Waterflooding

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING
Waterflooding
Reservoir Drives
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Petroleum Engineering
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Solution Gas Drive: Reservoir Energy

At initial conditions, a pure solution
gas drive reservoir has no gas cap nor
an aquifer.
The main source of energy is the
liberation of solution gas under the
effect of pressure reduction. The
expansion of the gas pushes the oil
downward and radially into the wells.
Other sources of energy (rock, oil and
connate water compressibility) are
usually minor.
Liberated dissolved gas may
segregate from the oil phase under
gravity forces, and form a secondary
gas cap.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Gas Cap Drive: Energy

At initial conditions, the reservoir
fluid is saturated. The bubble point
pressure can be measured in the
reservoir at the depth of the GOC.
As pressure falls, energy is
created both by liberation of
dissolved gas and by expansion of
the gas cap.
The driving action of the gas cap
pushes oil down structure ahead of
the expanding gas cap.
Fluid contacts must be closely
monitored to avoid invasion of the
oil column by the gas.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Water Drive: Edge vs. Bottom Drive
Oil producer
Oil producer
Oil
Oil zone
Zone
Water
Water
Water
Edge Water Drive
Bottom Water Drive
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Energy of a Water Drive

Compressibility of a medium is defined as its change in volume per unit change
in pressure:
C = 1 dV
V dP
An oil reservoir is 2 km in area, 50m thick, and has an average porosity of 20%.
It is connected to an aquifer which is 100 times larger in volume.
What is the volume of the aquifer?
What is the volume of water in the aquifer?
If the water compressibility is 10E-6 (1/psi), how much oil can be produced from
this reservoir by a 2000 psi pressure drop through the life of the reservoir?
What percentage of the OOIP does that represent (assume Sw = 0)?
Answers:
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Gravity Drainage
Gravitational segregation is
the tendency of fluids in reservoir
to segregate, under the influence
of gravity, to vertically position
themselves as dictated by their
respective densities (gas above
oil, oil above water).
Gravity drainage may occur in
any type of reservoir.
Gravity drainage is particularly
important in solution-gas and
gas-cap drive oil reservoirs.
G
a
s
G
a
s
G
a
s
Oil
Point C
Oil
Point B
Oil
Point A
Producing well
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Gravity Drainage (contd)

Gravitational segregation can substantially improve recovery efficiency when it has
time to act.
In solution gas drive reservoirs, liberated solution gas may segregate from the oil to
form a secondary gas cap.
In gas cap drive reservoirs, oil in the gas-invaded region drains down to rejoin the
oil column, reducing the residual oil saturation (and thus improving recovery
efficiency).
Recovery efficiency for a gravity drainage reservoir may approach or even surpass
that of water drive reservoirs.
In most reservoirs, controlling production rates contributes to increasing the
efficiency of gravity drainage.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Range of Recovery Factors: Oil Reservoirs
Drive Mechanism
Solution-gas drive
Gas-cap drive
Water drive
Gravity-drainage drive
Average Oil Recovery

Factors,
% of OOIP
Range
Average
5 - 30
15
15 - 50
30
30 - 60
40
16 - 85
50
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Need for Waterflooding

Waterflooding performs two primary tasks
To maintain the reservoir pressure
To drive the oil towards the wells.
At the scale of the field, the main factors governing the efficiency of a
waterflood are
The mobility ratio
Reservoir heterogeneity
Gravity.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Mobility Ratio
o
M = Krw
Kro w
If M < 1, the velocity of water cannot be more than the velocity of oil.
Consequently the displacement of oil by water is stable and piston-like
There is a shock-front saturation profile, high water saturations trailing high
oil saturations.
If M > 1, the velocity of water exceeds the velocity of oil.
Consequently the displacement of oil by water is unstable and prone to
fingering and differential breakthrough.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Mobility Ratio (contd)
o
M = Krw
Kro w
If M < 1, in theory the water pushes out an equivalent volume of oil. At

reservoir conditions, the waterflood is efficient.
If M > 1, the waterflood is inefficient, and it may take circulation of many
times (100) the pore volume of water, to extract an equivalent unit pore volume
of oil.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Typical North Sea Conditions
o
M = Krw
Kro w
If Krw = 0.3, Kro = 1, w = 0.4 cP, o = 0.8 cP, then
M = 0.6
which represents a favourable case for waterflooding.
But, for example, with Krw = 0.5 and o = 1.2 cP, then
M = 1.5
which is now unfavourable for waterflooding.
Which strategy to follow?
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Water Velocities in a Waterflood

V =
M
Vi
R + M(1 R)
M>1
V/Vi
In a piston-like displacement (M < 1), velocities

decrease with increasing distance.
1
% distance
In the opposite case (M > 1), velocities increase with

time,
BUT
M<1
one needs to circulate much more water to recover all

the mobile oil.
Which strategy to follow?
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Basal Water Drive

Advancement angle is 90 and
waterflood has maximum efficiency.
Oil producer
Emphasizes vertical sweep rather than

areal sweep.
Need good vertical permeability.
Injection wells are drilled through and
perforated in the aquifer.
In the aquifer, relative permeability to
water is high!
Oil
Zone
Water
Bottom Water Drive
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Edge Water Drive

Advancement angle is low (equal to
formation dip and waterflood has
minimum efficiency.
Oil producer
Emphasizes areal sweep rather than

vertical sweep.
Injection wells can be watered-out flank
production wells, completed in the oil
zone.
In the oil column, relative permeability
to water is low!
Oil zone
Water
Water
Edge Water Drive
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Combination Drive: the Troll field

Most reservoirs do not produce
from a single source of energy
and by a single mechanism. The
combination drive is the most
frequent occurrence.
In a combination drive, both a
gas cap and an aquifer are
present.
Energy available includes
influx from the aquifer, gas cap
expansion, oil expansion and
even evolution of the solution
gas. Rock decompression may
also play a role.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Hydrodynamic Waterflooding: the Barinas Field
Shale
Water
Oil
Produced water is constantly replenished by rain water flooding the outcrop.

Reservoir pressure is constant (3100 psi).
Wells produce with a very high water-cut (98%).
The oil-water contact is tilted in the direction of the water flow.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Energy of a Water Drive

Compressibility of a medium is defined as its change in volume per unit change
in pressure:
C = 1 dV
V dP
An oil reservoir is 2 km in area, 50m thick, and has an average porosity of 20%.
It is connected to an aquifer which is 100 times larger in volume.
What is the volume of the aquifer?
What is the volume of water in the aquifer?
If the water compressibility is 10E-6 (1/psi), how much oil can be produced from
this reservoir by a 2000 psi pressure drop through the life of the reservoir?
What percentage of the OOIP does that represent (assume Sw = 0)?
Answers:
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Water Drive: Production Characteristics

Reservoir pressure declines
slowly. In artesian drives, the
pressure remains constant and
equal to the hydrostatic value.
Gas-oil ratio is limited because
the pressure stays high.
Oil rate declines slowly.
Water-cut increases gradually,
and can be as high as 90% or
more in the mature life of the
reservoir.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Facts about Waterflooding
Before designing a waterflood, the operator should

flow the initial wells at the highest rate to gauge the
degree of vertical and areal communication within
the reservoir
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Facts about Waterflooding (contd)
Batch drilling and completing an entire field,

including the water injectors, although time and cost
efficient, is not recommended
This is because the injection strategy does not take
account of the dynamic picture resulting from the
completion of the early wells
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Injection wells should be drilled early, because each

injection well can support the pressure decline of
three or more producing wells (e.g., injection rates can
be 3 or 4 times as high as production rates)
Injection wells have been known to replace
production wells to be drilled on the same slots
because of that reason...
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Flooding below the bubblepoint is considered

preferrable because the presence of free gas increases
the amount of moveable oil (SOR decreases)
The increase in oil recovery can reach 10%
Optimum gas saturation should not exceed 35%
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
The efficiency of a water drive is not rate dependent,

unless heterogeneity and gravity play a large role
This means that there is no reason to choke back the
wells to improve ultimate recovery of oil
Large-scale reservoir heterogeneities can however
create by-passed oil
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
The aim of a properly designed waterflood is to reach

the field-wide plateau rate as fast as possible
This plateau rate can reach production of 10-16% of
the total producible reserves per annum
The decline from plateau rate starts when the rate of
increase of surface water production exceeds any
gains in oil production
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Fractional Flow of Water
The concept of Fractional Flow of Water is KEY to

understanding the displacement process in a
waterflood
hence
The whole purpose of waterdrive calculations is the
generation of a relationship between the water
fractional flow and the cumulative oil recovery
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Definition of the Fractional Flow of Water (Buckley-Leverett)

Fw =
Fw =
Qw
Qw + Qo
1
w Kro
1+
o Krw
This formulation neglects capillary pressure effects, which is realistic in high

rate waterfloods.
Fw describes the waterflood better than relative permeabilities, because Fw is
a single function that takes accounts of the in-situ viscosities.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Water Fractional Flow

vs Reservoir Saturation
(Welge Calculations)
Swavg
1-SOR
Fwbt
M>1
Breakthrough point
defines Swavg.
Swbt
Floodout trend defines

SOR.
Many pore volumes
needed for complete
waterflood.
Swirr
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding

(Welge Calculations)
M<1
Swbt = Swavg = 1-SOR
Fw
Piston-like displacement.
Only one pore volume of
water needed for complete
waterflood.
Swirr
O
Sw
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Welge Calculations
for M >> 1
Swavg
1-SOR
M >> 1
Many more pore
volumes are needed for
complete waterflood.
Swirr
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding

vs Reservoir Saturation:
Practical Application
In order to draw the Fw
vs Sw curve in a specific
field, a Material Balance
must be performed.
Fw is evaluated from
surface production data.
Sw is estimated from
material balance
calculations, including
voidage replacement ratio
and aquifer influx.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Material Balance
F = N . Et + We
in which
F is the underground fluid withdrawal
N is the original oil in place (OOIP)
Et is the total expansion of the reservoir-fluid system
We is the water influx from the aquifer.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Waterflood Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a waterflood can be conceived as
Np = Ev.EA.E
N
Ev
is the vertical sweep efficiency
EA
is the areal sweep efficiency
is the microscopic sweep efficiency.
Field measurements are needed to evaluate both the vertical and the
areal sweep efficiencies.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Waterflood in Heterogeneous Reservoirs

- Areal efficiency
It is the major unknown in reservoir waterflood studies and
programs
Ascertained by monitoring programs (cores, OH logs, CH logs,
well tests) across the field
- Vertical efficiency
Very important in layered systems
Must be characterized for the waterflood to be successful
For this the flooding order of the layers must be determined
beforehand
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Vertical Heterogeneity and Waterflooding

Two cases present themselves
- Reservoirs in hydrostatic
equilibrium
- Reservoirs without vertical
communication between layers
The degree of communication

between layers is best ascertained by
wireline pressure testing.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Reservoirs in Hydrostatic Equilibrium

The flooding order of the layers
results from gravity.
The layers flood from bottom to top.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Reservoir Without Vertical Communication

The layers flood in the order
determined by the velocity of the
waterfront advance:
K .Krw
V
(1 Sor Swirr )
for each layer.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Generalized Procedure for Evaluating Vertical Sweep Efficiency

1)
Divide the reservoir section in layers, each characterized by h, K, ,

Swirr, Sor, Krw, Kro.
2)
Decide whether there is vertical pressure communication between

layers or not (wireline tester).
3)
Decide upon the flooding order of the layers.
4)
Generate thickness-averaged relative permeabilities.
5)
Use these to generate the relationship between fractional flow and

cumulative oil recovery to be used in the Welge equation.
6)
Calculate the cumulative oil recovery Np/N as a function of the

cumulative water influx.
7)
Relate Np/N to the surface field-wide water cut.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Production and
Injection History
Shows oil and water
rates, GOR, and
injection water rate.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Derivation of
Average Pressures
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Havlena Odeh Plot
F / Et vs [ ( P Qtd ) / Et ]
The plot will yield a
unit slope straight line
when We has been
properly estimated.
The Y-axis intercept

yields N, the OOIP.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
History Matching of
Pressures and
Cumulative Recovery
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Cumulative Water Influx
Material balance
indicates that on top of
the injection, there is still
a large amount of energy
available from the
aquifer.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example: Energy History Plot
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Field Water-Cut vs
Fractional Recovery
Matched on a Corey function
S-curve, this plot extrapolates
at Fw = 1 to the total fractional
recovery Np/N.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Data are matched on a
Corey function.
The intercept at Fw = 1
gives the saturation at
abandonment.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Water Breakthrough
Channels
Because of vertical
permeability, channels
may drain water from the
entire reservoir sequence
in injection wells.
Channels may also

distribute water to the
entire reservoir sequence
in producing wells.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Example:
Recompletion of
Injection Wells
Injection wells can
be recompleted in
the aquifer instead
in the oil leg to
provide vertical
sweep and avoid
breakthrough
channelling.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Waterflood Efficiency
The overall efficiency of a waterflood can be conceived as
Np = Ev.EA.E
N
Ev
is the vertical sweep efficiency
EA
is the areal sweep efficiency
is the microscopic sweep efficiency.
Field measurements are needed to evaluate both the vertical and the
areal sweep efficiencies.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel
Waterflooding
Waterflood Efficiency Measurements

Vertical sweep efficiency
- Saturation logging.
- Production logging.
- Anisotropic permeability measurements.
- Distributed pressure measurements.
Areal sweep efficiency

- Saturation logging.
- Interference testing.
- Distributed pressure measurements.
September 2002
Gamma Experts
Yves Chauvel

Waterflooding

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PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Solution Gas Drive: Reservoir Energy

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Gas Cap Drive: Energy

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Water Drive: Edge vs. Bottom Drive

Edge Water Drive

Bottom Water Drive

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Energy of a Water Drive

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Gravity Drainage (contd)

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Range of Recovery Factors: Oil Reservoirs

Average Oil Recovery

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Need for Waterflooding

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Mobility Ratio (contd)

If M < 1, in theory the water pushes out an equivalent volume of oil. At

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Typical North Sea Conditions

Which strategy to follow?

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Water Velocities in a Waterflood

In a piston-like displacement (M < 1), velocities

In the opposite case (M > 1), velocities increase with

one needs to circulate much more water to recover all

Which strategy to follow?

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Basal Water Drive

Emphasizes vertical sweep rather than

Bottom Water Drive

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Edge Water Drive

Emphasizes areal sweep rather than

Edge Water Drive

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Combination Drive: the Troll field

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Hydrodynamic Waterflooding: the Barinas Field

Produced water is constantly replenished by rain water flooding the outcrop.

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Energy of a Water Drive

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Water Drive: Production Characteristics

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Facts about Waterflooding

Before designing a waterflood, the operator should

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Facts about Waterflooding (contd)

Batch drilling and completing an entire field,

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Facts about Waterflooding (contd)

Injection wells should be drilled early, because each

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Facts about Waterflooding (contd)

Flooding below the bubblepoint is considered

PRACTICAL RESERVOIR MONITORING

Facts about Waterflooding (contd)