
1
S
where f 1 (o ) =
f(u)du
. F(s)
dn
( 1)n . n (F(s))
ds
|a|. F(as)
1
F(sa)
|a|
F1 (s). F (s) where * is convolution operator
e
f1 (u). f (t
f 1 (o ).
(s
sin t
as
)
((
s
((s )
s F(s)ds
t
t
. cos t
. f(t)
(
(s
a )
s.F(s)-f(o )
f(u) du
t
f(u)du
f(t-a).u(t-a)
tn . F(t)
17.
18.
(
(
Mathematics
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Page 45
Structural Engineering
Normal stress = E
Shear stress = G
C
F
Strain
Stress-Strain Relationship For mid steel
Structural Engineering
4PL
Ed d
2
Where
W = Weight of bar
A = Area of cross section
4. Elongation of a bar uniformly tapered due to self weight
=
2
6
Where A = Average area of cross section
5. Elongation of a stepped bar
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Page 47
=
=
+
[
Structural Engineering
+
+
P +P =P
2. Condition of compatibility
=
PL
PL
=
E
E
3. Equivalent modulus of elasticity
PL
PL
PL
=
=
E
E
E
P +P =P
PL
E
PL
E
+
=P
E
L
R
L
, L =L 1
, E + E -=1
E
E + E
E=
+
,
=
E)
)t =
Temperature Stresses
1. In uniform section fixed from both sides
change in length = tL
where
= coefficient of thermal expansion
t = change in temperature
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Page 48
=( ) E = tE
L
It support yields by a
(
a)
then =
E = ( tL
L
a)
Structural Engineering
E
L
Governing equation
P
P
(
=
+
)
E
E
E +
E
=(
) Lt
E + E
Where t is temperature change
Strain energy = =
Module of resilience is the strain energy per unit volume = u =
=
= E
Proof resistance is applicable when = yield stress =
up =
If and are stress acting on the body as shown below, along x-x
X
Normal stress, =
Shear stress =
If, = 90 +
=
=
cos 2
Sin 2
cos 2
sin 2
are complementary
normal stress
If shear stress
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Page 49
Normal stress, = .
Shear stress, =
/+.
/ cos2 -
sin 2 +
Structural Engineering
Sin 2
= cos 2
Principle stresses are direct normal stresses acting on mutually perpendicular planes on
which shear stresses are zero.
If and are the principle stresses (major and minor respectively)
/.
, =.
/ +
The plane of maximum shear stress lies at 45 to the plane of principal stress
=
and on that plane of
, =
If the plane on which is maximum makes angle with vertical the plane on which is
maximum, makes (45+ ) angle with vertical,
Tan 2 =
maximum
Cot 2 =
maximum
In case of pure shear element, the principle stresses act at 45 to the plane of pure shear
stress
Stress invariants
I = ( + + ) = + + = + +
i.e. sum of stresses on any plane is constant
I = ( + + ) = + +
Mohrs Circle
(
=(
+
+
)
=
=
=
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Page 50
=
=
Structural Engineering
+.
/ cos 2 +
= sin 2
2
2
2
+
2
= .
= sin 2
2
/ cos 2
/ cos 2 +
= sin 2
2
+ .
/ +. /
2
2
2
+
2
/ +. /
2
/ +. /
2
,
+
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Page 51
Structural Engineering
=+
=
=
=
= .
/ +
xy
Where
=
=
Let,
3
are direction cosines
3
(
) +(
) +(
9
2
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Page 52
Structural Engineering
For the same square beam, and for a given stress, the ratio of moments of resistance,
= 2
y
y
b
x
X bx
y
b
y
Position (ii)
Position (i)
To achieve same strength under same stresses, the relation regardings weight among
rectangular, circular and square section is
W
<W
<W
The ratio of depth to width of the strongest beam that can be cut from a circular log is 1.414
Moment of resistance m = Z M Z where Z section modulus
As at the top of beam, y = maximum and at the neutral axis y = 0, bending stress at top is
maximum and at neutral axis is zero
y /, d = depth
, b = width
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Page 53
Structural Engineering
= (
3 v
2 bh
b
Rectangular
section
4 v
3 r
h
3
Circular
section
h
8 v
3 bh
b
Triangular
section
=
T-section
I-section
Shear centre, thin walled pressure vessels, uniform torsion, bulking of column, combined and
direct bending stress.
Shear centre
Lateral load acting on a beam through shear centre will produce bending without
torsion
Shear centre is the centre of flexure
Shear centre always lies in the axis of symmetry
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Page 54
Structural Engineering
h/2
tf
tw
c
e
v
h/2
e=
Where, I = moments of inertia about axis of symmetry
V
Thin walled Pressure vessels
Let p = internal pressure, t = thickness
d= diameter =
= Poissons ratio
E = Youngs modulus
For Cylinders
1. Hoop stress or circumferential stress, F =
2. Longitudinal stress, F =
3. Maximum shear stress, =
4. Hoop strain, E =
.2
5. Longitudinal strain, =
6. Volumetric strain =
=
/
.1
.5
/
/
.1
Uniform Torsion
Let T = Total torque acting on the section
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Page 55
Structural Engineering
=G
(d
d )
B Dia = d
l
l
Torque will be same for both the shafts
1. Twists will be different for both the shafts
Let twist are for AB and for BC
=. /
T
A
C
l
T +T =T
at =
l
=
at
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Structural Engineering
=
Shaft of varying diameter
1.
( )
( )
Column stability
Short column fails by crushing
Long column fails by bucking
Intermediate columns fails by combinations of crushing & buckling
Buckling Of Columns
A.
Eulers Theory
Assumptions
1. Flexural rigidity EI is uniform
2. After unloading axis the column should be perfectly straight
3. Material is isotropic and homogeneous
4. The line of thrush will coincide exactly with the unrestrained axis of the column
Buckling load, P =
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Structural Engineering
. /
L
Where
= called stenderness ratio
r
Where, L = effective length of the column
End conditions
Effective length (of original length L )
L =L
Both end hanged
L =
Both end fixed
L = 2L
One end fixed,
Other end free
L =
L
( )
r
1+
L
where. = called slenderness ratio
r
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Structural Engineering
=
=
If the major and minor principal stress are =
respectively,
= . / +
(M + M + T ) and
=
. / +
d=
M + T
(M + M + 2)
M + T
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Structural Engineering
three hinged parabolic arch of span L rise h carries a udl of w over the whole span
W unit per
run
h
H
H
L
three hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a udl of w even the whole span.
W unit per
run
C
X
y
WR
WR
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Structural Engineering
Case 3: A three hinged arch consisting of two quadrant parts AC and CB of radii R and R . The
arch carries a concentrated load of W on the crown
W
C
0
B
V
V
V =V =H=
Case 4: A symmetrical three- hinged parabolic arch of span land rise carries a point load w,
which may be placed anywhere on the span
W
K
h
y
H
A
x
V
H=
The absolute maximum bending moment occurs at a distance of
Case 5: A three hinged parabolic arch of span has its abutments at depth
crown the arch carries a udl of w per length over the whole span
h
H A
and
below the
h
L
B
L
L
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Structural Engineering
Case 6: A three hinged parabolic arch of span l has its abutments A and B at depth h and h
below the crown C. The arch carries a concentrated load W at the crown.
The horizontal thrust at each support is given by
H=
Hinged Arches
Two hinged arch is an indeterminate structure. V and V can be determined by taking moment
about either end. The horizontal thrust at each support may be determined from the condition
that the horizontal displacement of the either hinge with respect to other is zero
W
W
C
y
A
V
=
B
H
H
V =
V =
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Structural Engineering
Case 2: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a load W at a section, the radius vector
corresponding to which makes an angle with the horizontal
W
C
D
H
V
Sin
Case 3: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a udl W per unit length over the whole
span
W unit per run
C
R
H
WR
WR
Case 4: A two hinged semicircular arch of radius R carries a distributed load uniformly varying
from zero at the left end to w per unit rup at the right end.
W
x
R
B
A
H
0
V
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Structural Engineering
Case 5: A two hinged parabolic arch carries a udl of W per unit run on entire span of the span of
the arch is L and its rise is h
W unit per run
C
H
B
H
L
V =
V =
y
H
V =
V =
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Structural Engineering
= External indeterminacy
= r 3 for a plane frame
= r 6 for a space frame
Where
m = Number of members in the structure
j = Number of joints in the structure
c = Number of curs required to obtain an open configuration
B. Simplified formula
= ( + ) 2 for pin jointed plane frame
= ( + ) 3 for pin jointed space frame
= (3C + r) 3 for rigid jointed plane frame
= (6C + r) 6 for rigid jointed space frame
II.
= 3j
= 3j
= 6j
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Page 65
=3
=6
Structural Engineering
Method of Analysis
1. For statically determinate structures
a. Double integration method
b. Maxwells reciprocal theorem
c. Moment area method
2. For statically indeterminate structures
i. Force methods
a. Conjugate beam method
b. Theorem of three moments
c. Column analogy method
ii. Displacement methods
a. Slope deflection method
b. Moment distribution method
c. Kanis method
iii. Energy methods
a. Castigliones theorem
b. Principal of virtual work
1. Beths theorem
2. Unit load method
3. Maxwells reciprocal theorem
Truss
1.
2.
Truss members are subjected to only axial forces i.e. no bending moment and shear force.
Joints are assumed to be pin joints.
3.
4.
Structural Engineering
Cables
1.
2.
Cable theorem Product of horizontal components of cable tension and vertical distance
between the cable chord and cable at any point is equal to bending moment at that point on
a horizontal simply supported beam subjected to the same external loading as that on the
cable.
Horizontal thrush (H)=
( )
Slope
(
6
P
a
Deflection
)
(2
6
)
93
At center, if a>b,
=
(3l
4b
P
A
H2
C H2
=
Udl=w
=
=
16
24
max =
48
=
5wl
384 EI
M
A
max = ml / 9 3 EI
At x = L / 3
t centre, =
3
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Structural Engineering
max =
max =
max =
max =
max =
A
l
P
a
(3l - a)
Udl =
A
M
A
Structural Engineering
EI = Flexural rigidity
Slope
dy 1
= Mdx
dx EI
1
Deflection, y = Mdx
EI
2. Macaulays Method
It is same as double integration method but the integration of expression for B.M is used in
such a way that same constants of integration are valid for all portions of the beam even
through the law of bending moment difference form portion to portion.
Rules for applying Macaulays Method
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
B
Only deflected shape
Deflected shape
According to 1st moment area theorem, the change in the slope of elastic curve between any two
points for an initially straight continues beam, is equal to the area under the diagram between
these two points.
i.e.
( )
dx
According to 2nd moment area theorem the tangential deviation of pt. B measured from the
tangent to the elastic curve at point A is equal to the moment of the area under the diagram A
and B about point B.
i.e. t
= (x
x )
dx
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Structural Engineering
Conjugate Beam
i)
i)
ii)
ii)
iii)
iii)
1.
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Structural Engineering
+ 2 MB .
/+M
+ 6E .
= -6 .
+
/+
Force methods
Conjugate beam method
1. Slope at any point in the elastic curve of active beam is equal to the shear force at the
point in its conjugate beam.
2. Deflection at any point in the active beam is equal to the bending moment at the
corresponding point in the conjugate beam
3.
diagram of the original beam will be the loading for the conjugate beam to
determine shear force and bending moment as require in point 1 and point 2
mentioned above.
II.
Energy Methods
For bending strain energy = =
Deflection, =
= m
dx
dx
If m be the bending moment at the point due to external loading and m be the bending
moment due to unit load applied at that point
Deflection =
For which moment m applied at that point
Slope, =
1. Maxwells Reciprocal Theorem
In any beam or truss the deflection at any point D due to a load W at any other point C is the
same as the deflection at C due to the same load W applied at D.
W
W
C
C
D
d
C
c
So, C = d
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Structural Engineering
2. Castilians Theorem
a. Castigliones First Theorem
The partial derivative of the strain energy of a linear elastic structure expressed in terms
of displacements with respect to any displacements with any displacement
is equal to
the force at coordinate:
. .,
=
The partial derivative of strain energy has been used because the change of strain energy
due to an increment in displacement at coordinate has only been considered keeping all
other displacement unchanged
b. Castigliones Second Theorem
The partial derivative of the strain energy of a linearly elastic structure expressed in
terms of forces with respect to any force
applied at coordinate
is equal to the
displacement at coordinate j.
. .,
=
Where,
Ss ds
=
for axial forces
E
Mm ds
=
for moment
E
So, y =
r
yr
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Structural Engineering
a) All members are axially rigid and the beam is also flex rally rigid: DOF = 1
b) All members are only axially rigid : DOF = 3
c) Members are neither axially nor flexuarally rigid : DOF = 6
Overview of displacement method
Considerin
g
Only AB
L
(Settlement
)
Again
(Settlement of
support B)
M
L
Where M M
M =
(2 + )
M =
(2 + )
M = M = -6 EI
So, M = M
(2
) - 6 EI
M =M
(2 + ) - 6 EI
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Structural Engineering
B
L
P
B
b
a
L
,M
M =
,M =
2. Analysis by Moment Distribution Method
Moment required to create unit rotation in a beam with near end hanged and far end
hanged or fixed is called flexural stiffness factor
Carry over factor is the ratio of moment created at the far end to the moment created at
the near end
End Condition
Stiffness Factor
1
2
0
E , L ,I
E , L ,I
I , E ,L
M
0
Common rotation at 0 =
M =.
M =.
M =.
Total M = M + M + M = .
Or, =
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M =M
Structural Engineering
Distribution factor
M =M
M =M
A
L
Reaction at one end will be maximum when the load is at that one end and reaction at
other end will be zero simultaneously
Maximum shear force (may be (+)ve, may be (-)ve at a section across when the load is
at the section itself
Absolute maximum shear force anywhere in beam equal to the reaction itself
Maximum bending moments at a section occurs when the load itself is at the section
Absolute maximum BM occurs when the load is placed at the centre of the span
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Structural Engineering
1.0
1.0
B
L
a
Absolute
max. SF
1.0
1.0
A
+
ILD for R
+
ILD for R
1+
-
C
a
L
a(1- )
B
+
1.0
A
ILD for M
1.0
Absolute
max. SF
L/2
ILD for V
Reaction
L
L/2
Shear Force
A
Absolute max. BM
Bending Moments
Maximum positive SF occurs when the tail of the load is at the section itself
Maximum negative SF occurs when the head of the load is at the section itself
Maximum BM occurs at any section when the entire span is fully loaded
With the entire span fully loaded, absolute maximum BM occurs at the centre of the span
Maximum positive SF occurs when the tail of the load is at the section itself
Maximum negative SF occurs when the head of the load at the section itself
Maximum BM occurs at any section only when the load is placed with the equal ratio as
of span of the two length divided by the section itself
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Structural Engineering
Absolute maximum BM occurs at the midpoint of the span when the load is placed
equally divided on the span
For Several Concentrated Load Moving From One End To Another
A
C
L
a
x
W (Resultant)
Now, to find critical load we have to place loads over the span w.r.t. c let, W , W , W are on
the hand side of C and W , W , W are on the right hand side of C
Let,
>
Again putting W on the right hand side of C,
If
<
W is the critical load
Now, the load W is nearly to resultant W. So, maximum BM will occur under W and the
position like following figure.
W
L/2
L/2
/for maximum BM
The absolute maximum bending moment generally occurs under the heavier loads, which
is very near to the CG of the load system
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Structural Engineering
P1
(4)
3
1 =
axial flexibility
11
2. Transverse displacement
P2
(2)
D2
A
2 =
Transverse flexibility
11
22
33
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Structural Engineering
33
44
= ,B-
x *X+
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Page 79
Structural Engineering
Structural Engineering
l
M=
= , Z = section modulus
c) Splitting tensile strength ( )
Load P, cylinder diameter D cylinder length = L
=
=
Structural Engineering
Assumption
1. Based on the behavior of structure at working load
2. Stress strain relationship is linear under working load
3. Factor of safety for concrete in compression & bending and for steel in tension &
bending are 3.0 and 1.8 respectively
4. Real factor of safety = 0.67 fck/0.33 fck = 2.0 for concrete
Consideration
1. Modular ratio (m) =
where
= 0.55
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Page 82
Structural Engineering
3. From definition m =
Where E = Young modulus of steel
E = Young modulus of concrete = 5000 f
Some Constants
1. Neutral axis constant, k =
2. Lever arm constant, j = (1 - k3)
3. Moment of resistance constant
=.
X=
Where
= Area of steel reinforcement
m
= Equivalent concrete area
Case II: (when stresses developed in the section are known)
x = kid
x
x
m
Balanced
section
=
m
m
Under
reinforced
section
m
m
over
reinforced
section
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Page 83
Structural Engineering
Nominal
reinforcement
D
b
Stirrup
Main reinforcement
Enlarging
Q
Q
Nominal cover
Nominal cover
b = width of section
D = over all depth of section
= dia of stirrup
= dia of main reinforcement
Section
Nominal
cover (mm)
15
25
40
50
Slab
Beam
Column
Footing
C =
x
N.
Z = lever arm
D
T=
Alternatively MR = T Z
Z=
jd (for under reinforced sec)
Or
=
For balance section Qbd =
jd
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Page 84
Or
100% =
Structural Engineering
100
Cmax)
a) If ( C)max>
Design shear force VS = V - T bd
Provide stirrup with spacing (SV) of minimum of these three
= permissible stress in stirrup for ahear
= for fc 250 fc 415
i) S =
(
)
= rea of stirrup
.
ii) S =
.
iii) S = 0.75 d
b) If ( c)max< c (Sectors are needed to be redesigned) Spacing of main
reinforcement should not be greater then 300 mm or width of beam whichever is
less.
Deflection Cheek
a) Using Basic Value Only
Basic value = 7 (for cantilever)
(for span upto 10 m) = 20 (for simply supported)
= 26 (for continuous)
Effective depth (d) =
For spans above 10 m, the above value shall be multiplied by
in meters except
for cantilever
b) Using Modification Factor Also
d=(
)
where k = modification factor for % of main reinforcement (tension)
k = modification factor for % of compression reinforcement (for double
reinforcement beam)
k = modification for T beam or L.Beam
Development length (Ld) cheak
= Bond stress L
pullout force = frictional force
=
L
Or L =
4
For end anchorage + L >L
bd
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Structural Engineering
may be
l
(y denotes
longer direction)
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Page 86
Structural Engineering
Asc
Ast 2
Ast1
Balanced section
(where, x = x = kd)
For same cross sectional area, moment of resistance of T-section is greater then that
of rectangular section
Some important codal provisions (IS: 456, 2000)
Tensile stress =
Where F = Total tension on the member minus pretension in steel
= Cross sectional area of concrete
Design formulation column
Eccentricity. e =
+ 20 mm
If or 12, short column
or > 12, longer slender column
Where, L, D, b are length, diameter and breath of column respectively
For short column, Permissible loads, P =
+ Asc
Where, = Permissible stress in concrete for direct compression
(e.g. m 4.0n mm , m 5.0 n mm )
= Permissible compressive dress for column bars
Ac = Cross-sectional area of concrete excluding reinforcement of steel
Asc = Cross sectional area of longitudinal bars
For long column permissible load, P = Cr. (
+
Where, Cr = Reduction factor < 1
= 1.25
B = least lateral dimension of column
) = Cr. P
Structural Engineering
Column
d
d d
ii) Two way shear (punching shear)
The critical section shall be of a distance of d/2 from the periphery of the column
d
2
d
2
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Structural Engineering
d. Bending moments:
Critical section shall be at the face of column
Critical section
Limit State Method of Design
Assumptions
1. Stress and strain relationship in concrete of parabolic are parabolic & linear
respectively
.
2. Measure compressive stress . = 0.446 fck
3. Maximum strain concrete in compression is 0.0035 in bending irrespective of
strength of concrete
4. Maximum strain in tensile reinforcement at failure should not be less
than.
+ 0.002 /
.
Or
D.L + W.L
Or
= D.L + 0.8 L.L + 0.8 W.L
Whichever is maximum
.
=
.
=
= .
= .
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Page 89
x =
Structural Engineering
3x
4x
= 0.430 x =
= 0.51
7
7
+
x , lim
=
d
+
x , lim =
+
.d =
0.0035
0.0035 + .0.002 +
Z = 0.87f
d .1
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Page 90
M = 0.87 f
d *1
Structural Engineering
f
+
f bd
=
= 0.36f x , lim b(d
Case 3:
)(
0.416x , lim) + (f
0.446f )
(d
d)
Flanged Beam
(FLANGED WIDTH)
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Structural Engineering
+6
+4
, )
For L-beams
= min ( +
12
+ 3
0.5
+4
Moment of Resistance
The depth of NA is first calculated assuming it falls in flange ie (xu<Df)
=
0.87
0.36
If the xu come out to be less than Df ,then it is treated as a rectangular section of width bf.
Otherwise xu falls outside the flange and compression of web has to be taken into
account
(N inside the flange)
Case 1:
Neutral axis lies within the flange, The moment of resistance can be found out from
expressions applicable for rectangular sections by replacing b by bf.
= 0.87
= 0.36
)*
(1
,
.1
0.416
+
,
When xu>xu, max, this become over-reinforced section & should be redesigned however
moment of resistance is limited to Mu, lim.
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Case 2:
1.
2.
Structural Engineering
b -b
Figure 4.5
The compressive force Cuv from the web contribution is given by
= 0.36
If reinforcement Asw is the component of tensile reinforcement required to balance the
compressive force Cuv and remaining reinforcement Asp if required to balance the compressive
force Cuf in the flange, we have Ast = Asw +Asfthe tensile force Tuv balancing the compressive force
Cuv will be 0.87 fyAsw 0.36 fckxubw= 0.87 fyAsw. A rectangular stress block of depth yf , can be
assumed instead of actual rectangular-cum-parabolic stress block for computation of
compression force Cuf. The assumed stress blocks have same peak stress value 0.446fck.
y = 0.15 x + 0.65 D but less thanD
Compressive fore in flange (Cuf)= 0.446fck (bf bw) yf
Tensile force Tuf balancing the Cuf= 0.87 fy Asf
Total Cu = 0.36 fckxubw + 0.446 fck (bf-bw) yf
Total Tensile force Tu = Tuf = 0.87 fyAst equating Tu and Cu
0.36 f x bw + 0.446 f (b b ) y = 0.87 f As
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If yf>Df
Then yf is taken as Df
Therefore, 0.36 fckxubw +0.446 fck (bf-bw) Df = 0.87 fyAst
Under Reinforced section : (xu = xu, max)
1.
= 0.36
= 0.87
= 0.446 (
) = 0.87
=
0.416
) = 0.36
01
0.416
= 0.36
0.5 ) = 0.446
.1
0.416
0.5
) (
+ 0.446
/
)
) (
0.5 )
Vertical stirrups
5 mm to 15 mm dia steel bars are provided as stirrups by bending them around tensile
reinforcement. The stirrups may be two legged, one legged, four legged or multi-legged the
strength of shear reinforcement as vertical stirrups is given by
0.87
=
,( ) =
0.87
0.87
(
0.4
The maximum spacing of shear reinforcement measured along the axis of member shall not
exceed 0.75 d for vertical stirrups and d for inclined stirrups at 450 where d is the effective
depth of section under consideration. In no case shall the spacing exceeds 300mm.
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Structural Engineering
Where
, = Nominal diameter of bar
= Design bond stress for plain bars in tension.
+ 1.6
Where,
= Equivalent shear
= hear
= Torsional moment
= Breadth of beam
=
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Structural Engineering
(0.87
2.5 , (0.87
0.5
*1
4.16
+ 1000
(1000 )
w lx
w ly
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Where
,
IS 456:2000
Structural Engineering
+[
] 1.0
M =
. /
Where, Lex = effective length in respect of the major axis.
Ley = effective length in respect of the minor axis
D = depth of the cross-section at right angles to the major axis
B = width of the member
Some codal provision (IS, 456: 2000)
To prevent sulphate attack, the water soluble sulphate content of the concrete Max,
should not exceed 4 percent by mass of the cement in the mix
Concrete in sea water shall be at least m20 grade for pcc and m30 grade for Rcc
The maximum permissible free fall of concrete is 1.5m
Under transient wind load the lateral sway at top should not exceed H/500, where H
is the total height of building
Where a member is built into a masonry wall which develops only partial restraint,
the member shall be designed to resist a negative moment at the face of the support
of where w is the total design load and L is the effective span
whichever less
The final deflection due to all loads including the affects of temperature, creep and
shrinkage
a. And measure from the as cast level of the support of floors, roofs and all other
horizontal member, should be limited to span/250
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Structural Engineering
Tension Reinforcement:
.
a. Minimum:
=
D)750 mm
Total 0.1%
Applicable
for depth of web in beam exceeding 750mm total area of side face
of web area
reinforcement = 0.1% of web area to be distributed equally on two faces at a
spacing not exceeding 300 mm or web thickness whichever is less
One or more expansion joints are provided for structures exceeding 45m in length
For deep beam, < 2.0 for simply supported beam
< 2.5 for continue beam
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Structural Engineering
3. Basic Elements of Pre-stressed concrete, analysis of beam section at transfer and service
loads
Concrete strength requirements
Pre-tensioning member M 40
Post-tensioning member M 30
M/Z
+
+
Cross section
P/A
Direct stress
Due to prestress
MZ
Stress due to
external bending
moments
Final Stress
e
Cross section
M/Z
+
P/A
MZ
Direct stress
Due to prestressStress due to
Stress due to
eccentricity of external bonding
prestress
moment
PeZ
+
Final Stress
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Structural Engineering
Stresses
At Transfer
a. At top fiber = -
b. At bottom fiber = +
/+.
/
+
2. At service
Loss of Pre-stress
Loss in pre-tensioning is more than loss of post tensioning
Loss due to elastic shorting = mfc
Where fc = Average stress in concrete at the level of steel
Loss due to shrinkage = EcsE
Where E = 300 x 10 for pre tensioned
=
Use of Pre-stress
Pre-tensioning is more economical for large number of small scale production e.g.
railway sheepers where as, post-tensioning is more suitable for very long span structure
line box girden type bridge deck
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2. Mechanical properties
Yield stress
Ultimate stress
Determined by tensile tests
Maximum strain allowed
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Structural Engineering
Gives over safe and economical sections so, no need to check for service ability
Allowed stress
(WSM)
1.7
DL+LL
DL + WL
DL + WL + WL/EL
1.7
1.33
1.3
Or
=
1.10
1.10
1.25
1.10
1.25
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Bolted Connections
Classification of Bolts
1. Bearing Type
Unfinished (black) bolts
Finished (Turned) bolts
2. Friction type : HSFG Bolts
For unfinished bolts Hole dia = nominal bolt dia +mm
For finished bolts hole dia. = normal bolt dia. + 1.50 mm
In friction grip bolts, bolts are tightened to a proof load and hence the plates are pulled
together to develop a huge friction force so, no need to check for shearing. Its surface is kept
unfinished like black bolts
Classification of bolted Connections
1. Based on arrangement of bolts and plates
a. Lap joint bolting
Single bolting
Chain bolting
Staggered bolting
Bolts are subjected to single shear
b. Butt joint
Single bolted butt joint
Chain bolted butt joint
Staggered bolted butt joint
Terminology
1. Pitch of bolts
2. Gauge distance
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Structural Engineering
3. Edge distance
4. End distance
5. Staggered distance or staggered pitch
IS 800 :2007 Recommendations
1. Clause 10.2.2
min p 2.5 d nominal dia of bolt
2. Clause 10.2.3
max p lesser of
a. 16 t or 200 mm tension member
b. Lesser of 12 t or 200 mm compression
c. For staggered joints p may be increased by 50% of values mentioned in above clauses
(2.9 or 2.6) if gauge distances is less than 15 mm
d. For butt joint p 4.5 d for a distance of 1.5 times the width of plate from the butting
surface
( ) .
Shear of bolts
Bearing of bolts
Bearing of plate
Cracking of plate(tension)
Block shear failure
Structural Engineering
0.005
=Subjected to 0.75
1.0
=
Where
= Design bearing strength of bolts
= Nominal bearing strength of bolts
= Partial safety factor for the material of bolt = 1.25
Where,
= 2.5 +
is smaller of
0.25
1.0
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Where
= Distance of ith bolt from the C.G of bolts
= Force due to moment in the ith bolt.
acts perpendicular to the radial distance of that bolt and makes an angle
vertical shear force
p
Direct shear force f =
n
Net force in ith bolt
= F + F
+ 2F F
cos
p. e
1+[
T
V
then check ( ) + ( ) 1.0
T
V
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Structural Engineering
= 640 MPa(0.8
800) and
f bt
)
27l l
+
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Structural Engineering
Where,
= 2 for non-pretension bolts
= 1 for pretensional bolts
= 1.5
b = effective width of flange per pair of bolts
Welded Connections
Types of Welded Joints
1. Butt weld
2. Fillet weld
3. Slot weld and plug weld
C D = toe of weld
C, D = leg size of weld
B = throat thickness of weld
= root of weld
CB = 45 standard filled weld or 30 , 60
Fillet weld
1. Size of fillet weld (s) smaller of two leg:- (root to toe)
(a) Minimum size:
Thickness of thicker part
S
1) Upto 10mm
3mm
2) 10mm 20mm
5mm
3) 20mm 30mm
6mm
4) 30mm 50mm
8mm in first run and 10mm minimum
(b) Maximum size: 1.5mm less than the thinner member
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Structural Engineering
2. Maximum throat thickness 0.7 times the thickness of the thinner plate.
3. Effective length
= overall length 2 weld size
Only effective length is shown on the drawing and the addition length (2 x weld size) is
provided by the welder
Effective length 4x weld size.
4. Overlap
lap
5
Where t = thickness of thinner plate
5. Intermittent fillet weld
Length 4 x weld size or 40mm whichever is more
Length clear spacing of intermittent weld shall be 12t for compression joints and 16t for
tensile joints,
where t is the thickness of thinner plate
Design Stress in Welds
1) Butt Welds: Butt welds are treated as parent metal with a thickness equal to throat
thickness and the stress shall not exceed than permitted in the metal.
2) Fillet weld, sbt or plug welds.
(It is based on its throat area)
F =
Where, f = smaller of the ultimate stress of the weld or of the parent metal.
= 1.2
1.0
Eccentric Connections
1. Plane of moment is the same as the plane of welds.
direct shear
X
q =(
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q =
Structural Engineering
Where
I
+I
.
(
Equivalent stress f = Fa + 3q
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Structural Engineering
d
n bolts in a line
b) Staggered bolts
= (b - nd )t +
Additional term giving more strength to the joint
ii) For angles
T
g
S
wi
b =w
+ wi
- t of the connected leg
Where, b ==wnet
area
= gross area of the out standing leg
= 1.4 0.076 . / . /
0.7
Where, L = length of the end connection that is the distance between the outer most
bolt in the end
joint measured along the load direction or length of weld along the load
direction.
3. Design strength due to block shear
When failure occurs along a path such that one face fails in shear and the perpendicular face
fails in tension this failure is called black shear failure.
f
=
.
&
&
+
= minimum gross and net shear area (1 2 & 3 4)
= minimum gross and the area in tension (2 3)
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Structural Engineering
Lug Angle
When the length of splice required for any tension member comes act be fairly large, an extra
and short length of an angle section is used. This angle is called lug angle
Recommendation of IS 800: 2007
1. The connection of the lug angle should start in advance of the member and terminate at the
end of the member.
2. Minimum two bolts or equivalent weld should used for attaching lug angle to the gusset
plate
3. If the main member is an angle
a) The whole area of the member shall be taken as the effective rather then net effective
section (i.e with reduction for outstanding leg area) The whole area of the member is the
gross area minus deduction for bolt holes.
b) The strength of lug angles and fastener connecting lug angle to the gusset plate should be
at least 20% more than the force in outstanding leg
c) The strength of the fastener connecting lug angle and main member shall be at least 40%
more than the force carried by the outstanding leg.
4. If the main member is channel
a) The strength of fasteners connecting lug angle to the gusset should be at least 10% more
than the force in outstanding leg
b) The strength of fasteners connecting lug angle to main member shall be at least 20%
more than the force in outstanding leg
Net Area in Tension
Net area of any section = Gross Area Area for the holes
For angles the gross width shall be the sum of the width of the legs less the thickness
The hole diameter is 1.5 mm in excess if nominal diameter of rivet is 24 mm
The hole diameter is 2 mm in excess if nominal diameter of rivet
24 mm
The area of a leg of an angle =
Thickness of angle
.Length of leg
Thickness of leg/
=b
id + j . /
(1.1)
where,
b = width of the section
g
g
g
g
P
d
p
p = staggered pitch
g = gauge
i = no. of rivet holes
j = no. of zigzags or inclined lines
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Structural Engineering
(1.2)
where,
a = net sectional area of the connected leg
b = area of the outstanding leg
k =
Case II
Pair of Angles back to back (or a single Tee) in Tension, connected by only one leg of each angle
(or by the flange of a tee) to the same side of the gusset
Net effective area = a + k b
(1.3)
where,
a = net area of the connected legs (or flange of the tee)
b = area of the outstanding leg (or web of the tee)
k =
Case III
Double Angles or Tees in Tension, placed back to back and connected to both side of the gusset
plate or to both sides of a part of a rolled section
Net effective area = Gross area
(1.4)
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Structural Engineering
Assumptions
Plane section normal to the axis of bending remains plane after bending
The stress-strain relationship is idealized to consist of two straight lines as shown
There is no axial load on beam
Shear strains are neglected
The deformations are assumed to be small so that slope of beam is given by its tangent at
any point
Shape Factor
Under plastic condition ,neutral axis divides the section into two equal areas
Plastic moment is equal to yield stress multiplied by the sum of moments of areas in
tension and compression zones about the neutral axis
The ratio of plastic moment to yield moment is called the Shape Factor (f). It is also the
ratio of plastic modulus to elastic modulus
Hence, f =
=
The Shape Factor depends only on the geometry of the section
Load Factor
The Load Factor ( ) is the ratio of ultimate collapse load and working load
Hence, =
=f
Factor of Safety
Compression Member
Design of Compression Member
A structural member which is subjected to compressive force along its axis is called a
compression member
If the net end moments are zero, the compression member is required to resist load acting
concentric to the original longitude axis of the member and is termed axially loaded column
or simply column.
If the net end moment are not zero the member will be subject to an axial load and bending
moment along its length. Such member are called beam columns, otherwise an axially loaded
column
Possible failure modes
1. Local buckling: Failure occurs by buckling of one or more individual plate elements eg:
flange or web with no overall deflection in the direction normal to applied load.
The failure mode may be presented by selecting suitable width to thickness ratios of
components plates.
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Structural Engineering
2. Squashing: When the length is relatively small (stocky column) and its component plate
elements are prevented from local buckling then the column will be able to attain its full
strength or squash load (yield stress X area of cross section).
3. Overall flexural buckling: This mode of failure normally controls the design of most
compression member. In this mode failure of the member. In this mode, failure of the
member occurs by excessive deflection in the plane of the weaker principal axis.
4. Torsional and flexural torsional bucking :Torsional bucking failure occurs by twisting
about the shear center in the longitudinal axis. A combination of flexure and twisting
called flexural torsional buckling is also possible
Torsional buckling is a possible mode of failure for point symmetric section.
Flexural torsional buckling must be checked for open section that is singly symmetric
and for section that have no symmetry
Behavior of compression member
1. Short compression member: For very short compression member the failure stress will
equal the yield stress and no buckling will occur for short column 88.85
2. Long compression member: For these compression member the Euler formula predicts
the strength of long compression member very well where the axial buckling stress
remain below proportional limit such compression member will buckle elastically
3. Intermediate length compression member: For intermediate length member some fiber
would have yielded and some fiber will still be elastic. This compression member will fail
both by yielding and buckling and their behavior is said to be inelastic.
Effective length of compression member
=
180
250
350
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145
50
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15) Lacing bars whether in double or single shear shall be inclined at an angle of 40 0 to 700 to
the axis of the built up member.
16) The effective slenderness ration . / of the laced column shall be taken as 1.05 times . /,
where . / is the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column to account for shear
defamation effects.
Battens
Rules for Design Of Battens
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The number of battens shall be such that the member is divided into not less than three
bays
Battens shall be designed to resist simultaneously longitudinal shear Vb = Vt
and moment M =
2
Where = transverse shear force
= distance between centre to centre of battens longitudinally
= number of parallel planes of battens
= minimum transverse distance between the centroids of the bolts / rivet group /
welding
connecting the batten to the main member
When plates are used for battens the effective depth between the end bolts / rivets or welds
shall not be less than twice the width of one member in the plane of battens nor less than
three quarters of the perpendicular distance between centroids of the main member for
intermediate battens and not less than the perpendicular distance between the centroids of
main member for end battens.
The thickness of battens plates shall not be less than 150th of the distance between the
inner most connecting transverse belts / rivets or welds.
The effective slenderness ratio of b attended column shall be taken as 1.10 time ( )o,
where ( )o is the maximum actual slenderness ratio of the column to a count for shear
deformation effects
Plastic Analysis
Classification of structural analysis
The structural analysis can be classified into two groups
(i) Elastic analysis
(ii) Plastic analysis and Limit analysis
The simple plastic theory takes the advantage of the ductility of steel and a key parameter is
redistribution of moments
(i) When bending moment at critical section is less that yield moment then beam behaves
elastically (M <M )
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Structural Engineering
Stress
Distribution
Cross
section
M
M
Fully elastic
M <M
(ii) When bending moments (M | at critical section reaches the value M then yielding
gradually spreads in to the web fibers (M = M )
E
M
M
Initial yielding
M <M
(iii) When bending moment M reaches the maximum moment carrying capacity (M ) of
the structure, then practically all the fibers at the section of maximum moment have
fielded and the section is fully plastic (M =M ). at this stage deformation increase
rapidly without no increase in load and beam is wear collapse
Elastic zone
Neligible
M
M =M
The load corresponding to stage (iii) is known as limit load or collapse load or ultimate load. It
is sometimes represented as P, where is the load factor and P is working load. The
corresponding moment is known as ultimate moment or plastic moment M
During the formation of the plastic moment, a small elastic zone is left is the mid depth of the
section. Even through the stress is less than the yield value in the elastic zone at the
centre the distribution is idealized into rectangular stress blocks for purpose of derivations
of equations.
The load factor can be expressed as
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l=
Structural Engineering
The saving of material achieved by designing according to plastic theory instead of elastic
theory is given by
% Savings in materials = 01
1 x 100
Plastic N.A
Z =
Z =
.y + y
y + y
Shape Factor
Shape factor ( ) =
Structural Engineering
Plastic Design
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Structural Engineering
Load Factor ( )
Dead Load
1.7
Live Load
1.7
1.7
1.3
Beams
Moment capacity of beam, M = z
Tension Member
Load capacity of tension member, P = 0.85
Strut
Load capacity of strut carrying axial load only, P = 1.7
Beam-Column
Maximum moment capacity acting in beam-column when P 0.15P
M
=M
= 1.18
(1
0.15P
Shear
Maximum shear capacity of beam or beam-column, V = 0.55
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Definition
Structural member carrying axial compression without bending is called a compression
member
Structural member carrying compressive load in truss are called struts
The vertical compression members in buildings are called columns, posts or stanchions
Compression member of a crane is called boom
The main compression member in roof truss are called rafters
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Structural Engineering
Buckling
The sudden bending of column under unstable equilibrium is called buckling of column
At a particular load, the column buckles under slightest disturbances, the particular load is
the buckling or critical load of column
Allowable Stress for Steel in Compression
= 0.6
; where, f
[
and =
The effective area in case of struts is equal to the gross area of section
For holes filled with black bolts, 25% reduction of hole area is made
Hinged End
Free End
Degree of Restraint
Effective Length
1.
2.
3.
4.
0.65L
0.80L
1.00L
1.20L
1.50L
2.00L
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Structural Engineering
Maximum
180
Tacking Rivets
Spacing of tacking rivets should not exceed 600mm
For compression member connected back to back, the slenderness ratio of each member
should not greater than 40 nor 0.6 times the most unfavorable slenderness ratio of the
whole strut
Build-up Compression Member
Lacing
General Specification
1. The compression member comprising two main components laced, should have a radius of
gyration about the axis perpendicular to the plane of the lacing not less than the radius of
gyration at right angles to that axis
2. In laced system, cross members perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the strut should not
be used
3. The single laced systems on opposite sides of the main components should preferably be in
the same direction so that one be the shadow of the other
4. Laced members should be provided with tie plates at ends of lacing system and at points
where the lacing system are interrupted
Design Specification
1. The angle between the lacing bars and the axis of the member is kept between 40 and 70
2. Slenderness ratio . / for the lacing bar 145, where,
l =
= 0.7 times length between inner end rivets for double lacing
= 0.7 times length between inner ends of weld for welded lacing
3. For flat bar of width b and thickness t,
40 for single lacing
60 for double lacing
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Structural Engineering
Design Specification
1. For battened compression member
If
0.8 , then . /
50 or 0.7
If
0.8
, then . /
40 or 0.6 . /
whichever is less
whichever is less
Where,
L
= spacing of battens
battens
2. If d is the effective width of batten and a is the centroid distance of member then
d . / a for intermediate battens
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Structural Engineering
4. Thickness of battens, t
where l is the distance between innermost connecting lines of
rivets or welds
5. Batten should be designed to carry bending moment and shear arising from transverse
shear, V = 2.5 of axial force in the member
6. Moment in batten plate, M =
and longitudinal shear, V =
where, N is the no. of
parallel planes of batten and S = Minimum transverse distance between cg of rivet group or
weld
7. The overlap in welded connection lap joint 4t of bar or member whichever is less
Beams
Introduction
The load transfer by a beam is primarily by bending and shear. ny structural member could
be considered as a beam if the loads cause bending of the member.
Classification of Beam
1. Floor Beams: A major beam of a floor system usually supporting joints in building, a
transverse beamin bridge floors.
2. Girder: Girders are the same as floor beams. Also a major beam in any structure. Floor beams
are often referred to as girders.
3. Girt: A horizontal member fastened to and spanning between peripheral columns of an
industrial buildings used to support wall cladding such as corrugated metal sheeting.
4. Joist: A beam supporting floor construction but not a major beam
5. Lintels: Beam members used to carry all loads over wall openings for doors, windows etc.
6. Purlin: A roof beam, usually supported by root trusses.
7. Laffer: A root beam, usually supporting purlins
8. Spandrels: Exterior beams at the floor level of buildings, which carry a part of the floor load
and the exterior wall.
9. Stringers: Members used in bridges parallel to the traffic to carry the deck slab they will be
connected by transverse floor beams.
Beam Types
Type Of Beam
Angles
Optimum span
range (m)
3-6
Relled I section
Castellated beams
Plate girders
1-30
6-60
10-100
Box girders
15-200
4-40
10-100
Application
For lightly loaded beams such as purlin and sheeting
rail
Most frequently used as a beam
Long spans and light loads
Long spans with heavy
loads such as bridge grinders
Long spans and heavy loads
Such as bridge girders
Fabricated for larges span, using angles or tubes as
chords and round bars for web diagonals
Long spans and moderate loads such as industrial
roofing
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Structural Engineering
The nominal shear strength of a cross section V may be governed by plastic shear resistance
or the strength of the web governed by shear buckling. The nominal plastic shear resistance
under pure shear is given by V = V where
= V =
is the shear area and f is the yield strength of web. The shear area may be calculated as
given in table 1 for different cross sections.
Note: Fastener holes need not be accounted for in the plastic design shear strength calculation
provided that
Y
n . /.
Y
0.9
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Structural Engineering
If
does not satisfy the above condition, the effective shear area may be taken as that
satisfying the above limit. Block shear failure criteria may be verified at the end connections.
Table 1 Shear areas
Section
Shear area
b
t
htw
t
b
tw
h
htw
tf
tw
a) Built-up
htw, dtw
tf
2btf
tf
b) Built- up sections or rolled (minor axis bending)
b
Ah/(b+h)
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Structural Engineering
Ab/(bth)
A
f) Plates and solids bar
Web Buckling and Web Crippling
A heavy load or reaction concentrated on a short length produces a region of high compressive
stresses in the vertical elements of the web either under the load or at the support. Away from
the loading point, stresses are spread widely. But just under a load or above a reaction point
they may cause web failures such as web buckling as shown in figure and web crippling or web
crushing
Web Buckling
Web Crippling
(a)
Local Buckling of the web
(b)
Design Procedure For Channel / I-section purlins
Various steps involved in the design are as follows
1. The span of the purlin is taken as the centre to create distance of adjacent trusses.
2. The gravity loads P, due to sheeting and line load, and the load H due to wind are
computed. The components of these loads in the direction perpendicular and parallel to
the sheeting are determined. These loads are multiplied with partial safety factor Y for
loads (See table 4 of code) for the various loads combination
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Structural Engineering
3. The maximum bending moment (M and M ) and shear forces (F and F ) using the
factored loads are determined.
4. The required value of plastic section modulus of the section may be determined by using
the following equations.
Z = Mz
F + 2.5 . / [M
F ]
Where,
= Partial safety factor for material = 1.1
d = depth of the trial section
b =breadth of the trial section
M andM are the factored bending moments about z and axis
f = yield stress of steel
5. Check for the section classification (table 2 of code)
6. Check for the shear capacity of the section for both the Z and y axis (for purlins shear
capacity will always be high and may not govern the design)
f
VdZ =
(3 )
f
Vdy =
(3
And
= ht
Avy = 2b t
Where h is the height, t is the thickness of web b - breadth of flange and t is the
thickness of the flange of I-channel section, respectively.
7. Compute the design capacity of the section is both the axis.
f
F
1.2 Z
Md =Z
Md = Z
/+(
) 1.0
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Structural Engineering
1/
Where
= Shear area and can be taken as shown in table shear area
The shear are may be calculated as given below
Notations
f
M
V
n
E
I
:
:
:
:
:
:
y
D
:
:
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T
r
d
t
b
l
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
f
c ,c
k ,k
:
:
:
:
Structural Engineering
Bending Stress
= 0.6
[
where,
= k (X + k
Y) ; Y =
.
( )
MPa and X = Y1 +
2 and
85
For simply supported beam of span L with each end restrained against torsion, the effective
length
Lateral Bending
Effective Length
Unrestrained
0.85L
Partially restrained
0.75L
Fully restrained
0.50L
Note : The above values to be increased by 20% if the beam is not restrained against torsion
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Structural Engineering
Support End
Free End
Effective Length
Build-in
Unrestrained
0.85L
Build-in
0.75L
Build-in
0.50L
Free at end
3.0L
Free at end
2.0L
Free at end
1.0L
against torsion
where, y = Moment of area about N.A. of the section of the part of the section beyond the
fibre where
shear stress is to be calculated
when
Deflection
Allowable deflection for simply supported beam should not exceed
Allowable deflection for cantilever beam should not exceed
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Structural Engineering
Web Crippling
For intermediate concentrated load
where,
)
)
0.75
0.75
Web Buckling
Buildup Beam
Symmetrically Buildup Beam
Area of each cover plate is given by,
, where
. (
, where
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Structural Engineering
If
then,
=Span of purlin
=UDl on purlin including wind and minimum SIDL of 0.75
Gantry Girder
Deflection of gantry girder is given by
Loading type
Deflection
3. Plate Girder
Notations
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
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Page 134
:
:
:
:
:
:
:
Structural Engineering
= 1.1
If web area is not assumed to share any part of applied bending moment, the economic depth
of the section is given by,
In short girder, where a uniform flange section without curtailment is adopted, the economic
depth of the section is given by,
= 1.21
Design of Web
Average shear stress in the web,
where,
= 0.4
800
1984 depending on
Web Stiffeners
800
1.
2.
3.
85
No Stiffener
200
Vertical Stiffener
250
from
from
compression flange
4.
400
compression flange
+ Horizontal stiffener at N.A.
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where,
Structural Engineering
is given by
Note: In no case the grater clear dimension of web panel should exceed 270
clear dimension exceed 180
Vertical Stiffeners
Spacing of Stiffeners
The spacing of stiffeners should be kept between 0.33 to 1.5 where is defined as
earlier when no horizontal stiffener is provided
The spacing of stiffeners should be kept between 0.33 to 1.5 where is the clear
distance between horizontal stiffener and tension flange ignoring fillets when horizontal
stiffener is provided
=
=
Horizontal Stiffeners
Moment of Inertia of Stiffeners
where, = Minimum required thickness of web and = Actual distance between vertical
stiffener
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Structural Engineering
; where,
= End Reaction
Design of Flange
Tension Flange
Area of tension flange,
Compression Flange
Area of compression flange,
Riveted Connection
Connection between flange plates and flange angles
The rivets in between are designed to resist horizontal shear force at flange plate level, the pitch
of rivet is given by,
=
(
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Structural Engineering
4. Column Bases
Slab Base
where,
= The slab thickness (mm)
= The pressure or loading on the underside if the base
(MPa)
= The grater projection of the plate beyond the column
(mm)
= The lesser projection of the plate beyond the column
(mm)
= The permissible bending stress in slab bases =
185 (MPa)
The thickness of a square slab base plate under a solid round column as per IS:800-1984,
= 10
where,
= The thickness of plate (mm)
= The total axial load (kN)
= The length of the side of cap or base (mm)
= The diameter of the reduced end of the column
(mm)
185 (MPa)
Gusseted Base
The thickness of base plate in case of gusseted base is less than slab base as the bearing area of
column on base plate increased by gusset plates
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Structural Engineering
The bearing pressure on the web at the root of fillet should not exceed the safe bearing
pressure,
i.e.
1.33
189
; where
,
,
x, y
l, b, t
M, P
x
Beam-Column
Member subjected to axial compression and bending needs to satisfy the following equation:
,
where, f
,
,
,
.
1.0 ;
and =
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If the ratio
+
Structural Engineering
1.0
Value of
0.85
0.6 0.4
0.4
0.85
1.00
Criteria for base plate to not take any tension by anchor bolts
Length and width of base plate can be found by the following equations
i. P =
ii.
185
In case of tension in base plate, the value of tension and size of anchor bolts can be found by
the following equations
i. P + T =
ii.
M = T .n
/+P.
Some Definitions
Lap joints: The plates are to be connected overlapping each other.
Butt joints: A cover plate is provided to connect the plates.
Gross diameter of rivet
=Nominal diameter of rivet + 1.5 mm ( Upto nominal diameter of 24 mm)
=Nominal diameter of rivet + 2 mm (Nominal diameter of greater than 24 mm)
Minimum pitch distance = 2.5 times the diameter of rivet hole.
Maximum pitch distance for
Any two adjacent rivets = 32t or 300mm whichever is less
Rivets lying in parallel to the force in the member:
i)
In tension = 16t or 200 mm whichever is less
ii)
In compression = 12t or 200 mm whichever is less
Structural Engineering
) 0.5
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Geotechnical Engineering
Classification
On basis of transport agency
Special Classification
Properties of Soil
1. Water content =
2. Void ratio, e =
3. Porosity, =
x 100%
x 100%
x 100%
4. Degree of saturation, S = (
5. Air content, aC =
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6. % air voids =
Geotechnical Engineering
x 100
or e =
10. e =
When w: Water content
(
11.
12.
sat
13.
14. ` =
15. d =
16.
=(
)=
where
Bulk unit weight
Saturated unit weight
Dry unit weight
Specific gravity of solids by Pycnometer
G=
If perosine is used against water
G=*
+xK
Where,
w
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Page 143
Geotechnical Engineering
2. Sedimentation analysis
For fine grained soils < 75 m
Strokes law is used
(
Where
V
If
Where,
(h
t
)
Reading of hydrometer
V
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Geotechnical Engineering
Fraction retained on 4-75mm sieve is called gravel fraction which is subjected to wave
stieve analyst.
finer
0.002mm
Clay Siet
0.075mm
80
Gravel
300
Cobble Boulder
1. Liquid limit (w ) The minimum water content at which the soil is still in liquid state
2. Plastic limit (w ) It is the minimum water content after which, the soil starts
crumbling
3. Shrinkage limit (w ) Maximum water content after which reduction in water content
well not cause shrinkage of the soil mass
Shrinkage limit w
Where, w
(w
Plasticity index
n blows respectively
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Geotechnical Engineering
SR =
Where, V1 = Volume of soil mass at water content, W1%
V2 = Volume of soil mass at water content W2%
Vd = Volume of dry solids
W1& W2 = Water Content.
Activity =
Relative density =
A line, IP = 0.73 (WL 20%)
f soils
f soils
., called as GW
CC =
Gravel with fines, GM & GC for gravel with silt and gravel with clay respectively.
Sand: SW C to
Cu> 6.
Geotechnical Engineering
Soil Compaction
=(
=
=
standard proctor test: Weight of hammer = 2.6 Kg.
modified proctor test: Weight of hammer = 4.9 Kg
ratio of energy in modified to standard proctor test is 4.5
embankments are compacted on higher side of OMC.
dam embankments are also on lower side of O.M.C. but dam cores are compacted on higher side
to ensure high permeability
Factors Effecting Compaction.
1. Type of soil,
2. Water content
3. Method of compaction
4. Amount of compactive method.
Capillary and Permeability
1. Seepage Velocity v
i= hydraulic gradient
V x A = KiA
Discharge q = K i A
Pi = x z x
i
z
iz
Quick condition
ic =
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Geotechnical Engineering
xCx
Overhead Tank
Supply
Overflow
Air Value
L
L
Soil Specimen
Soil Specimen
Bottom Tank
Measuring Jar
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Geotechnical Engineering
Time t1
dh
Stand
Pipe
Time t2
h1
h
h2
h h
t
R=
log 10
(h0)2
Q
(h0)1
StopperA
Dry Soil
Spring
Stopper
Screen
Air Vent
hc
)=
Geotechnical Engineering
Kx =
Governing equation is
L
C
0.3L
D
Directrix
P(x,y)
H
y
F
A
G H
Q
s
Figure :Casagrandes Method of determining phreatic line in a dam with horizontal drainage
filter
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Discharge q
Geotechnical Engineering
Where
Permeability
s
Where,
Head of water
Distance of arbitarary orgin of phreatic line as shown in figure
Well hydraulics
1. Unconfined aquifer : also called as non artisan aquifer ( upuitsThoery)
Ground Level
r2
r1
Initial water table
s2
s1
Cone of
depreciation
H
h1
h2
(x, y)
Cone of
depreciation
y
x
q=KiA
q=Kx
q
x 2 x y
h )
log ( )
log
h )
( )
x 2 x b
2bk(
h)
log ( )
2. 2 bk(
log
h)
( )
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Page 151
Geotechnical Engineering
and
q
r
log ( ) in confined equation (using Thiem equation)
h)
r
2b(
log10( )
.
Ax( )H=
log10( ) m3/m4
Seepage Analysis
iC =
where iC is critical gradient for upflow condition (quick condition)
Velocity pointed is such that
= u and
Kx
+ Ky
= v.
= 0.
=v
=0
x
Total hydraulic head causing flow
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Page 152
Geotechnical Engineering
ield -> The portion enclosed between two successive equipotential lines and
successive flow lines
z =
( )
where,
z is vertical stress at depth z
Q is load
z is vertical depth
r is radial depth.
Maximum vertical stress occurs for
Where,
r
z
Line load
2q
[
z
]
( )
Where,
q
Load intensity,
Strip load
Where
sin
Angle made by the width of the strip at the point
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Page 153
Geotechnical Engineering
Circular Load
q[
]
(
Where, a
)(
[(
where m = ,
tan
]]
n=
Consolidation of Soil
Compression index, CC =
CC = 0.007 (WL 10%) for remoulded clay
CC = 0.009 (WL 10%) for field clay
Coefficient of compressively, a
m
is density of water.
Consultation Settlement
Any time to during consolidation
m
dz
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Page 154
Geotechnical Engineering
Time factor
C t
d
Where, t
d
time
drainage path
For single d
e
(
e)
Height of solid =
Md: Mass of dried speciment
: Density of water
A: Area of speciment.
Shear Strength
Defined f() as a linear function
Mohr envelops: Shear capacity of a soil is a function of normal stress acting on it
S
f()
Columb envelope
S
tan
tan
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Page 155
Also
Geotechnical Engineering
cos 2
sin 2
for plane to be most critical,
= 450 +
tan (
)
cos
2C Tan (
(
) sin
Geotechnical Engineering
) tan
3`).
The calculation of deviator stress must be done on the basis of the changed area of cross
section at failure or during any stage of the test.
The area A at failure or at any impotent is given by
Additional axial load
A
evitor stress
A2 =
3= 0 and
1 = 2 Cu tan (45 + )
This test is used for saturated clays for which
)
(
d
2
(2rdr ) r
d
)
d
)
2
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Page 157
2u)
u=
* (
u = B*
U
=B
Geotechnical Engineering
A(
)+
+
A=
Shear strength of cohesive soils:
a. Undrained test on saturated cohesive soil:
Diameter of total stress and effective stress diameter remains same.
For saturated soil B = 1
A varies with OCR.
Shear Strength of Cohesive Soils
1. Undrained Test on Saturated Cohesive Soil
The undrained test is carried out on undistributed sample of clay, silt and peat to
determine the strength of the natural ground. It is also carried out on remoulded
samples of clay to measure it sensitivity.
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Page 158
Geotechnical Engineering
Geotechnical Engineering
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Page 160
Geotechnical Engineering
Surface Investigation
Inner clearance =
x 100%
Outer clearance =
x 100%
x 100%
In cone penetration method, resistance profile for first 8cm of penetration is recorded.
Earth Pressure
In active state, retaining wall moves away from the soil wedge.
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Page 161
Active pressure =
Geotechnical Engineering
vertical pressure
Where,
=
tan (
sin
sin
In passive state, retaining wall moves towards the soil wedge and resistance acts downward.
K P=
, = tan (
K0=
In submerged condition, Pa =
x H2 + x
x H2
Ka = Cos
KP = Cos
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Page 162
Geotechnical Engineering
where P1 = x Ka x r x H2
angle =
tan .
tan .
Stability of Slopes
Types of Slopes
Infinite Slope
A representing the boundary surface of a semi infinite soil mass and having soil properties
uniform at every depth
Finite slope: A slope of limited extended
Factor of safety
Where
= Shear strength
=Shear stress acting on the soil
For cohesive soil & non cohesive soil generation formula for factor of safety is
FC =
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Page 163
Geotechnical Engineering
tan
tan i
tan
tan i
cos i tan
cos i sin i
tan
tan
+ tan
*
tan
Critical height
of any slope can be found by putting
for as applicable
and
tan
Stability number =
tan
cos
= Sn
= FC
Where
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Page 164
= Sn
Depth factor , Df =
Where,
Geotechnical Engineering
FC =
H = Height of slope
D = Depth of soil between slope and hard strata.
for
= soil.
For C -
soil.
FC =
Where N is sum of normal components of weight is with respect to tangent of slip circle T
is sum of tangent components of weight along slip circles.
Types of Foundation
Raft footing
Allowable differential settlement = 65 to 100mm on clay.
On sand : 40 to 65mm.
Definitions
1. Bearing Capacity
The load or pressure developed under the foundation without introducing any damaging
movement in foundation and in the supported structure, is called bearing capacity of solid.
2. Gross Pressure Intensity
It is the total pressure at the base due to weight of the super structure
3. Net Pressure Intensity
It is defined as the different in intensities of the gross pressure after the construction of the
structure and the original over burden pressure
If D is the Depth of footing
q =q-=qrD
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Page 165
Geotechnical Engineering
Footings at very shallow depth in loose sand are susceptible to punching failure.
and
depends only
a
2 cos (
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Page 166
where a = e
=(
=
tan
2
(
cos
For qs = (
Where
=
) cot
Where
,
( .
Geotechnical Engineering
. r
r )+
2
= tan
qu = CNC +
Nq` + r BNr`.
Guidelines for Local Shear Failure
Condition for Shear Failure
(i) Stress strain test (l- soil)
General shear failure low strain < %
Local shear failure strain of
to 2 %
(ii) Angle of shear resistance
>
, general shear failure
<2 , local shear failure
(iii)
Penetration test
: general shear failure
: local shear failure
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Page 167
Geotechnical Engineering
.2 +
Cn = C
Tan
= Tan
m.
Nq = Tan2(
NC = (Nq
RW1 = 0.5 *
RW2 = 0.5 *
Where
)r Tan .
Cot .
=*
.
.
: Settlement of footing
: Settlement of plots.
=* +
+ x IwqB
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Page 168
Geotechnical Engineering
= Poison ratio
Es = Modulus of elasticity
Iw = 0.88 1.70, 0.88 for rigid circular footing and 1.70 for rigid rectangular footing.
B = Least dimension of footing.
SC = H x CC log10(
Pile driving is done by drop hammer, single acting hammer, double acting hammer and
vibratory hammer.
Dynamic formulae
Engineering news formulae
1. Drop hammer, Qa =
Where S : final set per blow.
C : 2.5 cm for drop hammer.
2. Single acting steam hammer
Qa =
a = area of piston
p = pressure of steam.
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Page 169
Geotechnical Engineering
Hileys formulae
Qf =
nb =
if W > iP
nb =
+ if W < iP.
In case of submerged loose soil equitation may take place due to dynamic load.
Static formulae
Qmp = Rf + RP.
= As rf + Aprp.
rf: Average spin function
rp: Point function
As: Surface area
Ap: Point area.
Tan
rz
In clayey soil, group efficiency of function piles may be less than sum of individual
efficiencies of pile.
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Page 170
Geotechnical Engineering
= Tan1( )
where, m: number of piles in a row
n: number of rows.
d: diameter of pile
s: spacing (C/C) between 2 piles.
logi(
Ca x As
Ca As.
Aa =
Cu =
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Page 171
Gases
Viscosity
Temperature
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Page 172
Rheelogical Diagram
Thixotropic
Ideal Plastic
Shear yield
stress stress
Ideal Fluid
8. Thixotrope fluids : Dynamic viscosity decreases with time when shearing forces are
applied e.g. Jelly
9. Rhepectic: increases with time
10. Viscoelastic: Behaves like Newtonian fluid, but of shear stress changes suddenly it
behaves as a plastic
Surface Tension
Cohesion Enables liquid to resist tensile stress.
Adhesion Enables liquid to adhere to another body.
Liquid Fluid interfaces
Liquid gas interfaces: Free surface
Liquid-liquid (immiscible) interface
Capillary
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Page 173
Surface tension
Wetting angle
r = Radius of tube
Pascals Law
All points in a connected body of a constant density fluid at rest are under the same pressure
if they are at same depth below liquid surface
Absolute and gauge Pressure
Gauge Pressure
Atmospheric Pressure
Pressure
Absolute
pressure
Atmospheric
pressure
Absolute pressure
Absolute zero
Barometer
Bourdon gauge
Pressure transducer
Piezometer column
Simple nanometer
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Page 174
PA
hA
xp
Y p = x d A, X = y d A
Forces on a Inclined Surface
F
Ah
h=y+
Sin
y = Centre of gravity
Ig = Moment of interia about C.G
Force on vertical plane
doffed line
Force,
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Page 175
dfy
df
dfx
B
F = Fx
Fy
Tan
f
v
,
v
volumes of parts of the body immersed in the liquids of density
G
B
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Page 176
Metacentre
M
Angle of heel
G
Z
Of angle too large, M moves off centre lines Metacentric height (G-M)
1) Determine size of righting / upsetting arm (For < s < 7)
2) Large GM > large righting arm (stiff)
3) Small GM > Small righting arm (tender)
Relationship between G and M
1) G under M : Ship is stable
2) G = M ship neutral
3) G over M : Ship unstable
Metacentre
stability curves
1.
2.
3.
4.
K = Radius of gyrations
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Page 177
GM = Metacentric height
Liquid Jar subjected to uniform linear horizontal acceleration
a) Vertical Pressure distribution
P h
b) Horizontal pressure distribution in direction of accelerated motions
Tan
P
h and P
ax
hda
pda
h
P da
P da
Upward acceleration
hda
h
Pda
h(
=C
V = tangential velocity
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Page 178
ds
P + dp
Pressure variation in a radial direction
=P
Here V is a function of r.
Forced Vortex
Fluid is made to move in a curved path under the action of an external force
P + dP
rP
dr
Free Vortex
, ,
, ,
= 0, ( )
, ,
=0
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Page 179
( )
, ( )
, ,
, ,
, ( )
, ,
Mach Number = Ma
Ma = V/C
It is a good indicator of whether or not compressibility affects are important
Ma < 0.3 : Incompressible
Ma < 1 : Subsonic
Ma = 1 : Sonic
Ma > 1 : Super sonic
Ma > 5 : Hyper sonic
Rotational and Irrotational flow
Rotational flow
Type of flow in which fluid particles while flowing along streamlines rotate about their own
axis
Irrotational flow
The fluid particles while flowing along streamlines do not rotate about their own that type of
flow
Acceleration field
a =
+u
+v
+w
In vector form
a =
D)V
+ (V
+V
+w
It accounts for the effect on the fluid particle moving to a new location
Total derivative operator
is called material derivation
Vorticity and Rotationality
Where f
f
(for laminar)
(for turbulent)
2. Chezys formula
v
CRs where s
h
L
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Page 181
Where,
(Lused if
not given )
Where, is the velocity at vena contracta of smaller pipe
3. Loss of head at the entrance of a pipe
v
h
g
4. At the exit
C = Discharge coefficient
f(R )
A
V
P
A
V
P
)
(
) ]
for calculations
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Page 183
or, V
gy (theoretically)
V
C gy (practically)
Pitot tubes are called prandti tubes
Its readings for gases are extremely small
Force exerted by a Flowing Fluid on a Pipe Bend
V sin
V
(1)
V cos
P A
F
F
P A
F = Q (V
V cos ) + P A - P A Cos
F = Q ( V Sin) - P A Sin
F = F
Fy , tan
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Page 184
Crestor
Z sill
Q = C g LH
If velocity of approach
A = C g L [(H ha)
ha ]
If there are end contractions
= C g (L
n H) [(H ha)
ha
Bazins Formula
m g LH
m
Q = C g tan H
If velocity of approach is to be taken into account
Q = C g tan [(H ha)
ha ]
Cipolletti weir (or Notch)
Slopping sides Horizontal to 4 vertical
Q/2 =
Q = 1.842 *(H
t=
[,
) *
Submergence Ratio
tan
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Page 186
Tubulent
Laminar boundary
layer
E
Laminar sublayer
A
B
Leading edge
Re = 5 x
5x
Transistor zone
Laminar sublayer ( )
( )
=u
Displacement thickness ( *)
* (
) dy
Momentum thickness ()
= (
) dy
Energy thickness ( )
=
+dy
b dx
C
B
Pressure distribution
<0
>0
P min
< 0 due to increase in velocity The entire boundary layer move forward.
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Page 187
3. If ( )
is positive, the flow will not separate or flow will remains attached with
surface
Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe
x 2rdx
R
(P+
x) r
P. r x r dx (P
n) r = 0
D
y
Velocity distribution
Shear stress
distribution
(a) Velocity distribution
[R
r ]
Umax = Uavg =
.R
=
)P
= 2.0
(b) Drop of pressure for a given length (L) of pipe
= h = 32
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Page 188
P - P = drop of pressure
Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates
(
y) n x
D
(P +
Px y
n) y x
1
x
x
Velocity distribution
U=-
[ty - y ]
Umax = -
Uavg = -
Umax
Uavg
Drop of pressure head for a given length
h =
to
Laminar
Re > 2000
Turbulent.
Re
Transitional
to
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Page 189
- Cut Type
- Screw or Propeller type.
V0.6 =Vavg
V0.8
..
RS0
R = Hydraulic Radius.
So = Slope of channel Bottom.
Unsteady Uniform Flow is practically non existent.
Turbulent uniform flow is most encountered.
C=
(
*
)
*
C=
Stickler formula
n=
Most economical Section or Most Efficient Section
1. Rectangular Channel Section
y
Q
zy
zy
Top width
R
Z
or
0.
y
Q
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Page 191
A=
P
r (
Sin )
Bhy Chezys
AC RS
( )=
=0
80 (approx.)
By Mannings formula
will be maximum when ( ) is maximum.
200
8D
) is maximum
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Page 192
(approximately).
y = 0.81 D
R = 0.30D.
Open channel section for constant velocity at all depths of flow
For an ordinary channel section with an increase in depth of flow, the velocity is
considerably increased.
y = R loge x + (x
R )
y=0
y = R loge (x
x=R
C
x
R )
R log R
Q = AV = CA RS = KS
Where, K = CAR
K is known as Conveyance.
Q = AV = KS
y=E
S < Sc
Y > Yc
Upper Limb
Flow
depth
y(n)
y
yc
Lower Limb
v/pg
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Page 193
VC = y VC critical velocity.
Emin =
(ii)
)
E
yC = (
(iii)
(
(
)
)(
Some of the devices commonly used for measuring the discharge through channel based
on critical flow theory are
(i) Venture flume.
(ii) Standing wave flume.
(iii) Parshall flume.
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Page 194
Measuring Flumes
At critical state of flow the relationship between the depth of flow and discharge is
definite and is independent of the channel roughness and other uncontrollable factors.
Momentum Principle and Its Application
Whenever there is an unknown energy loss between any two sections under
consideration, the result is a change in the linear momentum of flow.
ZA
F=
y2
y0
y1
Energy equation contains a term for internal loss, where as the momentum equation
contains a term for external resistance.
Hydraulic Jumps
When a stroting flow (Fr > 1) meets a quiescent flow (Fr < 1).
Sequent depth
Rectangular sections.
[
8F ]
Fr
This expression is valid only when Fr2 is very small and Fr <
Energy Loss
E = E1 E2
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Page 195
E=
*(
)
[
y y (y
)]
y )
Hydraulic jumps.
y1
z1
Sw
hf
2
y2
S0
L
Patum
Z2
x=
S 0 < SC
steep slope
S 0 > SC
critical slope
S 0 = SC
horizontal slope S0 = 0
adverse slope S0 < 0
Fr
= S0
)
(
( )
(
(
S0 > 0 Sustainabler
S0
Unsustainable
Zone 1
M1
NDL
y0
yc
= > 0.
y will increase in flow direction.
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Page 197
as y y0
y
S f S0
Fr
Sf
S0
Zone 2
yn > y > yc
NDL
CDL
y0
yc
Zone 3
yn > yc > y.
NDL
y0
CDL
yc
Bresses Method
Applicable only to wide rectangular channels.
Impact of Jet
Force exerted by the jet on a stationary flat vertical Plate:V
V
Plate
V
mass of fluid before striking plate, m
Fx
aV
av2
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Page 198
Fx
90
Fn
aV
Fn
(V Sin )
V Sin
av2 Sin2
Fy
V
N Cos
Fixed curved
plate
aV [V
Fy
aV [ V Sin ]
For
of jet
Fx
( V Cos ]
av (
V Cos
Cos )
av2 Sin
, i e when vane becomes semicircle, then outlet tips will be parallel to the direction
av2 (
Cos )
av2.
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Page 199
Jet Strikes The Curved Plate at One End Tangentially when Plate is Symmetrical
V
V Cos
V Sin
Fy
Fx
V Sin
V
V Sin
Fx
av [v cos ) ]
av2 Cos
Fy
av [v sin v sin ]
Jet Strikes the Curved Plate at One End Tangentially When the Plate is Unsymmetrical
V
1
2
vix
V Cos 1, viy
V Sin 1 ,
av [v cos
Fy
av [ v Sin
( v cos )]
( v Sin )]
av [Cos
Cos ]
av [Sin
Sin ]
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Page 200
A1
B
Fn
av2 Sin `
2. Weight of plate, W.
Moment of force Fn about hinge = Fn x 0B.
av2 Sin (90 0) x 0B.
av2 Cos x
Moment of weight W, about hinge
av2 x
W x A Sin
e av x A = eav2 x
W x Sin
w x Sin
Sin
Force Exerted by a Jet On Flat Plate Moving with Uniform Velocity
(v u)
(v u)
a (V u)
[Initial final]
Fx
a (V u) [(V u) 0]
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Page 201
a (V u)2
As the plate is moving, so the work will be done by jet on plate.
For the stationary plate, the work done is zero.
Work done = Fx. u
au (V u)2
Forces on the Inclined Plate Moving in The Direction of Jet
(v u)
Fx
90
Fn
(v u)
a(V u).
a (V u) [(V u) Sin 0]
a (V u)2 Sin
Fx = Fn Sin (90 )
a(V u)2 Sin2
Fy = Fn Sin (90 )
a (V u) Sin Cos
Work done = Fx.u.
Force On the Curved Plate Moving In Direction of Jet
(V u)
(V u) Sin
(V u) Cos
V
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Page 202
Fx
a (V u) [(V u) (v u) Cos ]
a (V u)2 [
Cos ]
Cos ]
) (
(v
u) (
Cos )
(ii)
When u = V , n max =
=
( ) (
Cos )
Cos2
= 0.597 = 60%.
aV
V
Force on the jet
aV (V u) [
u
aV [(V u) ((V u) Cos )]
Cos ]
Cos ] u
av3
Efficiency of jet,
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Page 203
n=
(V
)(
u)(
Cos )
=0
Hence,
nmax =
= (
n
(
(
)
)
Cos )
Cos )
(
(i)
For
Cos )
0
For
, nmax = x 2 = 1 or 100%
vw
u2
V
v2
v1
u1
Note
(i ) Angles are measured from negative direction of motion for turbines and positive
direction of motion
for pumps.
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Page 204
(ii) Angles measuring anti-clock wise direction are taken as positive and these in
clockwise are
negative.
As the jet strikes tangentially, the loss of energy due to impact of jet will be zero.
Effective velocity of jet at (1) = V1 u = Vr1
If the vane is smooth u1 = u2 = u & Vr1 = Vr2
(i)
For <
Vr2 Cos
(u + V
Fx = ea V [(V
u)
= ea V [V
(ii)
For
(iii)
{ (u
(u
a V [(V
u)
aV [(V
a V [
In general, Fx
Work done
)}]
as V
( u)]
V ]
V Cos
Fx
will be positive
u){ (u
will be positive.
aV V
V ) as V will be negative.
V )}]
V ]
a V [
V ]
au V [V
V ]
(
(
)
)
(V u
=
Pa (V ) +
V u )
(V
V )
=0
is about 5%
Reverse flow
xx
x
x
Forward flow
xx
x
yr
x y
1
x
maximum velocity
un
Boundary Layer
Region
8
Efficiency
The ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump is defined as the
efficiency of jump.
=
)
(
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Page 206
Turbines
Fluid Machines - Hydraulic Energy into mechanical energy.
Power generated by turbine, P
H Nm S
metric H.P
= 13.33QH mHP.
= 13.33 QH x 0.736
= 9.8QH [KW]
Types of Efficiencies
1. Leakage or volumetric efficiency
2. Hydraulic efficiency.
3. Mechanical efficiency
4. Overall efficiency
1. Leakage or Volumetric efficiency
v =
2. Hydraulic Efficiency
m =
m =
3. Mechanical Efficiency
m =
4. Overall Efficiency
O
m n v
Classification of Turbines
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Page 207
Name
Pelton
Wheel
Francis
Turbine
Type
Type of
Energy
Impulse
Kinetic
Reaction
Turbine
Kinetic +
pressure.
Head
Discharge
Direction of
flow
Specific Speed
Tangential
to Runner
Low < 35
Simple 35 60
multiple jet
Medium
60m
150m
Radial flow
Medium 60 to
300
Medium
to
10W < 30 m
Mixed flow
High
Axial flow
High 300 to
1000
Pelton Wheel
Breaking Jet: To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the
jet of water on the back of bucket with which the rotation of the runner is reserved. This jet
is called as Breaking jet.
Working Properties of Pelton wheel (Turbines)
1. Ideal velocity or theoretical velocity of jet is called sprouting velocity = gH
Actual velocity of jet V = CV gH
CV = 0.97 to 0.99
2. The maximum velocity of wheel
u = 0.5V
in actual practice
u = 0.46V
= 0.46 x 0.98 gH = 0.45 gH
= Ku gH
Here Ku
to 0.47.
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Page 208
u=
(
D=
5. Jet Ratio = =
m
to
generally m = 12
6. No. of Buckets = ( ) + 15 or 5.4( )
7. Angle of deflected jet,
to 1700.
Cut in the bucket is provided so that the bucket exactly opposite the jet gets full jet
striking on it and is not intercepted by the lower portion of bucket that follows.
Velocity triangle of Pelton wheel
V1
Vr
Inlet Velocity triangle
V 1 = VW
u
(V
u)
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Page 209
V2
u2 = u
Fx
u2 = u
V
V negative
(V
V2
0
V
V
u2 = u
V2
V
0,
V +ve
V Cos )
Work Done = Fx u
u (V
u)(
u)(
Cos )
(V
u=
Cos )
Hence, Pmax = (
Cos )
Hydraulic efficiency, h =
)(
=2
)(
Cos )
=
Mechanical efficiency, m =
=
)(
Overall efficiency
h x m
99%
h 8 90%
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Page 210
Synchronous Speed
The turbine should also run at constant speed N at all so adding conditions and turbines are
designed for this speed.
f=
f = 50 N =
P = No. of pairs of poles for generator.
Some other types of Impulse Turbine
(i) Double overhung pelton wheel turbine
Two pelton wheels are provided on a single shaft for high speed or greater power.
(ii) Multiple jet pelton turbine
The maximum number of jet so far used in some larger units is six.
The power of such wheel will be (n x P) where n is the number of jets and P is power due
to single jet.
Reaction Turbines
(i)
(ii)
Obtain Q from P =
%)
O (80 to 90%).
( W)
Or
(HP)
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Page 211
(iii) Ratio of Runner width to runner diameter us disproved by n which varies from
0.45
to
(v)
or V
gh
to
(vi) u1 = gh
= 0.60 to 0.9, = Speed Ratio.
u1 =
(vii) Assume hydraulic efficiency
for Radial flow, H =
(viii) Guide blade angle at inlet - , the vane angle at inlet,
tan
Tan
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Page 212
Unit speed, Nu =
2.
Unit discharge, Qu =
3.
Unit power, Pu =
Performance of Turbine
(i) Performance under unit head
Qu =
Pu =
Nu =
Nu = N
Similarly, Qu =
and Pu =
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Page 213
P = f2 (, , g, H, D, N)
= Flow or discharge number.
= Head number.
= Power Number.
Eliminated from head number and power number.
(
(
or (
) (
(
)
Cavitation in Turbines
Thomas cavitation Factor,
Rotodynamic Pumps
Pumps : Convert mechanical energy into hydraulic energy.
Rotodynamic pumps: The rotodynamic pumps increase the energy of fluid due to kinetic
energy, pressure
energy & centrifugal action.
(i)
(ii)
Reciprocating type.
(ii)
Rotary type.
Suction: The pressure at inlet to the pump is generally suction or negative pressure and its value
is limited to avoid cavitations.
To reduce axial thrust, the suction is often branched into two parts and liquid is allowed to
center from both sides of impeller, pump is then called double suction pump.
(i) Static head (h)
h=hs + hd
V2/2g
hs
hd
H
h
hf
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Page 215
Hs + Hms +
0 + Hmd +
= hd +
Hmd = hd +
Hm = hd +
= hd + h d
hd
(1)
h (c
hd
hd
hs
=h+h
D)
(2)
hs
h
H
Efficiencies
(i) Manometric efficiency mo
mo=
x 100
) x 100
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Page 216
In such a case the total head developed H is the sum of heads developed by individual
impellers Hi
H=
xgx
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Page 217
Work done per second = weight of water lifted per second x total height through which
water is lifted.
= W x (hs + hd)
Where (hs + hd) = Total height through which water is lifted.74
Weight, W
W=
Work done per second =
(hs + hd)
)x
x
= (1 Cd) x 100
C )
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Page 218
4.2 Hydrology
Hydrology deals with the occurrence distribution and movement of the water in earth, including
that in atmosphere and below the surface of earth
The hydrological cycle
Run off : The portion of HYDROLOGY precipitation which by a variety of paths above and
below the surface of earth reaches the stream channel.
The quantities of water going through various individual paths of the hydrological cycle can
be described by continuity equation known as water budget equation on hydrological
equation.
Water budget equation for a catchment/storage mass inflow mass outflow = change in mass
storage
PRGET
S Change in storage.
The area of land drawing into a stream or a water course at a given location is known as
catchment area / drainage area / drainage basin / watershed.
Infiltration does not occur in water budget as infiltration within a low to runoff purpose is a
fine to the ground water system.
Runoff co-efficient =
The average duration of a particle of water to pass through, a phase of the hydrological cycle
is known as residence time of that phase.
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Page 219
Precipitation denotes all forms of water that router that earth from the atmosphere. Eg.,
rainfall, hail, frost and dew
Forms of Precipitation
1. Rain 0.5 mm < drops size < 6 min
Light rain intensity 0 2.5 mm/hour
Moderate rain - intensity 2.5 7.5 mm/hour
Heavy rain - intensity > 7.5 mm/hour
When the rain fall exceeds 2.5 mm, the day is called a raining day
2. Snow consists of ice crystal average density 0.1 g/cm3
3. Drizzle fine sprinkles of drop size < 0.5 mm and intensity < 1mm/h
4. Glaze when rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold grounded at around
. The
water drops freeze form ice-coating which is called glaze
5. Sleet frozen rain drops formed when rain falls through air at subfreezing temperature
6. Hail lumps of ice with size > 8mm formed due to vertical movement of air current at
sub freezing temperature
Index of Wetness
Rainfall in a given
year at a given place
Average annual rainfall of
that place
60% index of wetness means rain deficiency of 40%
Aridity index
An index used to define deficiency
AI
PET AET
PET
Cyclone Large low phrase reign with wind when winds anticlockwise in northern
hemisphere pressure increases outwards.
Anti Cyclone Wind clockwise in northern.
Southwest monsoon (July September)
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Page 220
P=
(P
m
)
P
( P )
Normal Rainfall: Is the average value of rainfall at a particular date, month or year over a
specified 30 year period.
If normal annual precipitation at various stations are within
arithmetic average periods.
Pn = [P1 + P2 + P3
Pn]
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Page 221
Evapotranspiration
Formula for Evapotranspiration
1. Lake Evaporation : c
pan evaporation
pan coefficient
0.8 for ISI pan
0.7 for class A pan
2. Empirical formulae
Meyers formulae
e )*
k (e
E
e
e
v
k
Evaporation in mm/day
Saturated vapour pressure of air in mm of fly
Actual vapour pressure of air in mm of fly
Monthly mean wind velocity in km/h at about g about the ground
Coeffcient
PET
Where
PET
Infiltration
Variation of infiltration capacity
with time
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Page 222
(f
f )
for
f ,f
Infiltration capacity at t
and t
Hydrograph
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Page 223
Elements
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rising limb AB
The crest segment BC
Falling limb CD
Lag time (T ): The time interval from the centre of mass of rainfall to the centre of mass of
hydrograph
5. T Time base
Factors Affecting Runoff
1. Characteristics of precipitation
A. Type of precipitation. E.g. rain snow etc..
B. Rain intensity
C. Duration of rainfall
D. Rainfall distribution
E. Soil moisture deficiency
F. Direction of prevailing storm
2. Characteristics of catchment
A. Shape Fan shaped catchments gives high peak and narrow hydrographs.
B. Size Peak discharge
1.
Where,
)
Basin log in hours
Basin length measure along the water course from the basin divide to the gauging
station in km.
Distance along the main water course from the gauging station to a point opposite
to the water centroid in km
A regional constant representing watershed slope and storage effects.
Modified Equation (Linsteys Equation)
(
Where,
Basin slope
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Page 224
Standard duration
Catchment area in km
A regional constant
Time base
(
is adopted instead of
, then
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Page 225
4.3 Irrigation
Irrigation may be defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements.
Types of Irrigation
1. Surface irrigation
2. Sub-surface irrigation
1. Surface irrigation
a) Flow irrigation In which the water is supplied from a higher level to a lower level by
the action of gravity alone.
b) Lift irrigation If water is lifted up by external power input such as pumps and then
supplied
2. Sub-surface irrigation
a) Natural sub-irrigation Due to leakage from channels etc.
b) Artificial sub-irrigation When a system of open jointed drains is artificially laid below
the soil, the sub-surface irrigation is called artificial sub-irrigation
1. Free or Ordering Flooding
Also called wild flooding
Suitable for steep land
Sub sidy ditches are generally spaced at 20 to 50 meters.
Initial cost of land preparation is low and labour requirement are very usually high.
2. Border Flooding: In this method, the land is divided into a number of strips, separated by low
levees called borders.
The land areas confined in each strip of the order of 10 to 20 meters in width and 100 to
400 meters in length.
log (
)
Q = Discharge through supply ditch
y = Depth of water flowing over border strip
f = Rate of infiltration of soil
A = Area of land strip to be irrigated.
t = Time required to cover the given area
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Page 226
Supply
Channel
Area dA
covered
With
water in
time Df
Area A Covered
with water in
time t
Border
Strip
3. Check Flooding
Vertical interval of about 5 to 10 cm
The confined plot areas varies from 0.2 to 0.8 hectare
This method is suitable for more permeable soils as well as for less permeable soils.
Coenings
Ditch
Levees
along the
coenings
Connecting
Leaves
4. Basin flooding: This method is a special type of check flooding and is adopted specially for
orchard tress.
Suesidiary
Oitches
Main Ditch
TREES
Basing
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Page 227
Forrow
Or Field
50WN
Crop
50WN
Crop
Topography is irregular
Gradient is steeper.
Soil is Excessively permeable
Seasonal water requirement is low
When the water is available with difficulty
Types
1. Permanent System piper are permanent buried
2. Semi permanent system not permanent
3. Portable system.
In semi-permanent system, the main lines are buried in ground, while laterals are
portable.
In portable System: The mains as well as laterals are portable.
Advantages of sprinkler irrigation
(i) Optimum quantity of water is used in this method.
(ii) Land leveling is not required.
(iii)
Avoid surface runoff.
(iv)Upto 80% efficiency can be achieved.
(v) Fertilizers can be uniformly applied, because they are mixed with irrigation water itself.
Limitations
(i)
(ii)
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Page 228
(iii) They are not suited to crops requiring frequent and larger depth of irrigation, such as
paddy.
(iv) Initial cost is very high.
(v) It requires larger electrical power.
(vi) Constant supply of water is requires.
(vii) Heavy soil with poor intake cannot be irrigated efficiently.
Drip irrigation method: also called Trickle Irrigation
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Irrigation Efficiencies
1. Efficiency of water conveyance ( ) =
x 100
Intermediate zone
Capillary zone
Ground water
Impervious strata
Time
1. Field capacity: The water which cant be easily drained by gravity So, field capacity is
the water content of a soil after tree gravity drainage has take place
Field capacity consists of two parts.
a) Capillary water: Water attached to the soil by surface tension against gravity and can
be extracted by plant by the action of capillarity
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b) Hygroscopic water: The water attached to the soil by chemical bonds and is not
available to plants
Depth of water stored in the root zone will fill the soil upto field capacity
= xdxF
Where,
2. After further increase in velocity after saw tooth ripples Dunes with ripples.
Ripples do not occur if the size of the bed particle is coarser than 0.6 m.
3. After Dunes with Ripples Dunes.
Flow condition is subcritical is Dunes & Dunes with Ripple.
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6. As the velocity further increased so Froude no. F>1 flow is supercritical and the surface
waves become so steep that they break intermittently and move stream and move up
stream, although the sediment particles keep on moving down stream only.
Lateral a factor depending upon the type of soil was introduced, called critical
velocity ratio (CVR)
Hence, V
my
m CVR
Design Procedures
1) Calculate critical velocity V
2) Determine dimensions of the channel section
3) Calculate actual velocity by using any of the following formula
i)
utters Formula V
+ Rs
C RS
Laceys Theory
He introduced the concept of initial regime and final regime (true regime) and said that a
channel which is under initial regime is not a channel in true regime. He is also argued
that eddies are produced from sides also and not only from bottom
(m/s)
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Page 233
Guide
bank
Marginal bund
joined to high contours
River flow
Divide
roes
Off-taking canal
Under sluice
portion
Normal weir portion i.e
weir proper
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Page 234
Extracts the silt, already entered into the off taking canal and is d/s of the head
regulator
Theories of seepage and design of weirs and barrages
Failure of hydraulic structure, founded on pervious foundation
a) By piping (undermining)
b) By uplift : Lifting or cracking of the concrete or masonry floor due to seepages
pressure
BLIGHS Creep theory
Creep length = d + B + d
1) Safety against piping L = CH
L = Creep length
C Blighs creep coefficient
H = Total head of water retained by the weir
For no piping I
<
2) Safety against uplift pressure of pucca floor
Thickness at any section
T=
Where, h = ordinate of H.G.L above the surface of
G = sp gravity of concrete
talking a factor of safety = t
Khoslas Theory
The seepages takes place dong streamlines defined by
Critical exit gradient
G =
Where
=0
The three simple profiles which are used for determination of pressure and exit gradient
are
i) A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile line on upper side
or down side end
C
C
d
D
= 100-
= 100 -
D
= cos (
= cos
Where
ii) A straight horizontal floor with negligible with a sheet pile line at some
intermediate point
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Page 235
= cos
= cos
( )
= cos
Where,
)
)
Where, =
C
d
and =
iii) A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without any vertical cutoffs
= (
)+
= 100 -
d
D
L = 18c
e) L =
Crest shutter if any
u/s talus
d/s talus
B
L
d
L
and L + L = 27C
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Page 236
L = 3.87 C
L + L = 27 C
Design Of Weir Wall
Top width B =
Underside of the
nappe to be
ventilated
C = Co-efficient of discharge
H = Total head over the crest (including the velocity head)
Designed head
Under nappe
Lower nappe
Sharp crested
weir
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Page 238
Reservior
Spillway
dam
Chate
channel
d/s
river
5. Shaft Spillway
Can be used where, inadequate space is there for other spillways
Control lein
Vertical pipe
Called shaft
Horizontal tunnel
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Page 239
6. Syphon Spillway
Instead of allowing water to spill over the crest of a dam or weir, the surplus water is
discharge by a syphon spillway consisting of one or more siphon units
Air vent
Normal pool
level
Tail water
level
Syphon inlet
g usually]
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Page 240
Draw down
Water surface
U/s bed
Rubble masonry
2. Rapid Falls
Long slopes concreted or stone pitched so uneconomical
Cross section
Soil
d/s W.L
Slump well
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Page 241
D/S H.F.L
Floor of water
cushion
Stone
pitching
D/S bed
Stone
pitching
Cistern
ii)Sub-surface irrigation
i)Surface irrigation
1.Flooding
i)Wild Flooding
a)Free flooding
2.Furrow method
iii) Sprinkler
irrigation
3.Contour farming
ii)Controlled flooding
b)Contour
laterals
c)Border d)Checks or
strip
Flooding
e) Basin
floodin
g
f)Zig-Zag
method
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Environmental Engg
2. Subsurface Source
Characteristics of water
1. Physical characteristics
i. Turbidity: Due to suspended matters like clay, silt etc. measured on silica scale
Measure by: Turbidity meters
A. Jackson turbid meter : Used to measure high turbidity.Longer the light path lower
is the turbidity
10.8 cm 200 JTU
21.5 cm 100 JTU
B. Nephelometer: Used for turbidity of range o to 1 ppm
Units NTU: Nephelometer turbidity unit FTU for mazin turbidity unit
I.S value for drinking water is 10-25 NTU
ii. Colour: Due to decaying vegetation or some inorganic colored soil. Algae etc.
Measured by: Platinum cobalt method
Permissible limit: 5 to 20 ppm
5 to 25 cobalt unit
iii. Taste and odour: Due to dissolved organic matter or inorganic salts, dissolved gasses
Measured by: osmoscope
Units: Taste FTN (Flavor threshold number)
Odour: TON (threshold odour number)
Permissible limit : 1 to 3 FTN
iv. Temperature: At high temperature C
and some other volatile gases are expelled
loading to decrease in palatability (taste) desirable limit 5 to 12
v. Specific conductivity: Due to dissolved ions
Measured by :Dionic water tester
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Environmental Engg
Chemical Characteristics
1. PH
Due to bicarbonates of ca and Mg and carbonates (
), hydroxides (OH) of ca, Mg, K,
Na.
Measured by: potentiometers, colorimetric method
Units: Measured on
scale
Desirable limit: 6.5 to 8.5
2. Hardness
Due to bicarbonates & carbonates (temporary hardness), Non-carbonates (permanent
hardness)
Measured by: EDTA test (Ethyl diamine tetra acetic acid)
Units: of C C
Hardness
Temporary due to carbonate and bi carbonates of calcium and magnesium
Permanent due to presence of sulphates, chlorides and nitrates.
Hardness limits
+ Mg2 (mg/L) x
Total hardness (TH) = carbonate hardness (CH) + non carbonate hardness (NCH)
-
Environmental Engg
Filter the water through 30 pore size and cultivate the coloness and count the number.
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Page 245
Environmental Engg
Variation in Demands
1. Maximum daily demand
average daily demand
2. Maximum hourly demand
average hourly demand
3. Maximum hourly demand in summer
average hourly demand
We can obtain these values using Goodrichs formulas
Where P = percent of annual average demand for the time t in days
Population Fore Casting
1. Geometric Increase method
Pn = PO[
Where r = r1 x r2 x r3 xrn.
2. Average (arithmetic) method
P = PO + nx.
3. Incremental increase method
n n
nx
y
A combination of arithmetic increase method and geometric method the average of increase
in population is found from arithmetic method and is added to the average of net
incremental increase
4. Decreasing method
D
[
][
] [
nD
Environmental Engg
Raw Water
Screening
PST
Disinfection
Filtration
SST
Coagulation
Flocculation
Settling velocity, Vs =
(G 1)
Settling velocity Vs =
Where t =
x 100%
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Environmental Engg
1) Pre treatment
2) Base material
The gravel base supports the sand. It
varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and
30 to 75 cm in depth
3) Filter sand
5) Rate of filtration
6) Efficiency
7) Post treatment
8) Method of cleaning
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Environmental Engg
Disinfection is must
Break point chlorination: The point beyond which all the chlorine added will appear as free
chlorine is called break point chlorination DPD test is used for determination of breakpoint.
Residual chlorine
A
Applied chlorine
6. Aeration: Water is brought in contact with atmospheric air to promote exchange of gases
between water and air.
C
H Sand other volatile substances importing taste and odour to water are easily expelled
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Page 249
Environmental Engg
7. Water softening
i. Removal of temporary hardness
a. Boiling
b. By adding lime
ii. Removal of permanent hardness
a. Lime soda process
b. Zeolite process
c. Demineralization process
a. Lime soda process
- Lime Ca H and soda A C
are added
- We get CaC and H o seperated
- Economical and better for excessively hard water
- But large quantity of slued is produced and requires recarbonation
b. Zeolite process
- Zeolite is a complex compound of Al, silica and soda
- Achieving almost zero hardness is possible
- But cannot be adopted for highly turbid water
c. Demineralization
- Similar to zeolite process but the metallic ions in this method are replaced by
hydrogens ions rather than y sodium ions in zeolite process
- Water obtained is free from minerals and quality is almost same as distilled water
Layout of Water Distribution Network
Layout of Distribution Network
The distribution pipe are generally laid the road pavement, and such their layout
generally follow the layout of the roads
We can also develop the pavement duct along the road
There are in general four different type of pipe network are
There are four types of system for distribution of water
1) Dead end system
2) Grid iron system
3) Ring system
4) Radial system.
Dead end system
It is suitable for old town and cities having no definite pattern of road
Advantage
1) Relatively cheap
2) Determination of discharge and pressure easier to due to less number of values
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Environmental Engg
Disadvantage
1) Due to many dead end stagnation of water
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Environmental Engg
Ring system
The supply mainly is laid the peripheral road and sub mains branch out from the mains
Thus this system also follows the grid iron system with the flow patter similar in
character to that of dead end system
So determination of the pipe size is so easy
Advantages
Water can be supplied to any point from at least two direction
Main pipe
M
M
Sub
mains
S
M
S
M
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Environmental Engg
Radial System
The area is divided into different zones
The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept in the idle if each zone the
supply pipes are radially laid ending towards the periphery
Advantage
It gives quick service
Circulation of pipe size is easy
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Page 253
Environmental Engg
: N2
H2
Co2 + Heat
Heat
Note: Organic acids including alcohol are converted to CH4, Co2, etc.
Nitrogen Content
Free ammonia indicates first stage
Nitrate indicates last stage.
Sulphides, sulphates and H2S: Sulphide compounds are oxidized to So42 which is
unolyctionble when aerobic decomposition takes place but results in formation of H2S, CH4,
Co2 when decomposed aerobically.
Dissolved oxygen
Ensure atleast 4 ppm of D.O. in it for survival of fish and other spaces.
B.O.D. or biological oxygen demand gives the amount of active organic matter whereas C.O.D
(Chemical Oxygen Demand) gives total oxygen demand.
First stage demand is carbonaceous demand and last stage demand is nitrogenous demand.
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Environmental Engg
= RLt
Lt : oxygen equivalent of carbonaceous oxidiable organic matter present in sewage after t
days.
Loge = Kt
Log10 = 0.439Kt
Log10 = KDt
Where, Lt = Organic matter left after t days.
D at t
Total oxygen demand is amount of oxygen required to burn organic substances and some
minor inorganic substances.
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Page 255
Environmental Engg
Biological treatment
Primary
treatment
1. Floating
2. Sedimentation
1. Activated sludge
2. Tricking filter
3. Anaerobic lagoons
Primary
treatment
(biological)
Sedimentat
ion
Tertiary
treatment
Final effluent
Disposal
Sludes
digestion
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Page 256
Environmental Engg
Primary
Secondary
NO2, MNO2
Oxides of carbon
None
Halogen None
HCL, HF
One
Another Classifications
1. Gaseous pollution
2. Particulate pollution
a. Dust: Formed by mechanical is integration of material crushing grinding etc.
- Fine dust < 100m dia
- Coarse dust >100m dia
b. Smoke: By condensation of supersaturated vapor composed of materials of low vapor
pressure in relatively high concentration
c. Fumes: Particles formed by condensation, sublimation size < 1
d. Mist: Suspension of the liquid droplets formed by condensation of vapor size < 10 m
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Environmental Engg
Particles less than 0.1 m undergo random motion (Brownian motion resulting from
collision with individual molecules)
Particles above 20 m have large settling velocities and are removed from air by gravity
and other inertial forces.
Particulates serve as condensation nuclei and influence the formation of clouds, rain and
snow.
Visibility: Resulting from absorption and scattering of light by airborne liquid and solid
materials.
Carbon dioxide, water vapor and ozone change the absorption and transmission
characteristics of the atmosphere.
Reduction in the visibility not only is unpleasing to an individual, but also may have
strong psychological effects.
Effect on Materials: Particles get deposited on painted surface, clothing, curtains, etc.
Effect on the Vegetation and Animal Health: Very little is known of the effects of
particulate matter in general on vegetation.
However, some specific substances cause damage to the plants. For example, the fluoride
containing particles damage the plants.
Polluted vegetation may cause diseases in animals, for example, animal fluorosis through
vegetation, arsenic poisoning in animals through vegetation.
Effects on human Health: Particulate matter enter through respiratory system, deposit in
the respiratory tract and damage respiratory organs.
Particulate matter may exert a toxic effect in one or more of the following three ways.
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Page 258
Environmental Engg
CO is removed from atmosphere by soil fungi and CO is oxidized to CO2, though at a very
slow rate.
Hemoglobin has a affinity for CO that is approximately 210 times of its affinity for O2.
Cigarette smoke contains about 400-500 ppm CO, % of COHb in blood increases as the
number of cigarettes smoked per day.
Zone of atmosphere
The vertical extent to which the mixing takes place varies diurnally, from season to
season, and is also affected by topographical features.
The greater the vertical extent, the larger the volume of atmosphere available for
dispersion of the pollutants.
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Environmental Engg
The depth of the mixing layer is known as the Mean Mixing Depth. Atmospheric
conditions influence the way thermal plumes behave.
Case 1- Looping: This occurs when n > 1.4 and atmospheric conditions are unstable
Case 2 Coning: This occurs when n is between 1 and 1.4 and atmospheric conditions
are unstable
Case 3 Fanning: This occurs when n < 1 and inversion takes place
Case 4 Lofting: This occurs when the inversion layer lies below the stack height
Case 5 Fumigation: This occurs when the inversion layer lies above the stack height
Case 7: Neutral: This occurs when n = 1 and atmospheric conditions are stable
DALR
Turbulent air
ELR(n>1.4)
UNSTABLE
LOOPING
TC
NIGHT TIME WITH CLOUDY & WET CLIMATE
ELR(n:1-1.4)
STABLE
Moderate wind
Axis of plume
DALR
CONING
TC
Plan
Elevation
TC
EVENING TIME IN CLEAR SKIES
Moderate wind
RADIATION
INVERSION
BELOW STACK
LOFTING
TC
INVERSION
ABOVE
STACK
Z
FUMIGATION
TC
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Page 260
Light to moderate
wind
ELR (subsidence
inversion)
Environmental Engg
TRAPPING
TC
DALR
Light wind
ELR (n-1.4)
Z
Neutral atmosphere
SEUTRAL PLUME
TC
Looping
DALR
Lofting
ELR
Fanning
Lofting
Fumigation
Trapping
Fanning
Mechanical Shaker-Baghouse
Reserve-Air Baghouse
Reserve Jet-Baghouse
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Page 261
Environmental Engg
2. Offline cleaning
I.
II.
3. On-demand cleaning
I.
4. Reverse-pulse/Reverse-jet cleaning
I.
It delivers blasts of compressed air from the clean side of the filter to dislodge the
accumulated dust cake.
5. Impact/Rapper cleaning
I.
II.
5. Electrostatic precipitators
6. Scrubbers or wet collectors
Solid waste
Solid waste in dry refuse and includes garbage ashes, rubbish, dust etc. Density varies from
300 gcm to 600 gcm
a. Garbage: Putrescible organic wastes e.g.: vegetable, pills, kitchen generated waste
b. Rubbish: Non putrescible wastes, e.g. rags, papers, broken glass & furniture, card boards
etc.
Transformation methods used for the management of solid waste
Transformation Processes used for the management of solid waste
Transformation
Process
Transformation or Principal
conversion Products
Physical
Component
Separation
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Environmental Engg
Volume
reduction
Size reduction
Thermal oxidation
Chemical
Combustion
Destructive distillation
Gasification
Anaerobic
digestion (lowor high-solids)
Anaerobic
composting
(Occurs in
landfil)
Biological
Aerobic
compositing
Environmental Engg
or ln
C
C
Where
C C
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Page 264
Transportation Engg
Stopping sight distance is the minimum distance available to stop a vehicle travelling at
design speed safely without collision with any other obstruction.
IRC has recommended the height of eye level of driver as 1.2m and the height of object as
0.15m above the road surface for measuring the stopping sight distance.
Design Speed: The design speed of roads depends upon class of road and terrain.
Terrain have been classified as plain, rolling, mountainous and steep depending on the cross
slope of the country as given.
Cross Slope (in %)
Terrain classification
0 10
Plain
10 25
Rolling
25 60
Mountainous
Greater than 60
Steep
Horizontal Curves: To avoid overturning and lateral skidding on a horizontal curve, the
centrifugal ratio ( ) should be less than and f.
Super Elevation: The transverse inclination the pavement surface is known as super elevation
and is denoted by e.
e+f=
IRC recommends that maximum limit of super elevation in plain and rolling terrain as 7% and
10% in hill roads.
Extra widening as curves is given by
e=
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(ii)
(iii)
Where C =
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L=
Where,
N = deviation angle
S = Stopping sight distance
H = Height of eye level of driver above roadway surface.
h = Height of object above pavement surface.
As per IRC standard.
H = 1.2
h = 0.15
L=
(ii)
L = 2S
L = 2S
)
)
Length of Summit curve: For safe overtaking sight distance (OSD) can be calculated by using
following formulae
(i)
L=
When L > S
(ii)
When L > S
2S =
2S =
When L < S
.
(Taking H = 1.2m).
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(ii)
Head light sight distance, and the higher of the two value is taken.
L = 2S
Transportation Engg
The fundamental relationship, between traffic volume, density and speed is given by q = KVs
Where, q = average volume of vehicles passing a spot during a specified period of time.
VS = space mean speed (in kmph)
K = average density (in vehicles/km).
The maximum speed is called free mean speed and is denoted by VSf. The maximum density
occurs at zero speed and is called j am density which is denoted by kj. The maximum
capacity occurs when the speed is
qmax =
and density in .
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Group Index of soil is used to classify the fine grained soils and for judging their suitability as
subgrade material.
GI = 0.2 a + 0.005 ac + 0.01 bd.
Where, q = Portion of material passing 0.074 mm sierve, greater than 35 and less than 75%.
It is expressed as whole number from 0 to 40.
b = Portion of material passing 0.074 mm sierve, greater than 5 and less than 35%. It
is expressed
as whole number from 0 to 20.
c = Value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60. It is expressed as a whole
number ranging from 0 to 20.
d = Value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and less than 30. It is expressed as a whole
number ranging from 0 to 20.
CBR (in %) =
Pavement thickness (t), can be determined using CBR value from the given formula.
t= *
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0.
b=a
* log
( )
1.0
( )
0. 5 +
Edge loading
Se =
* log
Corner loading
Sc =
[1
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St(e) =
or
St(c) =
whichever is higher
in desired direction
Cy = coefficient based on
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Frictional stresses
Sf =
Where, Sf = unit stress developed in cement concrete pavement (in Kg/cm2).
W = unit weight of concrete (in Kg/cm2).
f = coefficient of subgrade restraint (taken as 1.5).
L = slab length (in meters).
x 104
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Surveying
Part 7: Surveying
Determination Of Relation Position And Plotting By Means Of Different Type of Measurement
Plane: Curvature ignored
Surveying
Geodetic:Curvature of earth taken into account
Plane surveying Types
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Chain surveying
Compass surveying
Plane table surveying
Theodolite surveying
Tacheometric surveying
Triangulation surveying
Aerial surveying
Photogrammetric surveying
Map
R.F: Representative factor
Vernier scale: Least count-Difference between smallest division on main scale and the
smallest division on vernier scale.
Corrections
(
Levelling: Determination of relative attitudes of the point or elevation of a point w.r.t benchmark
Instrument used: Level, levelling staff, dumpy level
Part of dumpy level
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Levelling head
Telescope
Eye piece
Diaphragm screws
Focusing screws
Ray shade
Longitudinal/Attitude bubble tube
Bubble tube adjusting screws
Cross bubble tube
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Level surface: Surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth
Horizontal surface: Surface tangential to the level surface
Vertical line: Line perpendicular to the level line and the direction of plumb line
Datum: Reference to which vertical measurement are done
Mean Sea level
Reduced level: Height above or below the assumed datum
Line of sight: Line through the optical centre of the line and inter section of cross hair
Back sight: Dot observation made at the point of known elevation (used to obtain of instrument)
Fore sight: Sight taken at a point of unknown elevation
Classification of levelling
1. Simple levelling
2. Differential levelling (fly levelling or continuous levelling) instrument is set at different
points and successive elevation difference is calculated
Difference of elevation between points A and B =B.S. - F.S
R.L. of point B= R.L. of point A ( B.S. - F.S)
Booking and Reduction of level
(A) Rise and Fall method:- B.S. - F.S= Rise-Fall=Last R.L- First R.L
Check on intermediate sight is done as each is included in rise and fall calculation
(B) Height of collimation method:- B.S. - F.S= Last R.L- First R.L
No such check
Gradient of line: Can be calculated by diving the elevation by the total length
Classification of spirit levelling
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Differential levelling
Profile levelling like road
Check levelling
Cross sectional levelling
Precision
Reciprocal levelling : Elevation determined by two sets of reciprocal observations
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Surveying
Horizontal line
a1
Line A collimators
Level Lines
b1
(
a2
b2
0.0785D2 (curvature)
Line of collimation
0.0112d2
(Refraction)
A
B
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Surveying
3
S
E
3
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Fore and Back Bearings: Both expresses in W.C.B System and differ each other by 1800. The
measurement of bearing in the direction of survey is called fore bearing
Back bearing = fore bearing 1800
1
1+
Local attraction: Needle deflects due to local attraction like magnets, cable carrying current, iron,
ores, etc.
Error= observed back bearing-calculated back bearing
Magnetic declaration: Horizontal angle between true north and magnetic north
Theodolite:
Classification of theodolites
1. Transit theodolite : Telescope can be rotated through a complete revolution about its
horizontal axis in a vertical plane
2. Non-transit theodolite
3. Vernier theodolite
4. Glass arc theodolites
Parts of transit theodolite
1. Levelling head
2. Lower plate
3. Upper plate
4. Standards
5. Telescope
6. Vertical circle
7. Plumb bob
8. Tripod
Grades
1. Up grade or positive grade
2. Down grade or negative grade
B
P
D
O
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B
R1
O1
R2
3. Reverse curves: Centre is on the opposite sides of the curve at turning point then in only
one common tangent
R1
O2
C
R2
O1
B1
Vertex
T1
Backward tangent
-Angle of deflection
T2
/2 /2
Forward tangent
R
)
(
Degree of curve: Defined w.r.t a fixed length of an arc of the curve or with respect to a fixed
length of a normal chord of the curve
1. Based on fixed length of an arc: Degree of curve in the central angle of the curve, that is
subtended by an arc of 30 in length
30m
00
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15 m 15 m
1 1
= +(
)
( )
T2
T1
ii.
A
Q1
Ox
E
T2
T1
N
iii.
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Surveying
B
j
j1
O2
C1
Tachometric surveying
Horizontal & vertical distance are determined by using instruments. Instruments used is
tachometer and it theodolite having diaphragm fitted with two additional wires fitted called
stadia hairs
B
1
i
S
F
a
d
A
1
B
D
( )
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Surveying
(b) Elevation of the staff station: Elevation of the staff station= Elevation of the instrument
axis - Control hair reading
ii.
Distance and elevation formula for inclined sight by fixed hair method
a. For inclined sight with staff vertical
A1B1 = ABcos = Scos
Inclined distance OC
(
A1
A
S
B1
B
h
v
L
d
O
D
Elevation formula
(
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Surveying
L
E1
B g
V
L
V
D
The telescope used in stadia theodolitis are of the following three types
1. Internal focusing telescope
2. External focusing telescope [Theodolite with this is known as stadia theodolite]
3. Internal focusing telescope fitted with an analytic lens (c=0) [tacheometer]
Substance theodolite (Movable hair method)
Staff intercept constant
Distance between stadia hairs variable
(
)
(
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2. Tangential method
Distance are computed by observing vertical angles of two point at fixed known distance S
on the staff
S
B
-S
1
D
(1)
S
S
S
(2)
D
S
)
)
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Classification of triangulation
1. Primary triangulation
2. Secondary triangulation
3. Tertiary or 3rd order triangulation or topotriangulation
Correction
1. Correction for standard length
L= measured length, l=Designed length
l2
l2
Always subtractive
If A&B are not indivisible, then
)
A
Always subtractive
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Surveying
Applied pull is more, tension correction is positive if less tension correction is negative
5. Sag correction
(
6. Reduction to M.S.L
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Page 287
Reference Books
Reference Books
Mathematics
Geotechnical Engineering
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
By K.R.Arora
Foundation Engineering
By P.C.Varghese
Geotechnical Engineering
By Venkatamaiah. C
Transportation Engineering
Highway Engineering
By S.K.Khanna, C.E.G. Justo
Highway Engineering
By Rangwala
Surveying
Surveying
By Dr. B.C.Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, Kr. Jain
Textbook of Surveying
By Venkatramaiah.C
Surveying
By A.R.Abhyankar, S.S.Rajput
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Reference Books
Environmental Engineering
Noise Pollution
By Agarwal
Environmental Engineering
By Ruth F.Weiner, Robin A.Matthews, P.Aarne Vesilind
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