Oc,

NAVIGATION ( f<
Edited by

JOHN S. HALL, PH.D.

ASSOCIATE PFIOFESSOEI OF ASTRONOhfY AND PHYSICS

AMHF.FIST CO1.l,EGE

OFFICE OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

N.kTIONAL D13F131vSE RESE.iRCH COMIIITTEE

FmsT EDITION

NEW YORK AND I. ONDOIV

kflcGRAw -HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC

1947

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R.41).+R .UI)S T(3 XAVIGA’IYON

COpyRIGFtT, 1!)47, B~- THE

\IrCJRIW-HILL BOOK CnMP.\x I-. INC.

PRINTEI) IX THE UNITED SrI~.4TES OF .kMliRICA

.111 lights resewed Y’h is book. or

Paris thereof, m y not bc reproduced
in on!i form 7uithtI;[( pennissim of
the publishers.

THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA.

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MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

RADIATION LABORATORY SERIES

Board of Editors
LouIs N. RIDENOUB,
Editor-in-Chief
GEORGE B. COLLINS, Deputy Editor-in-Chief

BEITTON
CHANCE, S. A. GOUDSMIT,
R. G. HERB,HUBEET
M. JAMES,JULIANK. KNIPP
G. MONTGOMERY,
JAMES L. LAWSON, LEON B. LINFORD, CAROL C. NEWTON, ALBEIW
M. STONE,LouIs A. TURNER,GEORGEE. VALLEY,JR., HERBERT H. WHEATON

1. RADAR SYSTEM ENGINEERING—Ridenour

2. RADAR AIDS TO NAVIGATION—HU21
3. RADAR BEAcoNs—Roberls
4. LoRAN—Pierce, McKenzie, and Woodward
5. PULSE GENERATORS-6%S0e and Lehacqz
6. MICROWAVE MAGNETRONS—CO/~~nS
7. KLYSTRONS AND MICROWAVE TR1oDEs—Hamillon, Knipp, and Kuper
8. PRINCIPLES OF MICROWAVE (%icuITs—Monigo?nefg, Dicke, and Purcell
9. MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION CIRCUITS—hkgan
10. WAVEGUIDE HANDBooK—Mamwilz
11. TECHNIQUE OF MICROWAVE MEAsURE~ENTS—Mon@0mt7~
12. MICROWAVE ANTENNA THEORY AND DEsIGN—Sike?’
13. PROPAGATION OF SHORT RADIO WAvES—Kt?m’
14. MICROWAVE DUPLEXERS—S~U~/in and Montgomery
15. CRYSTAL RECTIFIERS—~0f7e~ and Whitmer
16. MICROWAVE MIXERs-.?ounU
17. COMPONENTS HANDEooK—BLackhurn
18. VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS— Valle~ and Wallman
19. WAVEFORMS—ChUn03, Hughes, ,lfac.Vichol, i+zyre, and wdliam&
20. ELECTRONIC TIME MEASUREMENTS—Chan@ Hulsizer, MacNachoL,
and Williams
21. ELECTRONIC lNsTRuMENTs+Teenuood, Holdam, and MacRae
22, CATHODE RAY TUBE DISPLAYS—~o~kr, slaw, and Valley
23. MICROWAVE RECEIVERS—Van Voorhis
24 THRESHOLD &GNAI,s—Lawson and Uhlenheck
25 Nichols,
THEORY OF SERVOMECHANISMS—Ja771.3S, and Phillips
26 RADAR SCANNERS AND RAuoMEs—Cady, Karelifz, and Turner
27 COMFLITING MECHANISMS AND LINitAGES-&JObOd@
28 IrwEx–Henne~
o

Foreword

HE tremendous research and development effort that went into the

T development of radar and related techniques during World War II
resulted not only in hundreds of radar sets for military (and some for
possible peacetime) use but also in a great body of information and new
techniques in the electronics and high-frequency fields. Because this
basic material may be of great value to science and engineering, it seemed
most important to publish it as soon as security permitted.
The Radiation Laboratory of MIT, which operated under the super-
vision of the National Defense Research Committee, undertook the great
task of preparing these volumes. The work described herein, however, is
the collective result of work done at many laboratories, Army, Navy,
university, and industrial, both in this country and in England, Canada,
and other Dominions.
The Radiation Laboratory, once its proposals were approved and
finances provided by the Office of Scientific Research and Development,
chose Louis N. Ridenour as Editor-in-Chief to lead and direct the entire
project. An editorial staff was then selected of those best qualified for
this type of task. Finally the authors for the various volumes or chapters
or sections were chosen from among those experts who were intimately
familiar with the various fields, and who were able and willing to write
the summaries of them. This entire staff agreed to remain at work at
MIT for six months or more after the work of the Radiation Laboratory
was complete. These volumes stand as a monument to this group.
These volumes serve as a memorial to the unnamed hundreds and
thousands of other scientists, engineers, and others who actually carried
on the research, development, and engineering work the results of which
are herein described. There were so many involved in this work and they
worked so closely together even though often in widely separated labora-
tories that it is impossible to name or even to know those who contributed
to a particular idea or development. Only certain ones who wrote reports
or articles have even been mentioned. But to all those who contributed
in any way to this great cooperative development enterprise, both in this
country and in England, these volumes are dedicated.

L. A. DUBRInGE
 RADAR AIDS TO NAVIGATION

EDITORIAL STAFF

L. A. TURNER, TECH. ED.

J. S. HALL, ED.
R. M, WHITMER, ASS’T. ED.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

H. B. ABAJIAN D. B. MCLAUGHLIN
F. R. BANKS, JR. R. E. MEAGHER
J. H. BUCK E. E. MILLER
W. M. CADY R. H. MULLER
M. A. CHAFFEE J. P. NASH
G. C. COMSTOCK C. F. J. OVERHAGE
D. DAVIDSON J. A. PIERCE
R. M. EMBERSON J. B. PLATT
A. G. EMSLIE R. M. ROBERTSON
H. FAHNESTOCK,JR. E. L. SINSHEIMER
G. A. GARRETT C. A. SMITH
D. L. HAGLER H. P. STABLER
J. S. HALL J. M. STURTEVANT
D. HALLIDAY W. J. TULL
J. J. HIBBERT L. A. TURNER
N. W. MACLEAN T. H. WATERMAN
R. M. WHITMER

) v

*
1
 Preface

Radar Aids to Navigation is intended primarily to describe the advan-

tages and limitations of radar equipment when applied to problems of
navigation and pilotage, whether the equipment is airborne, shipborne,
orground-based. Radar beacons asaidsto navigation arealsodismmed.
While the development of radar was proceeding apace under the
impetus of the Second World War, the development of a host of nonradar
navigational aids was also accelerated. These aids include systems that
measure range differences like Loran and Gee and a number of azimuthal
systems like the German Sonne. Descriptions of these and other non-
radar aids are included to give the reader a more comprehensive picture
of available techniques.
The authors have not always found it possible to present this informa-
tion in a nontechnical form. The reader with no technical background
should obtain a fair estimate of the value of radar in navigational prob-
lems from Chaps. 2,3, 8, and 9. Radar indicators are described in some
detail in this volume because, of all the components, they are of greatest
interest to the navigator. A more detailed discussion of many of the
engineering problems mentioned here is given in Radar System Engi-
neering, Vol. 1 of this series.
In thk volume, the emphasis is placed more on what can now be
done with radar than on what should be possible in the future. A pos-
sible exception to this policy is the inclusion of several photographs of
airborne radar indicators attached to radars with antenna beams 0.8°
wide. Although these pictures illustrate what can now be done, beam-
widths of 3° to 5°, rather than 0.8°, appear practical for airborne radars
to be used as navigational aids in the near future. More emphasis
has been placed on airborne radar used with beacons as an anticollision
device on overwater flights simply because it does not appear reasonable
to require that all airplanes flying over land have beacons.
A real effort has been made to define terms either explicitly or by
their use. A certain amount of repetition results from this policy. For
most radar applications described here, narrow antenna beams neces-
sitating short wavelengths, or microwaves, are commonly prescribed. By

J
 PREFACE

thk term is meant radio waves between 1 and 12 cm long. It is not

our intention to insult the reader’s intelligence by defining words found
in a small dictionary, nor even the word radar. There is no glossary.
The definitions of many words may be found by reference to the index.
Thirty-three authors and many persons serving in other capacities
have contributed to this book. Unfortunately it is not practical to give
full acknowledgement to everyone. R, A. Whitmer, assistant editor,
did a large share of the editorial work connected with the portion of the
book devoted to airborne radar. L. A. Turner, technical editor, was
a most constructive influence in clarifying many sections. His criticisms
and suggestions were invariably followed. R. G. Herb served as
technical editor during the formative stage of this project.
David Davidson deserves a solid vote of thanks for selecting the
illustrations used in the sections on Loran and other navigational nets and
for writing their captions. We are grateful also to M. G. White,
D. T. Griggs, and R. J. Dippy for their criticism. We regretted to learn
that illness prevented Dippy, the originator of Gee, from sending us a
description of the miniature system similar to Gee that the British have
recently used successfully as an airport approach system. Thanks are
due to L. J. Laslett, R. M. Emberson, G. C. Comstock, M. A. Chaffee,
and J. H. Buck for assistance in making the original outlines of the book.
We are grateful to Beka Doherty who, as an uninhibited reader, read the
final manuscript and made many helpful criticisms and suggestions.
We acknowledge with thanks the careful manner in which Louise
Butler, our production assistant, guided the diagrams and photographs
to their ultimate completion. A large amount of secretarial work con-
nected with the book was cheerfully done by Bernyce Goldberg. Thanks
are due to Eleanor Uhl who acted as editorial assistant during the forma-
tive stages of the book and particularly to Barbara Rudolph who bravely
shouldered this responsibility during its critical final stages.

JOHN S. HALL.
CAMERIDGE,MASS.,
June, 1946.
r

Contents

FOREWORD BY L. A. DUBRIDGE . . . vii

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,, . . . . . . . . . . . . ..ix

PART I. INTRODUCTION
CHAP.1. PRINCIPLES OF RADAR... . . . . . 3
HOW RADAR WORKS, ..,... . . . . . . . . . . . ..3
1.1. The Fundamental Ideas. . . . . . 3
1.2. Resolution, Accuracy, and Coverage. . . . . . 10
1.3. Design Considerations. . . . . . . 15

PROPAGATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..21
1.4. Curvature of the Earth and Atmospheric Refraction, . . 21
1.5. Atmospheric Attenuation . . . . . . . . 22

INDICATORS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..26
1.6. Cathode-ray Tubes .,.,, . . . . . . . . . . . . ...26
1.7. Synchros, Servomechanisms, and Amplidynes. 28
1.8. Different Types of Indicators. . . . 30

RADAR BEACONS.....,,, . . . . . . . . . ,,36

1.9. Operation...,,,,. . . . . . . . .36
1.10. Future Developments; Systems. 41

CHAP. 2. NONRADAR NAVIGATIONAL METHODS . . 44

2.1, Nonradar Navigational ~Methods . . 44
2,2. Radio Ranges .,...,, . . . . . . . . . . . . ...44
2.3. German Radio Rangej Sonne, 47
2.4. Ultri+hlgh-frequency, Navigational Aids, uhf. . 50
2.5. Airborne and Shipborne Direction Finders . 51
2.6, Ground Direction Finders . . . . . . . 54
2.7. Celestial Navigation. . . . , 55

LOEAN mn OTHER NAVIGATIONAL NETS . . . . . . . . . . 56

2.8. Hyperbolic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.9. Gee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...60
210.L oral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...64
2.11. ’’SLoranr,n .,..,,., . . . . . . . . . . . . ...70
2.12. Low-frequency Loran..., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2.13. Mecca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...76
 CONTENTS

2.14. Accuracy and Range of VariousHyperbolicSyeteme. . . . . . 77

2.15. Autimatic Data ~alysis .- ‘. . . . . . . . . . 79
2.16. Automatic Piloting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

PART 11. AIRBORNE RADAR

CHAP. 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF AIRBORNE RADAR. . . . . . . . . 89

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.1. FeaturesRevealedby Radar Mapping. . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2. Details in Radar Mapping. . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.3. Tbe Operator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.4. Measurementof Drift and Ground %eed . . . . . . . . 105
3.5. Determination of Drift and “Ground Speed” Gver Water . . . 110
3.6. InfotrnationAvailableon Flights Over Water. . . . . . . . 112
3.7. Tbe Use of Mapa se Aids to Radar Pilotage . . . . . . 115
3.8. Radar Beacon Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

(%AP. 4. SPECIAL AIDS AND DEVICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

NAVIGATION Arm ANTICOLLISION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.1. The Ground Position Indicator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.2. AnticolliAon Radar Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Armrrmm DETERMINATION. . . . ,.. . . . . . . . . . . . 131

4.3. Pulsed Radio Altimeters (SCR718C) . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4. Frequency-modulated Altimeters (AN/APN-1)’. . . . . . . . 136
4.5. Comparison of F-m and Pulsed Altimeters. . . . . . . . . . 141
4.6. Suggested Future Trends. . . . . . . . . . . 142

CMP. 5. SPECIAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . 143

5.1. Receivere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...143
5.2. Indicatore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...148
5.3. Antennaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...155
6.4. Antenna Stabilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...156

CHAP. 6. ENGINEERING AND ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS. . . . 161

6.1. Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...161
6.2. General Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.3. Performance of AN/APS-10. . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.4. Characteristics of the AN/APS-10 Radar: I . . . . . . . . . 174
6.5. Characteristicsof the AN/AP~10 Radar: II. . . . . . . . . 181
6.6. Typical Performanceof Some ExistingSystems. . . . . . . 185
6.7. Economic Aspectsof AirborneRadar . . . . . . . 187

PART III. GROUND-BASED RADAR

CHAP. 7. TYPES OF GROUND-BASED RADAR AND SPECIAL EQUIP-

MENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...193
SEARCH mm AUTOMATIC-TRACKKNCJRADARS. . . . 193
7.1. A Long-range Microwave System. . 193
7.2. Automatic Tracking Systems. . 202
 CONTENTS

HEIGHT FINDERS, ,,, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

7.3. Height-finding Methods . . . . . . . . 207
7.4. General Problems of Design . . . . . . . . . 212
7.5. Illustrations of Some Recent Systems . . . . . . . . 218

RADAEAIDS FOR LANDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

7.6. Beam Approach Systems. . . . . 227
7.7. Beacon Approach Systems, BABS . . . . 232
7+3. Ground-based Scanning Radar Systems . . . . . 237

SPECIAL RADLRALDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

7.9. Moving Target Indication . . 252
7.10. Beacons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...256
7.11. Radar Relay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...258
7.12. Video Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...267
7.13. Radar Aids to Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...278

@P. 8. RADAR AIDS TO AIR NAVIGATION AND TRAFFIC CONTROL 285

81. Statement of the Problem 285
8.2. Navigation and Traffic Control Using Airborne Radar Aids 293
8.3. Navigation and Traffic Control Using Ground-based Radar Aids 299
&4. Sum~ary of Proposed Aids. ~. . . 311

PART IV. SHIPBORNE RADAR

CnAP. 9, NAVIGATION AND PILOTAGE 317
9.1. How Radar Can Help the Navigator 317
9.2. Coordination of Radar Data with Other Data 320
9.3. Marine Radar Beacons. .322
9.4. Corner Reflectors . . . . . . . . . . . .324
9.5. Principle of Superposition h’avigation . 331
9.6. Char&matching Equipment . 335
9.7. Accuracy Obtainable by Chart Matching. . . . . 344
9.8. PPISlmulations, ,., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...351

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353

Crop. 10. A SHIPBORNE NAVIGATIONAL RADAR . . . 354

10.1. Radar Propagation over Water, . 354
102. General Specifications of a Shipborne Navigational Radar 363
10.3, Anterma Assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...364
10.4. Transmitter-receiver Package. 371
10.5. Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...373
106. Power Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...377
10.7. Physical Characteristics of the Components and Test Equipment 379

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383